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2016
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[]
X
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X X X
X
X
X X X
X X X
X X X X
6
3
38a
hodeanexetastosbiosoubitos
anthrpiTheunexaminedlifeisnotworthlivingforahumanbeing
4
Descartes(1996p1)It is now some years since I detected how many were the false beliefs that I had
from my earliest youth admitted as true, and how doubtful was everything I had since constructed on this basis;
and from that time I was convinced that I must once for all seriously undertake to rid myself of all the opinions
which I had formerly accepted, and commence to build anew from the foundation, if I wanted to establish any firm
and permanent structure in the sciences.
Animadverti jam ante aliquot annos qum multa, ineunte
aetate, falsa pro veris admiserim, & qum dubia sint quaecunque istis postea superextruxi, ac proinde funditus
omnia semel in vit esse evertenda, atque a primis fundamentis denuo inchoandum, si quid aliquando firmum &
mansurum cupiam in scientiis stabilire; sed ingens opus esse videbatur, eamque aetatem expectabam, quae foret
tam matura, ut capessendis disciplinis aptior nulla sequeretur.Il y a dj quelque temps que je me suis
aperu que, ds mes premires annes, j'avais reu quantit de fausses opinions pour vritables, et que ce que j'ai
depuis fond sur des principes si mal assurs, ne pouvait tre que fort douteux et incertain; de faon qu'il me fallait
entreprendre srieusement une fois en ma vie de me dfaire de toutes les opinions que j'avais reues jusques alors
en ma crance, et commencer tout de nouveau ds les fondements, si je voulais tablir quelque chose de ferme et
de constant dans les sciences.
5
1.1
6
1
X
X X
X X
X
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X X X
X
X
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X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
7
8
1.7
1.8
[]
9
10
1.1
11
X
1.2
Plato()
philosophybeginsinwonder
J I
11
10
12
13
1.3
TCR14
01 X X
1 X X
2 X
02 P P
P
2
//
12
1
1
13
14
(correctright)(real)(true)
1.4
01 P P
P
02 X Y
X
XY
X
X Y
03 P
P
04 15
[]
1
2
[]
3 1
1 16
15
Damer(2009p172014 p31-32)
Dretske(1970,p1021) Goldman(1976)
16
Solomon(2006 p441)
2 17
1.5
19
18
//
17
18
--
///
///
///
1
2
3
4
87
3
-
--
E P
E P
2
x
x x
x x x
87
///
x x
x
x x x
4 20
--
4 21
20
21
Solomon(2006 pp444-5)Seay & Nuccetelli(2013 pp184-6) Schick & Vaughn(2014p53
2013 p55)
1.6
1.5
--
5 2
--
1.7
--
22
6 3
01
02
03
1.8
x x x x x x
23
I 24
7 4
1
2
X X
X X
2
X
AX
A
Y B
22
23
24
Copi & Cohen(2006 p392-394)
1.9
1
A
X X
2 A
B
X
Y
01 P
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03 P
9
01
02
03
1.10
X
X
X X X
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XX
XX
X
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X/X
25
X/X
XX
01 XX
02 X
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10
01
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P X
2
3 1
4
5 2
25
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7 4
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4
I
TCR
--
X/X
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27
(1) P
1
228
(T)(T)
(T)
(T)(F)
(T),(T)
(2) P
P
1
x
x
88
26
Frege(1918)A thought belongs neither to my inner world as an idea, nor yet to the external world, the
world of things perceptible by the senses.thought(proposition)
27
(2000p1121p113p143145)(T)
(F)
(?)
T F U
28
sentencetokensentencetype
statement
propositionbelieftheoryutteranceassertion
2008
88
Haack2003p50
(T)
89
(1)
(F)
(3) P Q
PQ
PQ
(T),
(F)(F)
(4) P Q P Q
PQ
PQ
(T)
PQ
PQ
F
90
PQ
P then Q
P QP Q P Q
PQ
PQ P Q
(T)(T)
(5) P Q P QQif Pif
(T)
(T)
(T)
(6) P Q P Q
Qonly if
P
P Q P Q P Q
PQ
(2)
91
1
P
P Q
92
(F)
(T)
(T)
(T)
(T)
(T)
(7) P Q P Q P
QQ PQif and only if PQiff P
PQ
P Q
(F)
(F)
89
(2000p1219)
p q
B XX B
A XA X
p q
Priest(1995)
91
(2000p170)
92
(2004)
90
(8) xx
xx
xx (T) xx (T)
xx x (F) xx x
(F)
(9) xx
xx
xx (F) xx (F)
x x x (T) x x
x (T)
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P
1
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(T)/(?)
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P
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2
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iffP
( P)P
1
229
(T)
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(P Q) P Q
(T)
(T)
Leibniz
2
P iffP
P iffP
P iffP
P iffP
P
3
a Fiff
a
a F
a Fiff
a
a F
a Fiff
a a F
a Fiffa
F a F
4
1+1=2
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1+12
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(P Q) P Q
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1
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29
(2004)3
2
30
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( P Q)P Q
1
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P Q( P) Q
1
2531
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(TF)
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( xx) xx
xx
xx (F)
(T)
(F)
(9) [xx]iffx(x)
( xx) xx
x x
x
x
x
x
(F)
30
1PQ
P Q
P Q 2QP
Q P
Q P 3PQQP
1PQ
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PQQP
31
1PQ P Q
P Q
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(T)
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II 32
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32
4 33
2.1
1.5
2.2
-
Sider2008)34
P1a F
P2a F
P3a F
P4a b F
33
Wasserman2009
This [particular-property] pattern
is quite general.It appears that every fact about the world boils down to particulars having properties.Sider
2008
34
a Fa b F
ab
2.3
35
1
()
()
3
35
2.4
9 10
1
P P
2
X X
2.5 a
m1m
m2
m2 m
m1 m2
1
2 1 m1 m2 1
m1 m
01
02
03
04 m1m
0102
05 m2m
0103
06 m1 m2
0405
07 m1 m2 1 06
08 m1 m2 2
a b
a b
ab
ab 1
ab
c a b
a c b
c
1+12
12
m1m2
09 0708 12
2.6
2.7
93
93
P1
P2P3P
P1
P2
P
5 36
2.8
1.9
37
1[(pq)p]q
deduction
1
valid
2
sound
36
37
http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Copi & Cohen2006p417-418
2(pq)(q)(p)
3
(pq)(qr)(pr)
4
(pq)(p)q
5(pq)(qp)
6
[p(q)][(pq)]
X A XAX(A)
X P XAXA
7(p[x(x)])(p)
6 38
[(pq)q]p(p
q)(p)(q)(pq)(p)q
(pq)(
p)(q)
(pq)(qp)(pq)(q)
[]
[][]Manley,2009
[]
[]
insight
38
http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/
induction
(abduction)
Sider,2009
10
10
2.9
2.10
2.11
a F
amm1m2
identity
individuality
-thisness, haecceitas
)39
object
term
termunit
individualentity
termterm
term
thingentity
beingitem
item
material bodies
thingsLowe
III 40
1PP
2 P P P PP
41
x
x x x
()
Frege
1
2
94
thing
object
individual
entity
unit
item
being
39
noentitywithoutidentityQuine
Copi & Cohen2006 p392-3941994p486
41
94
2011
40
particulars
universals
42
2.12
1
II
I
II
III
2.13
1 abc a ba c
b c
ab 1 ac 1 bc 1
2 a b a b ab
ab 1
3 11212
x
x
x y
x y
1
x y
F
x F y
F
m1 m
m2 mm1
m2
95
42
95
2.14
m1m2
m1 m2
m1 m2
m1 m2
[][]
m2 m1
[]
[]
[][]
[][]
[]
[]
xy x
y x y
[]
[]
xy
x y
x y
[]
x x
F P
F x
P x
[]
2.15
m
mm2
[]
[]
[]
[]
[]
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[]
[]
43
[]
[]
[]
[]
[][
]m2
43
01 x(Pxx)[]
02 xy[(Pxy&Pyx)x=y][]
03 xy[x=yz(PzxPzy)][]
04 xyz(PzxPzy)
05 Pxx Pyy0104
06 PxxPxy PyxPyy04
07 Pxy Pyx0506
08 xy0207
09 xy[z(PzxPzy)x=y]0408
10 xy[x=yz(PzxPzy)]0309
[]
x y
x y
[]
x y
[]
xy[x=yz(PzxPzy)]
Pxyx y
mereology
[]
[]
x y
x y
[]
x y
m m1
m m1
m
m m1
[]
[]
7 44
8 45
2.16
9 46
[]
m m2
[]
m2 m1
44
http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Wasserman2009The anthropic objection
46
http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/
45
[]
[]
m m2 []
47
[]
m m1
[]
m1 m2
m m1 []
48
2.17
47
Sider(2005)
time-indexed property2008p264
48
1[]
[][]
[]
[][]
2 vs. vs.[]
49
substance
3 vs.
[]
+1
50
+1
2.18
10
49
50
Loux(2008)p84-5
Manley(2009)
A
B
5 51
2.19
[]
[]
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2.20
1
x y
x y
___
A ___
___
A A
51
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2.21
53
1x y
x y x y x y x y
x y
2x y x y
3I
x y
x y
4II
x y
x y
5
2.22
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12
3
4
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1
2
3
53
2.23
01
02
03
0102
04
0102
05
0304
06 1 05
07 2
08 0607
2.24
2.25
2.26
2 1
2.27
1 1
1 11
12
1
x y
x y []
perdurantism
endurantism
56
(endurantism)
(perdurantism)
56
57
2.28
58
p279
57
Wasserman2009
58
nonbranching theory
2x y
10
2.29
tokentype
5 6
59
2.30
H
AH
H
AH
AH H
59
property
quality
characteristic
attribute
feature
01
02
03
0102
04
02
2.31
Form
60
[]
[]
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[][]
60
61
62
2.32
2.33
63
2.34 1
ab Uab U
a Ua U
2.2 P1P4
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63
P1
P2
P3
P4
P1-1
P2-1
P3-1 x x x
P4-1
64
65
2
P5T
P5 P5-1
P5-1F
2.35 2
66
67
2
68
96
IQ P
97
1 PQ
2PQ
3PQ
4
P Q
IIQ P
5PQ
Q
98
F 1
x|x
2
x|x
3
x|x F
69
64
2.36
1
[]
2
[]
3[
]
2.37
10
97
98
2008p303-4 24
2008p352
2.38 3
trope
Trope Nominalism
a b
70
P1-2[]
P2-2[]
P3-2
P4-2x y
P5-2
[]
[]
x y
71
2.39
vs
vs
vs
70
71
2008p314-5
MacLeod & Rubenstein20052008p313-Trope Nominalism
72
a bundle of universals
a bundle of tropes73
beg the
question
2.40 10
2.41
2.42
72
73
2008p318
MacLeod & Rubenstein2005
vs
5
6
7
8
9
10
11beg the question
III
74
trivialtruisms
a conceptual frameworkManley2009
99
74
HumeXIIpart3When we run over libraries, persuaded of these principles, what havoc must
we make? If we take in our hand any volume; of divinity or school metaphysics, for instance; let us ask, Does it
contain any abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number? No. Does it contain any experimental reasoning
concerning matter of fact and existence? No. Commit it then to the flames: For it can contain nothing but sophistry
and illusion.
75
Manley(2009)
99
a F
___
___
____
___
76
77
76
___
_________
77
___
9 78
1+1=2
1+1 2
79
3+2 5
1+1=2
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81
78
80
___
81
(2008)
79
10 82
1
01
02
03
04
11
83
12 -
84
82
1A
B
B A
2A
A
84
83
1-
2-
3-
4-
5-
6-
13 -
1
85
01
02
03
04
14
85
1-01
1-02
15
01
02
03
04
01
86
02
03
04 04
16
17
86
10
2.4
9 10
1 2.3
2.4
[]
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A A
A
A