BritishLiterature

&
AmericanLiterature

BYLEILABORGES

SUMMARY
THEOLDENGLISHMAP..............................................................................................................................6
USEFULINFORMATIONTOSTUDYLITERATURE ........................................................................................8
TakingNotes ..........................................................................................................................................8
EssayPlanning......................................................................................................................................10
Caseagainstcensorship.......................................................................................................................11
Caseforcensorship..............................................................................................................................11
HowtoSummarize...............................................................................................................................11
Someextratips ....................................................................................................................................13
Qualitiesofacharacter........................................................................................................................14
Authorstone .......................................................................................................................................15
ANALYSINGFICTION/LITERARYTERMS..................................................................................................17
WHATISLITERATURE?.............................................................................................................................18
Literarydictionary................................................................................................................................18
Formsofliterature...............................................................................................................................18
Poetry...............................................................................................................................................18
Drama...............................................................................................................................................19
Essays ...............................................................................................................................................19
Prosefiction .....................................................................................................................................20
Otherproseliterature......................................................................................................................20
Genresofliterature .............................................................................................................................21
Literarygenre...................................................................................................................................21
Subgenres ........................................................................................................................................21
Importanttermsforpoetry .................................................................................................................22
ABRIEFHISTORYOFTHEENGLISHLANGUAGE .......................................................................................29
HistoryandStructureoftheEnglishLanguage ...................................................................................31
GeneralConsiderations ...................................................................................................................31
OriginsandBasicCharacteristics .....................................................................................................33
CharacteristicsofModernEnglish ...................................................................................................34
Phonology ....................................................................................................................................34
HistoricalBackground ..................................................................................................................35
Vocabulary ...................................................................................................................................35
OldEnglish .......................................................................................................................................37
MiddleEnglish..................................................................................................................................38
ThehistoryofEnglandfromtheNormaninvasionencapsulatesallthemajortrendsofthetimes. .40
TheNormanKings............................................................................................................................40
HenryII.............................................................................................................................................41
MagnaCarta.....................................................................................................................................41
EdwardI ...........................................................................................................................................42
The1300s........................................................................................................................................43
TheLancasters .................................................................................................................................45
TheWarsoftheRoses .....................................................................................................................46
LITERARYPERIODSOFBRITISHANDAMERICANLITERATURESUMMARY............................................47
PeriodsofBritishLiterature.................................................................................................................47
LiteraryPeriodsofAmericanLiterature ..............................................................................................50
INTRODUCTIONTOBRITISHLITERATURE ................................................................................................52
AngloSaxonliterature .........................................................................................................................52
Poetry...............................................................................................................................................52
Prose ................................................................................................................................................53
Beowulf ............................................................................................................................................54
I

OldEnglishPoetry........................................................................................................................55
PlotOverview...............................................................................................................................55
Characters ....................................................................................................................................56
WhowroteBeowulf? ...................................................................................................................58
TheSuttonHooShipBurial..........................................................................................................59
PoliticsandWarfare.....................................................................................................................59
ChristianColouringinBeowulf ....................................................................................................61
MiddleEnglishLiterature.....................................................................................................................62
GeoffreyChaucer .............................................................................................................................65
JohnGower ..................................................................................................................................68
Thevisionconcerningpierstheplowman...................................................................................68
TheWiclifiteBible ........................................................................................................................69
GeoffreyChaucer'sCanterburyTales ..............................................................................................74
Chaucer'sCanterburyTales .............................................................................................................75
Chaucer'sLinguistic..........................................................................................................................76
Literary .........................................................................................................................................76
Chaucer'sEnglish .............................................................................................................................76
Thegeneralprologue.......................................................................................................................77
TheWifeofBath'sTale ........................................................................................................................93
ThePrologeoftheWyvesTaleofBathe(withthetranslation) ......................................................93
Comments......................................................................................................................................113
ThewifeofBathsPrologue.......................................................................................................114
TheWifeofBathstale...............................................................................................................114
Theme ........................................................................................................................................115
TheEnglishLiteratureasapartofGeneralMedievalEuropeanLiterature..............................116
Literatureinthethreelanguages. .............................................................................................116
ReligiousLiterature....................................................................................................................117
SecularLiterature.......................................................................................................................117
TheRomances................................................................................................................................118
SirGawainandTheGreenKnight. .............................................................................................120
TheEndofTheMiddleAges.About1350toabout1500 .................................................................121
Thefirstfiftyyears.Politicalandsocialconditions. ......................................................................121
'Mandeville'sVoyage' ........................................................................................................................122
TheFifteenthCentury........................................................................................................................122
The'popular'ballads......................................................................................................................122
SirThomasMaloryandhis'MorteDarthur.' .................................................................................123
WilliamCaxtonandtheintroductionofprintingtoEngland,1476 ..............................................124
TheMedievalDrama......................................................................................................................125
TheSixteenthCentury.TheRenaissanceandtheReignofElizabeth ...............................................128
TheRenaissance.............................................................................................................................128
TheReformation ............................................................................................................................130
SirThomasMoreandhis'Utopia'..................................................................................................131
TheEnglishBibleandBooksofDevotion. .....................................................................................131
WyattandSurreyandthenewpoetry. .........................................................................................132
TheElizabethanPeriod ......................................................................................................................133
Prosefiction ...................................................................................................................................134
EdmundSpenser,15521599.........................................................................................................135
Elizabethanlyricpoetry .................................................................................................................138
Thesonnets....................................................................................................................................139
JohnDonneandthebeginningofthe'metaphysical'poetry........................................................139
II

Theinfluenceofclassicalcomedyandtragedy .............................................................................140
Thechroniclehistoryplay .............................................................................................................140
JohnLyly.........................................................................................................................................141
Peele,Greene,AndKyd .................................................................................................................141
ChristopherMarlowe,15641593 .................................................................................................141
Theatricalconditionsandthetheaterbuildings............................................................................143
AnElizabethanstage......................................................................................................................143
Shakespeare,15641616 ...............................................................................................................144
Nationallifefrom1603to1660 ....................................................................................................147
BenJonson .....................................................................................................................................147
Theotherdramatists .....................................................................................................................149
TheSeventeenthCentury,16031660.ProseAndPoetry.................................................................152
FrancisBacon,ViscountSt.Albans,15611626. ...........................................................................152
TheKingJamesBible,1611............................................................................................................154
Minorprosewriters .......................................................................................................................154
Lyricpoetry ....................................................................................................................................154
JohnMilton,16081674.................................................................................................................157
JohnBunyan...................................................................................................................................159
TheTudorsandtheElizabethanAge .............................................................................................160
TheJacobeanEra,Cromwell,andtheRestoration........................................................................161
Thesixteenthcentury........................................................................................................................162
Theearlyseventeenthcentury......................................................................................................163
ElisabethI...........................................................................................................................................165
ThegreatElizabethanAgeofExploration .....................................................................................166
TheElizabethanTheatre ................................................................................................................167
WilliamShakespearelifeandwork....................................................................................................168
ShakespeareChronologicallistingofplays....................................................................................169
ShakespeareanTheater .................................................................................................................169
LiteraryTermstohelpreadingShakespeare .................................................................................170
AMERICANLITERATURE .........................................................................................................................173
AmericanLiteraryTimePeriods.........................................................................................................173
OverviewofAmericanHistoryandLiterature...................................................................................175
ThePilgrims....................................................................................................................................175
Themayflowercompact ................................................................................................................176
Thanksgivingandtheindians.........................................................................................................177
ThePuritans ...................................................................................................................................177
Salemwitchcraft ........................................................................................................................178
Therevealedword,antinomianism,individualism ...................................................................179
Caveatanoteonthejeremiad..................................................................................................180
PioneerstoPuritans...................................................................................................................181
EnlightenmenttoAutonomy .........................................................................................................182
LiteratureAftertheRevolution .....................................................................................................182
HistoryofAmericanLiterature/ColonialPeriod ..............................................................................184
EarlyColonialLiterature.16071700 .............................................................................................184
I.TheEnglishinVirginia:CaptainJohnSmith,WilliamStrachey,GeorgeSandys.....................184
"LeahandRachel.".....................................................................................................................187
IndianandEarlyAmericanLiterature ........................................................................................188
AmericanLiteraryaspects: ............................................................................................................188
EarlyAmericanandColonialPeriodto1776 .............................................................................188
Theliteratureofexploration .....................................................................................................190
III

TheColonialPeriodinNewEngland..............................................................................................191
WilliamBradford(15901657) .......................................................................................................196
MichaelWigglesworth(16311705) ..............................................................................................197
SamuelSewall(16521730) ...........................................................................................................198
MaryRowlandson(c.1635c.1678)................................................................................................199
CottonMather*(16631728) ........................................................................................................199
RogerWilliams(c.16031683).......................................................................................................199
AmericanTexts ..................................................................................................................................200
IndigenousPeople'sLiterature ......................................................................................................200
Tsalagi(Cherokee)Stories .........................................................................................................200
CottonMatherWhatMustIDoToBeSaved? .............................................................................203
BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................................................211

IV

THEOLDENGLISHMAP

MAPOFENGLISHDIALECT

TheUnitedStatesofAmericaThe13OriginalStates

TheUnitedStatesofAmericaTODAY

USEFULINFORMATIONTOSTUDYLITERATURE
TakingNotes
1. In preparation for writing an essay or any other piece of work, your notes might come from a number of different
sources:coursematerials,settexts,secondaryreading,interviews,ortutorialsandlectures.Youmightgatherinformation
from radio ortelevision broadcasts,or from experiments and research projects. Thenotes could also includeyour own
ideas,generatedaspartoftheessayplanningprocess.
2.Thenotesyougatherinpreparationforwritingtheessaywillnormallyprovidethedetailedevidencetobackupyour
arguments.Theymightalsoincludesuchthingsasthequotationsandpagereferencesyouplantouseinyouressay.Your
ultimateobjectiveinplanningwillbetoproduceaoneortwopageoutlineofthetopicsyouintendtocover.
3.Bepreparedforthefactthatyoumighttakemanymorenotesthanyouwilleveruse.Thisisperfectlynormal.Atthe
notetakingstageyoumightnotbesureexactlywhatevidenceyouwillneed.Inaddition,theinformationgatheringstage
shouldalsobeoneofdigestingandrefiningyourideas.
4.Don'tfeeldisappointedifyouonlyuseaquarterorevenatenthofyourmaterials.Theproportionyoufinallyusemight
vary from one subject to another, as well as depending on your own particular writing strategy. Just because some
materialisnotused,don'timaginethatyoureffortshavebeenwasted.
5.Whentakingnotesfromanysource,keepinmindthatyouareattemptingtomakeacompressedandaccuraterecord
ofinformation,otherpeople'sopinions,andpossiblyyourownobservationsonthesubjectinquestion.
6.Yourobjectivewhilsttakingthenotesistodistinguishthemoreimportantfromthelessimportantpointsbeingmade.
Recordthemainissues,notthedetails.Youmightwritedownafewwordsoftheoriginalifyouthinktheymaybeusedin
aquotation.Keeptheseextractsasshortaspossibleunlessyouwillbediscussingalongerpassageinsomedetail.
7.Don'ttrytowritedowneverywordofalectureorcopyoutlongextractsfrombooks.Oneoftheimportantfeaturesof
notetakingisthatyouaremakingadigestoftheoriginals,andtranslatingtheinformationintoyourownwords.
8.Somestudentstakesomanynotesthattheydon'tknowwhichtousewhenit'stimetowritetheessay.Theyfeelthat
theyaredrowninginaseaofinformation.
9.Thisproblemisusuallycausedbytwocommonweaknessesinnotetakingtechnique:

transcribingtoomuchoftheoriginal
beingunselectiveinthechoiceoftopics

10.Therearetwopossiblesolutiontothisproblem:
Selectonlythosefewwordsofthesourcematerialwhichwillbeofuse.Avoidbeingdescriptive.Thinkmore,
andwriteless.Berigorouslyselective.
Keep the essay question or topic more clearly in mind. Take notes only on those issues which are directly
relevanttothesubjectinquestion.
11.Eventhoughthenotesyoutakeareonlyforyourownuse,theywillbemoreeffectiveiftheyarerecordedclearlyand
neatly.Goodlayoutofthenoteswillhelpyoutorecallandassessthematerialmorereadily.Ifindoubtusethefollowing
generalguidelines.
Before you even start, make a note of your source(s). If this is a book, an article, or a journal, write the
followinginformationattheheadofyournotes:Author,title,publisher,publicationdate,andeditionofbook.
Use looseleaf A4 paper. This is now the international standard for almost all educational printed matter.
Don'tusesmallnotepads.Youwillfinditeasiertokeeptrackofyournotesiftheyfiteasilyalongsideyourother
studymaterials.

 Writeclearlyandleaveaspacebetweeneachnote.Don'ttrytocramasmuchaspossibleontoonepage.
Keepingtheitemsseparatewillmakethemeasiertorecall.Theactoflayingoutinformationinthiswaywillcause
youtoassesstheimportanceofeachdetail.
Usesomesystemoftabulation(asIamdoinginthesenotes).Thiswillhelptokeeptheitemsseparatefrom
each other. Even if the progression of numbers doesn't mean a great deal, it will help you to keep the items
distinct.
Don't attempt to write continuous prose. Notes should be abbreviated and compressed. Full grammatical
sentencesarenotnecessary.Useabbreviations,initials,andshortenedformsofcommonlyusedterms.
Don'tstringthepointstogethercontinuously,oneaftertheotheronthepage.Youwillfinditverydifficultto
untangletheseitemsfromeachotheraftersometimehaspassed.
Devisealogicalandamemorablelayout.Uselettering,numbering,andindentationforsectionsandforsub
sections. Use headings and subheadings. Good layout will help you to absorb and recall information. Some
peopleusecolouredinksandhighlighterstoassistthisprocessofidentification.
Use a new page for each set of notes. This will help you to store and identify them later. Keep topics
separate,andhavethemclearlytitledandlabelledtofacilitateeasyrecall.
Write on one side of the page only. Number these pages. Leave the blank sides free for possible future
additions,andforanydetailswhichmaybeneededlater.
12.WhatfollowsisanexampleofnotestakenwhilstlisteningtoanOpenUniversityradiobroadcastahalfhourlecture
bythephilosopherandculturalhistorian,IsaiahBerlin.Itwasentitled'Tolstoy'sViewsonArtandMorality',whichwaspart
ofthethirdlevelcourseinliterarystudiesA312TheNineteenthCenturyNovelanditsLegacy.
IsaiahBerlin'TolstoyonArtandMorality'3Sep89
1.T'sviewsonAextremebutheasksimportantquestnswhichdisturbsociety
2.1840sUnivofKazandebateonpurposeofA
Tbelievesthereshouldbesimpleanswerstoprobsoflife

3.Metsimple&spontaneouspeople&soldiersinCaucasusCrimeanSketchesadmiredby
Turgenev&MuscovitesbutTdidn'tfitinmilieu

4.WesternizersVsSlavophilesTagreedwithWs,butrejectsscience(Ssromantic
conservatives)

5.2viewsofAinmid19CAforart'ssake/Aforsociety'ssake
6.Pierre(W&P)andLevin(AK)asegsof'searchersfortruth'
7.Naturallife(evendrunkenviolence)betterthanintellectual
8.T'scontradictiontobeartistormoralist
9.T's4criteriaforworkofart

knowwhatyouwanttosaylucidlyandclearly
subjectmattermustbeofessentialinterest
artistmustliveorimagineconcretelyhismaterial
andmustknowthemoralcentreofsituation

10.Tcritofotherwriters
ShkspreandGoethetoocomplex
StJulien(Flaubert)inauthentic
TurgenevandChekhovguiltyoftriviality

11.WhatisArt?Emotionrecollectedandtransmittedtoothers[Wordsworth]NotselfexpressionOnlygoodshould
betransmitted
12.ButhisowntasteswereforhighartChopin,Beethoven,&Mozart
TArgueshehimselfcorrupted
13.Triedtodistinguishbetweenhisownartandmoraltracts
14.'Artistcannothelpburninglikeaflame'
15.Couldn'treconcilecontradictionsinhisownbeliefsdiedstillragingagainstselfandsociety

EssayPlanning

1.StrategyYoucanapproachthecompositionofanessayusinganumberofdifferentwritingstrategies.Somepeople
liketostartwritingandwaittoseewhatdevelops.Othersworkupscrapsofideasuntiltheyperceiveashapeemerging.
However,ifyouareinanydoubtatall,it'sagoodideatoplanyourwork.Thetaskofwritingisusuallymucheasierifyou
createasetofnoteswhichoutlinethepointsyouaregoingtomake.Usingthisapproach,youwillcreateabasicstructure
onwhichyourideascanbebuilt.
2.PlansThisisapartoftheessaywritingprocesswhichisbestcarriedoutusingplentyofscrappaper.Getusedtothe
idea of shaping and reshaping your ideasbeforeyou start writing, editingand rearrangingyour arguments asyou give
themmorethought.Planningonscreenusingawordprocessorispossible,butit'safairlyadvancedtechnique.
3.AnalysethequestionMakesureyouunderstandwhatthequestionisaskingfor.Whatisitgivingyouthechanceto
writeabout?Whatisitscentralissue?Analyseanyofitskeytermsandanyinstructions.Ifyouareinanydoubt,askyour
tutortoexplainwhatisrequired.
4.GenerateideasYouneedtoassembleideasfortheessay.Onafirstsheetofpaper,makeanoteofanythingwhich
mightberelevanttoyouranswer.Thesemightbetopics,ideas,observations,orinstancesfromyourstudymaterials.Put
downanythingyouthinkofatthisstage.
5. Choosing topics On a second sheet of paper, extract from your brainstorm listings those topics and points of
argument which are of greatest relevance to the question and its central issue. Throw out anything which cannot be
directlyrelatedtotheessayquestion.
6. Put topics in order Ona third sheetof paper, putthesechosen topics in somelogical sequence.Atthis stageyou
shouldbeformulatingabasicresponsetothequestion,evenifitisprovisionalandmaylaterbechanged.Trytoarrange
thepointssothattheyformapersuasiveandcoherentargument.
7.ArrangeyourevidenceAllthemajorpointsinyourargumentneedtobesupportedbysomesortofevidence.Onany
furthersheetsofpaper,compilealistofbriefquotationsfromothersources(togetherwithpagereferences)whichwillbe
offeredasyourevidence.
8.MakenecessarychangesWhilstyouhavebeenengagedinthefirststagesofplanning,newideasmayhavecometo
mind. Alternate evidence may have occurred to you, or the line of your argument may have shifted somewhat. Be
preparedatthisstagetorearrangeyourplansothatitincorporatesanyofthesenewmaterialsorideas.Tryoutdifferent
arrangementsofyouressaytopicsuntilyouaresuretheyformthemostconvincingandlogicalsequence.
9.Finalise essay planThestructureofmostessayplanscanbesummarisedasIntroductionArgumentsConclusion.
Stateyourcaseasbrieflyandrapidlyaspossible,presenttheevidenceforthiscaseinthebodyofyouressay,thensumup
andtryto'lift'theargumenttoahigherlevelinyourconclusion.Yourfinalplanshouldbesomethinglikealistofhalfa
dozentotenmajorpointsofargument.Eachoneofthesepointswillbeexpandedtoaparagraphofsomethingaround
100200wordsminimuminlength.

10

10.RelevanceAtallstagesofessayplanning,andevenwhenwritingtheessay,youshouldkeepthequestioninmind.
Keepaskingyourself'IsthisevidencedirectlyrelevanttothetopicIhavebeenaskedtodiscuss?'Ifindoubt,bepreparedto
scrapplansandformulatenewoneswhichismucheasierthanscrappingfinishedessays.Atalltimesaimforclarityand
logicinyourargument.
11.ExampleWhatfollowsisanexampleofanoutlineplandrawnupinnoteform.Itisinresponsetothequestion'Do
you think that depictions ofsex and violence in the media shouldor should notbemore heavily censored?'. [It is worth
studyingtheplaninitsentirety.Takenoteofitsinternalstructure.]
'Doyouthinkthatdepictionsofsexandviolenceinthemediashouldorshouldnotbemoreheavilycensored?'
IntroductionSex,violence,andcensorshipallemotivesubjects

Caseagainstcensorship
1.Aesthetic:inhibitsartistictalent,distortsartandtruth.
2.Individualjudgement:individualshavetherighttodecideforthemselveswhattheywatchorread.Similarly,nobodyhas
therighttomakeupsomeoneelse'smind.
3.Violenceandsexascatharsis(releasefromtension):portrayalofthesesubjectscanreleasetensionthroughthiskindof
experienceat'secondhand'.
4. Violence can deter: certain films can show violence which reinforces opposition to it, e.g. A Clockwork Orange, All
QuietontheWesternFront.
5.Censorshipmakessexdirty:wearetoorepressedaboutthissubject,andcensorshipsustainstheharmfulmysterywhich
hassurroundedusforsolong.
6.Politicallydangerous:Censorshipinoneareacanleadtoitbeingextendedtootherse.g.,politicalideas.
7.Impractical:Whodecides?Howisittobedone?Isitnotimpossibletobe'correct'?Anydecisionhastobearbitrary

Caseforcensorship
1.Sexisprivateandprecious:itshouldnotbedemeanedbyrepresentationsofitinpublic.
2.Sexcanbeoffensive:somepeoplemayfinditsoandshouldnothavetoriskbeingexposedtowhattheywouldfind
pornographic.
3.Corruptioncanbeprogressive:canbeginwithsexandcontinueuntilall'decentvalues'areeventuallydestroyed.
4.Participantsmightbecorrupted:especiallytrueofyoungchildren.
5.Violencecanencourageimitation:bydisplayingviolenceevenwhilecondemningititcanbelegitimisedandcanalso
encourageimitationamongstadangerousminority.
6.Violenceisoftenglorified:encouragescallousattitudes.
ConclusionCaseagainstcensorshipmuchstronger.Nonecessaryconnectionbetweenthetwotopics.

HowtoSummarize
1.Asummaryorprcisisashorterversionofalongerpieceofwriting.Thesummarycapturesallthemostimportant
partsoftheoriginal,butexpressesthemina[much]shorterspace.

11

2. Summarizing exercises are usually setto testyour understanding of the original, andyour ability to restate its main
purpose.
3.Summarizingisalsoausefulskillwhengatheringinformationordoingresearch.
4.Thesummaryshouldbeexpressedasfaraspossibleinyourownwords.It'snotenoughtomerelycopyoutpartsof
theoriginal.
5.Thequestionwillusuallysetamaximumnumberofwords.Ifnot,aimforsomethinglikeonetenthoftheoriginal.[A
summarywhichwashalfthelengthoftheoriginalwouldnotbeasummary.]
6.Readtheoriginalquickly,andtrytounderstanditsmainsubjectorpurpose.
7.Thenyouwillneedtoreaditagaintounderstanditinmoredetail.
8.Underlineormakeamarginalnoteofthemainissues.Useahighlighterifthishelps.
9.Lookupanywordsorconceptsyoudon'tknow,sothatyouunderstandtheauthor'ssentencesandhowtheyrelateto
eachother.
10. Work through the text to identify its main sections or arguments. These might be expressed as paragraphs or web
pages.
11.Rememberthatthepurpose[anddefinition]ofaparagraphisthatitdealswithoneissueortopic.
12.Drawupalistofthetopicsormakeadiagram.[Asimplepictureofboxesoraspiderdiagramcanoftenbehelpful.]
13.Writeaoneortwosentenceaccountofeachsectionyouidentify.Focusyourattentiononthemainpoint.Leaveout
anyillustrativeexamples.
14.Writeasentencewhichstatesthecentralideaoftheoriginaltext.
15.Usethisasthestartingpointforwritingaparagraphwhichcombinesallthepointsyouhavemade.
16.Thefinalsummaryshouldconciselyandaccuratelycapturethecentralmeaningoftheoriginal.
17.Rememberthatitmustbeinyourownwords.Bywritinginthisway,youhelptorecreatethemeaningoftheoriginal
inawaywhichmakessenseforyou.
ExampleofanOriginaltext

'Atatypicalfootballmatchwearelikelytoseeplayers
committingdeliberatefouls,oftenbehindthereferee's
back. They might try to take a throwin or a free kick
fromanincorrect,butmoreadvantageouspositionsin
defiance of the clearly stated rules of the game. They
sometimes challenge the rulings of the referee or
linesmen in an offensive way which often deserves
exemplarypunishmentorevensendingoff.Nowonder
spectators fight amongst themselves, damage
stadiums, or take the law into their own hands by
invadingthepitchinthehopeofaffectingtheoutcome
ofthematch.'[100words]
Summary Unsportsmanlike behaviour by footballers may
causehooliganismamongspectators.[9words]

12

Someextratips
Eventhoughnotesareonlyforyourownuse,theywillbemoreeffectiveiftheyarerecordedclearlyandneatly.Good
layoutwillhelpyoutorecallandassessmaterialmorereadily.Ifindoubtusethefollowinggeneralguidelines.
Beforeyouevenstart,makeanoteofyoursource(s).Ifthisisabook,anarticle,orajournal,writethefollowing
informationattheheadofyournotes:Author,title,publisher,publicationdate,andeditionofbook.
UselooseleafA4paper.Thisisnowtheinternationalstandardforalmostalleducationalprintedmatter.Don't
usesmallnotepads.Youwillfinditeasiertokeeptrackofyournotesiftheyfiteasilyalongsideyourotherstudy
materials.
Write clearly and leave a space between each note. Don't try to cram as much as possible onto one page.
Keepingtheitemsseparatewillmakethemeasiertorecall.Theactoflayingoutinformationinthiswaywillcause
youtoassesstheimportanceofeachdetail.
Useanewpageforeachsetofnotes.Thiswillhelpyoutostoreandidentifythemlater.Keeptopicsseparate,
andhavethemclearlytitledandlabelledtofacilitateeasyrecall.
Writeononesideofthepageonly.Numberthesepages.Leavetheblanksidesfreeforpossiblefutureadditions,
andforanydetailswhichmaybeneededlater.

13

Qualitiesofacharacter

MentalQualities

intelligent
educated
smart
wise
gifted
clever
ingenious
brilliant
learned
scholarly
astute
competent
sensible
talented
intellectual
precocious
rational
perceptive

MoralQualities

unintelligent
unschooled
dumb
ignorant
simple
puerile
obtuse
vacuous
narrowminded
shallow
dull
incompetent
unreasonable
incapable
bigoted
witless
irrational
cunning

moral
kind
considerate
idealistic
innocent
righteous
upstanding
truthful
honest
honorable
loyal
helpful
virtuous
pure
puritanical
austere
polite
respectable

PhysicalQualities
strong
healthy
handsome
beautiful
pretty
cute
robust
hardy
dainty
delicate
charming
ravishing
adroit
skillful
lively
robust

immoral
cruel
inconsiderate
unprincipled
corrupt
vile
deceitful
lying
unscrupulous
dishonorable
untrustworthy
selfcentered
dissolute
vulgar
degenerate
sensual
insulting
base
SocialQualities

weak
sickly
hideous
ugly
graceless
emaciated
clumsy
awkward
grotesque
odious
coarse
repulsive
ungainly
unkempt
decrepit
frail

cooperative
hospitable
congenial
cheerful
supportive
urbane
worldly
debonair
suave
elegant
courteous
tactful
cordial
convivial
encouraging
merry

14

contentious
inhospitable
impolite
sullen
antagonistic
boorish
provincial
brusque
obsequious
unpolished
petulant
crude
crabby
critical
caustic
grumpy

Authorstone

Acrossthetopofthechart,youwillfindtenwordsthatcanbeusedtoidentifyanauthorstone.Beloweachoftheten
wordsareotherwordsassociatedwiththattonethatmightbetterpinpointordescribeatone.
reverence

awe
veneration

love

affection
cherish
fondness
admiration
tenderness
sentiment
romantic
Platonic
adoration
narcissism
passion
lust
rapture
ecstasy
infatuated
enamor
compassion

joy

exaltation
zeal
fervor
ardor
elation
jubilant
buoyancy

happiness

glad
pleased
merry
glee
delight
cheerful
gay
sanguine
mirth
enjoy
relish
bliss

calm

serene
tranquil
placid
content

hope

expect
anticipate
trust

sadness

somber
solemn
melancholy
sorrow
lament
despair
despondent
regret
dismal
funereal
saturnine
dark
gloomy
dejection
grave
grief
morose
sullen
woe
bleak
remorse
forlorn
distress
agony
anguish
depression
misery
barren
empty
pity

anger

vehement
enraged
rage
outrage
antipathy
irritation
indignant
vexation
incensed
petulant
irascible
riled
bitter
acrimony
irate
fury
wrath
rancor
hostility
miffed
choleric
frustration
futility
aggravate
umbrage
gall
bristle

COMPARINGTWOPOEMSWITHSIMILARTHEMES

Readthetwopoemsbelowandanswerthequestions.

Thedrum
Thumbprint
EveMerriam

Intheheelofmythumb
arewhorls,whirls,wheels
inauniquedesign:
minealone.
Whatatreasuretoown!
Myownflesh,myownfeelings.
Noother,howevergrandorbase,
canevercontainthesame.
Mysignature,
thumbingthepagesofmytime.
Myuniversekey.
Mysingularity.
Impress,implant,
Iammyself,
ofallmyatompartsIamthesum.
Andoutofmybloodandmybrain
Imakemyowninteriorweather,
Myownsunandrain.
Imprintmymarkupontheworld,
WhateverIshallbecome.

NikkiGiovanni

daddysaystheworldis
adrumtightandhard
andItoldhim
Imgonnabeatoutmyownrhythm

1.Thethemeofeachpoemdealswith
A.theworld

15

hate

vengeance
detest
abhorrence
animosity
enmity
malice
pique
rancor
aversion
loathing
despise
scorn
contempt
disdain
jealousy
repugnance
repulsion
resentment
spite
disgust

fear

timidity
apprehension
anxiety
terror
horror
dismay
agitation
sinister
alarm
startle
uneasy
qualms
angst
trepidation
intimidation
spooky
dread
phobia
appalled

B.individuality
C.birth
D.solutions

2.Poetsoftenusetherhythmoftheirpoemstoreinforcethetheme.Whichstatementbelowistrueabouttherhythm
ofthesepoems?
A.Bothpoemshaveasetrhythm.
B.OnlyThumbprinthasasetrhythm.
C.Onlythedrumhasasetrhythm.
D.Neitherofthepoemshasasetrhythm.

3.Poetsusepunctuationandcapitalizationtosuittheeffecttheywishtheirpoemtohave.WhydoesNikkiGiovanninot
useanypunctuationorcapitalization?

A.Sheisstressingtheindividualityofherspeaker.
B.Sheisshowingthelackofeducationofherspeaker.
C.Sheisdeliberatelyomittingthestandardsoftheworld.
D.Shedidntcarefullyproofreadherpoemandhereditorthoughtshemeanttoomitthem.

4.theworldis/adrum
Whatisthislineanexampleof?
A.alliteration
B.personification
C.simile
D.metaphor

5.Studybothpoems.Whatineachpoemleadsyoutobelievethatthespeakerisyoung?

6.Whydoyouthinkthepoetschosetouseyoungspeakersfortheirpoems?

16

ANALYSINGFICTION/LITERARYTERMS

Vocabulary The author's choice of individual words which may be drawn from various registers such as colloquial,
literary,technical,slang,journalism,andmayvaryfromsimpleanddirecttocomplexandsophisticated.

Grammar The relationships of the words in sentences, which might include such items as the use of adjectives for
description, of verbs to denote action, switching between tenses to move between present and past, or any use of
unusualcombinationsofwordsorphrasestocreatespecialeffects.

Syntax Thearrangementandlogicalcoherenceofwordsinasentence.Thepossibilitiesforrearrangementareoften
usedforemphasisordramaticeffect.

Figures of speech The rhetorical devices often used to give decorative and imaginative expression to literature. For
examplesimile,metaphor,puns,irony.

LiterarydevicesThedevicescommonlyusedinliteraturetogiveaddeddepthtoawork.Forexample,imagery,pointof
view,symbolism,allusions.

Tone The author's attitude to the subject as revealed in the style and the manner of the writing. This might be for
instanceserious,comic,orironic.

NarratorThepersontellingthestory.Thismaybetheauthor,assumingafullknowledgeofcharactersandtheirfeelings:
this is an omniscient narrator. It might alternatively be a fictional character invented by the author. There may also be
multiplenarrators.YoushouldalwaysbepreparedtomakeacleardistinctionbetweenAuthor,Narrator,andCharacter
eventhoughinsometextsthesemaybe(orappeartobe)thesame.

NarrativemodeThisisusuallyeitherthefirstpersonsingular('Iamgoingtotellyouastoryabout...')orthethirdperson
singular('Theduchessfeltalarmed...').

NarrativeThestorywhichisbeingtold:thatis,thehistoryoftheevents,characters,orwhatevermattersthenarrator
wishestorelatetothereader.

Characterisation The means by which characters are depicted or created commonly by accounts of their physical
appearance,psychologicalcharacteristics,directspeech,andtheopinionsofthenarratororothercharactersaboutthem.

Point of view The literary strategy by which an author presents the events of a narrative from the perspective of a
particularpersonwhichmaybethenarratorormaybeafictionalcharacter.Thepointofviewmaybeconsistent,orit
may switch between narrator and character(s). It should not be confused with the mere opinion of a character or the
narrator.

StructureTheplannedunderlyingframeworkorshapeofapieceofwork.Therelationshipbetweenitspartsintermsof
arrangementorconstruction.

ThemeTheunderlyingtopicorissue,oftenofageneralorabstractnature,asdistinctfromtheovertsubjectwithwhich
theworkdeals.Itshouldbepossibletoexpressthemeinasinglewordorshortphrasesuchas'death','education',or
'comingofage'.

Genre The literary category or type (for instance, short story, novella, or novel) to which the work belongs and with
whoseconventionsitmightbecompared.Webecomeawareofgenrethroughculturalexperienceandknowforinstance
thatindetectivestoriesmurdermysteriesaresolved;infairystoriesbeautifulgirlsmarrytheprince;andinsomemodern
shortstoriesnotmuchhappens.
CulturalcontextThehistoricalandculturalcontextandthecircumstancesinwhichtheworkwasproduced,whichmight
have some bearing on its possible meanings. A text produced under conditions of strict censorship might conceal its
meaningsbeneathsymbolismorallegory.

17

WHATISLITERATURE?

LITERATURE(n.)creativewritingofrecognizedartisticvalue;theprofessionorartofawriter;"herplaceinliteratureis
secure"
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Thebodyofwrittenworksofalanguage,period,orculture.
Imaginativeorcreativewriting,especiallyofrecognizedartisticvalue:Literaturemustbeananalysisofexperience
andasynthesisofthefindingsintoaunity(RebeccaWest).
Theartoroccupationofaliterarywriter.
Thebodyofwrittenworkproducedbyscholarsorresearchersinagivenfield:medicalliterature.
Printedmaterial:collectedalltheavailableliteratureonthesubject.
Music.Allthecompositionsofacertainkindorforaspecificinstrumentorensemble:thesymphonicliterature.

[MiddleEnglish,booklearning,fromOldFrenchlitterature,fromLatinlittertra,fromlittertus,lettered.

Literarydictionary
literature,abodyofwrittenworksrelatedbysubjectmatter(e.g.theliteratureofcomputing),bylanguageorplaceof
origin(e.g.Russianliterature),orbyprevailingculturalstandardsofmerit.Inthislastsense,literatureistakentoinclude
oral,dramatic,andbroadcastcompositionsthatmaynothavebeenpublishedinwrittenformbutwhichhavebeen(or
deservetobe)preserved.Sincethe19thcentury,thebroadersenseofliteratureasatotalityofwrittenorprintedworks
hasgivenwaytomoreexclusivedefinitionsbasedoncriteriaofimaginative,creative,orartisticvalue,usuallyrelatedtoa
work'sabsenceoffactualorpracticalreference.Evenmorerestrictivehasbeentheacademicconcentrationuponpoetry,
drama, and fiction. Until the mid20th century, many kinds of nonfictional writingin philosophy, history, biography,
criticism, topography, science, and politicswere counted as literature; implicit in this broader usage is a definition of
literature as that body of works whichfor whatever reasondeserves to be preserved as part of the current
reproductionofmeaningswithinagivenculture(unlikeyesterday'snewspaper,whichbelongsinthedisposablecategory
of ephemera). This sense seems more tenable than the later attempts to divide literatureas creative, imaginative,
fictional,ornonpracticalfromfactualwritingsorpracticallyeffectiveworksofpropaganda,rhetoric,ordidacticwriting.
TheRussianFormalistsattempttodefineliterarinessintermsoflinguisticdeviationsisimportantinthetheoryofpoetry,
buthasnotaddressedthemoredifficultproblemofthenonfictionalproseforms.

Formsofliterature
Poetry
A poem is commonly defined as a composition written in verse (although verse has been equally used for epic and
dramaticfiction).Poemsrelyheavilyonimagery,precisewordchoice,andmetaphor;theymaytaketheformofmeasures
consistingofpatternsofstresses(metricfeet)orofpatternsofdifferentlengthsyllables(asinclassicalprosody);andthey
may or may not utilize rhyme. One cannot readily characterize poetry precisely. Typically though, poetry as a form of
literature makes some significant use of the formal properties of the words it uses the properties attached to the
writtenorspokenformofthewords,ratherthantotheirmeaning.Metredependsonsyllablesandonrhythmsofspeech;
rhymeandallitarationdependonwordsthathavesimilarpronunciation.Somerecentpoets,suchase.e.cummings,made
extensiveuseofwords'visualform.

18

Poetryperhapspredatesotherformsofliterature:earlyknownexamplesincludetheSumerianEpicofGilbamesh(dated
fromaround2700B.C.),partsoftheBible,thesurvivingworksofHomer(theIliadandtheOdyssey),andtheIndianepics
RamayanaandMahabharata.Inculturesbasedprimarilyonoraltraditionstheformalcharacteristicsofpoetryoftenhave
amnemonicfunction,andimportanttexts:legal,genealogicalormoral,forexample,mayappearfirstinverseform.
Much poetry uses specific forms: the haiku, the limerick, or the sonnet, for example. A traditional haiku written in
Japanesemusthavesomethingtodowithnature,containseventeenonji(syllables),distributedoverthreelinesingroups
offive,seven,andfive,andshouldalsohaveakigo,aspecificwordindicatingaseason.Alimerickhasfivelines,witha
rhyme scheme of AABBA, and line lengths of 3,3,2,2,3 stressed syllables. It traditionally has a less reverent attitude
towardsnature.
Languageandtraditiondictatesomepoeticnorms:Persianpoetryalwaysrhymes,Greekpoetryrarelyrhymes,Italianor
Frenchpoetryoftendoes,EnglishandGermancangoeitherway(althoughmodernnonrhymingpoetryoften,perhaps
unfairly,hasamore"serious"aura).PerhapsthemostparadigmaticstyleofEnglishpoetry,blankverse,asexemplifiedin
works by Shakespeare and by Milton, consists of unrhymed iambic pentamenters. Some languages prefer longer lines;
some shorter ones. Some of these conventions result from the ease of fitting a specific language's vocabulary and
grammarintocertainstructures,ratherthanintoothers;forexample,somelanguagescontainmorerhymingwordsthan
others, or typically have longer words. Other structural conventions come about as the result of historical accidents,
wheremanyspeakersofalanguageassociategoodpoetrywithaverseformpreferredbyaparticularskilledorpopular
poet.
Works for theatre (see below) traditionally took verse form. This has now become rare outside opera and musicals,
althoughmanywouldarguethatthelanguageofdramaremainsintrinsicallypoetic.
Inrecentyears,digitalpoetryhasarisenthattakesadvantageoftheartistic,publishing,andsyntheticqualitiesofdigital
media.

Drama
Aplayordramaoffersanotherclassicalliteraryformthathascontinuedtoevolveovertheyears.Itgenerallycomprises
chieflydialoguebetweencharacters,andusuallyaimsatdramatic/theatricalperformance(seetheatre)ratherthanat
reading.Duringtheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies,operadevelopedasacombinationofpoetry,drama,andmusic.
Nearlyalldramatookverseformuntilcomparativelyrecently.Shakespearecouldbeconsidereddrama.RomeoandJuliet,
forexample,isaclassicromanticdramagenerallyacceptedasliterature.
Geekdramaexemplifiestheearliestformofdramaofwhichwehavesubstantialknowledge.Tragedy,asadramatic
genre,developedasaperformanceassociatedwithreligiousandcivicfestivals,typicallyenactingordevelopinguponwell
knownhistoricalormythologicalthemes.TragediesgenerallypresentedveryseriousTheme.Withtheadventofnewer
technologies,scriptswrittenfornonstagemediahavebeenaddedtothisform.WaroftheWorlds(radio)in1938sawthe
advent of literature written for radio broadcast, and many works of Drama have been adapted for film or television.
Conversely,television,film,andradioliteraturehavebeenadaptedtoprintedorelectronicmedia.

Essays
Anessayconsistsofadiscussionofatopicfromanauthor'spersonalpointofview,exemplifiedbyworksbyFrancisBacon
orbyCharlesLamb.
'Essay'inEnglishderivesfromtheFrench'essai',meaning'attempt'.Thusonecanfindopenended,provocativeand/or
inconclusiveessays.Theterm"essays"firstappliedtotheselfreflectivemusingsofMicheldeMontaigne,andeventoday
hehasareputationasthefatherofthisliteraryform.
Genresrelatedtotheessaymayinclude:

thememoir,tellingthestoryofanauthor'slifefromtheauthor'spersonalpointofview
theepistle:usuallyaformal,didactic,orelegantletter.
theblog,aninformalshortrantaboutaparticulartopicortopics,usuallyopinion

19

Prosefiction
Prose consists of writing that does not adhere to any particular formal structures (other than simple grammar); "non
poetic writing," writing, perhaps. The term sometimes appears pejoratively, but prosaic writing simply says something
withoutnecessarilytryingtosayitinabeautifulway,orusingbeautifulwords.Prosewritingcanofcoursetakebeautiful
form; but less by virtue of the formal features of words (rhymes, alliteration, metre)but rather bystyle, placement, or
inclusionofgraphics.Butoneneednotmarkthedistinctionprecisely,andperhapscannotdoso.Notetheclassifications:

"prosepoetry",whichattemptstoconveytheaestheticrichnesstypicalofpoetryusingonlyprose
"freeverse",orpoetrynotadheringtoanyofthestructuresofoneoranotherformalpoeticstyle

Narrativefiction(narrativeprose)generallyfavoursproseforthewritingofnovels,shortstories,graphicnovels,andthe
like. Singular examples of these exist throughout history, but they did not develop into systematic and discrete literary
forms until relatively recent centuries. Length often serves to categorize works of prose fiction. Although limits remain
somewhatarbitrary,modernpublishingconventionsdictatethefollowing:

AMiniSagaisashortstoryofexactly50words
AFlashfictionisgenerallydefinedasapieceofproseunderathousandwords.
Ashortstorycomprisesprosewritingoflessthan10,000to20,000words,buttypicallymorethan500words,
whichmayormaynothaveanarrativearc.
Astorycontainingbetween20,000and50,000wordsfallsintothenovellacategory.
Aworkoffictioncontainingmorethan50,000wordsfallssquarelyintotherealmofthenovel.

Anovelconsistssimplyofalongstorywritteninprose,yettheformdevelopedcomparativelyrecently.Icelandicprose
sagas dating from about the 11th century bridge the gap between traditional national verse epics and the modern
psychogicalnovel.InmainlandEurope,theSpaniardCervanteswroteperhapsthefirstinfluentialnovel:DonQuixote,the
first part of which was published in 1605 and the second in 1615. Earlier collections of tales, such as Boccaccio's
Decameron and Chaucer's The Carterbury Tales, have comparable forms and would classify as novels if written today.
EarlierworkswritteninAsiaresembleevenmorestronglythenovelaswenowthinkofitforexample,workssuchas
theChineseseRomanceoftheThreeKingdomsandtheJapaneseTaleofGenjibyLadyMurasaki.ComparetoTheBookof
OnethousandandOneNights.
EarlynovelsinEuropedidnot,atthetime,countassignificantliterature,perhapsbecause"mere"prosewritingseemed
easyandunimportant.Ithasbecomeclear,however,thatprosewritingcanprovideaestheticpleasurewithoutadhering
to poetic forms. Additionally, the freedom authors gain in not having to concern themselves with verse structure
translates often into a more complex plot or into one richer in precise detail than one typically finds even in narrative
poetry.Thisfreedomalsoallowsanauthortoexperimentwithmanydifferentliteraryandpresentationstylesincluding
poetryinthescopeofasinglenovel.

Otherproseliterature
Philosophy,history,journalism,andlegalandscientificwritingstraditionallyrankedasliterature.Theyoffersomeofthe
oldestprosewritingsinexistence;novelsandprosestoriesearnedthenames"fiction"todistinguishthemfromfactual
writingornonfiction,whichwritershistoricallyhavecraftedinprose.
The "literary" nature of science writing has become less pronounced over the last two centuries, as advances and
specializationhavemadenewscientificresearchinaccessibletomostaudiences;sciencenowappearsmostlyinjournals.
ScientificworksofEuclid,Aristotle,Copernicus,andNewtonstillpossessgreatvalue;butsincethescienceinthemhas
largelybecomeoutdated,theynolongerserveforscientificinstruction,yettheyremaintootechnicaltositwellinmost
programmesofliterarystudy.Outsideof"historyofscience"programmesstudentsrarelyreadsuchworks.Manybooks
"popularizing"sciencemightstilldeservethetitle"literature";historywilltell.
Philosophy, too, has become an increasingly academic discipline. More of its practitioners lament this situation than
occurs with the sciences; nonetheless most new philosophical work appears in academic journals. Major philosophers
throughhistoryPlato,Aristotle,August,Descartes,Nietzschehavebecomeascanonicalasanywriters.Somerecent
philosophyworksarearguedtomeritthetitle"literature",suchassomeoftheworksbySimonBlackburn;butmuchofit
doesnot,andsomeareas,suchaslogic,havebecomeextremelytechnicaltoadegreesimilartothatofmathematics.

20

Agreatdealofhistoricalwritingcanstillrankasliterature,particularlythegenreknownascreativenonfiction.Socana
greatdealofjournalism,suchasliteraryjournalism.Howevertheseareashavebecomeextremelylarge,andoftenhavea
primarilyutilitarianpurpose:torecorddataorconveyimmediateinformation.Asaresultthewritinginthesefieldsoften
lacks a literary quality, although it often and in its better moments has that quality. Major "literary" historians include
Herodotus,ThucydidesandProcopius,allofwhomcountascanonicalliteraryfigures.
Lawoffersalessclearcase.SomewritingsofPlatoandAristotle,oreventheearlypartsoftheBible,mightcountaslegal
literature. The law tables of Hammurabi of Babylon might count. Roman civil law as codified in the Corpus Juris Civilis
duringthereignofJustinianIoftheByzantineEmpirehasareputationassignificantliterature.Thefoundingdocumentsof
manycountries,includingtheUnitedStatesConstitution,cancountasliterature;howeverlegalwritingnowrarelyexhibits
literarymerit.
GameDesignScriptsInessenceneverseenbytheplayerofagameandonlybythedevelopersand/orpublishers,the
audience for these pieces is usually very small. Still, many game scripts contain immersive stories and detailed worlds
makingthemhiddenliterarygems.
Mostofthesefields,then,throughspecializationorproliferation,nolongergenerallyconstitute"literature"inthesense
under discussion. They may sometimes count as "literary literature"; more often they produce what one might call
"technicalliterature"or"professionalliterature".

RelatedNarrativeForms

Graphicnovelsandcomicbookspresentstoriestoldinacombinationofsequentialartwork,dialogueandtext.
Films,videosandbroadcastsoapoperashavecarvedoutanichewhichoftenparallelsthefunctionalityofprose
fiction.
InteractiveFiction,atermforaprosebasedgenreofcomputergames,occupiesasmallliteraryniche.
Eletronicliteratureisadevelopingliterarygenremeanttobereadonacomputerscreen,oftenmakinguseof
hypertext.

Genresofliterature
Aliterarygenrereferstothetraditionaldivisionsofliteratureofvariouskindsaccordingtoaparticularcriterionofwriting.

Literarygenre
Aliterarygenreisagenreofliterature,thatis"aloosesetofcriteriaforacategoryofliterarycomposition",dependingon
literarytechnics,tone,orcontent.
Themostgeneralgenresinliteratureare(inchronologicalorder)epic,tragedy,comedy,novel,andshortstiry.Theycanall
be in the genresprose and poetry, which shows best how loosely genres are defined. Additionally, a genre like satire,
allegory or pastoral might appear in any of the above, not only as a subgenre (see below), but as a mixture of genres.
Finally,theyaredefinedbythegeneralculturalmovementsofthehistoricalperiodinwhichtheywerecomposed.

Subgenres
Genres are often divided into subgenres.Literature, for instance, is divided into three basic kinds of literature, classic
genres of Ancient Greece, poetry,drama, and prose. Poetry may then be subdivided into epic, lyric, and dramatic.
Subdivisions of drama includes formost comedy and tragedy, while eg. comedy itself has subgenres, including farce,
comedyofmanners,burlesque,satire,andsoon.However,anyofthesetermswouldbecalled"genre",anditspossible
moregeneraltermsimplied.
Tobeevenmoreflexible,hybridformsofdifferenttermshavebeenused,likeaprosepoemoratragicomedy.Science
Fictionhas many recognizedsubgenres; a science fictionstory may berooted in realscientific expectationsas they are
understood at the time of writing (see Hard science fiction). A more general term, coined by Robert A. Heinlein, is
"speculative fiction," an umbrella term covering all such genres that depict alternate realities. Even fiction that depicts
innovations ruled out by current scientific theory, such as stories about or based on faster than light travel, are still
sciencefiction,becausescienceisamainsubjectinthepieceofart.

21

Dramatic poetry, for instance, might include comedy, tragedy, melodrama, and mixtures like tragicomedy. This parsing
into subgenres can continue: "comedy" has its own genres, for example, including comedy of manners, sentimental
comedy,burlesquecomedy,andsatiricalcomedy.
Usually,thecriteriausedtodivideupworksintogenresarenotconsistent,andmaychangeconstantly,andbesubjectof
argument, change and challenge by both authors and critics. However, even very loose terms like fiction ("literature
createdfromtheimagination,notpresentedasfact,thoughitmaybebasedonatruestoryorsituation")arenotapplied
toanyfictitiousliterature,whichisalmostrestrictedtotheusefornovel,shortstory,andnovella,butnotfables,andis
alsousuallyaprosetext.
Asubgenremayjoinnoncontradictingcriteria:Romanceandmysteryaremarkedoutbytheirplots,andWesternbyits
setting,whichmeansthataworkcaneasilybeaWesternromanceorWesternmystery.
Genres may be easily be confused with literary techniques, but though only loosely defined, they are not the same,
examplesareparody,Framestory,constrainedwriting,streamofconsciousness.

Importanttermsforpoetry
allegory (ALehGORee): anarrative thatserves as an extended metaphor.Allegories are written in the form offables,
parables,poems,stories,andalmostanyotherstyleorgenre.Themainpurposeofanallegoryistotellastorythathas
characters, a setting, as well as other types of symbols, that have both literal and figurative meanings. The difference
betweenanallegoryandasymbolisthatanallegoryisacompletenarrativethatconveysabstractideastogetapoint
across,whileasymbolisarepresentationofanideaorconceptthatcanhaveadifferentmeaningthroughoutaliterary
work(AHandbooktoLiterature).OnewellknownexampleofanallegoryisDantesTheDivineComedy.InInferno,Dante
isonapilgrimagetotrytounderstandhisownlife,buthischaracteralsorepresentseverymanwhoisinsearchofhis
purposeintheworld(MerriamWebsterEncyclopediaofLiterature).AlthoughVirgilliterallyguidesDanteonhisjourney
throughthemysticalinferno,hecanalsobeseenasthereasonandhumanwisdomthatDantehasbeenlookingforinhis
life.
alliteration(aLITuhRAYshuhn):apatternofsoundthatincludestherepetitionofconsonantsounds.Therepetitioncan
belocatedatthebeginningofsuccessivewordsorinsidethewords.Poetsoftenusealliterationtoaudiblyrepresentthe
actionthatistakingplace.Forinstance,intheInferno,Dantestates:"Isawitthere,butIsawnothinginit,exceptthe
risingoftheboilingbubbles"(261).Therepetitionofthe"b"soundsrepresentsthesoundsofbubbling,orthebursting
actionoftheboilingpitch.Inaddition,inSirPhillipSidney'sAstrophelandStella,thepoetstates:"Bitingmytruantpen,
beatingmyselfforspite"(Line13).Thisrepetitionofthe"t"soundrepresentstheactionofthepoet;onecanhearand
visualizehisanguishashebitesthepen.AlsoinAstrophelandStella,thepoetstates,"Oftturningothers'leaves,toseeif
thence wouldflow, /Some fresh and fruitful showers upon my sunburn'dbrain"(78). Again, thepoet repeats the "fr"
soundstoemphasizethespeaker'sdesireforinspirationinexpressinghisfeelings.Poetsmayalsousealliterationtocall
attentiontoaphraseandfixitintothereader'smind;thus,itisusefulforemphasis.Therefore,notonlydoesalliteration
providepoetryorprosewithauniquesound,itcanplaceemphasisonspecificphrasesandrepresenttheactionthatis
takingplace
allusion(aLOOzhuhn):areferenceinaliteraryworktoaperson,place,orthinginhistoryoranotherworkofliterature.
Allusionsareoftenindirectorbriefreferencestowellknowncharactersorevents.Specificexamplesofallusionscanbe
foundthroughoutDantesInferno.Inapassage,DantealludestotheGreekmythologicalfigures,PhaethonandIcarus,to
expresshisfearashedescendsfromtheairintotheeighthcircleofhell.Hestates:
IdoubtifPhaethonfearedmorethattime
hedroppedthesunreinsofhisfather'schariot
andburnedthestreakofskyweseetoday
orifpoorIcarusdidfeelinghissides
unfeatheringasthewaxbegantomelt,
hisfathershouting:"Wrong,yourcourseiswrong"(CantoXVII:106111).
Allusionsareoftenusedtosummarizebroad,complexideasoremotionsinonequick,powerfulimage.Forexample,to
communicatetheideaofselfsacrificeonemayrefertoJesus,aspartofJesus'storyportrayshimdyingonthecrossin
ordertosavemankind(Matthew27:4556).Inaddition,toexpressrighteousness,onemightalludetoNoahwho"hadno

22

faultsandwastheonlygoodmanofhistime"(Genesis6:922).Furthermore,theideaoffatherhoodorpatriarchiallove
canbewellunderstoodbyalludingtoAbraham,whowastheancestorofmanynations(Genesis17:36).Finally,Cainisan
excellentexampletoconveybanishment,rejection,orevil,forhewascastoutofhishomelandbyGod(Genesis4:12).
Thus,allusionsserveanimportantfunctioninwritinginthattheyallowthereadertounderstandadifficultconceptby
relatingtoanalreadyfamiliarstory.
connotation (KAHnuhTAEshun): an association that comes along with a particular word. Connotations relate not to a
word'sactualmeaning,ordenotation,butrathertotheideasorqualitiesthatareimpliedbythatword.Agoodexampleis
theword"gold."Thedenotationofgoldisamalleable,ductile,yellowelement.Theconnotations,however,aretheideas
associatedwithgold,suchasgreed,luxury,oravarice.AnotherexampleoccursintheBookofGenesis.Jacobsays:Dan
willbeaserpentbytheroadside,aviperalongthepath,thatbitesthehorsesheelssothatitsridertumblesbackward"
(Gen 49:17). In this passage, Dan is not literally going to become a snake. However, describing Dan as a "snake" and
"viper"forcesthereadertoassociatehimwiththenegativequalitiesthatarecommonlyassociatedwithreptiles,suchas
slyness,danger,andevil.Danbecomeslikeasnake,slyanddangeroustotheriders.Writersuseconnotationtomaketheir
writingmorevividandinterestingtoread.
couplet (KUPlet): a style of poetry defined as a complete thought written in two lines with rhyming ends. The most
popular of the couplets is the heroic couplet. The heroic couplet consists of two rhyming lines of iambic pentameter
usuallyhavingapauseinthemiddleofeachline.OneofWilliamShakespearestrademarkswastoendasonnetwitha
couplet,asinthepoemShallICompareTheetoaSummersDay:
Solongasmencanbreatheoreyescansee,
Solongaslivesthis,andthisgiveslifetothee.
ByusingthecoupletShakespearewouldoftensignaltheendofasceneinhis
playsaswell.Anexampleofascenesendsignaledbyacoupletistheendof
ActIVofOthello.ThesceneendswithDesdemonaslines:
Goodnight.Goodnight.Heavenmesuchusessend.
Nottopickbadfrombad,butbybadmend.

denotation (DEEnoTAEshuhn): the exact meaning of a word, without the feelings or suggestions that the word may
imply. It is the opposite of connotation in that it is the dictionary meaning of a word, without attached feelings or
associations.Someexamplesofdenotationsare:
1.heart:anorganthatcirculatesbloodthroughoutthebody.Heretheword"heart"denotestheactualorgan,whilein
another
context,
the
word
"heart"
may
connote
feelings
of
love
or
heartache.
2.sweater:aknittedgarmentfortheupperbody.Theword"sweater"maydenotepulloversweatersorcardigans,while
sweatermayalsoconnotefeelingsofwarmnessorsecurity.
Denotationallowsthereadertoknowtheexactmeaningofawordsothatheorshewillbetterunderstandtheworkof
literature.

elegy (ELeje): a type of literature defined as a song or poem, written in elegiac couplets, that expresses sorrow or
lamentation,usuallyforonewhohasdied.ThistypeofworkstemmedoutofaGreekworkknownasa"elegus,"asongof
mourningorlamentationthatisaccompaniedbytheflute.Beginninginthe16thcentury,elegiestooktheformweknow
today.TwofamouselegiesincludeThomasGrays"ElegyWritteninaCountryChurchyard"andWaltWhitmans"When
LilacsLastintheDooryardBloomd".Grayselegyisnotableinthatitmournedthelossofawayofliferatherthantheloss
ofanindividual.Hiswork,whichsomeconsidertobealmostpolitical,showedextremediscontentforstrifeandtyranny
set upon EnglandbyOliver Cromwell. This work also acted as an outlet for Grays dissatisfaction with thosepoets who
wrote in accordance with the thoughts and beliefs of the upper class. In his elegy, Gray mourned for his country and
mournedforitscitizens.Whitman,inspiredbytheassassinationofAbrahamLincoln,wrotehiselegyinitsclassicform,
showing sorrow for the loss of an individual. See A Readers Companion to World Literature, and Dictionary of World
Literature.
epigram(epegram):ashortpoemorversethatseekstoridiculeathoughtorevent,usuallywithwitticismorsarcasm.
These literary works were very popular during the Renaissance in Europe in the late 14th century and the Neoclassical
period,whichbeganaftertheRestorationin1660.TheyweremostcommonlyfoundinclassicLatinliterature,European
and English literature. In Ancient Greek, an epigram originally meant a short inscription, but its meaning was later
broadened toinclude any very short poems. Poems that are meditative or satiric all fall into this category. Theseshort
poemsformulatedfromthelightversespecies,whichconcentratedonthetoneofvoiceandtheattitudeofthelyricor
narrative speaker toward the subject. With a relaxed manner, lyricists would recite poems to their subjects that were
comicalorwhimsical.SamuelTaylorColeridge(17711834),anEnglishpoet,essayistandcritic,constructedanepigramto

23

showhumorinRomanticism.Histhoughts,OnaVolunteerSinger,comparesandcontraststhedeathofswanswiththat
ofhumans:
Swanssingbeforetheydietwerenobadthing
Shouldcertainpeoplediebeforetheysing!
Theballad,LordRandallillustratesayoungmanwhosetofftomeethisonetrue
loveandendsupbecomingsickatheartwithwhathefinds.Theyoungmanlater
arrives home to his family about to die and to each family member he leaves
somethingsentimental.Whenaskedwhatheleavestohistruelove,heresponds:
Ileaveherhellandfire
Thisepigramtriedtodepictwhathappenstolovegonesour.Epigramshavebeen
usedthroughoutthecenturiesnotonlytocriticizebutalsotopromote
improvement.

figurative language (figYOORative LANgwije): a type of language that varies from the norms of literal language, in
whichwordsmeanexactlywhattheysay.Alsoknownasthe"ornamentsoflanguage,"figurativelanguagedoesnotmean
exactlywhatitsays,butinsteadforcesthereadertomakeanimaginativeleapinordertocomprehendanauthor'spoint.
Itusuallyinvolvesacomparisonbetweentwothingsthatmaynot,atfirst,seemtorelatetooneanother.Inasimile,for
example, an author may compare a person to an animal: "He ran like a hare down the street" is the figurative way to
describethemanrunningand"Heranveryquicklydownthestreet"istheliteralwaytodescribehim.Figurativelanguage
facilitates understanding because it relates something unfamiliar to something familiar. Some popular examples of
figurativelanguageincludeasimileandmetaphor.

gothic(gothIK):aliterarystylepopularduringtheendofthe18thcenturyandthebeginningofthe19th.Thisstyleusually
portrayed fantastic tales dealing with horror, despair, the grotesque and other "dark" subjects. Gothic literature was
namedfortheapparentinfluenceofthedarkgothicarchitectureoftheperiodonthegenre.Also,manyoftheseGothic
tales took places in such "gothic" surroundings, sometimes a dark and stormy castle as shown in Mary Wollstoncraft
Shelly's Frankenstein, or Bram Stoker's infamous Dracula. Other times, this story of darkness may occur in a more
everydaysetting,suchasthequainthousewherethemangoesmadfromthe"beating"ofhisguiltinEdgarAllanPoe's
"TheTellTaleHeart".Inessence,thesestorieswereromances,largelyduetotheirloveoftheimaginaryoverthelogical,
andweretoldfrommanydifferentpointofview.Thisliteraturegavebirthtomanyotherforms,suchassuspense,ghost
stories,horror,mystery,andalsoPoe'sdetectivestories.Gothicliteraturewasn'tsodifferentfromothergenresinformas
itwasincontentanditsfocusonthe"weird"aspectsoflife.Thismovementbegantoslowlyopenmaypeople'seyesto
thepossibleusesofthesupernaturalinliterature.

hyperbole(hiperbolee):anextravagantexaggeration.FromtheGreekfor"overcasting,"hyperboleisafigureofspeech
that is a grossly exaggerated description or statement. In literature, such exaggeration is used for emphasis or vivid
descriptions.Indrama,hyperboleisquitecommon,especiallyinheroicdrama.Hyperboleisafundamentalpartofboth
burlesque writingand thetall tales from WesternAmerica. The conscious overstatements of these tales are forms of
hyperbole.Manyotherexamplesofhyperbolecanbefoundintheromancefictionandcomedygenres.Hyperboleiseven
a part of our daytoday speech: Youve grown like a bean sprout or Im older than the hills. Hyperbole is used to
increasetheeffectofadescription,whetheritismetaphoricorcomic.Inpoetry,hyperbolecanemphasizeordramatizea
personsopinionsoremotions.Skilledpoetsusehyperboletodescribeintenseemotionsandmentalstates.Othellouses
hyperboletodescribehisangeratthepossibilityofIagolyingabouthiswifesinfidelityinActIII,SceneIIIofShakespeares
playOthello:

Ifthoudostslanderherandtortureme,
Neverpraymore;abandonallremorse;
Onhorrorsheadaccumulate;
Dodeedstomakeheavenweep,allearthamazed;
Fornothingcanstthoutodamnationadd
Greaterthanthat.

In this passage, Othello is telling Iago that if he is lying then Othello will have no pity and Iago will have no hope for
salvation.Addinghorrorswithstillmorehorrors,Othelloisdescribinghispotentialrage.Othelloevendeclaresthatthe
EarthwillbeconfoundedwithhorroratOthellosactionsinsuchastateofmadness.

lyric(LEERick):alyricisasonglikepoemwrittenmainlytoexpressthefeelingsofemotionsorthoughtfromaparticular
person,thusseparatingitfromnarrativepoems.Thesepoemsaregenerallyshort,averagingroughlytwelvetothirtylines,
andrarelygobeyondsixtylines.Thesepoemsexpressvividimaginationaswellasemotionandallflowfairlyconcisely.
Becauseofthisaspect,aswellastheirsteadyrhythm,theywereoftenusedinsong.Infact,mostpeoplestillseea"lyric"

24

as anything that is sung along toa musical instrument. It is believed that the lyricbegan in its earliest stage in Ancient
Egyptaround2600BCintheformsofelegies,odes,orhymnsgeneratedoutofreligiousceremonies.Someofthemore
noteworthy authors who have used the lyric include William Blake, William Wordsworth, John Keats, and William
Shakespearewhohelpedpopularizethesonnet,anothertypeoflyric.Theimportanceofunderstandingthelyriccanbest
beshownthroughitsremarkableabilitytoexpresswithsuchimaginationtheinnermostemotionsofthesoul.

metaphor(metAHfor)[fromtheGk.carryingoneplacetoanother]:atypeoffigurativelanguageinwhichastatementis
made that says that one thing is something else but, literally, it is not. In connecting one object, event, or place, to
another, a metaphorcan uncover new and intriguing qualities of the original thing that we may not normallynotice or
even consider important. Metaphoric language is used in order to realize a new and different meaning. As an effect, a
metaphorfunctionsprimarilytoincreasestylisticcolorfulnessandvariety.Metaphorisagreatcontributortopoetrywhen
thereaderunderstandsalikenessbetweentwoessentiallydifferentthings.InhisPoetics,Aristotleclaimsthatforoneto
mastertheuseofmetaphorisasignofgenius,sinceagoodmetaphorimpliesanintuitiveperceptionofthesimilarityin
dissimilars(ThePoet'sDictionary).Ametaphormaybefoundinasimplecomparisonorlargelyastheimageofanentire
poem.Forexample,EmilyDickinsonspoemMyLifehadstoodaLoadedGunmakesuseofaseriesofcomparisons
betweenthespeakerandagun.Dickinsonopenstheworkwiththefollowing:MyLifehadstoodaLoadedGun/In
corners till a Day / The Owner passed identified / And carried me away. Of course, the narrator is not really a
gun. The metaphor carries with it all the qualities of a Loaded Gun. The speaker in the poem is making a series of
comparisonsbetweenthemselvesandthequalitiesofagun.Thenarratorhadbeenwaitingalongtimebeforetheirlove
foundthem.Thenarratorlovesherfellowsodesperatelythatshefeelsasaprotectivegunthatwouldkillanyonewishing
to harm him. To this effect, Dickinson writes, "To foe of His Im deadly foe ." Dickinsons poem ends up being one
extendedcomparisonthroughtheuseofmetaphorbetweenherselfandagunwithbutthepowertokill.
metonymy(meTAHnahme):afigureofspeechwhichsubstitutesonetermwithanotherthatisbeingassociatedwith
the that term. A name transfer takes place to demonstrate an association of a whole to a part or how two things are
associatedinsomeway.Thisallowsareadertorecognizesimilaritiesorcommonfeaturesamongterms.Itmayprovidea
morecommonmeaningtoaword.However,itmaybeaparallelshiftthatprovidesbasicallythesamemeaning;itisjust
saidanotherway.Forexample,inthebookofGenesis3:19,itreferstoAdambysayingthatbythesweatofyourbrow,
you will eat your food. Sweat represents the hard labor that Adam will have to endure to produce the food that will
sustainhislife.Thesweatonhisbrowisavividpictureofhowhardheisworkingtoattainagoal.Anotherexampleisin
Genesis27:28whenIsaactellsJacobthatGodwillgiveyou...anabundanceofgrainandnewwine.Thisgrainandwine
representsthewealththatJacobwillattainbystealingthebirthright.Theserichesarelikemoneythatisforconsumption
or material possessions to trade for other goods needed for survival. Furthermore, in the play Othello, Act I Scene I
featuresmetonymywhenIagoreferstoOthelloasthedevilthatwillmakeagrandsireofyou.Thisphraserepresents
apersonthatisseenasdeceitfulorevil.Anunderstandingofmetonymyaidsareadertoseehowanauthorinterchanges
wordstofurtherdescribeatermsmeaning.
narrativepoem(narRAHtivpoEM):apoemthattellsastory.Anarrativepoemcancomeinmanyformsandstyles,both
complexandsimple,shortorlong,aslongasittellsastory.Afewexamplesofanarrativepoemareepics,ballads,and
metrical romances. In western literature,narrative poetrydatesbackto the Babylonian epic of Gilgamesh and Homer's
epicstheIliadandtheOdyssey.InEnglandandScotland,storytellingpoemshavelongbeenpopular;inthelateMiddle
Ages,balladsorstorytellingsongscirculatedwidely.Theartofnarrativepoetryisdifficultinthatitrequirestheauthorto
possesstheskillsofawriteroffiction,theabilitytodrawcharactersandsettingsbriefly,toengageattention,andtoshape
aplot,whilecallingforalltheskillsofapoetbesides.
personification {PERsonEfihkashEn): A figure of speech where animals, ideas or inorganic objects are given human
characteristics.OneexampleofthisisJamesStephensspoem"TheWind"inwhichwindpreformsseveralactions.Inthe
poemStephenswrites,Thewindstoodupandgaveashout.Hewhistledonhistwofingers.Ofcoursethewinddidnot
actually "stand up," but this image of the wind creates a vivid picture of the wind's wild actions. Another example of
personificationinthispoemisKickedthewitheredleavesabout.Andthumpedthebrancheswithhishand.Here,the
wind is kicking leaves about, just like a person would and using hands to thump branches like a person would also. By
givinghumancharacteristicstothingsthatdonothavethem,itmakestheseobjectsandtheiractionseasiertovisualize
forareader.Bygivingthewindhumancharacteristics,Stephensmakesthispoemmoreinterestingandachievesamuch
morevividimageofthewaywindwhipsaroundaroom.Personificationismostoftenusedinpoetry,comingtopopularity
duringthe18thcentury.
rhyme(rime):repetitionofanidenticalorsimilarlyaccentedsoundorsoundsinawork.Lyricistsmayfindmultiplewaysto
rhyme within a verse. End rhymes have words that rhyme at the end of a verseline. Internal rhymes have words that
rhyme within it. Algernon C. Swinburne (18371909), a rebel and English poet, used internal rhymes in many of his
Victorianpoemssuchassister,mysister,Ofleetsweetswallow.Therearecrossrhymesinwhichtherhymeoccursat

25

theendofonelineandinthemiddleofthenext;andrandomrhymes,inwhichtherhymesseemtooccuraccidentallyin
nospecificcombination,oftenmixedwithunrhymedlines.Thesesortofrhymestrytobringacreativeedgetoversesthat
usuallyhaveperfectrhymesinasequentialorder.Historically,rhymecameintopoetrylate,showingintheWesternworld
around AD 200 in the Church Latin of North Africa. Its popularity grew in Medieval Latin poetry. The frequently used
spelling in English, r*h*y*m*e , comes from a false identification of the Greek word rhythmos. Its true origin comes
fromProvencal,whichisarelationtoProvence,aregionofFrance.ThetraditionalScottishballad,Edward,usesend
rhymestodescribewhathehasdonewithhisswordandproperty:
Andwhatwulyedoewiyourtowirsandyourha
Thatweresaefairtosee,O?
Ileletthamestandtultheydounfa
Rhymegivespoemsflowandrhythm,helpingthelyricisttellastoryandconveyamood.

rhymescheme(rimeskeem):thepatternofrhymeusedinapoem,generallyindicatedbymatchinglowercaselettersto
showwhichlinesrhyme.Theletter"a"notesthefirstline,andallotherlinesrhymingwiththefirstline.Thefirstlinethat
doesnotrhymewiththefirst,or"a"line,andallothersthatrhymewiththisline,isnotedbytheletter"b",andsoon.The
rhymeschememayfollowafixedpattern(asinasonnet)ormaybearrangedfreelyaccordingtothepoet'srequirements.
Theuseofascheme,orpattern,cameaboutbeforepoemswerewrittendown;whentheywerepassedalonginsongor
oralpoetry.Sincemanyofthesepoemswerelong,tellingofgreatheroes,battles,andotherimportantculturalevents,
the rhyme scheme helped with memorization. A rhyme scheme also helps give a verse movement, providing a break
beforechangingthoughts.Thefourlinestanza,orquatrain,isusuallywrittenwiththefirstlinerhymingwiththethirdline,
andthesecondlinerhymingwiththefourthline,abab.TheEnglishsonnetgenerallyhasthreequatrainsandacouplet,
suchasabab,cdcd,efef,gg.TheItaliansonnethastwoquatrainsandasestet,orsixlinestanza,suchasabba,abba,cde,
cde.Rhymeschemeswereadaptedtomeettheartisticandexpressiveneedsofthepoet.HenryHowardSurreyiscredited
withintroducingthesonnetformtoEngland.ThisformdifferedfromtheItalianformbecausehefoundthattherewere
fewerrhymingwordsinEnglishthantherewereinItalian.
ShallIcomparetheetoasummer'sday?
Thouartmorelovelyandmoretemperate.
RoughwindsdoshakethedarlingbudsofMay.
Andsummer'sleasehathalltooshortadate.
ExcerptfromShakespeare's"SonnetXVIII",rhymescheme:abab.

simile(simEHlee):asimileisatypeoffigurativelanguage,languagethatdoesnotmeanexactlywhatitsays,thatmakes
a comparison between two otherwise unalike objects or ideas by connecting them with the words "like" or "as." The
readercanseeasimilarconnectionwiththeverbsresemble,compareandliken.Similesallowanauthortoemphasizea
certaincharacteristicofanobjectbycomparingthatobjecttoanunrelatedobjectthatisanexampleofthatcharacteristic.
AnexampleofasimilecanbeseeninthepoemRobinHoodandAllinaDale:

Withthatcameinawealthyknight,
Whichwasbothgraveandold,
Andafterhimafinikinlass,
Didshinelikeglisteninggold.

Inthispoem,thelassdidnotliterallyglistenlikegold,butbycomparingthelasstothegoldtheauthoremphasizesher
beauty, radiance and purity,all things associated with gold. Similarly, in N. ScottMomadays simple poem, Simile. he
says that the two characters in the poem are like deer who walk in a single line with their heads high with their ears
forward and their eyes watchful. By comparing the walkers to the nervous deer, Momaday emphasizes their care and
caution.
short story (short storeey): a prose narrative that is brief in nature. The short story also has many of the same
characteristicsofanovelincludingcharacters,settingandplot.However,duetolengthconstraints,thesecharacteristics
anddevicesgenerallymaynotbeasfullydevelopedorascomplexasthosedevelopedforafulllengthnovel.Thereare
many authors well known for the short story including Edgar Allan Poe, Sherwood Anderson and Ernest Hemingway.
AccordingtothebookLiteraryTermsbyKarlBecksonandArthurGanz,AmericanwriterssincePoe,whofirsttheorizedon
thestructureandpurposeoftheshortstory,havepaidconsiderableattentiontotheform(257).Thewrittenprotocol
regardingwhatcomprisesashortversusalongstoryisvague.However,ageneralstandardmightbethattheshortstory
couldbereadinonesitting.NTCsDictionaryofLiteraryTermsquotesEdgarAllanPoesdescriptionasbeingashortprose
narrative, requiring from a halfhour to one or two hours in its perusal (201). Please refer to Literary Terms by Karl
Beckson and Arthur Ganz and NTCs Dictionary of Literary Terms by Kathleen Morner and Ralph Rausch for further
information.

26

slant rhyme (slnt rime) is also known as near rhyme, half rhyme, off rhyme, imperfect rhyme, oblique rhyme, or
pararhyme.Adistinctivesystemorpatternofmetricalstructureandversecompositioninwhichtwowordshaveonlytheir
finalconsonantsoundsandnoprecedingvowelorconsonantsoundsincommon.Insteadofperfectoridenticalsoundsor
rhyme,itistherepetitionofnearorsimilarsoundsorthepairingofaccentedandunaccentedsoundsthatifbothwere
accented would be perfect rhymes (stopped and wept, parable and shell). Alliteration, assonance, and consonance are
accepted as slant rhyme due to their usage of sound combinations (spilled and spoiled, chitter and chatter). By not
allowing the reader to predict or expect what is coming slant rhyme allows the poet to express things in different or
certainways.SlantrhymewasmostcommonintheIrish,WelshandIcelandicverseandproselongbeforeHenryVaughn
used it in English. Not until William Butler Yeats and Gerald Manley Hopkins began to use slant rhyme did it become
regularly used in English.Wilfred Owen was one of the first poets to realize the impact of rhyming consonants in a
consistentpattern.AWorldWarIsoldierhesoughtapowerfulmeanstoconveytheharshnessofwar.Killedinaction,his
mostfamousworkwaswrittenintheyearpriortohisdeath.
Nowmenwillgocontentwithwhatwespoiled
Or,discontent,boilbloody,andbespilled,
Theywillbeswiftwiththeswiftnessofthetigress.
Nonewillbreakranks,thoughnationstrekfromprogress.
Couragewasmine,andIhadmystery,
Wisdomwasmine,andIhadmastery:
Tomissthemarchofthisretreatingworld
Intovaincitadelsthatarenotwalled.

sonnet (sonnIT): a sonnet is a distinctive poetic style that uses system or pattern of metrical structure and verse
compositionusuallyconsistingoffourteenlines,arrangedinasetrhymeschemeorpattern.Therearetwomainstylesof
sonnet,theItaliansonnetandtheEnglishsonnet.TheItalianorPetrarchansonnet,namedafterPetrarch(13041374)a
fourteenthcenturywriterandthebestknownpoettousethisform,wasdevelopedbytheItalianpoetGuittoneofArezzo
(12301294)inthethirteenthcentury.Usuallywritteniniambicpentameter,itconsistsfirstofanoctave,oreightlines,
whichasksaquestionorstatesaproblemorpropositionandfollowstherhymeschemeabba,abba.Thesestet,or
lastsixlines,offersananswer,oraresolutiontotheproposedproblem,andfollowstherhymeschemecdecde.
WhenIconsiderhowmylightisspent
Erehalfmydays,inthisdarkworldandwide,
Andthatonetalentwhichisdeathtohide
Lodgedwithmeuseless,thoughmysoulmorebent
ToservetherewithmyMaker,andpresent
Mytrueaccount,lesthereturningchide;
"DothGodexactdaylabor,lightdenied?"
Ifondlyask;butPatiencetoprevent
Thatmurmur,soonreplies,"Goddothnotneed
Eitherman'sworkorhisowngifts;whobest
Bearhismildyoke,theyservehimbest.Hisstate
Iskingly.Thousandsathisbiddingspeed
Andposto'erlandandoceanwithoutrest:
Theyalsoservewhoonlystandandwait."

JohnMilton,"WhenIConsiderHowMyLightIsSpent"ThesonnetwasfirstbroughttoEnglandbyThomasWyattand
Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, in the sixteenth century, where the second sonnet form arose. The English or
ShakespeareansonnetwasnamedafterWilliamShakespeare(15641616)whomostbelievedtothebestwritertousethe
form.AdaptingtheItalianformtotheEnglish,theoctaveandsestetwerereplacedbythreequatrains,eachhavingitsown
independentrhymeschemetypicallyrhymingeveryotherline,andendingwitharhymecouplet.InsteadoftheItalianic
breakbetweentheoctaveandthesestet,thebreakcomesbetweenthetwelfthandthirteenthlines.Theendingcoupletis
oftenthemainthoughtchangeofthepoem,andhasanepigramaticending.Itfollowstherhymeschemeabab,cdcd,
efef,gg.

Shakespeare,SonnetXVIII.

ShallIcomparetheetoasummersday?a
Thouartmorelovelyandmoretemperate:b
RoughwindsdoshakethedarlingbudsofMay,a
Andsummersleasehathalltoshortadate:b
Sometimetoohottheeyeofheavenshines,c
Andoftenishisgoldcomplexiondimmd:d
Andeveryfairfromfairsometimedeclines,c

27

Bychance,ornatureschangingcourse,untrimmd.d
Bythyeternalsummershallnotfadee
Norlosepossessionofthatfairthouowest;f
NorshallDeathbragthouwanderedinhisshade,e
Whenineternallinestotimethougrowest:f
Solongasmencanbreathe,oreyescansee,g
Solonglivesthis,andthisgiveslifetothee.g

28

ABRIEFHISTORYOFTHEENGLISHLANGUAGE
AdaptedfromDouglasF.Hasty

WespeakEnglishbutdoweknowwhereitcomesfrom?Wedidnotknowuntilwestarttostudyonthissubjectandwe
learnwhereitcomesfromandhowithasdeveloped.Theimportanceofthispartisthatwecannotunderstandreading
literatureifwedonotknowthehistoryofthelanguage,theculture,andthepeople.

The history of English begins a little after A.D. 600. The ancestors of the language were wandering in the forests of
northernEurope.TheirlanguagewasapartofGermanicbranchofIndoEuropeanFamily.Thepeopletalkingthislanguage
spread to the northern coast of Europe in the time of Roman Empire. Among this people the tribes called
Angels,Saxons,JuteswhichiscalledAngloSaxonscometoEngland.ThefirstLatineffectwasinthatperiod.Latineffected
thelanguagewiththemerchantstravelingthetribes.SomeofthewordstakenfromLatinare;kettle,wine,cheese,butter,
cheap.

When AngloSaxons became Christian in 597 they learned Latin. According to the effects to English, the history of the
language divided in to three; Old English(7th century1100), Middle English(11001450/1500), Modern English (1500
now).InsomebooksModernEnglishisdividedintotwoEarlymodern(15001700),LateModern(1700now).

WhenEnglandwasestablishedtherewereseveralkingdomsandthemostadvancedonewasNurthumbria.Itwasthis
periodthatthebestoftheOldEnglishliteraturewaswritten,includingtheepicpoemBeowulf,thatiswhywemustread
partofthisepicpoem.

Inthe8thcenturyNurthumbrianpowerdeclined,WestSaxonsbecametheleadingpower.Themostfamouskingofthe
West Saxons was Alfred the Great, who founded and established schools, translated or caused to be translated many
booksfromLatinintoEnglish.

AftermanyyearsofhitandrunraidsbetweentheEuropeankingdoms,theNorsemanlandedintheyearof866andlater
theeastcoastoftheislandwasNorsemans.NorselanguageeffectedtheEnglishconsiderably.Norsewasntsodifferent
fromEnglishandEnglishpeoplecouldunderstandNorseman.Therewereconsiderableinterchangesandwordborrowings
(sky,give,law,egg,outlaw,leg,ugly,talk). Also borrowed pronouns like they,their,them. It is supposed also that the
NorsemaninfluencedthesoundstructureandthegrammarofEnglish.

Alsointhe14thcenturyRomeEmpireweakenedbecauseGothsattackedtoMediterraneancountriesofRomanEmpire
andAngloSaxonsattackedtoempire.OntheotherhandtheCeltictribesinScotlandandWalesdeveloped.Attheendin
410thelastromanemperorlefttheislandtoCelticandAngloSaxons.CelticandAngloSaxonsfoughtfor100yearsand
AngloSaxonskilledalltheCeltics.In550AngloSaxonsestablishedEngland.DuringRomaEmpireLatinwasnotthenative
languageofthekingdombecausepeopleinthecountryweretalkingCeltic.

OldEnglishhadsomesoundwhichwedonotknowhavenow.Ingrammar,OldEnglishwasmuchmorehighlyinflected
thatMiddleEnglishbecausetherewerecaseendingsfornouns,morepersonandnumberendingsofwordsandamore
complicated pronoun systems, various endings for adjectives. In vocabulary Old English is quiet different from Middle
English.MostoftheOldEnglishwordsarenativeEnglishwhichwerenotborrowedfromotherlanguages.Ontheother
handOldEnglishcontainsborrowedwordscomingfromNorseandLatin.
Old English, until 1066ImmigrantsfromDenmarkandNWGermanyarrivedinBritaininthe5thand6thCenturiesA.D.,
speakinginrelateddialectsbelongingtotheGermanicandTeutonicbranchesoftheIndoEuropeanlanguagefamily.Today,
EnglishismostcloselyrelatedtoFlemish,Dutch,andGerman,andissomewhatrelatedtoIcelandic,Norwegian,Danish,
andSwedish.Icelandic,unchangedfor1,000years,isveryclosetoOldEnglish.Vikinginvasions,beguninthe8thCentury,
gaveEnglishaNorwegianandDanishinfluencewhichlasteduntiltheNormanConquestof1066.
Old English WordsTheAnglescamefromanangleshapedlandareaincontemporaryGermany.Theirname"Angli"
from the Latin and commonlyspoken, pre5th Century German mutated into the Old English "Engle". Later, "Engle"
changedto"Angelcyn"meaning"Anglerace"byA.D.1000,changingto"Englaland".SomeOldEnglishwordswhich
havesurvivedintactinclude:feet,geese,teeth,men,women,lice,andmice.Themodernword"like"canbeanoun,
adjective,verb,andpreposition.InOldEnglish,though,thewordwasdifferentforeachtype:gelicaasanoun,geicas
anadjective,licianasaverb,andgeliceasapreposition.

29

Middle English, from 1066 until the 15th Century The Norman Invasion and Conquest of Britain in 1066 and the
resulting French Court of William the Conqueror gave the NorwegianDutch influenced English a NormanParisian
Frencheffect.From1066untilabout1400,Latin,French,andEnglishwerespoken.Englishalmostdisappearedentirely
into obscurity during this period by the French and Latin dominated court and government. However, in 1362, the
ParliamentopenedwithEnglishasthelanguageofchoice,andthelanguagewassavedfromextinction.Presentday
Englishisapproximately50%Germanic(EnglishandScandinavian)and50%Romance(FrenchandLatin).
Middle English Words Many new words added to Middle English during this period came from Norman French,
ParisianFrench,andScandinavian.NormanFrenchwordsimportedintoMiddleEnglishinclude:catch,wage,warden,
reward,andwarrant.ParisianFrenchgaveMiddleEnglish:chase,guarantee,regard,guardian,andgage.Scandinavian
gave to Middle English the important word of law. English nobility had titles which were derived from both Middle
EnglishandFrench.Frenchprovided:prince,duke,peer,marquis,viscount,andbaron.MiddleEnglishindependently
developed king, queen, lord, lady, and earl. Governmental administrative divisions from French include county, city,
village,justice,palace,mansion,andresidence.MiddleEnglishwordsincludetown,home,house,andhall.
EarlyModernEnglish,fromthe15thCenturytothe17thCenturyDuringthisperiod,Englishbecamemoreorganized
and began to resemble the modern version of English. Although the word order and sentence construction was still
slightlydifferent,EarlyModernEnglishwasatleastrecognizabletotheEarlyModernEnglishspeaker.Forexample,the
Old English "To us pleases sailing" became "We like sailing." Classical elements, from Greek and Latin, profoundly
influencedworkcreationandorigin.FromGreek,EarlyModernEnglishreceivedgrammar,logic,arithmetic,geometry,
astronomy,andmusic.Also,the"tele"prefixmeaning"far"laterusedtodeveloptelephoneandtelevisionwastaken.
ModernEnglish,fromthe17thCenturytoModernTimesModernEnglishdevelopedthroughtheeffortsofliteraryand
political writings, where literacy was uniformly found. Modern English was heavily influenced by classical usage, the
emergenceoftheuniversityeducatedclass,Shakespeare,thecommonlanguagefoundintheEastMidlandssectionof
presentdayEngland,andanorganizedefforttodocumentandstandardizeEnglish.Currentinflectionshaveremained
almostunchangedfor400years,butsoundsofvowelsandconsonantshavechangedgreatly.Asaresult,spellinghas
alsochangedconsiderably.Forexample,fromEarlyEnglishtoModernEnglish,lyfbecamelife,deelbecamedeal,hoom
becamehome,monebecamemoon,andhousbecamehouse.
AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofModernEnglishModernEnglishiscomposedofseverallanguages,withgrammar
rules, spelling, and wordusage both complimentingandcompeting for clarity. Thedisadvantages of ModernEnglish
include:analphabetwhichisunabletoadequatelyrepresentallneededsoundswithoutusingrepeatedorcombined
letters,alimitof23lettersofthe26inthealphabetwhichcaneffectivelyexpresstwicethenumberofsoundsactually
needed, and a system of spelling which is not based upon pronunciation but foreign language word origin and
countlesschangesthroughouthistory.TheadvantagesofModernEnglishinclude:singleconsonantswhichareclearly
understood and usually represent the same sounds in the same positions, the lack of accent marks found in other
languageswhichpermitsquickerwriting,andthepresentspellingdisplaysEuropeanlanguageoriginsandconnections
whichallowsEuropeanlanguagespeakerstobecomeimmediatelyawareofthousandsofwords.
Modern English Words British English, known as Standard English or Oxford English, underwent changes as the
colonization of North American and the creation of the United States occurred. British English words changed into
AmericanEnglishwords,suchascentretocenter,metretometer,theatretotheater,favourtofavor,honourtohonor,
labourtolabor,neighbourtoneighbor,chequetocheck,connexiontoconnection,gaoltojail,thestoreyofahouseto
story, and tyre for tire. Since 1900, words with consistent spelling but different meanings from British English to
AmericanEnglishinclude:toletfortorent,dualcarriagewayfordividedhighway,liftforelevator,amberforyellow,to
ringfortotelephone,zebracrossingforpedestriancrossing,andpavementforsidewalk.
AmericanEnglish,fromthe18thCenturyuntilModernTimesUntilthe18thCentury,BritishandAmericanEnglishwere
remarkablysimilarwithalmostnovariance.ImmigrationtoAmericabyotherEnglishpeopleschangedthelanguageby
1700. Noah Webster, author of the first authoritative American English dictionary, created many changes. The "re"
endings became "er" and the "our" endings became "or". Spelling by pronunciation and personal choice from
Websterwereinfluences.
Cough,Sought,Thorough,Thought,andThroughWhydothese"ough"wordshavethesamecentralspellingbutare
so different? This is a characteristic of English, which imported similarly spelled or defined words from different
languagesoverthepast1,000years.

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CoughFromtheMiddleHighGermankuchenmeaningtobreatheheavily,totheFrenchOldEnglishcohhian,tothe
MiddleEnglishcoughenisderivedthecurrentwordcough.
SoughtFromtheGreekhegeisthaimeaningtolead,totheLatinsagiremeaningtoperceivekeenly,totheOldHigh
Germansuohhenmeaningtoseek,totheFrenchOldEnglishsecan,totheMiddleEnglishsekken,isderivedthepast
tensesoughtofthepresenttenseoftheverbtoseek.
Thorough From the FrenchOldEnglish thurh andthuruh tothe Middle English thorow is derivedthecurrent word
thorough.
Thought From the Old English thencan, which is related to the FrenchOld English word hoht, which remained the
sameinMiddleEnglish,isderivedthecurrentwordthought.
Through From the Sanskrit word tarati, meaning he crossed over, came the Latin word, trans meaning across or
beyond.BeginningwithOldHighGermandurh,totheFrenchOldEnglishthurh,totheMiddleEnglishthurh,thruh,or
through,isderivedthecurrentwordthrough.

HistoryandStructureoftheEnglishLanguage
GeneralConsiderations
EnglishthelanguagewhichoriginatedinEnglandandisnowwidelyspokenonsixcontinents.Itistheprimarylanguage
oftheUnitedStates,theUnitedKingdom,Canada,Australia,Ireland,NewZealand,andvarioussmallislandnationsin
theCaribbeanSeaandthePacificOcean.ItisalsoanofficiallanguageofIndia,thePhilippines,andmanycountriesin
subSaharanAfrica,includingSouthAfrica.EnglishisamemberofthewesterngroupoftheGermaniclanguages(itself
part of the IndoEuropean language family) and is closely related to Frisian, German, and Netherlandic (Dutch and
Flemish).
Inthe16thcentury,EnglishwasthemothertongueofonlyafewmillionpeoplelivinginEngland,butowingtothat
nation'scolonizationofotherpartsoftheglobeandotherhistoricalfactors,Englishwasthenativelanguageofmore
than350millionpeoplebythelate20thcentury.Itisthusthemothertongueofmorepeoplethananyotherlanguage
exceptMandarinChinese.Englishisthemostwidelytaughtforeignlanguageandisalsothemostwidelyusedsecond
languagei.e., one that two people communicate in when they cannot understand each other's native speech. It
became the international language of scientific and technical discourse in the 20th century and was also widely
adoptedforuseinbusinessanddiplomacy.Intheentireworld,onepersoninsevenspeaksEnglishaseitheraprimary
orsecondarylanguage.
Englishisananalytic(i.e.,relativelyuninflected)language,whereasProtoIndoEuropean,theancestraltongueofmost
European,Iranian,andNorthIndianlanguages,issynthetic,orinflected.(Inflectionsarechangesintheformofwords
toindicatesuchdistinctionsastense,person,number,andgender.)Overthousandsofyears,Englishhaslostmostof
its inflections, while other European languages have retained more of theirs. Indeed, English is the only European
language in which adjectives have no distinctive endings, aside from determiners and endings denoting degrees of
comparison.
Another characteristic is flexibility of function. This means that one word can function as various parts of speech in
differentcontexts.Forexample,theword"book"canbeanadjectivein"bookreview,"anounin"readabook,"ora
verb in "book a room." Because other European languages retain more inflectional endings than does English, they
almost never have this characteristic. A third feature, openness of vocabulary, allows English to admit words freely
fromotherlanguagesandtocreatecompoundsandderivatives.
In England, British Received Pronunciation (RP) is the usual speech of educated people. In the United States, Inland
Northern(popularlyknownasGeneralAmerican)iscommonlyused.Inbothcountries,however,otherpronunciations
areacceptable.
British Received Pronunciation and American Inland Northern show several divergences: (1) After some vowels
Americanhasasemiconsonantalglide.(2)Thevowelin"cod,""box,"and"dock"ispronouncedlike"aw"inBritishand
asoundsimilarto"ah"inAmerican.(3)Thevowelin"but,""cut,"and"rung,"iscentralinAmericanbutisfrontedin
British.(4)ThevowelsintheAmerican"bath"and"bad"andintheBritish"bad"areallpronouncedthesame,butthe

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vowelintheBritish"bath"ispronouncedlike"ah,"sinceitisbeforeoneofthefricativess,f,orth(asin"thin").(5)
When a high back vowel is preceded by t, d, or n in British, a glide (consonantal y) is inserted between them (e.g.,
"tulip,""news");inAmericantheglideisomitted.
The 24 consonantal sounds comprise six stops (plosives): p, b, t, d, k, g; the fricatives f, v, th (as in "thin"), th (as in
"then"),s,z,sh(asin"ship"),zh(asin"azure"),andh;twoaffricatives,ch(asin"church")andj(asin"jam");thenasals
m,n,andng(asin"young");thelaterall;thevibrantorretroflexr;andthesemivowelsyandw.AmericanandBritish
consonantshavethesamepronunciationwithtwoexceptions:(1)Whenroccursafteravowel,itisdroppedinBritish
butpronouncedinAmerican.(2)Atbetweentwovowelsispronouncedliketin"top"inBritish,butinAmericanthe
soundisclosetothatofad.
Englishisastronglystressedlanguage,withfourdegreesofstress:primary,secondary,tertiary,andweak.Achangein
stresscanchangethemeaningofasentenceoraphrase.AlthoughincomparisonwithotherlanguagesEnglishstressis
less predictable, there is a tendency toward antepenultimate (third syllable from the last) primary stress. This is
apparent in such fivesyllable words as equanmity, longitdinal, and notorety. French stress is often sustained in
borrowedwords,e.g.,bizrre,critque,andhotl.
Pitch,ormusicaltone,maybefalling,rising,orfallingrising.Wordtone,whichisalsocalledpitch,caninfluencethe
meaningofaword.Sentencetoneiscalledintonationandisespeciallyimportantattheendofasentence.Thereare
three important endofsentence intonations: falling, rising, and fallingrising. The falling intonation is used in
completedstatements,commands,andsomequestionscallingfor"yes"or"no"answers.Risingintonationisusedin
statementsmadewithsomereservation,inpoliterequests,andincertainquestionsanswerableby"yes"or"no."The
third type of intonation, first falling and then rising pitch, is used in sentences that imply concessions or contrasts.
AmericanintonationislesssingsongandstaysinanarrowerrangethandoesBritish.
ThewordsoftheEnglishlanguagecanbedividedaccordingtotheirfunctionorformintoroughlyeightcategories,or
parts of speech: nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. Modern
Englishnouns,pronouns,andverbsareinflected,butadjectives,adverbs,prepositions,conjunctions,andinterjections
are not.MostEnglishnounshave theplural inflection(e)s, though some remain unchanged(e.g.,deer).Five of the
sevenpersonalpronounshaveseparateformsforsubjectandobject.Englishverbsarenotcomplex.Regularorweak
verbshaveonlyfourforms,strongverbshavefive,and"tobe"haseight.Someverbsendingintordhaveonlythree
forms.
Besides employing inflection, English exhibits two other main morphological (structural) processes affixation and
composition and two subsidiary ones backformationand blend. Affixes, word elements attached to a word,may
eitherprecedeasprefixes(pre,dis)orfollowassuffixes(able,er).Theycanbenative(over,ness),Greek(hyper),
orLatin(ment).Englishmakesvarieduseofaffixes;often,manydifferentoneshavethesamemeaning,orthesame
onehasmanymeanings.Suffixesareattachedmorecloselytothestemthanareprefixesandoftenremainpermanent.
Composition,orcompounding,describesputtingtwofreeformstogethertoformanewword.Thenewwordcandiffer
from the previous forms in phonology, stress, and juncture. Five types of compounds are defined by describing the
relationship of the free forms to each other: (1) a compound in which the first component noun is attributive and
modifiesthesecondnoun(e.g.,cloverleaf,beehive,vineyard);(2)onemadeupofanounplusanagentnoun,itself
consistingofaverbplusagentsuffix(e.g.,icebreaker,landowner,timekeeper);(3)averbplusanobject(e.g.,pastime,
scarecrow,daredevil);(4)anattributiveadjectiveplusanoun(e.g.,bluebell,grandson,shorthand);and(5)anounand
apresentparticiple(e.g.,factfinding,heartrending,lifegiving).
Backformation, the reverse of affixation, is the analogical formation of a new word falsely assumed to be its
derivation.Theverbs"toedit"and"toact"havebeenformedfromthenouns"editor"and"actor,"respectively.Blends
fall into two groups: (1) coalescences, such as "bash" from "bang" and "smash," and (2) telescoped forms, called
portmanteauwords,suchas"motorcade"from"motorcavalcade."
InEnglishsyntax,themaindeviceforindicatingtherelationshipbetweenwordsiswordorder.Inthesentence"Thegirl
loves the boy," the subject is in initial position, and the object follows the verb; transposing the order of "boy" and
"girl" would change the meaning. In contrast to this system, most other languages use inflections to indicate
grammaticalrelationships.Inpuerumpuellaamat,whichistheLatinequivalentof"Thegirllovestheboy,"thewords
canbegiveninanyorder(forexample,amatpuellapuerum)becausetheumendingontheformfor"boy"(puerum)
indicatestheobjectoftheverbregardlessofitspositioninthesentence.

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Englishsentencesgenerallystartwiththesubjectfirst,followedbytheverbandthenbytheobject.Adjectivesorother
singlewordsthatmodifynounsareplacedbeforethenoun,whilewholephrasesactingasmodifiersareusuallyplaced
afterthenoun.Adverbsarenormallymoremobilethanadjectives,andtheycanoccureitherbeforeoraftertheverb
theymodify.Astheiretymologyimplies,prepositionsusuallyprecedenouns,butthereareafewexceptions,e.g.,"the
wholeworldover."Becauseofthelaxityofsyntacticprinciples,Englishisaveryeasylanguagetospeakpoorly.
English has the largest vocabulary of any language in the world, chiefly because of its propensity for borrowing and
because the Norman Conquest of England in the 11th century introduced vast numbers of French words into the
language.ThevocabularyofModernEnglishisthusapproximatelyhalfGermanic(OldEnglishandScandinavian)and
halfRomanceorItalic(FrenchandLatin),withcopiousimportationsfromGreekinscienceandborrowingsfrommany
other languages. Almost all basic concepts and things come from Old English, or AngloSaxon, as do most personal
pronouns,allauxiliaryverbs,mostsimpleprepositions,allconjunctions,andalmostallnumbers.Manycommonnouns,
adjectives, and verbs are of Scandinavian origin, a fact due to the Scandinavian invasions of Britain. The English
languageowesagreatdebttoFrench,whichgaveitmanytermsrelatingtodressandfashion,cuisine,politics,law,
society, literature, and art. Comparison between French and English synonyms reveals the former to be more
intellectualandabstract,andthelattermorehumanandconcrete.ManyoftheGreekcompoundsandderivativesin
EnglishhaveLatinequivalentswitheithersimilarorconsiderablydifferentmeanings.
TheEnglishadoptedthe23letterLatinalphabet,towhichtheyaddedthelettersW,J,andV.Forthemostpart,English
spellingisbasedonthatofthe15thcentury.Pronunciation,however,haschangedgreatlysincethen.Duringthe17th
and18thcenturies,fixedspellingswereadopted,althoughtherehavebeenafewchangessincethattime.Numerous
attemptshavebeenmadetoreformEnglishspelling,mostofthemunsuccessful.
The history of the English language begins with the migration of the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons from Germany and
DenmarktoBritaininthe5thand6thcenturies.TheirAngloSaxonlanguageisknownasOldEnglish.Theformationof
separate kingdoms in Britain to some extent coincided with the development of the Old English dialects of
Northumbrian, Mercian, West Saxon, and Kentish. Northumbrian was in a position of cultural superiority until the
destructiveVikingraidsofthe9thcenturycausedculturalleadershiptopasstotheWestSaxonkingdomofWessex.
TheNormanConquestof1066setinmotionthetransitiontoMiddleEnglish.ForthefirstcenturyaftertheConquest,a
vastnumberofloanwordsenteredtheEnglishlanguagefromthedialectsofnorthernFrance.TheConquestalsoserved
toplaceallfourOldEnglishdialectsonthesameculturallevelandtoallowthemtodevelopindependently.SoWest
Saxonlostitssupremacy,andthecentreofculturegraduallyshiftedtoLondon.DuringthisMiddleEnglishperiodthe
NorthumbriandialectsplitintoScottishandNorthern,andMercianbecameEastandWestMidland.Anotheroutcome
of the Norman Conquest was the adoption of the Carolingian script, then in use on the European continent, and
changesinspelling.
The transition from Middle to Modern English started at the beginning of the 15th century. This century witnessed
threeimportantdevelopments:theriseofLondonEnglish,theinventionofprinting,andthespreadofnewlearning.
TheRenaissanceinEnglandproducedmanymorescholarswhowereknowledgeableinforeignlanguages,especially
GreekandClassicalLatin.Theirliberalattitudetowardlanguagemadepossibletheintroductionofagreatnumberof
words into English. Scholars generally date the beginning of the Modern English period at 1500. The language was
subsequently standardized through the work of grammarians and the publication of dictionaries, and its vocabulary
underwentanothervastexpansioninthe19thand20thcenturiestoaccommodatedevelopmentsinthesciencesand
technology.

OriginsandBasicCharacteristics
EnglishisaWestGermaniclanguageoftheIndoEuropeanlanguagefamilythatiscloselyrelatedtoFrisian,German,
andNetherlandiclanguages.EnglishoriginatedinEnglandandisnowwidelyspokenonsixcontinents.Itistheprimary
languageoftheUnitedStates,theUnitedKingdom,Canada,Australia,Ireland,NewZealand,andvarioussmallisland
nationsintheCaribbeanSeaandthePacificOcean.ItisalsoanofficiallanguageofIndia,thePhilippines,andmany
countriesinsubSaharanAfrica,includingSouthAfrica.
EnglishbelongstotheIndoEuropeanfamilyoflanguagesandisthereforerelatedtomostotherlanguagesspokenin
Europe and western Asia from Iceland to India. The parent tongue, called ProtoIndoEuropean, was spoken about
5,000yearsagobynomadsbelievedtohaveroamedthesoutheastEuropeanplains.Germanic,oneofthelanguage
groups descended from this ancestral speech, is usually divided by scholars into three regional groups: East
(Burgundian, Vandal, and Gothic, all extinct), North (Icelandic, Faeroese, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish), and West

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(German, Netherlandic [Dutch and Flemish], Frisian, English). Though closely related to English, German remains far
more conservative than English in its retention of a fairly elaborate system of inflections. Frisian, spoken by the
inhabitants of the Dutch province of Friesland and the islands off the west coast of Schleswig, is the language most
nearlyrelatedtoModernEnglish.Icelandic,whichhaschangedlittleoverthelastthousandyears,isthelivinglanguage
mostnearlyresemblingOldEnglishingrammaticalstructure.
ModernEnglishisanalytic(i.e.,relativelyuninflected),whereasProtoIndoEuropean,theancestraltongueofmostof
themodernEuropeanlanguages(e.g.,German,French,Russian,Greek),wassynthetic,orinflected.Duringthecourse
ofthousandsofyears,EnglishwordshavebeenslowlysimplifiedfromtheinflectedvariableformsfoundinSanskrit,
Greek,Latin,Russian,andGerman,towardinvariableforms,asinChineseandVietnamese.TheGermanandChinese
wordsfor"man"areexemplary.Germanhasfiveforms:Mann,Mannes,Manne,Mnner,Mnnern.Chinesehasone
form:jen.Englishstandsinbetween,withfourforms:man,man's,men,men's.InEnglishonlynouns,pronouns,and
verbs are inflected. Adjectives have no inflections aside from the determiners "this, these" and "that, those." (The
endingser,est,denotingdegreesofcomparison,arebetterregardedasnoninflectionalsuffixes.)Englishistheonly
European language to employ uninflected adjectives; e.g., "the tall man," "the tall woman," compared to Spanish el
hombrealtoandlamujeralta.Asforverbs,iftheModernEnglishwordrideiscomparedwiththecorrespondingwords
in Old English and Modern German, it will be found that English now has only five forms (ride, rides, rode, riding,
ridden),whereasOldEnglishridanhad13,andModernGermanreitenhas16forms.Inadditiontothissimplicityof
inflections,Englishhastwootherbasiccharacteristics:flexibilityoffunctionandopennessofvocabulary.
Flexibilityoffunctionhasgrownoverthelastfivecenturiesasaconsequenceofthelossofinflections.Wordsformerly
distinguishedas nouns or verbs bydifferences in their forms are nowoftenused asboth nouns and verbs.One can
speak,forexample,of"planningatable"or"tablingaplan,""bookingaplace"or"placingabook,""liftingathumb"or
"thumbingalift."IntheotherIndoEuropeanlanguages,apartfromrareexceptionsinScandinavian,nounsandverbs
are never identical because of the necessity of separate noun and verb endings. In English, forms for traditional
pronouns,adjectives,andadverbscanalsofunctionasnouns;adjectivesandadverbsasverbs;andnouns,pronouns,
andadverbsasadjectives.OnespeaksinEnglishoftheFrankfurtBookFair,butinGermanonemustaddthesuffixer
totheplacenameandputattributiveandnountogetherasacompound,FrankfurterBuchmesse.InFrenchonehasno
choicebuttoconstructaphraseinvolvingtheuseoftwoprepositions:FoireduLivredeFrancfort.InEnglishitisnow
possibletoemployapluralnounasadjunct(modifier),asin"wagesboard"and"sportseditor";orevenaconjunctional
group,asin"pricesandincomespolicy"and"parksandgardenscommittee."
Openness of vocabulary implies both free admission of words from other languages and the ready creation of
compoundsandderivatives.Englishadopts(withoutchange)oradapts(withslightchange)anywordreallyneededto
namesomenewobjectortodenotesomenewprocess.LikeFrench,Spanish,andRussian,Englishfrequentlyforms
scientifictermsfromClassicalGreekwordelements.Englishpossessesasystemoforthographythatdoesnotalways
accuratelyreflectthepronunciationofwords;thisisdiscussedbelowinthesectionOrthography.

CharacteristicsofModernEnglish

Phonology
British Received Pronunciation (RP), by definition, the usual speech of educated people living in London and
southeasternEngland,isoneofthemanyformsofstandardspeech.Otherpronunciations,althoughnotstandard,are
entirelyacceptableintheirownrightonconversationallevels.
The chief differences between British Received Pronunciation, as defined above, and a variety of American English,
suchasInlandNorthern(thespeechformofwesternNewEnglandanditsderivatives,oftenpopularlyreferredtoas
General American), are in the pronunciation of certain individual vowels and diphthongs. Inland Northern American
vowelssometimeshavesemiconsonantalfinalglides(i.e.,soundsresemblinginitialw,forexample,orinitialy).Aside
fromthefinalglides,thisAmericandialectshowsfourdivergencesfromBritishEnglish:(1)thewordscod,box,dock,
hot,andnotarepronouncedwithashort(orhalflong)lowfrontsoundasinBritish"bard"shortened(thetermsfront,
back,low,andhighrefertothepositionofthetongue);(2)wordssuchasbud,but,cut,andrungarepronouncedwith
acentralvowelasintheunstressedfinalsyllableof"sofa";(3)beforethefricativesoundss,f,and (thelastoftheseis
thethsoundin"thin")thelonglowbackvowela,asinBritish"bath,"ispronouncedasashortfrontvowela,asin
British"bad";(4)highbackvowelsfollowingthealveolarsoundstanddandthenasalsoundninwordssuchastulips,
dew,andnewsarepronouncedwithoutaglideasinBritishEnglish;indeed,thewordssoundliketheBritish"twolips,"
"do,"and"nooze"in"snooze."(InseveralAmericandialects,however,theseglidesdooccur).

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The 24 consonant sounds comprise six stops (plosives): p, b, t, d, k, g; the fricatives f, v, (as in "thin"), [eth] (as in
"then"),s,z, (asin"ship"), (asin"pleasure"),andh;twoaffricatives:t (asin"church")andd (asthejin"jam");the
nasalsm,n, (thesoundthatoccursattheendofwordssuchas"young");thelaterall;thevibrantorretroflexr;and
thesemivowelsj(oftenspelledy)andw.Theseremainfairlystable,butInlandNorthernAmericandiffersfromBritish
Englishintworespects:(1)rfollowingvowelsispreservedinwordssuchas"door,""flower,"and"harmony,"whereas
itislostinBritish;(2)tbetweenvowelsisvoiced,sothat"metal"and"matter"soundverymuchlikeBritish"medal"
and"madder,"althoughthepronunciationofthistissofterandlessaspirated,orbreathy,thanthedofBritishEnglish.
LikeRussian,Englishisastronglystressedlanguage.Fourdegreesofstressmaybedifferentiated:primary,secondary,
tertiary,andweak,whichmaybeindicated,respectively,byacute( ),circumflex(),andgrave()accentmarksandby
thebreve( ).Thus,"Tllmthetrth"(thewholetruth,andnothingbutthetruth)maybecontrastedwith"Tllm
the trth" (whatever you may tell other people); "blck brd" (any bird black in colour) may be contrasted with
"blckbrd"(thatparticularbirdTurdusmerula).Theverbs"permt"and"recrd"(henceforthonlyprimarystressesare
marked)maybecontrastedwiththeircorrespondingnouns"prmit"and"rcord."Afeelingforantepenultimate(third
syllable from the end) primary stress, revealed in such fivesyllable words as equanmity, longitdinal, notorety,
opportnity, parsimnious, pertincity, and vegetrian, causes stress to shift when extra syllables are added, as in
"histrical,"aderivativeof"hstory"and"theatriclity,"aderivativeof"thetrical."Vowelqualitiesarealsochanged
here and in such word groups as priod, peridical, periodcity; phtograph, photgraphy, photogrphical. French
stressmaybesustainedinmanyborrowedwords;e.g.,bizrre,critque,durss,hotl,prestge,andtechnque.
Pitch,ormusicaltone,determinedbytherateofvibrationofthevocalcords,maybelevel,falling,rising,orfalling
rising.Incounting"one,""two,""three,""four,"onenaturallygiveslevelpitchtoeachofthesecardinalnumerals.Butif
a person says "I want two, not one," he naturally gives "two" falling pitch and "one" fallingrising. In the question
"One?" rising pitch is used. Word tone is called pitch, and sentence tone is referred to as intonation. The endof
sentencecadenceisimportantformeaning,anditthereforevariesleast.Threemainendofsentenceintonationscan
bedistinguished:falling,rising,andfallingrising.Fallingintonationisusedincompletedstatements,directcommands,
andsometimesingeneralquestionsunanswerableby"yes"or"no";e.g.,"Ihavenothingtoadd.""Keeptotheright."
"Whotoldyouthat?"Risingintonationisfrequentlyusedinopenendedstatementsmadewithsomereservation,in
politerequests,andinparticularquestionsanswerableby"yes"or"no":"Ihavenothingmoretosayatthemoment."
"Let me know how you get on." "Are you sure?" The third type of endofsentence intonation, first falling and then
risingpitch,isusedinsentencesthatimplyconcessionsorcontrasts:"Somepeopledolikethem"(butothersdonot).
"Don't say I didn't warn you" (because that is just what I'm now doing). Intonation is on the whole less singsong in
AmericanthaninBritishEnglish,andthereisanarrowerrangeofpitch.Americanspeechmayseemmoremonotonous
butatthesametimemaysometimesbeclearerandmorereadilyintelligible.EverywhereEnglishisspoken,regional
dialectsdisplaydistinctivepatternsofintonation.

HistoricalBackground
AmonghighlightsinthehistoryoftheEnglishlanguage,thefollowingstandoutmostclearly:thesettlementinBritain
of Jutes, Saxons, and Angles in the 5th and 6th centuries; the arrival of St. Augustine in 597 and the subsequent
conversionofEnglandtoLatinChristianity;theVikinginvasionsofthe9thcentury;theNormanConquestof1066;the
StatuteofPleadingin1362(thisrequiredthatcourtproceedingsbeconductedinEnglish);thesettingupofCaxton's
printingpressatWestminsterin1476;thefullfloweringoftheRenaissanceinthe16thcentury;thepublishingofthe
King James Bible in 1611; the completion of Johnson's Dictionary of 1755; and the expansion to North America and
SouthAfricainthe17thcenturyandtoIndia,Australia,andNewZealandinthe18th.

Vocabulary
The vocabulary of Modern English is approximately half Germanic (Old English and Scandinavian) and half Italic or
Romance(FrenchandLatin),withcopiousandincreasingimportationsfromGreekinscienceandtechnologyandwith
considerableborrowingsfromDutch,LowGerman,Italian,Spanish,German,Arabic,andmanyotherlanguages.Names
ofbasicconceptsandthingscomefromOldEnglishorAngloSaxon:heavenandearth,loveandhate,lifeanddeath,
beginning and end, day and night, month and year, heat and cold, way and path, meadow and stream. Cardinal
numeralscomefromOldEnglish,asdoalltheordinalnumeralsexcept"second"(OldEnglishother,whichstillretains
its older meaning in "every other day"). "Second" comes from Latin secundus "following," through French second,
relatedtoLatinsequi"tofollow,"asinEnglish"sequence."FromOldEnglishcomeallthepersonalpronouns(except
"they," "their," and "them," which are from Scandinavian), the auxiliary verbs (except the marginal "used," which is
fromFrench),mostsimpleprepositions,andallconjunctions.

35

NumerousnounswouldbeidenticalwhethertheycamefromOldEnglishorScandinavian:father,mother,brother(but
not sister); man, wife; ground, land, tree, grass; summer, winter; cliff, dale. Many verbs would also be identical,
especially monosyllabic verbsbring, come, get, hear, meet, see, set, sit, spin, stand, think. The same is true of the
adjectivesfullandwise;thecolournamesgray,green,andwhite;thedisjunctivepossessivesmineandthine(butnot
oursandyours);thetermsnorthandwest(butnotsouthandeast);andtheprepositionsoverandunder.Justafew
EnglishandScandinaviandoubletscoexistincurrentspeech:noandnay,yeaanday,fromandfro,rear(i.e.,tobring
up) and raise, shirt and skirt (both related to the adjective short), less and loose. From Scandinavian, "law" was
borrowed early, whence "bylaw," meaning "village law," and "outlaw," meaning "man outside the law." "Husband"
(husbondi)meant"householder,"whethersingleormarried,whereas"fellow"(felagi)meantonewho"laysfee"or
sharespropertywithanother,andso"partner,shareholder."FromScandinaviancomethecommonnounsaxle(tree),
band,birth,bloom,crook,dirt,egg,gait,gap,girth,knife,loan,race,rift,root,score,seat,skill,sky,snare,thrift,and
window; the adjectives awkward, flat, happy, ill, loose, rotten, rugged, sly, tight, ugly, weak, and wrong; and many
verbs,includingcall,cast,clasp,clip,crave,die,droop,drown,flit,gape,gasp,glitter,life,rake,rid,scare,scowl,skulk,
snub,sprint,thrive,thrust,andwant.
The debt of the English language to French is large. The terms president, representative, legislature, congress,
constitution,andparliamentareallFrench.So,too,areduke,marquis,viscount,andbaron;butking,queen,lord,lady,
earl,andknightareEnglish.City,village,court,palace,manor,mansion,residence,anddomicileareFrench;buttown,
borough,hall,house,bower,room,andhomeareEnglish.ComparisonbetweenEnglishandFrenchsynonymsshows
thattheformeraremorehumanandconcrete,thelattermoreintellectualandabstract;e.g.,thetermsfreedomand
liberty,friendshipandamity,hatredandenmity,loveandaffection,likelihoodandprobability,truthandveracity,lying
and mendacity. The superiority of French cooking is duly recognized by the adoption of such culinary terms as boil,
broil,fry,grill,roast,souse,andtoast."Breakfast"isEnglish,but"dinner"and"supper"areFrench."Hunt"isEnglish,
but"chase,""quarry,""scent,"and"track"areFrench.CraftsmenbearnamesofEnglishorigin:baker,builder,fisher
(man),hedger,miller,shepherd,shoemaker,wainwright,andweaver,orwebber.Namesofskilledartisans,however,
areFrench:carpenter,draper,haberdasher,joiner,mason,painter,plumber,andtailor.Manytermsrelatingtodress
andfashion,cuisineandviniculture,politicsanddiplomacy,dramaandliterature,artandballetcomefromFrench.
InthespheresofscienceandtechnologymanytermscomefromClassicalGreekthroughFrenchordirectlyfromGreek.
PioneersinresearchanddevelopmentnowregardGreekasakindofinexhaustiblequarryfromwhichtheycandraw
linguisticmaterialatwill.ByprefixingtheGreekadverbtele"faraway,distant"totheexistingcompoundphotography,
"light writing," they create the precise term "telephotography" to denote the photographing of distant objects by
means of a special lens. By inserting the prefix micro "small" into this same compound, they make the new term
"photomicrography," denoting the electronic photographing of bacteria and viruses. Such neoHellenic derivatives
would probably have been unintelligible to Plato and Aristotle. Many Greek compounds and derivatives have Latin
equivalentswithslightorconsiderabledifferentiationsinmeaning.
At first sight it might appear that some of these equivalents, such as "metamorphosis" and "transformation," are
sufficientlysynonymoustomakeoneortheotherredundant.Infact,however,"metamorphosis"ismoretechnicaland
therefore more restricted than "transformation." In mythology it signifies a magical shape changing; in nature it
denotesapostembryonicdevelopmentsuchasthatofatadpoleintoafrog,acocoonintoasilkworm,orachrysalis
intoabutterfly.Transformation,ontheotherhand,meansanykindofchangefromonestatetoanother.
Ever since the 12th century, when merchants from the Netherlands made homes in East Anglia, Dutch words have
infiltratedintoMidlandspeech.ForcenturiesaformofLowGermanwasusedbyseafaringmeninNorthSeaports.Old
nauticaltermsstillinuseincludebuoy,deck,dock,freebooter,hoist,leak,pump,skipper,andyacht.TheDutchinNew
Amsterdam (later New York) and adjacent settlements gave the words boss, cookie, dope, snoop, and waffle to
Americanspeech.TheDutchinCapeProvincegavethetermsapartheid,commandeer,commando,spoor,andtrekto
SouthAfricanspeech.
ThecontributionofHighGermanhasbeenonadifferentlevel.Inthe18thand19thcenturiesitlayintechnicalitiesof
geologyandmineralogyandinabstractionsrelatingtoliterature,philosophy,andpsychology.Inthe20thcenturythis
contributionhassometimesbeenindirect."Unclear"and"meaningful"echoedGermanunklarandbedeutungsvoll,or
sinnvoll."Ringroad"(aBritishtermappliedtoroadsencirclingcitiesorpartsofcities)translatedRingstrasse;"round
trip," Rundfahrt; and "the turn of the century," die Jahrhundertwende. The terms "classless society," "inferiority
complex," and "wishful thinking" echoed die klassenlse Gesellschaft, der Minderwertigkeitskomplex, and das
Wunschdenken.
AlongwiththerestoftheWesternworld,EnglishhasacceptedItalianasthelanguageofmusic.Thenamesofvoices,
parts, performers, instruments, forms of composition, and technical directions are all Italian. Many of the latter

36

allegro,andante,cantabile,crescendo,diminuendo,legato,maestoso,obbligato,pizzicato,staccato,andvibratoare
also used metaphorically. In architecture, the terms belvedere, corridor, cupola, grotto, pedestal, pergola, piazza,
pilaster,androtundaareaccepted;inliterature,burlesque,canto,extravaganza,stanza,andmanymoreareused.
FromSpanish,Englishhasacquiredthewordsarmada,cannibal,cigar,galleon,guerrilla,matador,mosquito,quadroon,
tornado,andvanilla,someoftheseloanwordsgoingbacktothe16thcentury,whenseadogsencounteredhidalgoson
the high seas. Many names of animals and plants have entered English from indigenous languages through Spanish:
"potato"throughSpanishpatatafromTainobatata,and"tomato"throughSpanishtomatefromNahuatltomatl.Other
words have entered from Latin America by way of Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California; e.g., such words as
canyon,cigar,estancia,lasso,mustang,pueblo,androdeo.Somehavegatherednewconnotations:bonanza,originally
denoting "goodness," came through miners' slang to mean "spectacular windfall, prosperity"; maana, "tomorrow,"
acquiredanundertoneofmysteriousunpredictability.
From Arabic through European Spanish, through French from Spanish, through Latin, or occasionally through Greek,
English has obtained the terms alchemy, alcohol, alembic, algebra, alkali, almanac, arsenal, assassin, attar, azimuth,
cipher, elixir, mosque, nadir, naphtha, sugar, syrup, zenith, and zero. From Egyptian Arabic, English has recently
borrowedthetermloofah(alsospelledluffa).FromHebrew,directlyorbywayofVulgateLatin,comethetermsamen,
cherub,hallelujah,manna,messiah,pharisee,rabbi,sabbath,andseraph;jubilee,leviathan,andshibboleth;and,more
recently,kosher,andkibbutz.
English has freely adopted and adapted words from many other languages, acquiring them sometimes directly and
sometimes by devious routes. Each word has its own history. The following lists indicate the origins of a number of
English words: Welshflannel, coracle, cromlech, penguin, eisteddfod; Cornishgull, brill, dolmen; Gaelic and Irish
shamrock, brogue, leprechaun, ogham, Tory, galore, blarney, hooligan, clan, claymore, bog, plaid, slogan, sporran,
cairn,whisky,pibroch;Bretonmenhir;Norwegianski,ombudsman;Finnishsauna;Russiankvass,ruble,tsar,verst,
mammoth, ukase, astrakhan, vodka, samovar, tundra (from Sami), troika, pogrom, duma, soviet, bolshevik,
intelligentsia(fromLatinthroughPolish),borscht,balalaika,sputnik,soyuz,salyut,lunokhod;Polishmazurka;Czech
robot;Hungariangoulash,paprika;Portuguesemarmalade,flamingo,molasses,veranda,port(wine),dodo;Basque
bizarre; Turkishjanissary, turban, coffee, kiosk, caviar, pasha, odalisque, fez, bosh; Hindinabob, guru, sahib,
maharajah,mahatma,pundit,punch(drink),juggernaut,cushy,jungle,thug,cheetah,shampoo,chit,dungaree,pucka,
gymkhana, mantra, loot, pajamas, dinghy, polo; Persianparadise, divan, purdah, lilac, bazaar, shah, caravan, chess,
salamander, taffeta, shawl, khaki; Tamilpariah, curry, catamaran, mulligatawny; Chinesetea (Amoy), sampan;
Japaneseshogun, kimono, mikado, tycoon, harakiri, gobang, judo, jujitsu, bushido, samurai, banzai, tsunami,
satsuma, No (the dance drama), karate, Kabuki; Malayketchup, sago, bamboo, junk, amuck, orangutan, compound
(fenced area), raffia; Polynesiantaboo, tattoo; Hawaiianukulele; African languageschimpanzee, goober, mumbo
jumbo, voodoo; Inuitkayak, igloo, anorak; Yupikmukluk; Algonquiantotem; Nahuatlmescal; languages of the
Caribbeanhammock, hurricane, tobacco, maize, iguana; Aboriginal Australiankangaroo, corroboree, wallaby,
wombat,boomerang,paramatta,budgerigar.

OldEnglish
TheJutes,Angles,andSaxonslivedinJutland,Schleswig,andHolstein,respectively,beforesettlinginBritain.According
totheVenerableBede,thefirsthistorianoftheEnglishpeople,thefirstJutes,HengistandHorsa,landedatEbbsfleetin
theIsleofThanetin449;andtheJuteslatersettledinKent,southernHampshire,andtheIsleofWight.TheSaxons
occupiedtherestofEnglandsouthoftheThames,aswellasmodernMiddlesexandEssex.TheAngleseventuallytook
theremainderofEnglandasfarnorthastheFirthofForth,includingthefutureEdinburghandtheScottishLowlands.In
bothLatinandCommonGermanictheAngles'namewasAngli,latermutatedinOldEnglishtoEngle(nominative)and
Engla(genitive)."Englaland"designatedthehomeofallthreetribescollectively,andbothKingAlfred(knownasAlfred
theGreat)andAbbotAelfric,authorandgrammarian,subsequentlyreferredtotheirspeechasEnglisc.Nevertheless,
alltheevidenceindicatesthatJutes,Angles,andSaxonsretainedtheirdistinctivedialects.
TheRiverHumberwasanimportantboundary,andtheAnglianspeakingregiondevelopedtwospeechgroups:tothe
north of the river, Northumbrian, and, to the south, Southumbrian, or Mercian. There were thus four dialects:
Northumbrian, Mercian, West Saxon, andKentish (see Figure 13). In the 8th century,Northumbrian led in literature
and culture, but that leadership was destroyed by the Viking invaders, who sacked Lindisfarne, an island near the
Northumbrianmainland,in793.Theylandedinstrengthin865.ThefirstraiderswereDanes,buttheywerelaterjoined
by Norwegians from Ireland and the Western Isles who settled in modern Cumberland, Westmorland, northwest
Yorkshire,Lancashire,northCheshire,andtheIsleofMan.Inthe9thcentury,asaresultoftheNorwegianinvasions,
culturalleadershippassedfromNorthumbriatoWessex.DuringKingAlfred'sreign,inthelastthreedecadesofthe9th

37

century,Winchesterbecamethechiefcentreoflearning.TheretheParkerChronicle(amanuscriptoftheAngloSaxon
Chronicle)waswritten;theretheLatinworksofthepriestandhistorianPaulusOrosius,St.Augustine,St.Gregory,and
theVenerableBedeweretranslated;andtherethenativepoetryofNorthumbriaandMerciawastranscribedintothe
WestSaxondialect.ThisresultedinWestSaxon'sbecoming"standardOldEnglish";andlater,whenAelfric(c.955c.
1010) wrote his lucid and mature prose at Winchester, Cerne Abbas, and Eynsham, the hegemony of Wessex was
strengthened.
InstandardOldEnglish,adjectiveswereinflectedaswellasnouns,pronouns,andverbs.Nounswereinflectedforfour
cases (nominative, genitive, dative, and accusative) in singular and plural. Five nouns of first kinshipfaeder, modor,
brothor,sweostor,anddohtor("father,""mother,""brother,""sister,"and"daughter,"respectively)hadtheirownset
ofinflections.Therewere25nounssuchasmon,men("man,""men")withmutated,orumlauted,stems.Adjectives
hadstrongandweakdeclensions,thestrongshowingamixtureofnounandpronounendingsandtheweakfollowing
the patternof weak nouns.Personal, possessive, demonstrative, interrogative, indefinite, and relative pronounshad
fullinflections.Thepronounsofthe1stand2ndpersonsstillhaddistinctivedualforms:
Thereweretwodemonstratives:se,seo,thaet,meaning"that,"andthes,theos,this,meaning"this,"butnoarticles,
the definite article being expressed by use of the demonstrative for "that" or not expressed at all. Thus, "the good
man"wassegodamonorplaingodmon.Thefunctionoftheindefinitearticlewasperformedbythenumeralan"one"
inanmon"aman,"bytheadjectivepronounsuminsummon"a(certain)man,"ornotexpressed,asinthueartgod
mon"youareagoodman."
Verbs had two tenses only (presentfuture and past), three moods (indicative, subjunctive, and imperative), two
numbers(singular and plural), andthreepersons (1st,2nd, and 3rd).There were two classes of verb stems. (A verb
stem is that part of a verb to which inflectional changeschanges indicating tense, mood, number, etc.are added.)
Onetypeofverbstem,calledvocalicbecauseaninternalvowelshowsvariations,isexemplifiedbytheverbfor"sing":
singan,singth,sang,sungon,gesungen.Thewordfor"deem"isanexampleoftheother,calledconsonantal:deman,
demth,demde,demdon,gedemed.Suchverbsarecalledstrongandweak,respectively.
Allnewverbs,whetherderivedfromexistingverbsorfromnouns,belongedtotheconsonantaltype.Someverbsof
greatfrequency(antecedentsofthemodernwords"be,""shall,""will,""do,""go,""can,""may,"andsoon)hadtheir
ownpeculiarpatternsofinflections.
GrammaticalgenderpersistedthroughouttheOldEnglishperiod.JustasGermansnowsayderFuss,dieHand,anddas
Auge(masculine,feminine,andneutertermsfor"thefoot,""thehand,"and"theeye"),so,forthesesamestructures,
Aelfric said se fot, seo hond, and thaet eage, also masculine, feminine, and neuter. The three words for "woman,"
wifmon, cwene, and wif, were masculine, feminine, and neuter, respectively. Hors "horse," sceap "sheep," and
maegden "maiden" were all neuter. Eorthe "earth" was feminine, but lond "land" was neuter. Sunne "sun" was
feminine,butmona"moon"wasmasculine.Thissimplificationofgrammaticalgenderresultedfromthefactthatthe
gender of Old English substantives was not always indicated by the ending but rather by the terminations of the
adjectivesanddemonstrativepronounsusedwiththesubstantives.Whentheseendingswerelost,alloutwardmarks
of gender disappeared with them. Thus, the weakening of inflections and loss of gender occurred together. In the
North,whereinflectionsweakenedearlier,themarksofgenderlikewisedisappearedfirst.TheysurvivedintheSouth
aslateasthe14thcentury.
Because of the greater use of inflections in Old English, word order was freer than today. The sequence of subject,
verb, and complement was normal, but when there were outer and inner complements the second was put in the
dativecaseafterto:SebiscophalgodeEadredtocyninge"ThebishopconsecreatedEdredking."Afteranintroductory
adverboradverbialphrasetheverbgenerallytooksecondplaceasinmodernGerman:Nubyddeicanthing"NowIask
[literally, "ask I"] one thing"; Th ilcan geare gesette Aelfred cyning Lundenburg "In that same year Alfred the king
occupiedLondon."Impersonalverbshadnosubjectexpressed.Infinitivesconstructedwithauxiliaryverbswereplaced
at the ends of clauses or sentences: Hie ne dorston forth bi thre ea siglan "They dared not sail beyond that river"
(siglan is the infinitive); Ic wolde thas lytlan boc awendan "I wanted to translate this little book" (awendan is the
infinitive).Theverbusuallycamelastinadependentclausee.g.,awritanwileingifhwathasbocawritanwile(gerihte
hehiebethrebysene)"Ifanyonewantstocopythisbook(lethimcorrecthiscopybytheoriginal)."Prepositions(or
postpositions)frequentlyfollowedtheirobjects.Negationwasoftenrepeatedforemphasis.

MiddleEnglish

38

One result of the Norman Conquest of 1066 was to place all four Old English dialects more or less on a level. West
SaxonlostitssupremacyandthecentreofcultureandlearninggraduallyshiftedfromWinchestertoLondon.Theold
NorthumbriandialectbecamedividedintoScottishandNorthern,althoughlittleisknownofeitherofthesedivisions
before the end of the13thcentury(Figure 14). The old Mercian dialect was split into East andWest Midland.West
SaxonbecameslightlydiminishedinareaandwasmoreappropriatelynamedtheSouthWesterndialect.TheKentish
dialectwasconsiderablyextendedandwascalledSouthEasternaccordingly.AllfiveMiddleEnglishdialects(Northern,
West Midland, East Midland, South Western, and South Eastern) went their own ways and developed their own
characteristics.ThesocalledKatherineGroupofwritings(11801210),associatedwithHereford,atownnotfarfrom
theWelshborder,adheredmostcloselytonativetraditions,andthereissomethingtobesaidforregardingthisWest
Midlanddialect,leastdisturbedbyFrenchandScandinavianintrusions,asakindofStandardEnglishintheHighMiddle
Ages.
Another outcome of the Norman Conquest was to change the writing of English from the clear and easily readable
insular hand of Irish origin to the delicate Carolingian script then in use on the Continent. With the change in
appearancecameachangeinspelling.NormanscribeswroteOldEnglishyasu,asui,uasou(owwhenfinal).Thus,
mycel("much")appearedasmuchel,fr("fire")asfuir,hus("house")ashous,andhu("how")ashow.Forthesakeof
clarity(i.e.,legibility)uwasoftenwrittenobeforeandafterm,n,u,v,andw;andiwassometimeswrittenybefore
andaftermandn.Sosunu("son")appearedassoneandhim("him")ashym.OldEnglishcwwaschangedtoqu;hwto
wh,qu,orquh;ctochortch;sctosh;cgtogg;andhttoght.SoOldEnglishcwenappearedasqueen;hwaetas
what,quat,orquhat;dicasditch;scipasship;secgeassegge;andmihtasmight.
For the first century after the Conquest, most loanwords came from Normandy and Picardy, but with the extension
southtothePyreneesoftheAngevinempireofHenryII(reigned115489),otherdialects,especiallyCentralFrench,or
Francien,contributedtothespeechofthearistocracy.Asaresult,ModernEnglishacquiredtheformscanal,catch,leal,
real, reward, wage, warden, and warrant from Norman French side by side with the corresponding forms channel,
chase,loyal,royal,regard,gage,guardian,andguarantee,fromFrancien.KingJohnlostNormandyin1204.Withthe
increasingpoweroftheCapetiankingsofParis,Franciengraduallypredominated.Meanwhile,Latinstoodintactasthe
language of learning. For three centuries, therefore, the literature of England was trilingual. Ancrene Riwle, for
instance, a guide or rule (riwle) of rare quality for recluses or anchorites (ancren), was disseminated in all three
languages.
Thesoundsofthenativespeechchangedslowly.EveninlateOldEnglishshortvowelshadbeenlengthenedbeforeld,
rd,mb,andnd,andlongvowelshadbeenshortenedbeforeallotherconsonantgroupsandbeforedoubleconsonants.
In early Middle English short vowels of whatever origin were lengthened in the open stressed syllables of disyllabic
words.Anopensyllableisoneendinginavowel.BothsyllablesinOldEnglishnama"name,"mete"meat,food,"nosu
"nose," wicu "week," and duru "door" were short, and the first syllables, being stressed, were lengthened to name,
mete, nose, weke, and dore in the 13th and 14th centuries. A similar change occurred in 4thcentury Latin, in 13th
centuryGerman,andatdifferenttimesinotherlanguages.ThepopularnotionhasarisenthatfinalmuteeinEnglish
makesaprecedingvowellong;infact,itisthelengtheningofthevowelthathascausedetobelostinpronunciation.
Ontheotherhand,OldEnglishlongvowelswereshortenedinthefirstsyllablesoftrisyllabicwords,evenwhenthose
syllables were open; e.g., haligdaeg "holy day," rende "message, errand," cristendom "Christianity," and sutherne
"southern," became holiday (Northern haliday), errende, christendom, and sutherne. This principle still operates in
current English. Compare, for example, trisyllabic derivatives such as the words chastity, criminal, fabulous, gradual,
gravity,linear,national,ominous,sanity,andtabulatewiththesimplenounsandadjectiveschaste,crime,fable,grade,
grave,line,nation,omen,sane,andtable.
There were significant variations in verb inflections in the Northern, Midland, and Southern dialects. The Northern
infinitivewasalreadyonesyllable(singratherthantheOldEnglishsingan),whereasthepastparticipleeninflectionof
Old English was strictly kept. These apparently contradictory features can be attributed entirely to Scandinavian, in
whichthefinalnoftheinfinitivewaslostearlyinsinga,andthefinalnofthepastparticiplewasdoubledinsunginn.
TheNorthernunmutatedpresentparticipleinandwasalsoofScandinavianorigin.OldEnglishmutatedende(German
end)inthepresentparticiplehadalreadybecomeindeinlateWestSaxon,anditwasthisSouthernindethatblended
withtheingsuffix(Germanung)ofnounsofactionthathadalreadybecomeneargerundsinsuchcompoundnouns
asathswering"oathswearing"andwritingfether"writingfeather,pen."Thisblendingofpresentparticipleandgerund
wasfurtherhelpedbythefactthatAngloNormanandFrenchantwasitselfacoalescenceofLatinpresentparticiples
in antem, entem, and Latin gerunds in andum, endum. The Northern second person singular singis was inherited
unchangedfromCommonGermanic.ThefinaltsoundinMidlandestandSouthernstwasexcrescent,comparable
with the final t in modern "amidst" and "amongst" from older amiddes and amonges. The Northern third person
singularsingishadaquitedifferentorigin.Likethesingisoftheplural,itresultedalmostcasuallyfromaninadvertent
retraction of the tongue in enunciation from an interdental th sound to postdental s. Today the form "singeth"

39

survivesasapoeticarchaism.Shakespeareusedbothethandsendings("It[mercy]blessethhimthatgivesandhim
thattakes,"TheMerchantofVenice).TheMidlandpresentpluralinflectionenwastakenfromthesubjunctive.The
pastparticipleprefixydevelopedfromtheOldEnglishperfectiveprefixge.
Chaucer, who was born and died in London, spoke a dialect that was basically East Midland. Compared with his
contemporaries, he was remarkably modern in his use of language. He was in his early 20s when the Statute of
Pleading(1362)waspassed,bythetermsofwhichallcourtproceedingswerehenceforthtobeconductedinEnglish,
though "enrolled in Latin." Chaucer himself used four languages; he read Latin (Classical and Medieval) and spoke
FrenchandItalianonhistravels.ForhisownliteraryworkhedeliberatelychoseEnglish.

ThehistoryofEnglandfromtheNormaninvasionencapsulatesallthe
majortrendsofthetimes.
Politically,theNormankingsandtheirheirsaretheprimarylocusinEuropeanhistorywherefeudalismisconverted
intoaworkingmodelofacentralizedmonarchy.ThehistoryofEnglandallthroughouttheMiddleAgesisone,long,
almostuninterruptedsetofconflictsengenderedbytheattempttoconvertfeudalismintomonarchy.Ontheonehand
are attempts to consolidate the power of the monarch over the power of feudatories; on the other hand is the
resistancetomonarchicalaggrandizementandthesubsequentassertionofprivilegesbyfeudatoriesoverthemonarch.
The high point of monarchical power was attained during the reign of Edward I (12721307); the low points of
monarchicalpowerwerescatteredallthroughoutmedievalEnglishhistory:thereignsofJohn,EdwardII,andRichardII
beingthebleakest.
Fromaculturalstandpoint,thehistoryofEnglandinvolvedagradualabsorptionintoalarger,Europeanculture.While
AngloSaxons had been fairly insular and unique culturally and politically, medieval England came increasingly
dominatedbycontinentalculture.BythetimeofChaucerandRichardIIinthelatefourteenthcentury,whenEngland
emergesasamajorculturalforceinEurope,veryfewindigenousAngloSaxonculturalpracticesremainedinthe"high"
cultureofEngland.TheGermanlanguageofEngland,AngloSaxon,stillremainedinsomeofitsmostessentialaspects,
but for the most part, the language of England, Middle English, had more in common with continental languages,
particularlyFrench.Thisculturaltransformationoccurredfromthetopdown,sotospeak.TheNormansbroughtwith
them Norman culture, institutions, and social practices, but did not largely impose these on the native AngloSaxon
populations. Beginning in the 13th century, however, almost all educated people in England had learned Norman,
French,andLatinculturalmodelsonlyafeweccentricsstillattachedthemselvestoAngloSaxonculturalpractices.

TheNormanKings
William and the Norman kings who followed him had as their principle objective the breaking of the power of the
AngloSaxonearlsandtheimportationofNormanfeudalism.Theyhad,however,tomakeoneimportantmodification
to feudalismthe overlord would be the king rather than a duke. They followed the same model that had been
developedinNormandythekingownedthelandunderhimeitherdirectlyorindirectly.Landwasenfeoffed,thatis,
grantedasa"fief,"toindividualtenantswhocollectedtherevenuesfromthisland.Inexchange,thetenantsinchief
(called"barons")enteredintocertainobligationswiththeoverlordtheseincludedrevenuesandacertainamountof
military forces. This system had a complicated set of "privileges": on the one hand, the tenantsinchief enjoyed a
certain autonomy in the administration of lands and its revenuethis included rights of inheritance, that is, a
feudatorywasgrantedtoafamilyratherthantoanindividual.Ontheotherhand,themonarchdirectlyorindirectly
ownedthelandsohadacertainclaimtotherevenues,theland,itsinheritability,andtotheservicesandobligationsof
itstenants.
The challenge to the Norman kings was to convert this system into a working monarchy. In order to maintain
centralizedauthorityoverthemoreorlessindependenttenants,Williamretainedasmonarchtherighttocollecttaxes,
coin money, and to oversee the administration of justice. But William did not have a wealth of professional
administratorssinceAngloSaxonEnglandlargelyconsistedofaseriesofindependentearldoms,therewereveryfew
peoplecapableofcarryingoutthecentralizedfunctionsheneeded.Power,then,slowlydevolvedtothebaronshehad
created.
ItfelltoHenryI(11001135),William'ssuccessor,tocreateaprofessionalclassofadministratorsforthecrown.The
only real administrators that William had relied on were the individuals filling the AngloSaxon office of sheriff who
servedasthelocalrepresentativeoftheking.HenryI,however,turnedhiscourtintoanadministrativebureaucracyby
creating special offices. These court offices would each serve a limited and specialized set of functions so that the

40

officeholders would themselve become efficient administrators in that one area. Most significantly, one of these
specializedofficeswastheExchequer,whichoversawtheacquisitionanddispersalofrevenuesforthecrown.

HenryII
In the development oftheEnglish monarchy, the mostdramatic events occurred during the reign of Henry II (1154
1189),thegrandsonofHenryI.Themonarchyhadfallenontroubledtimes,enduringacivilwarandcontraryclaimsto
the throne. When Henry II came to the throne, he instituted a series of measures designed to consolidate power
aroundtheking.Themostsignificantofthesemeasureswasthenarrowingofprivilegesgrantedtothechurchandto
the clergy. While William and Henry I had managed to gain privileges from the nobility, the church still remained
relativelyautonomous.
Henry'sproblemwiththeRomanchurchwasthatitexistedoutsideofthelegalsystemthattheEnglishmonarchswere
trying to impose across England. When a member of the clergy committed a crime, that criminal fell under the
jurisdictionofthechurchratherthantheking.Thecriminalwouldbetriedinanecclesiastical("church")courtusing
canonlawoftheRomanchurch,ratherthantriedinamanorialorstatecourtusingtheking'slaws.Theecclesiastical
judicialsystemoftheRomanchurchwasbyandlargehighlycorrupt(asitsremnantsinthepresentdaystillare)even
themostheinouscrimes,suchasmurder,resultedinminorpenaltiesimposedbythechurchcourt.
This not only rankled the king, it threatened the social order and the peace that the king was trying to establish by
centralizingthejudicialsystem.Henry'sbiggestfight,then,waswiththechurch.Henrytriedtolimitthechurchcourts
in1164byallowingthechurchcourtstotryaclericalcriminalbutdemandingthatthecriminalbesentencedinaroyal
court. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Becket, refused to yieldhe would later be assassinated by four of
Henry'sknights.
Despite his failure to bring the church under a centralized judiciary, Henry was one of the most successful kings in
Europeanmedievalhistorytoconsolidatemonarchicalpoweranddeveloptheinstitutionofmonarchicalgovernment.
He greatly expanded the role of the judiciary in the life of the English. In particular, he charged the sheriff of each
regiontocallbeforeitinerantjudgesanylocalpersonthathepleasedinordertoquestionthembeforethejudge.The
sheriff would ask these people if they knew of any crimes that had occurred since the last visit of the judge. This
practicewouldeventuallyevolveintothejudicialpracticeweknowasthegrandjury.Healsointroducedtheoriginal
formofjurytrials.InHenry'stime,jurytrialswereonlyappliedtocivilcasesinvolvingproperty.Whensomeonemadea
complaintofdispossession,thesheriffwasempoweredtobringbeforethejudgetwelvemenwhowerefamiliarwith
thecase.Thesemenwouldthentellthejudgewhattheyknewofthecaseandwouldgivetheiropinionastothetruth
ofthecomplaintorthedefense.Thistwelvemantestimonialwouldeventuallydevelopintothecivilandcriminaljury
trial.
These were significant innovations in many ways. First, they equalized the law in a profound way. People with little
powercouldmakecomplaintsagainstmorepowerfulpeopleandprevailthismadethejudicialsomethingthatpeople
supported and sought after. In addition, the use of the twelve men expanded participation in the judiciary and in
governmenttomorethanjustthemonarch,hisministers,andthepowerfulbarons.Governmentwasnowpartlyinthe
hands of common peoplethus would begin a growing interest among more and more classes in the conduct of
government.Finally,Henry'sinnovationscreatedamoreorlessindependentbureaucracythat,inthehandsofawell
trainedadministrativestaff,couldrunthecentralgovernmentnomatterwhowasking.
Andthat'swhathappenedwhenHenryIIdied.Hewassucceededbyhisson,RichardI(11891199),who,becauseofhis
interest in the Crusades, spent all of six months in England during his ten year reign. Even in his absence, the
government ran efficiently. In fact, itgot even more efficient as theadministrative beauracracy was able to develop
withouttheinterferenceoftheking.

MagnaCarta
ItwasduringthereignofRichard'ssuccessor,John(11991214),thatthesteadydevelopmentofmonarchicalauthority
was partly checked. As with his predecessors, John ruled not only England as a monarch, but he also ruled much of
FranceasavassaloftheFrenchking.ThisrankledtheFrenchkingsallduringthereignsoftheearlyNormankings.By
1204, the French king, PhilipAugustus, retook for Francethe lands that John ruled inNormandy. InPhilip Augustus,
John faced one of the most capable military and administrative kings in French historyhe was dealt defeat after
defeatinhisattempttofirstdefendandthenregainhislands.

41

FedupwithhiswarinFrance,John'snoblesresentedthepowerofthekingtoraisemoneyforwhattheyfeltwasa
losing war. In the famous Magna Carta of 1215, they forced the king to sign a charter that renounced much of his
power. The Magna Carta was not really a document about rights, it was a document about limiting monarchical
government and the power of the king. First and foremost, it revoked the right of the king to raise revenues
independentlyinordertoraiserevenues,thekingfirsthadtoobtainpermissionfromhisvassals.Thedocumentalso
limitedthepoweroftheking'sjudgesarbitrarilytotryandsentencefreemen;allfreemencouldonlybetriedand
sentencedbytheirequals.Finally,itcreatedacouncilofvassalsthatcouldapproveordisapproveoftheking'srevenue
raising;thiscouncilwouldeventuallydevelopintotheParliament.ThegreatexperimentwithmonarchyinEuropewas
enteringanewphasethefirstinvolvedthecreationofmonarchicalpowerandtheinstitutionstorunit;thesecond
phasedinvolvedthecreationofinstitutionstocheckandlimitthegrowingpowerofthemonarch.Everythingwasin
placenowforthesubsequenthistoryofgovernmentinEurope.

EdwardI
ThemostpowerfulkinginmedievalEnglishhistorywasEdwardI(12721307),anaggressive,warriorkingthatnotonly
consolidatedpowerinEnglandbutthroughwarsofconquestbecamethefirstkingofallofBritain,albeitbriefly.
OfallthemedievalmonarchsinEurope,Edwardwasperhapsthemostbrilliantatconsolidatingpower.Theinstitution
heinventedtoachievethisendwasParliament,or"Talking."ThepurposeofParliamentwastogatherallthemajor
vassalsofthekinginoneplace,explaintothemthereasonsforcollectingtaxes,gettheirapproval,andthendiscuss
methodsofcollection.Whilethismayseemtobeanexpansionoftheroleofthebaronsingovernment,itwasactually
theopposite.TheentirepurposeofthedevelopmentofParliamentwasefficiency,therapidgenerationofconsensus
amongthenobility,noneofwhomreallywereinapositiontochallengetheking.Eventually,however,afterthereign
of Edward, the Parliament would develop as a powerful check on the monarch's powerthis was not Edward's
intentionorpractice.
Edward's Parliament included more than nobilityhe had the genius to include knights and other commoners to
represent local counties at the Parliament. These commoners probably had no role at all in the Parliament, but the
practice was enormously effective as propaganda. Local commoners were not only presented with an aweinspiring
theaterofpoweratthecourt,buttheyalsowerebeinggivenpropagandaandreasonsfortaxationonthemselvesand
thepeopletheyrepresented.CommonerswouldeventuallybecomeanintegralpartofParliamentanddeveloptheir
ownindependencefromthenobilityinParliamentsufficeittosayhere,though,thattheinclusionofcommonerswas
part of the trend of increasing participation in the monarchical and local government by more people begun by the
earliestNormankings.
Edward made the most determined assault on baronial power among all the English kings. He instituted a series of
proceedingscalledquowarrantoproceedings("bywhatwarrant")theseproceedingswouldsystematicallyquestion
bywhatwarrantnobleshadcertainprivilegesandrightsfromtheking.Iftherewasnowarrantfortheseprivileges,
theywererevokedandgrantedtothemonarch.Theresultwasamassiveconsolidationofpowerintheking'shands.
AmongotherinnovationswasEdward'spracticeofissuingstatutes,whichwerepiecesofpubliclegislationarbitrarily
imposedontheentirekingdombythewilloftheking.
Edwardneededanefficientsystemforraisingrevenuesforhisconstantwarfare.Onthecontinenthefoughtagainst
theFrenchkingforGascony,aterritoryunderhiscontrolthathadbeenseizedbytheFrenchking.Itwasauselesswar
foughtfrom12941303thatsimplyresultedinGasconybeingreturnedtoEdwardasavassal.Hismostsignificantwars,
however,wereagainstWalesandScotland.BothoftheseCelticcountrieswereindependentofEnglandWaleswasa
principality ruled by the Prince of Wales and Scotland was a monarchy. However, in both Wales and Scotland a
substantialnumberofthenobilitywereAngloNormanratherthanWelshorScottish.Whiletheywerenominallyunder
thePrinceofWalesortheScottishking,mostofthemhadcloserculturaltieswithEnglandandtheNormans.Itwas
with their help that he conqueredWalesand brought it underhiscontrol. It was adifferent setup than theEnglish
feudalsystemWaleswasasystemofmoreorlessindependentlordshipsthatwerevassalsoftheking.
Scotland,however,wasamuchmoredifficultmatter.WhentheScottishking,AlexanderIII,diedin1290withoutan
heir, two nobles stepped forward to claim the throne: John Balliol and Robert Bruce, both AngloNorman lords in
Scotland.TheScotsturnedtoEdwardtoresolvethedispute,whichheagreedtodoifthedisputerweresettledusing
English and if he was made regent of Scotland until a decision was made. So, without shedding any blood, Edward
became the overlord of Scotland. When the English finally declared John Balliol king, many of the Scottish nobles
preferredbeingunderEdward.WhenBalliol,however,alliedwiththeFrench,EdwardinvadedandconqueredScotland

42

in1296.ButScotlandwastohardtoholdtwomajorrebellions,oneledbyWilliamWallaceandthesecondbyRobert
Bruce,thegrandsonoftheBrucethatclaimedthethrone,temporarilyexpelledEdwardfromScotland.

The1300s
The history of the monarchy after Edward I involved the steady dissolution of monarchical power at the hands of
restivenobility.Englandsufferedmanymajorshocksthroughoutthiscentury:theBlackDeath,warswithFrance,and
Peasant revolts. By 1400, England had developed its own unique system of government through checks on the
monarch'spowerandthefurtherdevelopmentofjudiciarypractices.
Edward I was succeeded by his son, Edward II (13071330), who on account of his arbitrary government and his
favoringofoftencorruptcouncilors,inspiredamajorrevoltbythenobility.ThereignofEdwardIII(13301377)was
largely occupied with fighting in France to regain possessions seized by the French kingthese series of skirmishes,
whichlasteduntil1453wereknownastheHundredYearsWar.Theendresultofwouldbethepermanentexpulsionof
Englishpowerfromthecontinent.
Life changed dramatically after the advent of the Black Death in 1349, to say the least. For England and the rest of
Europe,theDeathmeantastartlingdecreaseinlaborandasubsequentriseinthevalueoflabor.Intheearlyyears,a
substantial amount of wealth was redistributed from the nobility downwardsmost importantly, the value of labor
inspired people to uproot themselves and relocate. The social consequences would be tremendous and begin to
producea"commoner"cultureofremarkableresiliencyanddiffusionallthroughoutEngland.Thiscommonerculture
wouldproduceabodyofliteratureandmusicaswellasasensibilitythatwouldeventuallydiffuseintocourtandhigher
culture.ThefirstmajorEnglishliteraryfigure,GeoffreyChaucer,wouldinpartdrawonmodelsandsensibilitiesofthis
lowerculture.
Mostimportantly,theBlackDeathchangedtheeconomyofEngland.ThroughouttheentireperiodofNormanrulethe
economy centered, entirely, on agriculture with some export of raw materials, such as wool. Agriculture was
dominatedbythelandednobilitywhocollectedrentsfromtenantsloweronthehierarchy.Theentirestructurewas
builtontheshouldersofthevilleinwhoreceivedthesmallestshareofarableland.Thevilleinwastiedtothelandthat
hefarmed,whichwasoftenbarelyenoughtoprovideforhisfamily'ssurvival.Hepaidacertainamountofhiscropas
rent but he also paid in labor. He was forced to work a certain amount of time on the lands of the nobility who
collectedalltherevenuesfromtheselands.Thiswasaphenomenallylucrativesystemforthelandholdersbutwasa
desperateandtorturousexistenceforvillein.
WiththeDeath,however,landholdersfoundthemselvesdesperatelyshortofvilleinstoworktheirlands.Inaddition,
theshortageoflaborinducedmanyvilleinstorunawayandlookformoregainfulemploymentonotherlandsaswage
laborersortoseekworkinthecities.Eventhoughitwasaseriouscrimetorunaway(thevilleinswereineffectslaves),
theprospectofamoresecurelifewasinducementenough.Withthelossofvilleins,thelandholdershadtoresortto
wagelabor,whichwasconsiderablymoreexpensive,particularlyinthelightoffallingfoodpricesbecauseoflowered
demand!Thelandholderssolvedtheproblemintwoways:thefirstwasbyconvertingtheirlandstorentedlands.By
1500,almostnolandholderswereusingtheirownlandsbuthadrentedthemallout.Thesecondandmostinnovative
approach was to stop growing crops but instead use the land to graze sheep for woolthis practice was called
"enclosure"sincethelandwouldbeenclosedtokeepthesheepin.Enclosureturnedouttobeanevenmorelucrative
use of the land and all throughout the later fourteenth and fifteenth centuries massive amounts of land were
convertedfromagriculturetosheepraising.
ThephenomenalincreaseinwoolproductionmadeEnglandoneofthecentersofEuropeancommerce.ButtheEnglish
soon turned from exportingraw wool to exporting finished cloth.Why, after all, collect moneyfrom exporting wool
onlytohavetopayitoutagainforthefinishedcloth?Bytheendofthefifteenthcentury,Englandhadbecomethe
major manufacturing commercial power of Europe primarily because of the growth of the cloth industry. The
conversion of the English economy to a commercial and manufacturing economy in the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuriescontributedtothegrowthofanewcommonerclass,whatwewouldcallthemiddleclass.Thesecommoners
sometimesattainedincrediblewealthnotonlythroughtradeandmanufacturing,butoftenasrentersonagricultural
land.
The reign of Richard II (13771399), who came to the throne as a boy, was marked by arbitrary use of power and
extremeeffortsofthenobilitytocheckthepoweroftheking.Sotroubledwasthereign,thatRichardwasthefirstking
tobedeposedbyarebellion,thatofHenryBolingbroke,whousurpedthethronetobecomeHenryIV.

43

ItwasduringthelateryearsofEdwardIIIandthereignofRichardIIthatEnglandemergedaspotentculturalforcein
Europe.SomeAngloSaxonpracticesstillhungon,suchasthewritingofalliterativepoetry,thatis,poetrywhosemeter
ismarkedbyalliterationortheuseofidenticalconsonantstobeginwords.Onthewhole,however,Englanddeveloped
adistinctcultureusingFrenchandclassicalmodelsaswellasanew,growingcommonerculture.Combinedwithboth
ofthesewasanewandinnovativeanticlericalismthatgainedramaticculturalforceinthelatterpartofthefourteenth
century.
TheRomanchurchhadnevertrulybroughtaboutecclesiasticalunityinEurope.Intheearlyperiod,severaldifferent
practices and theologies vied with one another, the most significant being the conflict between the Celtic and the
continentalchurches.Moreover,theeasternEuropeanareasneverfellunderRomancontrolaseparatechurch,the
churchofByzantium,exercisedspiritualandpoliticalauthorityovertheseChristians.
TheRomanchurchintheWestwasapowerfulmediumthroughwhichacommonEuropeanculturewasforgedand
wasinstrumentalinbringingfirstAngloSaxonandthenAngloNormancultureintotheEuropeanmainstream.Butthe
Romanchurchwasalsohopelesslycorrupt.ItwaslargelyrunaccordingtothesocialmodelsofEuropethehierarchy
ofthechurchmirroredthehierarchyofsociety.Infact,thetopofthechurchhierarchywasdrawnalmostentirelyfrom
Europeannobles. The church concentratedits energies on the top ofthe hierarchy and on the various monasteries,
whichforallpracticalpurposesweretheequivalentofnobleestatesandpracticedthesamekindofslavelaborthe
useofvilleinstofarmmonasticlandsthattheEnglishmanorsused.Almostnoresourcesweredevotedtothevillage,
thetown,andthecommoner.Clergyatthislevelweredesperatelypoorandlivedahandtomouthexistenceselling
prayersandothersacraments.
Itwasinevitablethatthehierarchyandwealthofthechurch,itsmanifestmeddlingincommerceandpolitics,itscruel
disdain for the lowest levels of society, and the added insult of the relative immunity of clergy from criminal
prosecution,wouldalleventuallyproducestrongreactionsagainstthechurchandtheclergythisanticlericalfeeling
duringtheMiddleAgesreacheditsheightinEngland.
Thereactiontothechurchrangedfromaggressivedenunciationsoftheentireinstitutiontostingingcritiquesofchurch
clergythatstillupheldthelegitimacyofthechurchitself.
The most famous and important of the anticlerical agitators was John Wycliff who originally began his career as a
doctor of divinity atOxford in the1360's and speculatedon such abstruse questionsas the natureof universals. He
soon, however, developed strong critiques of the church and eventually assumed in the late 1370's a revolutionary
stance towards the church. He rejected all church hierarchy and declared that the Christian consisted of the people
who had faith but did not consist of the church hierarchy (this would eventually become the "priesthood of all
believers"inMartinLuther).Herejectedtransubstantiationasalegitimatedoctrine(theideathatthebreadandwine
oftheEucharistactuallychangeintothebodyandbloodofChrist),arguingthatthereisnoScripturalauthorityforthis.
HealsoarguedthattheBibleshouldbetranslatedintovernacularlanguages,thatitdoesnogoodtoreadfromthe
BibleinalanguagethatmostChristianscan'tunderstand.Tothisend,heproducedthefirstEnglishBible.Theseand
otherhereticaldoctrineslandedhiminaworldoftrouble,buthewasprotectedbypowerfulnobleswhousedthemfor
theirownpoliticalends.Hismostrevolutionaryidea,however,losthimtheprotectionofeventhenobility.Heargued
that all human authority comes from God's grace alone. This doctrine of "authority through grace" allowed him to
argue that no corrupt official or authority should be obeyed. If a priest, bishop, or pope were corrupt, parishioners
werejustifiedinopposinganyauthorityexercisedbythatchurchofficialthejudgementofsuchcorruptionlaywith
the conscience of the believer. This was not only a radical challenge to the church, it also quickly became a radical
challengetosecularauthorityaswell.
Wycliff'sradicalideasledtoadistinctanticlericalmovementinEngland:Lollardry.Lollardideasinpartimpelledthe
Peasant'sRebellionof1381andwouldsurfaceintheremainderofthecentury.WhileLollardrywaseffectivelystamped
outintheearly1400's,itreemergedwithavengeancewhenProtestantismwasintroducedintoEnglandinthe1510's.
Lollardideas,however,diddiffuseacrossthecontinentandmanyofthetheologicalandsocialideasoftheProtestant
ReformationaretraceablebacktothehaplessLollards.
ThemostimportantthingaboutLollardryandthegeneralanticlericalismofthefourteenthcenturyisthatitfoundeda
newculturedeliberatelyresistanttothedominant,homogenizingcultureofthechurch.Thisnewanticlericalculture
led a number of theologians, writers, and poets in England to begin to speculate about the nature of society,
government,economicsandhumaninstitutionsandtoforgeradicallynewideasonallthesefronts.Anyspeculation
aboutthelegitimacyofpoliticalpowerwouldhavelandedthewriterinserioustrouble;churchgovernment,however,
wasrelativelyopentocriticismanditwasherethatthecriticaltraditioninEuropeanpoliticaltheorydeveloped,andin

44

noplaceinEuropediditdevelopasstronglyasitdidinmedievalEngland.Theanticlericalculturewasnotsomucha
theologicalorevenadoctrinalcultureitwasamoralandpoliticalcultureinpartforgedoutoftheincreasingrolethat
allindividualswereplayinginEnglishgovernment.Anticlericalculturemanifesteditselfinreligiousworks,suchasPiers
Plowman written by a desperately poor cleric named William Langland, in mystical literature such as The Book of
MargeryKempe,andinanentirecorpusofsecularliteratureandpractices.
NoindividualbetterrepresentsthisnewculturalfusionofEuropean,commoner,andanticlericalculturethanGeoffrey
Chaucer(13431400).HisearliestwritingsimportedItalianandFrenchmodelsintoEnglishliterature,buthisgreatest
workwasTheCanterburyTales,whichfusedanumberofculturalformsandanticlericalcriticisminaseriesofstories
narratedbyacrosssectionofEnglishculture.
TheemergenceofChaucerasamajorliteraryfigurepointstoanothervitalchangeinEnglishcultureinthefourteenth
century: the emergence of English as an official and a literary language. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the
languageofgovernmentwasprimarilyFrenchinspokenlanguageandLatininwrittenlanguage.Theliterarylanguage
of early Norman England was Norman Frencha number of the earliest masterpieces of English literature are in
actualityFrench.Inthefourteenthcentury,however,Englishbecamethespokenlanguageofgovernmentandinpart
replacedLatinastheofficialwrittenlanguage.LiteratureinEnglishbegantothrivefromthemiddleofthefourteenth
centuryonwardsandculminatedinthecareerofChaucerandWycliff'stranslationoftheBible.By1400,Englishhad
becomethelanguageofEngland.
ThisEnglish,however,wassubstantiallydifferentfromtheEnglishspokenbeforetheNormaninvasion.TheEnglishof
theAngloSaxonperiod,called"OldEnglish,"wascompletelyaGermaniclanguagethathadmoreincommonwiththe
Germanic languages spoken on the continent than it had with modern English. The Norman invasion, however,
introducedalongperiodinwhichNormanFrenchandAngloSaxonexistedsidebyside.Theresultwasacuriousmixof
the two languages, in fact, almost a lingua franca, that produced the English of the fourteenth century. This was an
EnglishthatusedmanyGermanicformsbutwasdominatedbyFrenchwordsandaFrenchworldview.

TheLancasters
WhenHenryBolingbrokedeposedRichardII,hedeclaredhimselfkingofEnglandasHenryIVonaverytenuousclaim
to the throne. This was a radical departure in English history that would determine historical practices for the next
hundredyearsandbeyond.BecauseHenryhadprovidedtheprecedentfordeposingaking,itsoonbecameevident
thatthemonarchycouldbeclaimedthroughanyvagueconnectioniftheclaimanthadsufficientarmstoenforcethe
claim.Thehistoryofthefifteenthcenturyisonelong,dismalhistoryoftheproblemscreatedbyHenry'susurpation.
Theproblemsbeganimmediately.HenryspentmostofhisreignputtingdownarebellionfirstbyaWelshnobleman,
OwenGlyndwr,andthenlaterbypowerfulEnglishmagnates.
Hisson,however,whoreignedasHenryV(14131422),wasdeterminedtoregainEnglishrightsoftheFrenchareasof
Normandy and Gascon. To this end, he launched an invasion of France which soon gained him all the territory the
English had lost in these areas. He was helped by two major accidents. The first was an allout schism in French
governmentbetweentheDukeofBurgundyandsonoftheKing,CharlesVI.BothclaimedthethroneandHenrytook
advantageofthisdivision.ThesecondaccidentwastheuseoflongbowarchersagainsttheFrenchforcesthatwere
primarilycavalryandinfantry.Becausethelongbowarcherscouldfirefromadistanceandrearmthemselvesquickly
afterreleasingavolley,theFrenchforcesfellquickly.
Attheendofhisconquests,HenryextortedtwothingsfromCharlesVI:hewasmarriedtoCharles'daughterCatherine
andtheFrenchkingcededthethroneuponhisdeathtothechildofHenryandCatherine.WhenHenryVdiedofan
illnessin1322attheageof35,theirninemontholdchild,HenryVI,becamethefirstandonlykingofbothEnglandand
France.
The invasions of Henry and the steady loss of French territories under Henry VI comprise what historians call the
Hundred Years War. The English held on to their possessions until 1429 when, under the inspired leadership of a
teenagegirl,JoanofArc,theFrenchralliedagainsttheEnglishandtheirBurgundianallies.WhentheDukeofBurgund
realliedhimselfwiththeFrench,thetideofbattleturneddistinctivelyagainsttheEnglish.HenryVhadthebenefitofa
politicallydividedFrance;theEnglishnowfacedarival,FrenchclaimanttothethronetheDauphin,thesonofCharles
VIbacked by aunified France. By 1453, theEnglish were permanently kickedout ofFrance exceptfor the townof
Calais.

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HenryVIwastheyoungestmantobecomekingofEnglandandreignedanimmenselylongtime.Hisreign,however,
wasgenerallymarkedbyhisnonpresenceasakingsincehedespisedwarfareandhadnointerestingovernment.The
government instead fell to his magnates and to his wife, Margaret of Anjou. This began a period of severe rivalries
betweenmagnatesthatwouldeventuallyeruptintotheWarsoftheRoses.

TheWarsoftheRoses
The"WarsoftheRoses"issomewhatofamisnomer.Thenamereferstothesymbolsusedtorepresentthetwomajor
factionstheYorksrepresentedthemselveswiththesymbolofthewhiteroseandtheTudorsrepresentedthemselves
witharedrose.Itwasn'tuntiltheendofthestruggle,however,thattheTudorsadoptedtheredrosetodistinguish
themselvesfromtheYorks.Norwerethesereallywars,butratheraseriesofsmall,albeitdecisive,skirmishesbetween
variousmagnates.
Theissue,ofcourse,oweditsoriginstoHenryBolingbroke'susurpationofthecrown.Therewereseveralnoblesand
families who had better claims to the throne and Henry had introduced the dangerous precedent that the crown
belongedtowhoevercouldseizeit.
The nonpresence of Henry VI as a king was even more decisive. Since the government fell to a clique of nobles
surroundingMargaretofAnjou,thosenobleswhofeltleftoutwerebitterandrebellious.Theonehavingthegreatest
causeforbitternesswasRichard,DukeofYork.ItwasnotjustsimplythatRichardhadabetterclaimtothethrone;it
was that HenryVIhad proven himselfuseless as a king.When Henry VI went mad in 1453, Richard managed to get
himself declared the Protector of the Realmin executive functions, he was the equivalent of the king. He then
surrounded the monarch's government with fellow Yorkists and allies and he arrested the major figures in Henry's
court. After the king regained his sanity, the first major battle occurred between Richard and these rival court
governors.Thisfirstbattle,foughtatSaintAlbans,istraditionallyreckonedasthestartoftheWarsoftheRoses.
By 1460, however, Richard controlled the government and, in an incredibly audacious move, declared himself to be
kingofEnglandsinceHenrywasbothunfitandwasthedescendantofausurper.Thenobility,however,backedoffof
this proposal and promised Richard the crown after the death of Henry. But Henry didn't die soon enoughwhen
Richarddied,thesuccessionfelltohisson,EdwardIV.
EdwardIV(14611483)didwhatRichardcouldn'tdo:hedeposedHenryandassumedthethroneofEngland.Hecould
neverreallyconsolidatehisrule,however,andfacedintenseandaggressiverestivenessfromhisbrother,George,the
DukeofClarenceandslightlylessresistancefromhisotherbrother,Richard,theDukeofGloucester.In1471,Margaret
ofAnjouandHenryVIlandedwithaninvasionforceandtemporarilyretookthecrownforacouplemonths.Thiswas
soonovercomebyEdwardandHenrydiedinprison,old,mad,andbroken.
OnthedeathofEdwardin1483,thesuccessionfelltohisson,EdwardV.ButEdwardVwasonlytwelveyearsold,so
theProtectoratefelltohisuncle,Richard,DukeofGloucester.Richard,followingthetraditionssetdownbyHenryIV,
Richard,DukeofYork,hisfather,andhisbrotherEdward,seizedthethronerapidlyandefficiently.Heimprisonedthe
twosonsofEdwardandmayevenhavehadthemexecuted(itismorelikelythatHenryTudorexecutedthem).The
thronewasusurpedyetagaininlessthanahundredyears.
By all accounts, Richard III was an extremely effective administrator, militarily brilliant, and of immense physical
courage. His assumption of the crown, however, was challenged immediately from several sides. His two year reign
consistedentirelyoffightingrebellions,includinganearly,indirectrebelliontoputHenryTudoronthethrone.When
thisrebellionfailed,HenryTudortookmattersintohisownhandsanddirectlyconfrontedRichard.Henryhadonlythe
mosttenuousclaimtothethroneandtheTudormonarchswouldspendthenexthundredyearspropagandizingthat
tenuousclaim.Thelastfightofthisrebellion,atBosworthin1485,resultedinthedeathofRichard.Anewusurper,
HenryTudortookthethroneasHenryVIIjustasEuropewasenteringthemodernperiod.
Copyright19942000EncyclopdiaBritannica,Inc.
MedievalEnglandbyRichardHooker

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LITERARYPERIODSOFBRITISHANDAMERICANLITERATURE
SUMMARY
Periods in literature are named for rulers, historical events, intellectual or political or religious movements, or artistic
styles.Mostliteraryperiodsthereforehavemultiplenames.What'sworse,someofthesenamesaredebated.Isthelater
17thCenturytheBaroqueera?Thetermbaroqueisanintractabletermderivedfromartcriticism,thoughitmayusefully
beapplicabletosomewritersaswell.Istheearly17thCenturytheShakespeareanera?IsittheManneristera?Howwidely
dowewishtoapplythetermElizabethanperiod?Otherquestionsarise.DoesRomanticismbeginwithWordsworth?With
Blake? In addition, Romanticism has various dates according to the national literature we refer to. In the separate art
formsmusic,painting,andevensomeliterarygenresthedatesmayvaryyetmore.Recenthistoriesofliteratureand
thelatestNortonAnthologyofEnglishLiteratureofferthelatestexamplesoftermsappliedtoliteraryperiods.

PeriodsofBritishLiterature
6001200OldEnglish(AngloSaxon)

Beowulf

12001500MiddleEnglish

GeoffreyChaucer

15001660TheEnglishRenaissance
15001558

TudorPeriod

HumanistEra

ThomasMore,JohnSkelton

15581603

ElizabethanPeriod

HighRenaissance

EdmundSpenser,
SirPhilipSidney,
WilliamShakespeare

16031625

JacobeanPeriod

ManneristStyle(15901640)
otherstyles:Metaphysical
Poets;DevotionalPoets

Shakespeare,JohnDonne,George
Herbert,
EmiliaLanyer

16251649

CarolinePeriod

JohnFord,JohnMilton

16491660

TheCommonwealth
&TheProtectorate

BaroqueStyle,andlater,
RococoStyle

Milton,AndrewMarvell,ThomasHobbes

16601700

TheRestoration

JohnDryden

17001800

TheEighteenth
Century

TheEnlightenment;
NeoclassicalPeriod;

AlexanderPope,
JonathanSwift,

TheAugustanAge
SamuelJohnson
17851830

Romanticism

TheAgeofRevolution

WilliamWordsworth,S.T.Coleridge,Jane
Austen,theBronts

18301901

VictorianPeriod

Early,MiddleandLate
Victorian

CharlesDickens,GeorgeEliot,Robert
Browning,Alfred,LordTennyson

19011960

ModernPeriod

TheEdwardianEra(19011910);
TheGeorgianEra(19101914)

G.M.Hopkins,H.G.Wells,JamesJoyce,
D.H.Lawrence,T.S.Eliot

1960

Postmodernand
Contemporary
Period

TedHughes,DorisLessing,JohnFowles,
DonDeLillo,A.S.Byatt

TheOldEnglishPeriodortheAngloSaxonPeriodreferstotheliteratureproducedfromtheinvasionofCelticEnglandby
GermanictribesinthefirsthalfofthefifthcenturytotheconquestofEnglandin1066byWilliamtheConqueror.
DuringtheOld EnglishPeriod,writtenliteraturebegantodevelopfromoraltradition,andintheeighthcenturypoetry
writteninthevernacularAngloSaxonorOldEnglishappeared.OneofthemostwellknowneighthcenturyOldEnglish
piecesofliteratureisBeowulf,agreatGermanicepicpoem.TwopoetsofOldEnglishPeriodwhowroteonbiblicaland
religiousthemeswereCaedmonandCynewulf.

47


The Middle English Period consists of the literature produced in the four and a half centuries between the Norman
Conquest of 1066 and about 1500, when the standard literary language, derived from the dialect of the London area,
becamerecognizableas"modernEnglish."

Prior to the second half of the fourteenth century, vernacular literature consisted primarily of religious writings. The
secondhalfofthefourteenthcenturyproducedthefirstgreatageofsecularliterature.Themostwidelyknownofthese
writings are Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, the anonymous Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, and Thomas
Malory'sMortedArthur.

While the English Renaissance began with the ascent of the House of Tudor to the English throne in 1485, the English
LiteraryRenaissancebeganwithEnglishhumanistssuchasSirThomasmoreandSirThomasWyatt.

In addition, the English Literary Renaissance consists of four subsets: The Elizabethan Age, the Jacobean Age, the
CarolineAge,andtheCommonwealthPeriod(whichisalsoknownasthePuritanInterregnum).

TheElizabethanAgeofEnglishLiteraturecoincideswiththereignofElizabethI,15581603.Duringthistime,medieval
traditionwasblendedwithRenaissanceoptimism.Lyricpoetry,prose,anddramawerethemajorstylesofliteraturethat
flowered during the Elizabethan Age. Some important writers of the Elizabethan Age include William Shakespeare,
ChristopherMarlowe,EdmundSpenser,SirWalterRaleigh,andBenJonson.

The Jacobean Age ofEnglish Literaturecoincides with the reign of James I,1603 1625.Duringthis time the literature
became sophisticated, sombre, and conscious of social abuse and rivalry. The Jacobean Age produced rich prose and
dramaaswellasThekingJamestranslationoftheBible.ShakespeareandJonsonwroteduringtheJacobeanAge,aswell
asJohnDonne,Francisbacon,andThomasMiddleton.

TheCarolineAgeofEnglishLiteraturecoincideswiththereignofCharlesI,16251649.Thewritersofthisagewrotewith
refinementandelegance.ThiseraproducedacircleofpoetsknownastheCavalierPoetsandthedramatistsofthisage
werethelasttowriteintheElizabethantradition.

TheCommonwealthPeriod,alsoknownasthePuritanInterregnum,ofEnglishLiteratureincludestheliteratureproduced
during the time of Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell. This period produced the political writings of John Milton, Thomas
HobbespoliticaltreatiseLeviathan,andtheproseofAndrewMarvell.InSeptemberof1642,thePuritansclosedtheatres
on moral and religious grounds. For the next eighteen years the theatres remained closed, accounting for the lack of
dramaproducedduringthistimeperiod.

TheNeoclassicalPeriodofEnglishliterature(16601785)wasmuchinfluencedbycontemporaryFrenchliterature,which
wasinthemidstofitsgreatestage.Theliteratureofthistimeisknownforitsuseofphilosophy,reason,skepticism,wit,
andrefinement.TheNeoclassicalPeriodalsomarksthefirstgreatageofEnglishliterarycriticism.

MuchliketheEnglishLiteraryRenaissance,theNeoclassicalPeriodcanbedividedintothreesubsets:theRestoration,the
AugustanAge,andtheAgeofSensibility.

TheRestoration,16601700,ismarkedbytherestorationofthemonarchyandthetriumphofreasonandtoleranceover
religiousandpoliticalpassion.TheRestorationproducedanabundanceofproseandpoetryandthedistinctivecomedyof
manners known as Restoration comedy. It was during the Restoration that John Milton published Paradise Lost and
ParadiseRegained.

OthermajorwritersoftheeraincludeJohnDryden,JohnWilmot2ndEarlofRochester,andJohnLocke.

TheEnglishAugustanAgederivesitsnamefromthebrilliantliteraryperiodofVirgilandOvidundertheRomanemperor
Augustus(27B.C.A.D.14).InEnglishliterature,theAugustanAge,17001745,referstoliteraturewiththepredominant
characteristicsofrefinement,clarity,elegance,andbalanceofjudgment.WellknownwritersoftheAugustanAgeinclude
JonathanSwift,AlexanderPope,andDanielDefoe.Asignificantcontributionofthistimeperiodincludedthereleaseofthe
firstEnglishnovelsbyDefoe,andthe"novelofcharacter,"Pamela,bySamuelRichardson,in1740.

During the Age of Sensibility, literature reflectedthe worldview of Enlightenment and began to emphasize instinctand
feeling,ratherthanjudgmentandrestraint.AgrowingsympathyfortheMiddleAgesduringtheAgeofSensibilitysparked

48

an interest in medieval ballads and folk literature. Another name for this period is the Age of Johnson because the
dominant authors of this period were Samuel Johnson andhis literaryand intellectual circle. Thisperiod alsoproduced
someofthegreatestearlynovelsoftheEnglishlanguage,includingRichardson'sClarissa(1748)andHenryFielding'sTom
Jones(1749).

TheRomanticPeriodofEnglishliteraturebeganinthelate18thcenturyandlasteduntilapproximately1832.Ingeneral,
Romanticliteraturecanbecharacterizedbyitspersonalnature,itsstronguseoffeeling,itsabundantuseofsymbolism,
anditsexplorationofnatureandthesupernatural.Inaddition,thewritingsoftheRomanticswereconsideredinnovative
based on their belief that literature should be spontaneous, imaginative, personal, and free. The Romantic Period
producedawealthofauthorsincludingSamuelTaylorColeridge,WilliamWordsworth,JaneAusten,andLordByron.

ItwasduringtheRomanticPeriodthatGothicliteraturewasborn.TraitsofGothicliteraturearedarkandgloomysettings
andcharactersandsituationsthatarefantastic,grotesque,wild,savage,mysterious,andoftenmelodramatic.Twoofthe
mostfamousGothicnovelistsareAnneRadcliffeandMaryShelley.

TheVictorian PeriodofEnglishliteraturebeganwiththeaccessionofQueenVictoriatothethronein1837,andlasted
untilherdeathin1901.BecausetheVictorianPeriodofEnglishliteraturespansoversixdecades,theyear1870isoften
usedtodividetheerainto"earlyVictorian"and"lateVictorian."Ingeneral,Victorianliteraturedealswiththeissuesand
problemsoftheday.SomecontemporaryissuesthattheVictoriansdealtwithincludethesocial,economic,religious,and
intellectual issues and problems surrounding the Industrial Revolution, growing class tensions, the early feminist
movement, pressures toward political and social reform, and the impact of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution on
philosophyandreligion.SomeofthemostrecognizedauthorsoftheVictorianeraincludeAlfredLordTennyson,Elizabeth
Barrett Browning, her husband Robert, Matthew Arnold, Charles Dickens, Charlotte Bront, George Eliot, and Thomas
Hardy.

WithintheVictorianPeriod,twootherliterarymovements,thatofThePreRaphaelites(18481860)andthemovement
ofAestheticismandDecadence(18801900),gainedprominence.

In1848,agroupofEnglishartists,includingDanteGabrielRossetti,formedthe"PreRaphaeliteBrotherhood."Itwasthe
aimofthisgrouptoreturnpaintingtoastyleoftruthfulness,simplicity,andreligiousdevotionthathadreignedpriorto
RaphaelandthehighItalianRenaissance.Rossettiandhisliterarycircle,whichincludedhissisterChristina,incorporated
theseidealsintotheirliterature,andtheresultwasthatoftheliteraryPreRaphaelites.

TheAestheticismandDecadencemovementofEnglishliteraturegrewoutoftheFrenchmovementofthesamename.
Theauthorsofthismovementencouragedexperimentationandheldtheviewthatartistotallyopposed"natural"norms
ofmorality.Thisstyleofliteratureopposedthedominanceofscientificthinkinganddefiedthehostilityofsocietytoany
artthatwasnotusefulordidnotteachmoralvalues.ItwasfromthemovementofAestheticismandDecadencethatthe
phraseartforart'ssakeemerged.AwellknownauthoroftheEnglishAestheticismand DecadencemovementisOscar
Wilde.

The Edwardian Period is named for King Edward VII and spans the time from Queen Victoria's death (1901) to the
beginning of World War I (1914). During this time, The British Empire was at its height and the wealthy lived lives of
materialisticluxury.However,fourfifthsoftheEnglishpopulationlivedinsqualor.ThewritingsoftheEdwardianPeriod
reflect and comment on these social conditions. For example, writers such as George Bernard Shaw and H.G. Wells
attackedsocialinjusticeandtheselfishnessoftheupperclasses.OtherwritersofthetimeincludeWilliamButlerYeats,
JosephConrad,RudyardKipling,HenryJames,andE.m.Forster.

The Georgian Period refers to the period of British Literature that is named for the reign of George V (191036). Many
writersoftheEdwardianPeriodcontinuedtowriteduringtheGeorgianPeriod.Thiseraalsoproducedagroupofpoets
knownastheGeorgianpoets.Thesewriters,nowregardedasminorpoets,werepublishedinfouranthologiesentitled
Georgian Poetry, publishedbyEdward Marsh between 1912 and1922. Georgianpoetry tends tofocus on rural subject
matterandistraditionalintechniqueandform.

The Modern Periodapplies to British literature written sincethe beginning ofWorldWar I in1914. The authorsof the
Modern Periodhaveexperimentedwithsubjectmatter,form,andstyleandhaveproducedachievementsinallliterary
genres.PoetsoftheperiodincludeYeats,T.S.Eliot,DylanThomas,andSeamusHeaney.NovelistsincludeJamesJoyce,
D.H.Lawrence,andVirginiaWoolf.DramatistsincludeNoelCowardandSamuelBeckett..

Following World War II (19391945), the Postmodern Period of British Literature developed. Postmodernism blends
literarygenresandstylesandattemptstobreakfreeofmodernistforms.WhiletheBritishliterarysceneattheturnofthe

49

new millennium is crowded and varied, the authors still fall into the categories of modernism and postmodernism.
However,withthepassageoftimetheModerneramaybereorganizedandexpanded

LiteraryPeriodsofAmericanLiterature

16071776:ColonialPeriod
17651790:TheRevolutionaryAge
17751828:TheEarlyNationalPeriod
18281865:TheRomanticPeriod
(Alsoknownas:TheAmericanRenaissanceorTheAgeofTranscendentalism)
18651900:TheRealisticPeriod
19001914:TheNaturalisticPeriod
19141939:AmericanModernistPeriod
1920s:JazzAge,HarlemRenaissance
1920s,1930s:The"LostGeneration"
1939present:TheContemporaryPeriod
1950s:BeatWriters1
1960s,1970s:Counterculture

EthnicLiteratures,including,butnotlimitedto:
AfricanAmericanWriters/NativeAmericanWriters/AsianAmericanWriters
TheColonialPeriodofAmericanLiteraturespansthetimebetweenthefoundingofthefirstsettlementatJamestownto
theoutbreakoftheRevolution.Thewritingsofthistimecenteredonreligious,practical,orhistoricalthemes.Themost
influentialwritersoftheColonialPeriodincludeJohnWinthrop,CottonMather,BenjaminFranklin,andAnneBradstreet.

DuringtheRevolutionaryAge,17651790,someofthegreatestdocumentsofAmericanhistorywereauthored.In1776,
Thomas Paine authored Common Sense and Thomas Jefferson wrote The Declaration of Independence. In 1781, The
ArticleofConfederationwereratified.Between1787and1788,AlexanderHamilton,JamesMadison,andJohnJaywrote
TheFederalistPapers.Finally,in1787,TheConstitutionoftheUnitedStatewasdraftedandin1789itwasratified.

The Early National Period of American Literature saw the beginnings of literature that could be truly identified as
"American". The writers of this new American literature wrote in the English style, but the settings, themes, and
characterswereauthenticallyAmerican.Inaddition,poetsofthistimewrotepoetrythatwasrelativelyindependentof
Englishprecursors.ThreeofthemostrecognizedwritersofthistimeareWashingtonIrving,JamesFennimoreCooper,and
EdgarAllanPoe.

Theperiod18281865inAmericanLiteratureiscommonlyidentifiedastheRomanticPeriodinAmerica,butmayalsobe
referredtoastheAmericanRenaissanceortheAgeofTranscendentalism.Thewritersofthisperiodproducedworksof
originalityandexcellencethathelpedshapetheideas,ideals,andliteraryaimsofmanyAmericanwriters.Writersofthe
American Romantic Period include Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Edgar Allan Poe, Herman Melville,
NathanielHawthorne,HarrietBeecherStowe,HenryWadsworthLongfellow,EmilyDickinson,andWaltWhitman.

FollowingtheCivilWar,AmericanLiteratureenteredintotheRealisticPeriod.Themajorformofliteratureproducedin
this era was realistic fiction. Unlike romantic fiction, realistic fiction aims to represent life as it really is and make the
reader believe that the characters actually might exist and the situations might actually happen. In order to have this
effectonthereader,realisticfictionfocusesontheordinaryandcommonplace.ThemajorwritersoftheRealisticPeriod
includeMarkTwain,HenryJames,BretHarte,andKateChopin.

The years 19001914 mark American Literature's Naturalistic Period. Naturalism claims to give an even more accurate
depictionoflifethanrealism.InaccordancewithapostDarwinianthesis,naturalisticwritersholdthatthecharactersof
their works are merely higherorder animals whose character and behavior is entirely based upon heredity and

50

environment.Naturalisticwritingstrytopresentsubjectswithscientificobjectivity.Thesewritingsareoftenfrank,crude,
andtragic.StephenCrane,JackLondon,andTheodoreDreiserarethemoststudiedAmericanNaturalists.

Between1914and1939,AmericanLiteratureenteredintoaphasewhichisstillreferredtoas"TheBeginningsofModern
Literature".LiketheirBritishcounterparts,theAmericanModernistsexperimentedwithsubjectmatter,form,andstyle
and produced achievements in all literary genres. Some wellknown American Modernist Poets include Robert Frost,
WilliamCarlosWilliams,EdnaSt.VincentMillay,ande.e.Cumming.IncludedamongAmericanModernistProseWriters
areEdithWharton,SinclairLewis,andWillaCather.

TheAmericanModernistPeriodalsoproducedmanyotherwritersthatareconsideredtobewritersofModernistPeriod
Subclasses.Forexample,F.ScottFitzgeraldisconsideredawriterofThe Jazz Age,LangstonHughes,andW.E.B.DuBois
writersofThe HalemRenaissance,andGertrudStein,T.S.Eliot,ErzaPound,andErnestHemingwaywritersofThe Lost
Generation.

The Great Depression marked the end of the American Modernist Period, and writers such as William Faulkner, John
Steinbeck,andEugeneONeilldealtwiththesocialandpoliticalissuesofthetimeintheirliteraryworks.

1939 marked the beginning of the Contemporary Period of American Literature. This period includes an abundance of
importantAmericanliteraryfiguresspanningfromWorldWarIIintotheNewMillennium.Thesewritersinclude,butare
notlimitedto,EudoraWelty,JohnUpdike,KurtVonnegut,SylviaPlath,ArthurMiller,TennesseeWilliams,ralphEllison,
GwendolynBrooks,ZoraNealHurston,AliceWalker,ToniMorrison,andMayaAngelou.

Duringthe1950s,avigorousantiestablishmentandantitraditionalliterarymovementemerged.Themainwritersofthis
movement,AllenGinsbergandJackKerouac,arecalledBeatWriters.Muchwritingofthe1960sand1970s,referredtoas
CountercultureWriting,continuedtheliteraryidealsoftheBeatMovement,butinamoreextremeandfeveredmanner.

Currently,thecontemporaryAmericanliterarysceneiscrowdedandvaried.WiththepassageoftimetheContemporary
Periodmaybereorganizedand/orexpanded.InthefuturewillwriterssuchasAnneRice,JohnGrisham,orAmyTanbe
includedinthecanonofAmericanLiterature?Wewilljusthavetowaitandsee.

AGlossaryofLiteraryTerms,6thed.,byM.H.AbramsandLongmanCompaniontoEnglishLiteraturebyChristopherGillie

51

INTRODUCTIONTOBRITISHLITERATURE

Englishliterature,literaturewritteninEnglishsincec.1450bytheinhabitantsoftheBritishIsles;itwasduringthe15th
centurythattheEnglishlanguageacquiredmuchofitsmodernform.Fortheliteratureofpreviouslinguisticperiods,Anglo
Saxonliterature, the literary writings in Old English, and Middle English Literature, literature of the medieval period,
c.1100toc.1500.

AngloSaxonliterature

Poetry
TherearetwotypesofOldEnglishpoetry:theheroic,thesourcesofwhicharepreChristianGermanicmyth,history,and
custom; and the Christian. Although nearly all Old English poetry is preserved in only four manuscriptsindicating that
whathassurvivedisnotnecessarilythebestormostrepresentativemuchofitisofhighliteraryquality.Moreover,Old
English heroic poetry is the earliest extant in all of Germanic literature. It is thus the nearest we can come to the oral
pagan literature of Germanic culture, and is also of inestimable value as a source of knowledge about many aspects of
Germanic society. The 7thcentury work known as Widsith, 7thcentury AngloSaxon poem found in the Exeter Book
(manuscriptvolumeofOldEnglishreligiousandsecularpoetry,ofvariousdatesofcomposition,compiledc.975andgiven
to Exeter Cathedral by Bishop Leofric (d. 1072).). It is an account of the wanderings of a Germanic minstrel and of the
legendsherelates.ThepoemgivesanexcellentdescriptionofminstrellifeintheGermanicheroicage.

52

ItisoneoftheearliestOldEnglishpoems,andthusisofparticularhistoricandlinguisticinterest.
Beowulf1,acompleteepic,istheoldestsurvivingGermanicepicaswellasthelongestandmostimportantpoeminOld
English.Itoriginatedasapagansagatransmittedorallyfromonegenerationtothenext;courtpoetsknownasscopswere
the bearers of tribal history and tradition. The version of Beowulf that is extant was composed by a Christian poet,
probablyearlyinthe8thcent.However,intermittentChristianthemesfoundintheepic,althoughaffectinginthemselves,
are not integrated into the essentially pagan tale. The epic celebrates the hero's fearless and bloody struggles against
monstersandextolscourage,honor,andloyaltyasthechiefvirtuesinaworldofbrutalforce.
Theelegiactheme,astrongundercurrentinBeowulf,iscentraltoDeor,TheWanderer,TheSeafarer,andotherpoems.In
theseworks,ahappypastiscontrastedwithaprecariousanddesolatepresent.TheFinnsburghfragment,TheBattleof
Maldon,andTheBattleofBrunanburh,whichareallbasedonhistoricalepisodes,mainlycelebrategreatheroisminthe
faceofoverwhelmingodds.Inthisheroicpoetry,allofwhichisanonymous,greatnessismeasuredlessbyvictorythanby
perfectloyaltyandcourageinextremity.
Much of the Old English Christian poetry is marked by the simple belief of a relatively unsophisticated Christianity; the
namesoftwoauthorsareknown.CdmonwhosestoryischarminglytoldbytheVenerableBede,whoalsorecordsa
few lines of his poetryis the earliest known English poet. Although the body of his work has been lost, the school of
Cdmonisresponsibleforpoeticnarrativeversionsofbiblicalstories,themostdramaticofwhichisprobablyGenesisB.
Cynewulf,alaterpoet,signedthepoemsElene,Juliana,andTheFatesoftheApostles;nomoreisknownofhim.Thefinest
poem of the school of Cynewulf is The Dream of the Rood, the first known example of the dream vision, a genre later
popular in Middle English Literature. Other Old English poems include various riddles, charms (magic cures, pagan in
origin),saints'lives,gnomicpoetry,andotherChristianandheroicverse.
TheverseformforOldEnglishpoetryisanalliterativelineoffourstressedsyllablesandanunfixednumberofunstressed
syllables broken by a caesura and arranged in one of several patterns. Lines are conventionally endstopped and
unrhymed.Theformlendsitselftonarrative;thereisnolyricpoetryinOldEnglish.Astylisticfeatureinthisheroicpoetry
is the kenning, a figurative phrase, often a metaphorical compound, used as a synonym for a simple noun, e.g., the
repeateduseofthephraseswhaleroadforseaandtwilightspoilerfordragon.

Prose
OldEnglishliteraryprosedatesfromthelatterpartoftheAngloSaxonperiod.ProsewaswritteninLatinbeforethereign
ofKingAlfred(reigned87199),whoworkedtorevitalizeEnglishcultureafterthedevastatingDanishinvasionsended.As
hardlyanyonecouldreadLatin,AlfredtranslatedorhadtranslatedthemostimportantLatintexts.Healsoencouraged
writing in the vernacular. Didactic, devotional, and informative prose was written, and the AngloSaxon Chronicle,
probablybeguninAlfred'stimeasanhistoricalrecord,continuedforoverthreecenturies.TwopreeminentOldEnglish
prosewriterswerelfric2,AbbotofEynsham,andhiscontemporaryWulfstan,d.1023,Englishchurchman,archbishopof
York(10031023)andbishopofWorcester,whoseLatinnamewasLupus.HeisburiedatEly.Homiliesareattributedto
1 Beowulf (b'uwoolf), oldest English epic, probably composed in the early 8th cent. by an Anglian bard in the vicinity of Northumbria. It survives in
only one manuscript, written c.A.D. 1000 by two scribes and preserved in the British Museum in the collection of Sir Robert Cotton. The materials for
the poem are derived mainly from Scandinavian history, folk tale, and mythology. Its narrative consists of two parts: The first relates Beowulf's
successful fights with the water monster Grendel and with Grendel's mother; the second narrates the hero's victory in his old age over a dragon and
his subsequent death and funeral at the end of a long life of honor. These events take place entirely in Denmark and Sweden. The poem contains a
remarkable fusion of pagan and Christian elements and provides a vivid picture of old Germanic life. It is written in a strongly accentual, alliterative
verse. There have been some 65 translations of the work into modern English; one of the most accomplished is by the Irish poet Seamus Heany (2000).

See The Beowulf Poet: A Collection of Critical Essays, ed. by D. K. Fry (1968); studies by K. Sisam (1965), J. C. Pope (rev. ed. 1966), E. B. Irving
(1968), R. Girvan and R. Bruce-Mitford (1971), K. S. Kiernan (1981), W. F. Bolston (1982), and J. D. Ogilvy and D. C. Baker (1986).

2 lfric

c.9551020, English writer and Benedictine monk. He was the greatest English scholar during the revival of learning fostered by the

Benedictine monasteries in the second half of the 10th cent. His aim was to educate the laity as well as the clergy. He wrote in English a series of
saints' lives and homiliesdesigned for use as sermons by the preachers who were generally unable to read Latin. lfric was also the author of a
grammar, a glossary, and a colloquy, which were for many years the standard texts for Latin study in English monasteries. Among his other writings
are the Heptateuch, a free English version of the first seven books of the Bible. lfric is considered the chief prose stylist of the period. His later
writings were strongly influenced by the balance, alliteration, and rhythm of Latin prose.

53

him,butmostofthemaredoubtful;fromthemasfromthoseoflfricwrittenforWulfstan,manydetailsofEnglishlaw
werederived.AhomilyonthemillenniuminEnglishalliterativeprose,styledLupisermoadAnglosisusuallyascribedto
him.Theirsermons(writteninthelate10thorearly11thcent.)setastandardforhomiletics.
AgreatdealofLatinproseandpoetrywaswrittenduringtheAngloSaxonperiod.Ofhistoricaswellasliteraryinterest,it
providesanexcellentrecordofthefoundingandearlydevelopmentofthechurchinEnglandandreflectstheintroduction
andearlyinfluencethereofLatinEuropeanculture.

Beowulf
THOUGH IT IS OFTEN VIEWED both as the archetypal AngloSaxon literary work and as a cornerstone of modern literature,
Beowulf has a peculiarhistory that complicatesboth itshistorical and its canonicalposition in English literature.By the
time the story was composed by an unknown AngloSaxon poet around 700 A.D., much of its material had been in
circulationinoralnarrativeformanyyears.TheAngloSaxonandScandinavianpeopleshadinvadedtheislandofBritain
andsettledthereseveralhundredyearsearlier,bringingwiththemseveralcloselyrelatedGermaniclanguagesthatwould
evolve into Old English. Elements of the Beowulf storyincluding its setting and charactersdate back to the period
before the migration. The action of the poem takes place around 500 A.D. Many of the characters in the poemthe
SwedishandDanishroyalfamilymembers,forexamplecorrespondtoactualhistoricalfigures.Originallypaganwarriors,
the AngloSaxon and Scandinavian invaders experienced a largescale conversion to Christianity at the end of the sixth
century.Thoughstillanoldpaganstory,BeowulfthuscametobetoldbyaChristianpoet.TheBeowulfpoetisoftenat
painstoattributeChristianthoughtsandmotivestohischaracters,whofrequentlybehaveindistinctlyunChristianways.
TheBeowulfthatwereadtodayisthereforeprobablyquiteunliketheBeowulfwithwhichthefirstAngloSaxonaudiences
werefamiliar.TheelementofreligioustensionisquitecommoninChristianAngloSaxonwritings(TheDreamoftheRood,
for example), but the combination of a pagan story with a Christian narrator is fairly unusual. The plot of the poem
concerns Scandinavian culture, but much of the poems narrative intervention reveals that the poets culture was
somewhatdifferentfromthatofhisancestorsandthatofhischaractersaswell.

TheworldBeowulfdepictsandtheheroiccodeofhonor,whichdefinesmuchofthestory,isarelicofpreAngloSaxon
culture. The story is set in Scandinavia, before the migration. Though it is a traditional storypart of a Germanic oral
traditionthe poem as we have it is thought to be the work of a single poet. It was composed in England (not in
Scandinavia)andishistoricalinitsperspective,recordingthevaluesandcultureofabygoneera.Manyofthosevalues,
includingtheheroiccode,werestilloperativetosomedegreeinwhenthepoemwaswritten.Thesevalueshadevolvedto
someextentintheinterveningcenturiesandwerecontinuingtochange.IntheScandinavianworldofthestory,tinytribes
of people rally around strong kings, who protect their people from dangerespecially from confrontations with other
tribes.Thewarriorculturethatresultsfromthisearlyfeudalarrangementisextremelyimportant,bothtothestoryandto
ourunderstandingofSaxoncivilization.Strongkingsdemandbraveryandloyaltyfromtheirwarriors,whomtheyrepay
with treasures won in war. Meadhalls such as Heorot in Beowulf were places where warriors would gather in the
presenceoftheirlordtodrink,boast,tellstories,andreceivegifts.Althoughthesemeadhallsofferedsanctuary,theearly
Middle Ages were a dangerous time, and the paranoid sense of foreboding and doom that runs throughout Beowulf
evidencestheconstantfearofinvasionthatplaguedScandinaviansociety.

Only a single manuscript of Beowulf survived the AngloSaxon era. For many centuries, the manuscript was all but
forgotten, and, in the 1700s, it was nearly destroyed in a fire. It was not until the nineteenth century that widespread
interestinthedocumentemergedamongscholarsandtranslatorsofOldEnglish.ForthefirsthundredyearsofBeowulfs
prominence, interest in the poem was primarily historicalthe text was viewed as a source of information about the
AngloSaxonera.Itwasnotuntil1936,whentheOxfordscholarJ.R.R.Tolkien(wholaterwroteTheHobbitandTheLordof
theRings,worksheavilyinfluencedbyBeowulf)publishedagroundbreakingpaperentitledBeowulf:TheMonstersand
theCriticsthatthemanuscriptgainedrecognitionasaseriousworkofart.
Beowulf is now widely taught and is often presented as the first important work of English literature, creating the
impression that Beowulf is in some way the source of the English canon. But because it was not widely read until the
1800s and not widely regarded as an important artwork until the 1900s, Beowulf has had little direct impact on the
developmentofEnglishpoetry.Infact,Chaucer,Shakespeare,Marlowe,Pope,Shelley,Keats,andmostotherimportant
Englishwritersbeforethe1930shadlittleornoknowledgeoftheepic.Itwasnotuntilthemidtolatetwentiethcentury
that Beowulf began to influence writers, and, since then, it has had a marked impact on the work of many important
novelistsandpoets,includingW.H.Auden,GeoffreyHill,TedHughes,andSeamusHeaney,the1995recipientoftheNobel
Prizeinliterature,whotranslatedtheepic

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OldEnglishPoetry

BeowulfisoftenreferredtoasthefirstimportantworkofliteratureinEnglish,eventhoughitwaswritteninOldEnglish,
an ancient form of the language that slowly evolved into the English now spoken. Compared to modern English, Old
English is heavily Germanic, with little influence from Latin or French. As English history developed, after the French
NormansconqueredtheAngloSaxonsin1066,OldEnglishwasgraduallybroadenedbyofferingsfromthoselanguages.
Thus modern English is derived from a number of sources. As a result, its vocabulary is rich with synonyms. The word
kingly, for instance, descends from the AngloSaxon word cyning, meaning king, while the synonym royal comes
fromaFrenchwordandthesynonymregalfromaLatinword.

Fortunately,moststudentsencounteringBeowulfreaditinaformtranslatedintomodernEnglish.Still,afamiliaritywith
the rudiments of AngloSaxon poetry enables a deeper understanding of the Beowulf text. Old English poetry is highly
formal,butitsformisquiteunlikeanythinginmodernEnglish.EachlineofOldEnglishpoetryisdividedintotwohalves,
separatedbyacaesura,orpause,andisoftenrepresentedbyagaponthepage,asthefollowingexampledemonstrates:
Settonhimtoheafdonhilderandas....

BecauseAngloSaxonpoetryexistedinoraltraditionlongbeforeitwaswrittendown,theverseformcontainscomplicated
rulesforalliterationdesignedtohelpscops,orpoets,rememberthemanythousandsoflinestheywererequiredtoknow
byheart.EachofthetwohalvesofanAngloSaxonlinecontainstwostressedsyllables,andanalliterativepatternmustbe
carriedoveracrossthecaesura.Anyofthestressedsyllablesmayalliterateexceptthelastsyllable;sothefirstandsecond
syllables mayalliterate withthe third together, or the first andthird may alliterate alone, orthe second and third may
alliteratealone.Forinstance:

Ladeneletton.Leohteastancom.
Lade,letton,leoht,andeastanarethefourstressedwords.

Inadditiontotheserules,OldEnglishpoetryoftenfeaturesadistinctivesetofrhetoricaldevices.Themostcommonof
theseisthekenning,usedthroughoutBeowulf.Akenningisashortmetaphoricaldescriptionofathingusedinplaceof
thethingsname;thusashipmightbecalledasearider,orakingaringgiver.Sometranslationsemploykennings
almost as frequently as they appear in the original. Others moderate the use of kennings in deference to a modern
sensibility. But the Old English version of the epic is full of them, and they are perhaps the most important rhetorical
devicepresentinOldEnglishpoetry.

PlotOverview

KINGHROTHGAROFDENMARK,adescendantofthegreatkingShieldSheafson,enjoysaprosperousandsuccessfulreign.He
buildsagreatmeadhall,calledHeorot,wherehiswarriorscangathertodrink,receivegiftsfromtheirlord,andlistento
storiessungbythescops,orbards.ButthejubilantnoisefromHeorotangersGrendel,ahorribledemonwholivesinthe
swamplandsofHrothgarskingdom.GrendelterrorizestheDaneseverynight,killingthemanddefeatingtheireffortsto
fightback.TheDanessuffermanyyearsoffear,danger,anddeathatthehandsofGrendel.Eventually,however,ayoung
GeatishwarriornamedBeowulfhearsofHrothgarsplight.InspiredbythechallengeBeowulfsailstoDenmarkwithasmall
companyofmendeterminedtodefeatGrendel.

Hrothgar,whohadoncedoneagreatfavorforBeowulfsfatherEcgtheow,acceptsBeowulfsoffertofightGrendeland
holdsafeastintheheroshonor.Duringthefeast,anenviousDanenamedUnferthtauntsBeowulfandaccuseshimof
beingunworthyofhisreputation.Beowulfrespondswithaboastfuldescriptionofsomeofhispastaccomplishments.His
confidence cheers the Danish warriors, and the feast lasts merrily into the night. At last, however, Grendel arrives.
Beowulffightshimunarmed,provinghimselfstrongerthanthedemon,whoisterrified.AsGrendelstrugglestoescape,
Beowulftearsthemonstersarmoff.Mortallywounded,Grendelslinksbackintotheswamptodie.Theseveredarmis
hunghighinthemeadhallasatrophyofvictory.

Overjoyed,HrothgarshowersBeowulfwithgiftsandtreasureatafeastinhishonour.SongsaresunginpraiseofBeowulf,
andthecelebrationlastslateintothenight.Butanotherthreatisapproaching.Grendelsmother,aswamphagwholives
inadesolatelake,comestoHeorotseekingrevengeforhersonsdeath.ShemurdersAeschere,oneofHrothgarsmost
trusted advisers, before slinking away. To avenge Aescheres death, the company travels to the murky swamp, where
BeowulfdivesintothewaterandfightsGrendelsmotherinherunderwaterlair.Hekillsherwithaswordforgedfora
giant,then,findingGrendelscorpse,decapitatesitandbringstheheadasaprizetoHrothgar.TheDanishcountrysideis
nowpurgedofitstreacherousmonsters.

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The Danes are again overjoyed, and Beowulfs fame spreads across the kingdom. Beowulf departs after a sorrowful
goodbyetoHrothgar,whohastreatedhimlikeason.HereturnstoGeatland,whereheandhismenarereunitedwith
theirkingandqueen,HygelacandHygd,towhomBeowulfrecountshisadventuresinDenmark.Beowulfthenhandsover
mostofhistreasuretoHygelac,who,inturn,rewardshim.

Intime,HygelaciskilledinawaragainsttheShylfings,and,afterHygelacssondies,Beowulfascendstothethroneofthe
Geats. He rules wisely for fifty years, bringing prosperity to Geatland. When Beowulf is an old man, however, a thief
disturbsabarrow,ormound,whereagreatdragonliesguardingahordeoftreasure.Enraged,thedragonemergesfrom
thebarrowandbeginsunleashingfierydestructionupontheGeats.Sensinghisowndeathapproaching,Beowulfgoesto
fightthedragon.WiththeaidofWiglaf,hesucceedsinkillingthebeast,butataheavycost.ThedragonbitesBeowulfin
theneckanditsfieryvenomkillshimmomentsaftertheirencounter.TheGeatsfearthattheirenemieswillattackthem
nowthatBeowulfisdead.AccordingtoBeowulfswishes,theyburntheirdepartedkingsbodyonahugefuneralpyreand
thenburyhimwithamassivetreasureinabarrowoverlookingthesea.

Characters
TheGeats
TheGeatswereBeowulf'sclanaseafaringtriberesidinginthesouthofSweden.Asthepoemsuggests,theGeatsappear
to have beenconquered and disappeared into history.The seafaringGeats appearto be the invading `Danes' of whom
Gregory of Tours writes concerning an attack by Chlochilaicus (Hygelac) against the Franks in 520. Later they were
connectedtotheGautarpeoplewhowereeventuallysubjugatedbytheSwedesinterritoryinlandofSweden.
Giventhishistory,F.R.KlaeberspeculatesthatBeowulfhimselfwasborninabouttheyear495.HedefeatsGrendeland
hismothertosaveHrogar'skingdomin515.FollowingHygelac'sraidin520,heeventuallybecomeskingoftheGeats
when Heardred was killed in 533. Fifty years after that, the poem says that Beowulf is killed by the dragon, but few
scholarsarewillingtocommittoanyspecificdate.
TheGeatsarereferredtoastheGeatas,GuGeatas(War),theSGeatas(Sea),andtheWederGeatas(Weather).

TheDanes
TheDaneswereresidentsofDenmark.Hrogar'sHeorotislikelytohavebeenlocatedontheislandofSjaellandnearthe
presentdaycityofRoskilde.
The Scylding line is known through Scandinavian and AngloSaxon sources; the AngloSaxon king Cnut (10161042, a
periodcoincidentwiththecompositionoftheBeowulfmanuscript)isknowntohavedescendedfromthisline.Thepoem
Widsi, with its catalogue of Germanic kings, list Hrogar and Hroulf as corulers of the Danes at Heorot, and of the
marriagearrangementwithIngeldoftheHeaoBards.
TheDanesarereferredtoastheDena,BeorhtDena(Bright),GarDena(Spear),HringDena(Ring,Corselet),EastDena,
NorDena (North), SuDena (South), WestDena, Scyldings (Sons of Scyld), ArScyldingas (Honour), HereScyldingas
(Army),SigeScyldingas(Victory),eodScyldingas(People),andIngwines(Ing'sFriends).

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TheSwedes
TheSwedeslivedinSwedennorthoftheVanerandVolterlakes,northoftheGeats.ArchaeologyinSwedenrevealsthe
gravemoundsofOngeneowwhowasburiedin510515,andhisgrandsonEadgils,buriedin575.Thesedatescorrespond
with
the
events
described
in
Beowulf.

KnownastheSweon(Swedes),theScylfingas(SonsofScylf),GuScylfingas(War),andHeaoScylfingas(War

TheFightatFinnsburhThefragmentoftheFinnsburhpoemandtheFinnsburhreferenceinBeowulfsomewhatoverlap.
ThesongsungduringthecelebrationatHeorotfollowstheeventsdescribedinthepoem.Thisoverlapinnarrativesisone
reasonwhythesetwoworksarestudiedtogether.
The original manuscript of the Fight at Finnsburh is now lost, but it is known to have existed on a single leaf in the
LambethPalaceLibrary,page489.ThetextwaspublishedinatranscriptionmadebyGeorgeHikesin1705.
The Fight at Finnsburh is an example of a typical Germanic `heroic lay' describing warriors' deeds in battle and the
speeches of significant warriors during the battle. The poem resembles others of the same genre such as The Battle of
Maldon,andisquitedifferentfromtheepicformofBeowulf.

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BeowulfistheonlypoemthatassociatesthepartiesinvolvedasDanesandFrisians.

Grendel was a monster, one of a giant race which survived the great flood, slain by Beowulf. It is told that his origins
stretchbacktoCain,whokilledAbel.HeisofparticularcauseoftroubletoHrothgarbecauseofhisdisregardforlawand
custom:herefusestonegotiateapeacesettlementortoaccepttributesofgold.
Thereisreferenceto"Grendel'sMere","Grendel'sPit"and"Grendel'sPeck"intheAngloSaxonChronicle.Thereferences
seem to collaborate the underground or water lair of the Beowulf epic, but it is unclear what the true origins of these
nameswere.
Grendel'smotherissupposedlyasmallercreaturethanherson.Sheisavengefulcreaturewhoillustratestheconstant
cycleofwarinthepoem,evenwhentheenemyappearstobedefeated.
Aspartofamythicalgiantrace,bothGrendelandhismotherappearimpervioustonormalswords,hencethedifficulty
theDanesmusthavehadintryingtodealwiththem.Beowulfeventuallyfindsaswordforgedbythegiantsthemselvesin
ordertodefeatthem,buttheirbloodrunshotenoughtomelteventhatblade.

WhowroteBeowulf?
Theauthordidnotsignanddatethemanuscript,andnorecordswerekeptofwhenthepoemwaswritten.Giventhelack
ofinformationpointingtotheoriginsofthepoem,scholarsmustdeducethetext'shistorybytheartifactthatexists.But
why study the authorship of the poem? Colin Chase summarises the reasons for this quest in the prologue of the
collectionTheDatingofBeowulf:
ThedateofBeowulf,debatedforalmostacentury,isasmallquestionwithlargeconsequences.Doesthepoemprovide
us with an accurate if idealized view of early Germanic Culture? Or is it rather a creature of nostalgia and imagination,
bornofthedesireofalateragetocreateforitselfagloriouspast?Ifwecannotdecidewhen,betweenthefifthandthe
eleventh centuries, the poem was composed, we cannot distinguish what elements in Beowulf belong properly to the
history of material culture,to the historyof mythand legend, topolitical history,or tothe development of theEnglish
literaryimagination.
The quickest and easiest assumption about the origins of the poem is that it was an oral poem that was eventually
transcribedandhassincebeenpasseddownintheformofthemanuscript.Scholarshavepresumedtostudythepoemas
ifitwereClassical,andfindmuchdifficultyinthenoncontinuousnarrativeandtheunfamilliarform.AllenFrantzen,in
`WritingtheUnreadableBeowulf',isuncomfortablewiththewayatraditionmaybeimposedby`canonical'editionssuch
astheNortonAnthology;heisalsocriticalofthequesttofindasingleauthorofthe`pure'poem.Instead,heislookingfor
thegapsinthetextthatindicatetohimthatithadbeenconstantlyrewrittentosuitthecultureofthattime.Ineffect,
theremayhavebeensomanyauthorsspannedthesixcenturiesthattheauthorshipremainsinquestion;therewritingof
Beowulfcontinuesinthepostmodernperiod.SeamusHeaney'spoetictranslationisthelatest.
Paull F. Baum finds a "literary vacuum without historical perspective" when the authorship and purpose of the poem
remains in question. In The Beowulf Poet he suggests that a single author had combined two folk stories with some
historicaleventsasabackdropandsomeChristiandoctrinetocreateanewformofheroicepic,orasTolkiensuggests,an
"heroicelegaic" poem. Baum even goes so far as to hypothesize an eighthcentury female author of the poem as
explanation for their pronounced roles, and for the lack of gory fighting (compared with the Finnsburh Fragment). The
brief historical digressions and Christian colouring suggest an audience familiar with those ideas and events in the late
eighthcentury.Withthedifficultlanguageandsometimesobscurereferences,hisconclusionisthatthepoemmayhave
beenacollectionoffolkloreandhistory,butintendedforasmallaudience.
It seems clear that the origin of Beowulf stems from a mix of Scandinavian, Germanic, and Anglian influences. What is
consistentlyuncleariswhichoftheseaudiencesthepoemwasintendedfor.AsastoryofDanes,Geats,andSwedes,one

58

mightsupposethatthepoemwasofScandinavianorigin,finallywrittendowninEngland,butthereisnoreferencetothe
charactersinScandinavianlore.
PerhapslookingcloselyattheartifactthatisBeowulfitself,themanuscript,canshedlightontheauthorshipofthepoem.
KevinS.Kiernansuggestsaneleventhcenturyorigin,andthatthesingleextantmanuscriptis,infact,thefirstcomposition
ofthepoeminhisbookBeowulfandtheBeowulfManuscriptandsummarizedinhisessayTheEleventhCenturyOriginof
Beowulf and the Beowulf Manuscript. Noting the efforts taken by the second scribe of the MS in proofreading and
correctingthetextofBeowulfandnottherestoftheNowellCodex,Kiernanbeginstofigurethatthecompositionofthe
textisnotamerecopyofsomeearliermanuscript,buttheoriginal.Anabruptshiftfromonescribetothenextonfolio
174vsuggeststhattwodistinctpoemsmayhavebeencombinedatthelastminute.
Whatismoststrikingaboutthemanuscriptisthedigressionfromthe20linegridoftherestofthecodexstartingfrom
folio163untiltheendofthepoem.Kiernanspeculatesthatthesecondscribehadcompletedhislasttwogatheringsof
pagesbeforethefirstscribe,thusrequiringhimtofitmoreperfoliothanhehadstartedwith.Kiernanconcludesthatthis
isaresultoftwoscribestryingtointegratetwopreviouslyunrelatedtextstogether.LeonardBoyle'sarticleBeowulfand
theNowellCodex,arguesthatbothscribeswereworkinginconcertwhiletheBeowulfsectionoftheNowellCodexwas
some36linesoftextunsynchronizedwiththemanuscripttheywerecopying;thusthediscrepanciesattempttofixthe
foliationintermsofthewholecodex.
Boylealsonotesthealterationoffittnumberscouldeitherbeamistakeonthefirstscribe'spart,orthatafitthadbeen
deliberatelyomittedwhilecopying.WithfittXXIIIImissingonthemanuscript,alaterscribehadchosentocorrectthisby
alteringfittsXXIIIIthroughXXVIIII.Boylealsosuggeststhatthefittsmayhaverecievedtheirnumberingforthefirsttime
on this manuscript. Kiernan takes this suggestion as further proof of the authorship being contemporary with the
manuscript.

TheSuttonHooShipBurial
TheshipatSuttonHoounderexcavation:

In 1939, a seventhcentury ship burial was excavated at Sutton Hoo near Woodbridge in Suffolk. Its significance to the
studyofBeowulfistheinterestingmixofChristianandpaganpracticesinvolvedintheburialthatmirrorsasimilarmixin
beliefsinthepoem.Effectively,someoftheartifactsbreathelifeintotheeventsofBeowulfwhilethepoemhelpsexplain
thecontentsofSuttonHoo.Together,archaeologyandliteraturepaintadetailedpictureofAngloSaxonculture.

PoliticsandWarfare
Warfare,orthethreatofwarfare,isaregularpartofAngloSaxonlife.Fromthenumberoffeudsandstoriesofclanfealty
throughoutBeowulf,thisisclear.OtherAngloSaxontexts,suchasTheBattleofMaldon,CynewulfandCyneheard,and
The Battle at Finnsburh are essentially of the Germanic `heroic lay' tradition commemorating the heroic efforts of
individualwarriors,theirstrategiesandfates.
twsgodcyning!
WhatmakesBeowulfsignificantlydifferentfromtheseotherworksisnottheportrayalofwarfare,buttheexaltationof
peaceandpeacekeepingthroughtheruleofpowerfulkings.

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Beowulfopensbydemonstratingthepowerofthosekings.ScyldScefing,whowassostrongtohavetakenmanymead
benchesandwasofferedmuchtributarygoldkeptthepeacebecausenoothertribedaredfacehim.Sheermilitarymight
isamajorpeacekeeperinsuchtroubledtimes.
Ofthemostprevalentvirtuesofkingshipistheresponsibledistributionofweaponsandtreasure.Thetreasuresbestowed
uponBeowulfbyHrogarfollowingthedefeatofGrendelanexampleoftheproperdistributionoftreasuretoawarrior
whohasprovenhimselfworthytoaking(*XV,*XXVI).
Hrogar'sexemplarystoryofHeremod,theDanishkingwhofailedtorewardhisretainerswithgoldandsoonlosttheir
loyalty,servesasanexampletoBeowulfonhownottobecomeabadking.
Theloyaltyoffollowersandtheconnexionsbetweenthatloyalty,successinbattleandingoldareintimate.WhileBeowulf
expoundsthisrelationship,itgivesreasonfortheveritabletreasurehordefoundatSuttonHoo.
Sinceaemg,
goldongrundegumcynnesgehwone
oferhigan,hydeseewylle.

JamesCampbellobservesthesecylcesofpowerinBeowulf.Heseeshowtreasuremustfeedthetribe's
capacity for war, and how war requires the supply and flow of treasure victory breeds thirst for
revenge,andfeudbringsuponfeud.Lookingattheintricatebeautyofthetreasuresinvolved,hehasfew
doubtsthatthoseancientwarriorswouldliveanddieforsuchtreasures.
ThesourceofthetechnologyinvolvedincreatingthetreasuresoftheAngloSaxonsclearlyevidenced
in the famousbelt buckle atSutton Hoo is still unclear.Worn openly,they serve asa symbol of one
warrior'sworthinesstohistribe.

Eoforlicscionon
oferhleorbergangehrodengolde,
fahondfyrheardferhweardeheold
gumodgrimmon.

TheboarwasasymbolofprotectionferocityinbattlefortheangloSaxons.Beowulf
wearsashininghelmetthatisintheaudiences'imaginationnotunliketheonefoundatBentyGrange,Derbys.
With textual descriptions matching arms, armour, and other artifacts so well, scholars who argue that the poem's
composition is in the seventh century, about the time of the Sutton Hoo burial, have a strong case, considering this
evidence.
Oftseldanhwrfterleodhryre
lytlehwilebongarbuge.
Swords(particularlytheirhilts)areasintricatelydecoratedbytheAngloSaxonsastheirjewellery.As
toolsofwar,theyarethegiftsthatmostsymbolizetheworthinessofawarriortoaclan.
The swords themselves have their own stories to tell. Some are given names such as `Hrunting',
Unfer'ssword,or`Ngling',Beowulf'ssword.Theyareoftenheirloomspasseddownfromfatherto
son,fromkingtoretainer,orcapturedinbattle.Therunesordecorationsonthehiltsmayrepresenta

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story,suchastheswordofEotensthatBeowulfretrievesfromGrendel'slairandappearstotellthestoryofhisorigins
(*XXIIII).
Whileswordsmaybeasymbolofworthinessandpower,theycanalsoincitefuryforrevenge.Beowulf'spredictionof
disasterforthemarriagebetweenFreawaruandIngeldisbasedontheimportanceofswordstothehonourofindividual
warriorsandtheirclan(*XXXVIIIXXXX).
`Healdunu,hruse,nuhlenemoston,eorlahte!'
The poem begins with the gilded Heorot a palace only possible through many years of peace of tribesman collecting
treasures and ends with Beowulf's death in front of the dragon's barrow where a long dead tribe had buried their
treasure.Thepoemdescribesaculturesodeeplyconnectedtoitsmaterialgoodsthattheyburyitalongwiththeirdead.
There is an understanding that with thegold goes a balance ofpower,and when a powerful (readrich) leader dies, to
redistributehisgoldirresponsiblywouldbeanimbalanceofpower.TheGeats'reburialofthegoldinBeowulf'sfuneral
moundindicatesakindofdespair:thegoldcandothemnogoodwithoutakingtodistributeit.

ChristianColouringinBeowulf
F.A.BlackburnsummarisesthepossiblesourcesfortheChristianelementsofthepoeminhisessayTheCristianColouring
intheBeowulf:
1.
2.
3.

ThepoemwascomposedbyaChristian,whohadheardthestoriesandusedthemasthematerialofthework.
ThepoemwascomposedbyaChristian,whousedoldlaysashismaterial.
Thepoemwascomposedbyaheathen,eitherfromoldstoriesorfromoldlays.Atalaterdateitwasrevisedbya
Christian,towhomweowetheChristianallusionsfoundinit.

Unfortunately,withoutrecordsofthoseoldstoriesorlaysuponBeowulfmayhavebeenbased,wecannotbesurewhich
oneoftheseistrue.
BlackburnalsoclassifiestheseChristianelements:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Passagescontainingbiblicalhistoryorallusionstosomescripturalnarrative.TheseincludereferencestoCain,
Abel,andtheflood.
Passagescontainingexpressionsindisapprovalofheathenideasorheathenworship.Thereisoneoftheseinthe
introductiontotheDanesnearthebeginningofthepoem.
PassagescontainingreferencestodoctrinesdistinctivelyChristian:referencestoheaven,hell,andthedayof
judgement.Hefindstencases.
IncidentalallusionstotheChristianGod.Hefindssome53cases.

Lookingcloselyattheseelements,Blackburnspeculatesonhoweasilyonecanrefigurethemtobepaganbythe
replacementofawordoromissionofaphrase,thusseeinghowscribesmayhavedonesointhepast.Reversingthe
Christianizingprocess,heconcludesthatatsomepoint,Beowulfmayhavebeenanentirelypagantext.

OtherschoosetoexaminehowwelltheChristianelementsfittogetherandformsuchanintegralpartofthepoem.Unlike
otherpoems,suchasTheWandererorTheSeafarer,inwhichitappearstomanyeditorsthattheChristianexhortations
appear[toearlycritics]tohavebeenappendedtotheotherwisepaganpoems,BeowulfhasChristianelements
throughoutthenarrative.
MariePadgettHamilton,inheressayTheReligiousPrinciple,arguesthatthepoemisconsistentwithAugustine'smodelof
God'sgrace:thatasocietyoftheRighteouslivetogetherwithoneoftheReprobateonearth.Thisprincipleandtheways
inwhichtheyarepresentedinthepoem,Hamiltonargues,wouldhavebeenfamilliartotheEnglishatthattime.Beowulf's
concern over his honour and wyrd his fate are concerns about Providence or Divine will. In wyrd, we can see the
beginningsofachangeinwhatwasapaganconceptanditsacceptanceofanewChristianizedmeaning.Ontheotherside,
GrendelisequatedtotheraceofCain,andthedragontobeanincarnationofthedevil.Again,thesecharacterizationsof
themonstrousandevilwerewellknowntotheEnglish.
WhatisclearaboutthereligiouscolouringofBeowulfisthatwhileitisclearlyChristian,thereislittleChristiandoctrine.
ReferencesareonlytotheOldTestamentnarrativesandconceptseasilyrefiguredfromtheirpaganequivalents.Itseems

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thatBeowulftellsofaperiodinthemidstofreligiouschangebeingneitherentirelypagan,norfullyChristian[ortobean
attempttointegrateGermanichistoryintoanOldTestamenttimeframe].Wecanletthedecisiontoyou,afterreading
andanalyzingthisEpic.

MiddleEnglishLiterature

PicturetakenfromthesiteLuminarium

TheMiddleAgesislikenootherperiodinTheNortonAnthologyofEnglishLiteratureintermsofthetimespanitcovers.
Caedmon'sHymn,theearliestEnglishpoemtosurviveasatext(NAEL8,1.2527),belongstothelatterpartoftheseventh
century. The morality play, Everyman, is dated "after 1485" and probably belongs to the earlysixteenth century. In
addition,fortheMiddleAges,thereisnoonecentralmovementoreventsuchastheEnglishReformation,theCivilWar,
ortheRestorationaroundwhichtoorganizeahistoricalapproachtotheperiod.
Whendid"EnglishLiterature"begin?Anyanswertothatquestionmustbeproblematic,fortheveryconceptofEnglish
literature is a construction of literary history, a concept that changed over time. There are no "English" characters in
Beowulf, and English scholars and authors had no knowledge of the poem before it was discovered and edited in the
nineteenthcentury.Althoughwritteninthelanguagecalled"AngloSaxon,"thepoemwasclaimedbyDanishandGerman
scholarsastheirearliestnationalepicbeforeitcametobethoughtofasan"OldEnglish"poem.Oneoftheresultsofthe
NormanConquestwasthatthestructureandvocabularyoftheEnglishlanguagechangedtosuchanextentthatChaucer,
evenifhehadcomeacrossamanuscriptofOldEnglishpoetry,wouldhaveexperiencedfarmoredifficultyconstruingthe
languagethanwithmedievalLatin,French,orItalian.IfaKingArthurhadactuallylived,hewouldhavespokenaCeltic
languagepossiblystillintelligibletonativespeakersofMiddleWelshbutnottoMiddleEnglishspeakers.
TheliterarycultureoftheMiddleAgeswasfarmoreinternationalthannationalandwasdividedmorebylinesofclassand
audience than by language. Latin was the language of the Church and of learning. After the eleventh century, French
becamethedominantlanguageofsecularEuropeanliteraryculture.Edward,thePrinceofWales,whotookthekingof
France prisoner at the battle of Poitiers in 1356, had culturally more in common with his royal captive than with the
commonpeopleofEngland.AndthelegendaryKingArthurwasaninternationalfigure.Storiesabouthimandhisknights
originatedinCelticpoemsandtalesandwereadaptedandgreatlyexpandedinLatinchroniclesandFrenchromanceseven
beforeArthurbecameanEnglishhero.
ChaucerwascertainlyfamiliarwithpoetrythathaditsrootsintheOldEnglishperiod.HereadpopularromancesinMiddle
English,mostofwhichderivefrommoresophisticatedFrenchandItaliansources.Butwhenhebeganwritinginthe1360s
and1370s,heturneddirectlytoFrenchandItalianmodelsaswellastoclassicalpoets(especiallyOvid).Englishpoetsin
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries looked upon Chaucer and his contemporary John Gower as founders of English
literature,asthosewhomadeEnglishalanguagefitforcultivatedreaders.IntheRenaissance,Chaucerwasreferredtoas
the"EnglishHomer."Spensercalledhimthe"wellofEnglishundefiled."
Nevertheless,ChaucerandhiscontemporariesGower,WilliamLangland,andtheGawainpoetallwritinginthelatter
thirdofthefourteenthcenturyareheirstoclassicalandmedievalculturesthathadbeenevolvingformanycenturies.

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Culturesisputinthepluraldeliberately,forthereisatendency,evenonthepartofmedievalists,tothinkoftheMiddle
AgesasasinglecultureepitomizedbytheGreatGothiccathedralsinwhicharchitecture,art,music,andliturgyseemto
joininmagnificentexpressionsofaunifiedfaithanapproachonerecentscholarhasreferredtoas"cathedralism."Such
aviewoverlooksthediversityofmedievalculturesandthesocial,political,religious,economic,andtechnologicalchanges
thattookplaceoverthisvastlylongperiod.
Thetextsincludedherefrom"TheMiddleAges"attempttoconveythatdiversity.Theydatefromthesixthtothelate
fifteenthcentury.EightwereoriginallyinOldFrench,sixinLatin,fiveinEnglish,twoinOldSaxon,twoinOldIcelandic,and
oneeachinCatalan,Hebrew,Greek,andArabic.
"TheLinguisticandLiteraryContextsofBeowulf"demonstratesthekinshipoftheAngloSaxonpoemwiththeversification
and literature of other early branches of the Germanic language group. An AngloSaxon poet who was writing an epic
basedonthebookofGenesiswasabletoinsertintohisworktheepisodesofthefalloftheangelsandthefallofmanthat
headaptedwithrelativelyminorchangesfromanOldSaxonpoemthoughttohavebeenlostuntilafragmentfromitwas
found late in the nineteenth century in the Vatican Library. Germanic mythology and legend preserved in Old Icelandic
literature centuries later than Beowulf provide us with better insights into stories known to the poet than anything in
ancientGreekandRomanepicpoetry.
"EstatesandOrders"samplesideasaboutmedievalsocietyandsomeofitsmembersandinstitutions.Particularattention
is given to religious orders and to the ascetic ideals that were supposed to rule the lives of men and women living in
religiouscommunities(suchasChaucer'sPrioress,Monk,andFriar,whohonorthoserulesmoreinthebreachthaninthe
observance)andanchorites(suchasJulianofNorwich)livingapart.TheRuleofSaintBenedict,writtenforasixthcentury
religiouscommunity,canservethemodernreaderasaguidebooktotheidealsanddailypracticesofmonasticlife.The
mutualinfluenceofthoseidealsandnewaristocraticidealsofchivalryisevidentintheselectionfromtheAncreneRiwle
(RuleforAnchoresses,NAEL8,[1.157159])andTheBookoftheOrderofChivalry.Thoughmedievalsocialtheoryhaslittle
tosayaboutwomen,womenweresometimestreatedsatiricallyasiftheyconstitutedtheirownestateandprofessionin
rebellionagainstthedivinelyordainedruleofmen.Anoutstandinginstanceisthe"OldWoman"fromtheRomanceofthe
Rose,whomChaucerreinventedastheWifeofBath.ThetenthcenturyEnglishBenedictinemonkAelfricgivesoneofthe
earliestformulationsofthetheoryofthreeestatesclergy,nobles,andcommonersworkingharmoniouslytogether.
ButthedeepseatedresentmentbetweentheupperandlowerestatesflaredupdramaticallyintheUprisingof1381and
is revealed by the slogans of the rebels, which are cited here in selections from the chronicles of Henry Knighton and
ThomasWalsingham,andbytheattackofthepoetJohnGowerontherebelsinhisVoxClamantis.Inthelatemedieval
genre of estates satire, all three estates are portrayed as selfishly corrupting and disrupting a mythical social order
believedtohaveprevailedinapasthappierage.
Theselectionsunder"ArthurandGawain"tracehowFrenchwritersinthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturiestransformed
theLegendaryHistoriesofBritain(NAEL8,1.117128)intothenarrativegenrethatwenowcall"romance."Theworksof
ChrtiendeTroyesfocusontheadventuresofindividualknightsoftheRoundTableandhowthoseadventuresimpinge
uponthecultofchivalry.SuchadventuresoftentaketheformofaquesttoachievehonororwhatSirThomasMalory
often refers to as "worship." But in romance the adventurous quest is often entangled, for better or for worse, with
personalfulfillmentofloveforaladyachievingherlove,protectingherhonor,and,inrarecasessuchasSirGawainand
theGreenKnight,resistingalady'sadvances.Inthethirteenthcentury,clericsturnedthesagasofArthurandhisknights
especiallySirLancelotintoimmenselylongproseromancesthatdisparagedworldlychivalryandtheloveofwomen
andadvocatedspiritualchivalryandsexualpurity.Thesewerethe"Frenchbooks"thatMalory,ashiseditorandprinter
William Caxton tells us, "abridged into English," and gave them the definitive form from which Arthurian literature has
survivedinpoetry,prose,art,andfilmintomoderntimes.
"The First Crusade," launched in 1096, was the first in a series of holy wars that profoundly affected the ideology and
cultureofChristianEurope.PreachedbyPopeUrbanII,theaimofthecrusadewastounitewarringChristianfactionsin
thecommongoalofliberatingtheHolyLandfromitsMoslemrulers.ThechronicleofRoberttheMonkisoneofseveral
versionsofUrban'saddress.TheHebrewchronicleofEliezerbarNathangivesamovingaccountofattacksmadebysome
ofthecrusadersonJewishcommunitiesintheRhinelandthebeginningsofthepersecutionofEuropeanJewsinthe
laterMiddleAges.Inthebiographyofherfather,theByzantineemperorAlexiusI,theprincessAnnaComnenaprovidesus
withstillanotherperspectiveoftheleadersoftheFirstCrusadewhomshemetontheirpassagethroughConstantinople
enroutetotheHolyLand.ThetakingofJerusalembythecrusaderscametobecelebratedbyEuropeanwritersofhistory
andepicpoetryasoneofthegreatestheroicachievementsofalltimes.TheaccountsbytheArabhistorianIbnAlAthir
andbyWilliamofTyretelluswhathappenedafterthecrusadersbreachedthewallsofJerusalemfromcomplementary
butverydifferentpointsofview.

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Near the beginning of Chaucer's General Prologue to The Canterbury Tales, the narrator tells his audience that he will
describethe"condicioun"ofthepilgrims,their"degree"(socialrank),"whichetheywere,"andalso"whatarraythatthey
wereinne";attheendhesaysthathehasnowtoldtheir"estaat"and"array"andapologizesifhehasnotarrangedthem
inthe"degree...asthattheysholdestonde,"i.e.,theircorrectsocialorder(NAEL8,1.219,lines3841;235,line718;
236, lines 74547). This professed concern for putting people in their proper place is obviously of great interest to the
poetandhisaudience.Itshouldalsobeamatterofinterestandamusementtomodernreaders,especiallyiftheyrealize
thatthepoet'sostensibleconcernforproprietyisamaskheputson.WhatisinterestingaboutChaucer'sPrologueisnot
thatitportraysanarchaicandclosedsocialorderbutthatitrevealsthatorderintheprocessofbreakingdown.Mostof
Chaucer'spilgrimsarebynomeanscontenttostayintheirproperplacesbutareengagedinthepursuitofwealth,status,
andrespectability.Theconflictbetweentheoldandthenew,betweentraditionandambitionisevidentnotonlyinthe
GeneralProloguebutthroughoutTheCanterburyTalesintheindividualpilgrims'prologuesandtales.
Everysocietydevisesterminologymeanttoexpresssocialstratificationsbutalsooftenusedtodisguisethem.Class,the
principal term in both popular and academic discourse about our society, is not very useful or accurate in analyzing
medieval society or the ways in which that society thought about itself. Although there may be some justification in
applying notions of class, especially middleclass, to Chaucer's world, that of the late fourteenth century, one needs to
keepinmindthattheMiddleAgescovertheperiodofamillenniumduringwhichsocialstructuresandsocialtheorywere
constantly changing. The main purpose of the following selections is to define more precisely such terms as condition,
degree, estate, and order, a word that can signify both the (theoretically) harmonious arrangement of the cosmos and
societyandindividualunitsofthegeneralorder,suchasareligiousorderoranorderofchivalry.
Oneofthemaindifferencesbetweentheorderofmedievalandtheorderofmodernsocietyisthe
preeminent role played in the former by the Church and its many institutions. Onethird of the
CanterburypilgrimseitherbelongtotheChurchthePrioress,theSecondNun(herchaplain),the
Nun'sPriest(oneofthreepriestswhoaresaidtoaccompanyher),theMonk,theFriar,theClerk,
and the Parson or are laymen who make a corrupt living out of it the Summoner and the
Pardoner.TheChurchwasinitselfacomplexsocialstructureandinevitablyconstitutedoneofthe
divisions made in medieval social theory, which was written in Latin by churchmen. An obvious
divisionisthebipartiteonebetweentheclergyandthelaitythosebelongingtotheChurchand
those outside it. Another one of several tripartite divisions which stems from the Roman
Church'sdoctrineofcelibacyoftheclergy,isbasedonsexualactivity:virgins,widowersandwidows,andmarriedpeople.
ThisisaclassificationthattheWifeofBathinherPrologueprofessestoacceptwhiledefendingherrighttoremarryas
oftenasshepleases(NAEL8,1.25660).
Religious orders were so called because they were "ordered" or "regulated" by a regula, i.e., a "rule" (the latter noun
comesintoEnglishfromOldFrenchreuleviaLatinregula),andadivisionwasrecognizedbetweenregularclergy,those
subjecttotheruleofamonasticorder,wholivedinareligiouscommunity,andsecularclergy,thosesubjecttothebishop
ofadiocese,wholivedintheworld.Bothregularsandsecularswereultimatelysubjecttothepope.Theoldestreligious
ruleinthissenseistheRuleofSaintBenedictdevisedinthesixthcenturybythefounderoftheBenedictineorder,who
hasbeencalledthe"FatherofWesternMonasticism."
Over the course of the Middle Ages, a schema of three mutually dependent estates
developed, one of the earliest articulations of which is that of the English Benedictine
monkAelfric.Accordingtothistheory,Christiansocietywascomprisedofthosewhopray
(the clergy), those who fight (the nobility), and those who work (the labourers). The
clergyseetoitthatthesoulsofallmaybesaved;thelabourersseetoitthatthebodies
ofallmaybefedandclothed;thenobilityseetoitthattheothertwoestatesmaycarry
outtheirfunctionsinpeaceandwithjustice.
In practice, such a schema does not begin to account for the varieties of religious, social, or
professional experience during the Middle Ages. The Rule of Saint Benedict sets forth the basic
principlesandpracticesofmonksandnunsandhelpsonetograsptheviolationsoftherulebythe
likes of Chaucer's fourteenthcentury Monk. But the religious and social world kept changing. The
Benedictineorderitselfchangedasitgrewmorepowerfulandpoliticallyinfluential.Inthetwelfth
centurynewordersappearedtheCisterciansandtheordersoffriarsfoundedbySt.Dominicand
St.Francis.Also,inemulationoftheearlyChristiandesertfathers,bothmenandwomenoftenchose
toliveashermitsorreclusesinsteadofjoiningreligiouscommunities.TheAncreneRiwle(Rulefor
Anchoresses)(NAEL8,1.15759),writtenforthreeEnglishsisters,containselementsofpassionate
devotionalexperienceabsentfromtheBenedictinerule.

64

In the twelfthandthirteenth centuries, the nobility developed a taste for romances of chivalry many of them about
King Arthur and the knights of the Round Table. The Round Table itself came to be thought of as an "order," in some
respectslikeareligiousorder.RamnLull'sTheBookoftheOrderofChivalry,oneofthemostpopularworksoftheMiddle
Ages,laysoutthatconceptintheformofabookofinstructionpresentedlikearulebyanolderknighttoayoungsquire
whoisabouttobedubbedintotheorderofknighthood.
Nuns belonged to religious orders following a rule. But St. Benedict's Rule, Aelfric, Ramn Lull, and most discussions of
estates and orders, except those, like Ancrene Riwle, addressed to women, are silent about woman's estate. Women
worked beside their husbands in the fields, in the textile industry, and in shops; but there was a body of antifeminist
literaturethatdealtwithwomenasthoughtheybelongedtoaseparateorderwhosesoleenterprisewassex,love,and
marriage.IntheRomanceoftheRose,JeandeMeun,thesecondofitstwoauthors,createdasatiriccharacternamedLa
vieille,theOldWoman,whoholdsalongdiscourseonhowtotakeadvantageofmenandsucceedinthatenterprise(in
which,sheconfesses,shehasfailed).HerdiscourseisanimportantsourceforChaucer'sWifeofBath'sPrologue.
Although the three estates were supposed to work together for the common good, their actual
historyisoneofconstantfrictionandconflict.ThemurderofThomasBecketbyfourofHenryII's
knights,forwhichthekingwasforcedtodopenance,isanexampleofanongoingdisputebetween
churchandstateaboutjurisdictionovertheclergy.Mutualhatredofthelowerandhigherestatesis
seen in the bloody English Uprising of 1381, which is represented here by a series of rebel
manifestos preserved in chronicles and an allegorical diatribe against the rebels in the Vox
ClamantisofthepoetJohnGower.Thatwork,aswellasGower'sMirourdel'Omme,illustratesthe
latemedievalgenre of estatessatire to which the General Prologue to the CanterburyTales is, in
some respects, related. In estates satires the idealism projected by St. Benedict, the author of
AncreneRiwle,andRamnLullhasgivenwaytoaprofoundpessimismandevendespairaboutthe
social order. The different estates now include in addition to bishops, monks, barons, knights,
and peasants merchants, doctors, lawyers, and other more specialized professions whose
activitiesprovideanunrelieved,ifoccasionallycolorful,catalogueofgreed,fraud,andhypocrisy.

GeoffreyChaucer

Chaucer(thenameisFrenchandseemstohavemeantoriginally'shoemaker')cameintotheworldprobablyin1338,the
firstimportantauthorwhowasbornandlivedinLondon,whichwithhimbecomesthecenterofEnglishliterature.About
hislife,asaboutthoseofmanyofourearlierwriters,thereremainsonlyveryfragmentaryinformation,whichinhiscaseis
largely pieced together from scattering entries of various kinds in such documents as court account books and public
records of state matters and of lawsuits. His father, a wine merchant, may have helped supply the cellars of the king
(EdwardIII)andsohavebeenabletobringhissontoroyalnotice;atanyrate,whilestillinhisteensGeoffreybecamea
page in the service of one of the king's daughtersinlaw. In this position his duty would be partly to perform various
humbleworkinthehousehold,partlyalsotohelpamusetheleisureoftheinmates,anditiseasytosupposethathesoon
wonfavorasafluentstoryteller.Heearlybecameacquaintedwiththeseamyaswellasthebrilliantsideofcourtlylife;

65

forin1359hewasinthecampaigninFranceandwastakenprisoner.Thathewasalreadyvaluedappearsfromtheking's
subscriptionoftheequivalentofathousanddollarsofpresentdaymoneytowardhisransom;andafterhisreleasehewas
transferredtotheking'sownservice,whereabout1368hewaspromotedtotherankofesquire.Hewasprobablyalready
married to one of the queen's ladiesinwaiting. Chaucer was now thirty years of age, and his practical sagacity and
knowledgeofmenhadbeenrecognized;forfromthistimeonheheldimportantpublicpositions.Hewasoftensenttothe
Continentto France, Flanders, and Italyon diplomatic missions; and for eleven years he was in charge of the London
customs,wheretheuncongenialdrudgeryoccupiedalmostallhistimeuntilthroughtheintercessionofthequeenhewas
allowedtoperformitbydeputy.In1386hewasamemberofParliament,knightoftheshireforKent;butinthatyearhis
fortuneturnedhelostallhisofficesattheoverthrowofthefactionofhispatron,DukeJohnofGaunt(uncleoftheyoung
king, Richard II, who had succeeded his grandfather, Edward III, some years before). Chaucer's party and himself were
soon restored to power, but although during the remaining dozen years of his life he received from the Court various
temporary appointments and rewards, he appears often to have been poor and in need. When Duke Henry of
Bolingbroke,sonofJohnofGaunt,deposedthekingandhimselfassumedthethroneasHenryIV,Chaucer'sprosperity
seemedassured,buthelivedafterthisforlessthanayear,dyingsuddenlyin1400.HewasburiedinWestminsterAbbey,
thefirstofthemenofletterstobelaidinthenookwhichhassincebecomethePoets'Corner.
Chaucer'spoetryfallsintothreeratherclearlymarkedperiods.FirstisthatofFrenchinfluence,when,thoughwritingin
English, he drew inspiration from the rich French poetry of the period, which was produced partly in France, partly in
England.ChaucerexperimentedwiththenumerouslyricformswhichtheFrenchpoetshadbroughttoperfection;healso
translated,inwholeorinpart,themostimportantofmedievalFrenchnarrativepoems,thethirteenthcentury'Romance
oftheRose'ofGuillaumedeLorrisandJeandeMeung,averycleversatiricalallegory,inmanythousandlines,ofmedieval
loveandmedievalreligion.Thispoem,withitsGallicbrilliancyandaudacity,longexercisedoverChaucer'smindthesame
dominant influence which it possessed over most secular poets of the age. Chaucer's second period, that of Italian
influence, dates from his first visit to Italy in 13723, where at Padua he may perhaps have met the fluent Italian poet
Petrarch, and where at any rate the revelation of Italian life and literature must have aroused his intense enthusiasm.
From this time, and especially after his other visit to Italy, five years later, he made much direct use of the works of
Petrarch and Boccaccio and to a less degree of those of their greater predecessor, Dante, whose severe spirit was too
unlike Chaucer's for his thorough appreciation. The longest and finest of Chaucer's poems of this period, 'Troilus and
Criseyde'isbasedonaworkofBoccaccio;hereChaucerdetailswithcompellingpowerthesentimentandtragedyoflove,
andthepsychologyoftheheroinewhohadbecomefortheMiddleAgesacentralfigureinthetaleofTroy.Chaucer'sthird
period, covering his last fifteen years, is called his English period, because now at last his genius, mature and self
sufficient,workedinessentialindependence.Firstintimeamonghispoemsoftheseyearsstands'TheLegendofGood
Women,' a series of romantic biographies of famous ladies of classical legend and history, whom it pleases Chaucer to
designateasmartyrsoflove;butmoreimportantthanthestoriesthemselvesistheProlog,wherehechatswithdelightful
franknessabouthisownideasandtastes.
Thegreatworkoftheperiod,however,andthecrowningachievementofChaucer'slife,is'TheCanterburyTales.'Every
oneisfamiliarwiththeplanofthestory(whichmaywellhavehadsomebasisinfact):howChaucerfindshimselfoneApril
evening with thirty other men and women, all gathered at the Tabard Inn in Southwark (a suburb of London and just
acrosstheThamesfromthecityproper),readytostartnextmorning,asthousandsofEnglishmendideveryyear,ona
pilgrimagetotheshrineofSt.ThomasaBecketatCanterbury.ThetravelersreadilyaccepttheproposalofHarryBailey,
theirjovialanddomineeringhost,thathegowiththemasleaderandthattheyenliventhejourneywithastorytelling
contest(twostoriesfromeachpilgrimduringeachhalfofthejourney)fortheprizeofadinnerathisinnontheirreturn.
Next morning, therefore, the Knight begins the series of tales and the others follow in order. This literary forma
collection of disconnected stories bound together in a fictitious frameworkgoes back almost to the beginning of
literature itself; but Chaucer may well have been directly influenced by Boccaccio's famous book of prose tales, 'The
Decameron' (Ten Days of StoryTelling). Between the two works, however, there is a striking contrast, which has often
beenpointedout.WhiletheItalianauthorrepresentshisgentlemenandladiesasselfishlyfleeingfromthemiseryofa
frightfulplagueinFlorencetoacharmingvillaandaholidayofunreflectingpleasure,thegaietyofChaucer'spilgrimsrests
onabasisofseriouspurpose,howeverconventionalitmaybe.
PerhapstheeasiestwaytomakeclearthesourcesofChaucer'spowerwillbebymeansofaratherformalsummary.
1.

HisPersonality.Chaucer'spersonalitystandsoutinhiswritingsplainlyandmostdelightfully.Itmustbebornein
mindthat,likesomeothersofthegreatestpoets,hewasnotapoetmerely,butalsoamanofpracticalaffairs,in
theeyesofhisassociatesfirstandmainlyacourtier,diplomat,andgovernmentofficial.Hiswideexperienceof
men and things is manifest in the lifelikeness and mature power of his poetry, and it accounts in part for the
broadtruthofallbuthisearliestwork,whichmakesitessentiallypoetrynotofanagebutforalltime.Something
ofconventionalmedievalismstillclingstoChaucerinexternals,asweshallsee,butinalertness,independenceof
thought,andacertaindirectnessofutterance,hespeaksforuniversalhumanity.Hispracticalexperiencehelpsto

66

explainaswellwhy,unlikemostgreatpoets,hedoesnotbelongprimarilywiththeidealists.Finefeelinghedid
not lack; he loved external beautysome of his most pleasing passages voice his enthusiasm for Nature; and
downtotheendofhislifeheneverlostthezestforfancifulromance.Hismindandeyewerekeen,besides,for
moral qualities; he penetrated directly through all the pretenses of falsehood and hypocrisy; while how
thoroughlyheunderstoodandrespectedhonestworthappearsinthepictureofthePoorParsoninthePrologto
'TheCanterburyTales.'Himselfquietandselfcontained,moreover,Chaucerwasgenialandsympathetictoward
allmankind.Butallthisdoesnotdeclarehimapositiveidealist,andinfact,rather,hewaswillingtoacceptthe
worldashefoundithehadnoreformer'sdreamof'shatteringittobitsandremouldingitnearertotheheart's
desire.'Hismoralnature,indeed,waseasygoing;hewastheappropriatepoetoftheCourtcircle,withverymuch
ofthebettercourtier'spointofview.Attheday'stasksheworkedlongandfaithfully,buthealsolovedcomfort,
andhehadnothingofthemartyr'sinstinct.Tohimhumanlifewasavastprocession,ofboundlessinterest,tobe
observed keenly and reproduced for the reader's enjoyment in works of objective literary art. The countless
tragediesoflifehenotedwithkindlypity,buthefeltnoimpulsetodashhimselfagainsttheexistingbarriersof
the world in the effort to assure a better future for the coming generations. In a word, Chaucer is an artist of
broadartisticvisiontowhomartisitsownexcuseforbeing.Andwheneverythingissaidfewreaderswouldhave
itotherwisewithhim;forinhisarthehasaccomplishedwhatnooneelseinhisplacecouldhavedone,andhe
hasleftbesidesthepictureofhimself,veryrealandhumanacrossthegulfofhalfathousandyears.Religion,we
shouldadd,wasforhim,asforsomanymenoftheworld,asomewhatsecondaryandformalthing.Inhisearly
works there is much conventional piety, no doubt sincere so far as it goes; and he always took a strong
intellectualinterestintheproblemsofmedievaltheology;buthebecamesteadilyandquietlyindependentinhis
philosophicoutlookandindeedratherskepticalofalldefinitedogmas.EveninhisartChaucer'slackofthehighest
willpower produced one rather conspicuous formal weakness; of his numerous long poems he really finished
scarcely one. For this, however, it is perhaps sufficient excuse that he could write only in intervals hardly
snatchedfrombusinessandsleep.In'TheCanterburyTales'indeed,theplanisalmostimpossiblyambitious;the
more than twenty stories actually finished, with their eighteen thousand lines, are only a fifth part of the
intendednumber.
Evenso,severalofthemdonotreallybelongtotheseries;composedinstanzaforms,theyareselectedfromhis
earlier poems and here pressed into service, and on the average they are less excellent than those which he
wrotefortheirpresentplaces(intherimedpentametercoupletthatheadoptedfromtheFrench).
2.

3.

4.

5.

His Humor. In nothing are Chaucer's personality and his poetry more pleasing than in the rich humor which
pervadesthemthroughandthrough.Sometimes,asinhistreatmentofthepopularmedievalbeastepicmaterial
intheNun'sPriest'sTaleoftheFoxandtheCock,thehumortakestheformofboisterousfarce;butmuchmore
oftenitisofthefinerintellectualsort,thesortwhichacarelessreadermaynotcatch,butwhichtoucheswith
perfectsurenessandcharminglightnessonalltheincongruitiesoflife,always,too,inkindlyspirit.Nofoibleistoo
triflingforChaucer'squietobservation;whileifhedoesnotchoosetodenouncethehypocrisyofthePardoner
and the worldliness of the Monk, he has made their weaknesses sources of amusement (and indeed object
lessonsaswell)forallthecominggenerations.
Heisoneofthegreatestofallnarrativepoets.Chaucerisanexquisitelyricpoet,butonlyafewofhislyricshave
come down to us, and his fame must always rest largely on his narratives. Here, first, he possesses unfailing
fluency.Itwaswithrapidity,evidentlywithease,andwithmasterfulcertainty,thathepouredouthislongseries
ofvividanddelightfultales.Itistruethatinhisearly,imitative,workhesharesthemedievalfaultsofwordiness,
digression, and abstract symbolism; and, like most medieval writers, he chose rather to reshapematerial from
thegreatcontemporarystorethantoinventstoriesofhisown.Butthesearereallyveryminormatters.Hehas
greatvariety,also,ofnarrativeforms:elaborateallegories;lovestoriesofmanykinds;romances,bothreligious
and secular; tales of chivalrous exploit, like that related by the Knight; humorous extravaganzas; and jocose
renderingsofcoarsepopularmaterialsomething,atleast,invirtuallyeverymedievaltype.
The thorough knowledge and sure portrayal of men and women which, belong to his mature work extend
through,manyvarioustypesofcharacter.ItisacommonplacetosaythatthePrologto'TheCanterburyTales'
presents in its twenty portraits virtually every contemporary Englishclass except thevery lowest,made to live
foreverinthefinestseriesofcharactersketchespreservedanywhereinliterature;andinhisotherworkthesame
powerappearsinonlylessconspicuousdegree.
Hispoetryisalsoessentiallyandthoroughlydramatic,dealingveryvividlywithlifeingenuineandvariedaction.
To be sure, Chaucer possesses all the medieval love for logical reasoning, and he takes a keen delight in
psychological analysis; but when he introduces these things (except for the tendency to medieval diffuseness)
theyaretruetothesituationandreallyservetoenhancethesuspense.Thereismuchinterestinthequestion
oftenraisedwhether,ifhehadlivedinanageliketheElizabethan,whenthedramawasthedominantliterary
form,hetoowouldhavebeenadramatist.

67

6.

7.

Asadescriptivepoet(ofthingsaswellaspersons)hedisplaysequalskill.Whateverhisscenesorobjects,hesees
themwithperfectclearnessandbringstheminfulllifelikenessbeforethereader'seyes,sometimesevenwith
theminutenessofanineteenthcenturynovelist.Andnooneunderstandsmorethoroughlytheartofconveying
thegeneralimpressionwithperfectsureness,withaforegroundwhereafewcharacteristicdetailsstandoutin
picturesqueandtellingclearness.
Chaucerisanunerringmasterofpoeticform.Hisstanzacombinationsreproduceallthewellproportionedgrace
of his French models, and to the pentameter riming couplet of his later work he gives the perfect ease and
metricalvarietywhichmatchthefluentthought.Inallhispoetrythereisprobablynotasinglefaultyline.Andyet
withinahundredyearsafterhisdeath,suchwastheironyofcircumstances,Englishpronunciationhadsogreatly
alteredthathismeterwasheldtoberudeandbarbarous,andnotuntilthenineteenthcenturywereitsprinciples
againfullyunderstood.Hislanguage,weshouldadd,ismodern,accordingtothetechnicalclassification,andis
really as much like the form of our own day as like that of a century before his time; but it is still only early
modernEnglish,andalittledefinitelydirectedstudyisnecessaryforanypresentdayreaderbeforeitsbeautycan
beadequatelyrecognized.

ThemainprinciplesforthepronunciationofChaucer'slanguage,sofarasitdiffersfromours,arethese:Everyletter
shouldbesounded,especiallythefinale(exceptwhenitistobesuppressedbeforeanothervowel).Alargeproportionof
therimesarethereforefeminine.Thefollowingvowelsoundsshouldbeobserved:

Stressedalikemodernainfather.
Stressedeandeelikeeinfeteoreainbreath.
Stressediasinmachine.
oolikeoinopen.
ucommonlyasinpushorlikeooinspoon.
ylikeiinmachineorpinaccordingasitisstressedornot.
ai,ay,ei,andeylikeayinday.
aucommonlylikeouinpound.
oulikeooinspoon.
ye(final)isadiphthong.
g(notinngandnotinitial)beforeeoriislikej.

LowellhasnamedinasuggestivesummarythechiefqualityofeachofthegreatEnglishpoets,withChaucerstandingfirst
in order: 'Actual life is represented by Chaucer; imaginative life by Spenser; ideal life by Shakespeare; interior life by
Milton; conventional life by Pope.' We might add: the life of spiritual mysticism and simplicity by Wordsworth; the
completelybalancedlifebyTennyson;andthelifeofmoralissuesanddramaticmomentsbyRobertBrowning.

JohnGower
The three other chief writers contemporary with Chaucer contrast strikingly both with him and with each other. Least
importantisJohnGower(pronouncedeitherGoerorGower),awealthylandownerwhosetomb,withhiseffigy,maystill
beseeninSt.Savior's,Southwark,thechurchofapriorytowhoserebuildinghecontributedandwherehespenthislatter
days.Gowerwasaconfirmedconservative,andtimehaslefthimstrandedfarintherearoftheforcesthatmoveandlive.
UnlikeChaucer's,thebulkofhisvoluminouspoemsreflectthepastandscarcelyhintofthefuture.Theearlierandlarger
part of them are written in French and Latin, and in 'Vox Clamantis' (The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness) he
exhauststhevocabularyofexaggeratedbitternessindenouncingthecommonpeoplefortheinsurrectioninwhichthey
threatened the privileges and authority of his own class. Later on, perhaps through Chaucer's example, he turned to
English,andin'ConfessioAmantis'(ALover'sConfession)producedaseriesofrenderingsoftraditionalstoriesparallelin
generalnatureto'TheCanterburyTales.'Heisgenerallyasmoothandfluentversifier,buthisfluencyishisundoing;he
wrapsuphismaterialintoogreatamassofverbiage.

Thevisionconcerningpierstheplowman.
TheactivemoralimpulsewhichChaucerandGowerlacked,andaconsequentdirectconfrontingoftheevilsoftheage,
appear vigorously in the group of poems written during the last forty years of the century and known from the title in
someofthemanuscriptsas'TheVisionofWilliamConcerningPiersthePlowman.'Fromthesixteenthcentury,atleast,
untilverylatelythiswork,thevariousversionsofwhichdiffergreatly,hasbeensupposedtobethesinglepoemofasingle
author,repeatedlyenlargedandrevisedbyhim;andingeniousinferencehasconstructedforthissupposedauthorabrief
butpicturesquebiographyunderthenameofWilliamLangland.Recentinvestigation,however,hasmadeitseematleast

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probable that the work grew, to its final form through additions by several successive writers who have not left their
namesandwhosepointsofviewwerenotaltogetheridentical.
Liketheslightlyearlierpoetof'SirGawainandtheGreenKnight,'theauthorsbelongedtotheregionoftheNorthwest
Midland,neartheMalvernHills,andlikehim,theywroteintheAngloSaxonverseform,alliterative,unrimed,andinthis
casewithoutstanzadivisions.Theirlanguage,too,theregulardialectofthisregion,differsverygreatly,aswehavealready
implied, fromthat of Chaucer, with much less infusion from theFrench; to the modern reader, except in translation, it
seems uncouth and unintelligible. But thepoem, though in its final state prolix and structurally formless, exhibits great
powernotonlyofmoralconvictionandemotion,butalsoofexpressionvivid,oftenhomely,butnotseldomeloquent.
The'firstpassus'beginswiththesleepingauthor'svisionof'afieldfulloffolk'(theworld),boundedononesidebyacliff
withthetowerofTruth,andontheotherbyadeepvalewhereinfrownsthedungeonofWrong.Societyinallitsvarious
classesandoccupationsisverydramaticallypresentedinthebriefdescriptionofthe'fieldoffolk,'withincisivepassing
satire of the sins and vices of each class. 'Gluttonous wasters' are there, lazy beggars, lying pilgrims, corrupt friars and
pardoners,venallawyers,and,withalivelytouchofrealistichumour,cooksandtheir'knaves'crying,'Hotpies!'Butasane
balanceispreservedtherearealsoworthypeople,faithfullaborers,honestmerchants,andsincerepriestsandmonks.
Soon the allegory deepens. Holy Church, appearing, instructs the author about Truth and the religion which consists in
loving God and giving help to the poor. A long portrayal of the evil done by Lady Meed (love of money and worldly
rewards)preparesfortheappearanceofthehero,thesturdyplowmanPiers,wholateronisevenidentifiedinahazyway
withChristhimself.ThroughPiersandhissearchforTruthisdevelopedthegreatcentralteachingofthepoem,theGospel
ofWorkthedoctrine,namely,thatsocietyistobesavedbyhonestlabor,oringeneralbythefaithfulserviceofevery
classinitsownsphere.TheSevenDeadlySinsandtheirfatalfruitsareemphasized,andinthelaterformsofthepoemthe
corruptionsofwealthandtheChurchareindignantlydenounced,withearnestpleadingforthereligionofpracticalsocial
lovetoallmankind.
In its own age the influence of 'Piers the Plowman' was very great. Despite its intended impartiality, it was inevitably
adopted as a partisan document by the poor and oppressed, and together with the revolutionary songs of John Ball it
became a powerful incentive to the Peasant's Insurrection. Piers himself became and continued an ideal for men who
longedforalessselfishandbrutalworld,andacenturyandahalflaterthepoemwasstillcherishedbytheProtestantsfor
itsexposureofthevicesoftheChurch.Itsmedievalformandsettingremoveithopelesslybeyondthehorizonofgeneral
readers of the present time, yet it furnishes the most detailed remaining picture of the actual social and economic
conditionsofitsage,andasagreatlandmarkintheprogressofmoralandsocialthoughtitcanneverloseitssignificance.

TheWiclifiteBible
A product of the same general forces which inspired 'Piers the Plowman' is the earliest in the great succession of the
modernEnglishversionsoftheBible,theoneconnectedwiththenameofJohnWiclif,himselfthefirstimportantEnglish
precursoroftheReformation.Wiclifwasbornabout1320,aYorkshiremanofveryvigorousintellectaswellaswill,butin
all his nature and instincts a direct representative of the common people. During the greater part of his life he was
connectedwithOxfordUniversity,asstudent,teacher(andthereforepriest),andcollegehead.Earlyknownasoneofthe
ablestEnglishthinkersandphilosophers,hewasalreadyopposingcertaindoctrinesandpracticesoftheChurchwhenhe
wasledtobecomeachiefspokesmanforKingEdwardandthenationintheirrefusaltopaythetributewhichKingJohn,a
century and a half before, had promised to the Papacy and which was now actually demanded. As the controversies
proceeded,Wiclifwasbroughtatlasttoformulatetheprinciple,latertobebasalinthewholeProtestantmovement,that
the final source of religious authority is not the Church, but the Bible. One by one he was led to attack also other
fundamentaldoctrinesandinstitutionsoftheChurchtransubstantiation,thetemporalpossessionsoftheChurch,the
Papacy,andatlast,fortheircorruption,thefourordersoffriars.IntheoutcometheChurchprovedtoostrongforeven
Wiclif,andOxford,againstitswill,wascompelledtoabandonhim;yethecouldbedrivennofartherthantohisparishof
Lutterworth,wherehediedundisturbedin1384.
Hisconnectionwithliteraturewasanunforeseenbutnaturaloutgrowthofhisactivities.Someyearsbeforehisdeath,with
characteristic energy and zeal, he had begun to spread his doctrines by sending out 'poor priests' and laymen who,
practicingtheselfdenyinglifeofthefriarsofearlierdays,foundedtheLollardsect.[Footnote:Thename,givenbytheir
enemies,perhapsmeans'tares.']Itwasinevitablenotonlythatheandhisassociatesshouldcomposemanytractsand
sermonsforthefurtheranceoftheirviews,but,consideringtheirattitudetowardtheBible,thattheyshouldwishtoputit
intothehandsofallthepeopleinaformwhichtheywouldbeabletounderstand,thatisintheirownvernacularEnglish.
HencesprangtheWiclifitetranslation.Theusualsuppositionthatfromtheoutset,beforethetimeofWiclif,theChurch
had prohibited translations of the Bible from the Latin into the common tongues is a mistake; that policy was a direct
resultofWiclif'swork.InEnglandfromAngloSaxontimes,asmustbeclearfromwhathasherealreadybeensaid,partial

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Englishtranslations,literalorfree,inproseorverse,hadbeenincirculationamongthefewpersonswhocouldreadand
wishedtohavethem.ButWiclifproposedtopopularizetheentirebook,inordertomaketheconscienceofeverymanthe
final authority in every question of belief and religious practice, and this the Church would not allow. It is altogether
probablethatWiclifpersonallydirectedthetranslationwhichhaseversincebornehisname;butnorecordofthefacts
hascomedowntous,andthereisnoproofthathehimselfwastheactualauthorofanypartofitthatworkmayallhave
been done by others. The basis of the translation was necessarily the Latin 'Vulgate' (Common) version, made nine
hundredyearsbeforefromtheoriginalHebrewandGreekbySt.Jerome,whichstillremainstoday,asinWiclif'stime,the
officialversionoftheRomanchurch.ThefirstWiclifitetranslationwashastyandratherrough,anditwassoonrevisedand
betteredbyacertainJohnPurvey,oneofthe'Lollard'priests.
Wiclifandthemenassociatedwithhim,however,werealwaysreformersfirstandwritersonlytothatend.Theirreligious
tracts are formless and crude in style, and even their final version of the Bible aims chiefly at fidelity of rendering. In
generalitisnotelegant,themoresobecausetheauthorsusuallyfollowtheLatinidiomsandsentencedivisionsinsteadof
reshaping them into the native English style. Their text, again, is often interrupted by the insertion of brief phrases
explanatoryofunusualwords.Thevocabulary,adaptedtotheunlearnedreaders,ismorelargelySaxonthaninourlater
versions,andtheolderinflectedformsappearoftenerthaninChaucer;sothatitisonlythroughourknowledgeofthe
laterversionsthatwetodaycanreadtheworkwithoutfrequentstumbling.Neverthelessthisversionhasservedasthe
startingpointforalmostallthosethathavecomeafteritinEnglish,asevenahastyreaderofthisonemustbeconscious;
andnoreadercanfailtoadmireinitthesturdySaxonvigorwhichhashelpedtomakeourownversiononeofthegreat
masterpiecesofEnglishliterature.

ThemostdirectexampleofChaucer'sFrenchstudiesishistranslationofLeRomandelarose,
a poem written in some 4000 lines by Guillaume Lorris about 1237 and extended to over
22,000 by Jean Clopinel, better known as Jean de Meun, forty years later. We know from
Chaucerhimselfthathetranslatedthispoem,andtheextantEnglishfragmentof7698lines
was generally assigned to him from 1532, when it was first printed, till its authorship was
challenged in the early years of the Chaucer Society. The ground of this challenge was its
wide divergence from Chaucer's practice in his undoubtedly genuine works as to certain
nicetiesofrhyme,notableastonotrhymingwordsendinginywithothersendingye.Itwas
subsequentlydiscovered,however, that the whole fragment was divisible linguistically into
three portions, of which the first and second end respectively at lines 1705 and 5810, and
thatinthefirstofthesethreesectionsthevariationsfromChaucer'sacceptedpracticeare
insignificant.Lines11705havethereforebeenprovisionallyacceptedasChaucer's,andthe
other two fragments as the work of unknown translators (James I of Scotland has been
suggested as one of them), which somehow came to be pieced together. If, however, the
difficultiesinthewayofthistheoryarelessthanthosewhichconfrontanyother,theyare
stillconsiderable,andthequestioncanhardlybetreatedasclosed.

WhileourknowledgeofChaucer'sRomauntoftheRoseisinthisunsatisfactorystate,anothertranslationofhisfromthe
French, the Book of the Lyon (alluded to in the "Retraction" found, in some manuscripts, at the end of the Canterbury
Tales), which must certainly have been taken from Guillaume Machault's Le Dit du lion, has perished altogether. The
strengthofFrenchinfluenceonChaucer'searlyworkmay,however,beamplyillustratedfromthefirstofhispoemswith
whichweareonsureground,theBookoftheDuchesse,or,asitisalternativelycalled,theDethofBlaunche.Herenotonly
are individual passages closely imitated from Machault and Froissart, but the dream, the May morning, and the whole
machineryofthepoemaretakenoverfromcontemporaryFrenchconventions.ButevenatthisstageChaucercouldprove
hisrighttoborrowbytheskillwithwhichhemakeshismaterialsservehisownpurpose,andsomeofthelinesintheDeth
ofBlauncheareamongthemosttenderandcharmingheeverwrote.

Chaucer's A.B.C., a poem in honour of the Blessed Virgin, of which the stanzas begin with the successive letters of the
alphabet, is another early example of French influence. It is taken from the Pelerinage de la vie humaine, written by
Guillaume de Deguilleville about 1330. The occurrence of some magnificent lines in Chaucer's version, combined with
evidencethathedidnotyetpossesstheskilltotranslateatallliterallyassoonasrhymeshadtobeconsidered,accounts
for this poem having been dated sometimes earlier than the Book of the Duchesse, and sometimes several years later.
Withitisusuallymovedupanddown,thoughitshouldsurelybeplacedinthe'seventies,theCompleynttoPity,afine
poem which yet, from its slight obscurity and absence of Chaucer's usual ease, may very well some day prove to be a
translationfromtheFrench.

While Chaucer thus sought to reproduce both the matter and the style of French poetry in England, he found other
materialsinpopularLatinbooks.Amonghislostworksarerenderingsof"OrigenesupontheMaudeleyne,"andofPope

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Innocent III on "The Wreced Engendring of Mankinde" (De miseria conditionis humanae). He must have begun his
attemptsatstraightforwardnarrativewiththeLyfofSeyntCecyle(theweakestofallhisworks,thesecondNun'sTalein
theCanterburyseries)fromtheLegendaAureaofJacobusdeVoragine,andthestoryofthepatienceofGrisilde,taken
from Petrarch's Latin version of a tale by Boccaccio. In both of these he condenses a little, but ventures on very few
changes,thoughheletshisreadersseehisimpatiencewithhisoriginals.

In his story of Constance (afterwards ascribed to the Man of Law), taken from the AngloNorman chronicle of Nicholas
Trivet, written about 1334, we find him struggling to put some substance into another weak tale, but still without the
couragetoremedyitsradicalfaults,thoughhere,aswithGrisilde,hedoesasmuchforhisheroineastheconventional
exaltationofonevirtueatatimepermitted.ItispossiblethatothertaleswhichnowstandintheCanterburyserieswere
writtenoriginallyatthisperiod.Whatiscertainisthatatsometimeinthe'seventiesthreeorfourItalianpoemspassed
intoChaucer'spossession,andthathesettoworkbusilytomakeuseofthem.Oneofthemostinterestingofthepoems
reclaimedforhimbyProfessorSkeatisafragmentary"Compleynt,"partofwhichiswritteninterzarima.Whilehethus
experimented with the metre of the Divina Commedia, he made his first attempt to use the material provided by
Boccaccio'sTeseideinanotherfragmentofgreatinterest,thatofQueneAnelidaandFalsArcyte.Morethanathirdofthis
istakenupwithanother,andquitesuccessful,metricalexperimentinAnelida's"compleynt,"butintheintroductionof
AnelidaherselfChaucermadethefirstofhisthreeunsuccessfuleffortstoconstructaplotforanimportantpoemoutof
hisownhead,andthefragmentwhichbeginssowellbreaksoffabruptlyatline357.

ForatimetheTeseideseemstohavebeenlaidaside,anditwasperhapsatthismoment,indespondencyathisfailure,
that Chaucer wrote his most important prose work, the translation of the De Consolatione Philosophiae of Boethius.
Reminiscencesofthishelpedtoenrichmanyofhissubsequentpoems,andinspiredfiveofhisshorterpieces(TheFormer
Age,Fortune,Truth,GentilesseandLakofStedfastnesse),butthetranslationitselfwasonlyapartialsuccess.Toborrow
hisownphrase,his"Englyshwasinsufficient"toreproducesuchdifficultLatin.Thetranslationisoftenbarelyintelligible
withouttheoriginal,anditisonlyhereandtherethatitflowswithanyeaseorrhythm.

IfChaucerfeltthishimselfhemusthavebeenspeedilyconsoledbyachievinginTroilusandCriseydehisgreatestartistic
triumph. Warned by his failure in Anelida and Arcyte, he was content this time to take his plot unaltered from the
Filostrato,andtofollowBoccacciostepbystepthroughthepoem.Buthedidnotfollowhimasameretranslator.Hehad
donehisdutymanfullyforthesaints"ofotherholinesse"inCecyle,GrisildeandConstance,whomhewasforbiddenby
therulesofthegametoclothewithcompletefleshandblood.Inthisgreatlovestorytherewerenosuchrestrictions,and
thecharacterswhichBoccaccio'streatmentleftthinandconventionalbecameinChaucer'shandsconvincinglyhuman.No
otherEnglishpoemissoinstinctwiththegloryandtragedyofyouth,andinthedetailsofthestoryChaucer'sgiftsofvivid
colouring,ofhumourandpity,areallattheirhighest.

AnunfortunatetheorythatthereferenceintheLegendeofGoodWomento"altheloveofPalamonandArcyte"istoa
hypotheticalpoeminsevenlinestanzasonthistheme,whichChaucerisimagined,whenhecametoplantheCanterbury
Tales,tohavesuppressedinfavourofanewversioninheroiccouplets,hasobscuredthecloseconnexionintemperand
powerbetweenwhatweknowasthe"Knight'sTale"andtheTroilus.Thepoemmayhavebeenmoreorlessextensively
revisedbefore,withadmirablefitness,itwasassignedtotheKnight,butthatitsmaincompositioncanbeseparatedby
severalyearsfromthatofTroilusisaestheticallyincredible.Chaucer'sarthereagainisatitshighest.Hetakestheplotof
Boccaccio'sTeseide,butonlyasmuchofitashewants,andwhathetakesheheightensandhumanizeswiththesameskill
whichhehadshownintransformingtheFilostrato.OftheindividualcharactersTheseushimself,thearbiteroftheplot,is
mostnotablydeveloped;Emilieandhertwoloversreceivejustasmuchindividualityastheywillbearwithoutdisturbing
the atmosphere of romance. The whole story is pulled together and made more rapid and effective. A comparison of
almostanysceneastoldbythetwopoetssufficestoshowChaucer'simmensesuperiority.Atsomesubsequentperiodthe
"Squire'sTale"ofCambuscan,thefairCanaceeandtheHorseofBrass,wasgallantlybeguninsomethingofthesamekey,
butChaucertookforitmorematerialsthanhecoulduse,andforlackofthehelpofaleaderlikeBoccacciohewasobliged
toleavethestory,inMilton'sphrase,"halftold,"thoughthefragmentwrittencertainlytakesusverymuchlessthanhalf
way.

Meanwhile,inconnexion(asisreasonablybelieved)withthebetrothalormarriageofAnneofBohemiatoRichardII(i.e.
about 13811382), Chaucer had brought to a successful completion the Parlement of Foules, a charming sketch of 699
lines,inwhichtheotherbirds,onSaintValentine'sday,counselthe"FormelEgle"onherchoiceofamate.Hissuccess
here,asinthecaseoftheDethofBlaunchetheDuchesse,wasduetotheabsenceofanyneedforaclimax;andthough
the materialswhich he borrowed were mainly Latin(with some help from passagesof the Teseide not fullyneeded for
Palamon and Arcyte) his method of handling them would have been quite approved by his friends among the French
poets.Amoreambitiousventure,theHousofFame,inwhichChaucerimagineshimselfbornealoftbyaneagletoFame's
temple,describeswhatheseesandhearsthere,andthenbreaksoffinapparentinabilitytogethome,showsacurious
mixtureofthepoeticidealsoftheRomandelaroseandreminiscencesoftheDivinaCommedia.AstheHousofFameis

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mostoftenrememberedandquotedforthepersonaltouchesandhumourofChaucer'sconversationwiththeeagle,so
the mostquoted passages in the Prologue to the Legende of Good Women are those in which Chaucer professes his
affectionforthedaisy,andtheattackonhisloyaltybyCupidanditsdefencebyAlceste.Recentdiscoverieshaveshown,
however,that(besidesobligationstoMachault)someofthetouchesaboutthedaisyandthecontroversybetweenthe
partisansoftheFlowerandoftheLeafaresnatchesfrompoemsbyhisfriendsFroissartandDeschamps,whichChaucer
takesupandreturnstothemwithprettycompliments,andthathewasindebtedtoFroissartforsomeoftheframework
ofhispoem.2BothofthetwoversionsoftheProloguetotheLegendearecharming,andsomeofthetales,notablythatof
Cleopatra, rank with Chaucer's best work. When, however, he had written eight and part of the ninth he tired of his
scheme,whichwasplannedtocelebratenineteenofCupid'sfaithful"saints,"withAlcestisastheirqueen.Withhisusual
hopefulnesshehadoverlookedtheriskofmonotony,whichobviouslyweighedheavilyonhimerehebrokeoff,andthe
lossoftheothertenstoriesislesstoberegrettedthanthatofthecelebrationofAlceste,andapossibleepiloguewhich
mighthaveexceededincharmthePrologueitself.

Chaucer'sfailuretocompletetheschemeoftheLegendeofGoodWomenmayhavebeenpartlyduetotheattractionsof
theCanterburyTales,whichwereprobablytakenupinimmediatesuccessiontoit.HisguardianshipoftwoKentishwards,
hisjusticeshipofthepeace,hisrepresentingthecountyintheparliamentof1386,hiscommissionershipoftheriverbank
betweenGreenwichandWoolwich,allmakeiteasytounderstandhisdramaticuseofthemerrycrowdshesawonthe
Canterburyroad,withoutsupposinghimtohavehadrecoursetoBoccaccio'sDecamerone,abookwhichthereisnoproof
ofhishavingseen.ThepilgrimswhomheimaginestohaveassembledattheTabardInninSouthwark,whereHarryBailey
washost,aresaidtohavenumbered"welnyneandtwentyinacompany,"andtheProloguegivesfulllengthsketchesofa
Knight,aSquire(hisson),andtheirYeoman;ofaPrioress,Monk,Friar,OxfordClerk,andParson,withtwodisreputable
hangersonofthechurch,aSummonerandPardoner;ofaSerjeantatLawandaDoctorofPhysic,andofaFranklin,or
countrygentleman,Merchant,Shipman,Miller,Cook,Manciple,Reeve,Ploughman(theParson'sbrother)andtheever
famous Wife of Bath. Five London burgesses are described in a group, and a Nun and Priest3 are mentioned as in
attendanceonthePrioress.Eachofthese,withChaucerhimselfmakingthetwentyninth,waspledgedtotelltwotales,
butincludingonesecondattemptandataletoldbytheYeomanofaCanon,whoovertakesthepilgrimsontheroad,we
have only twenty finished stories, two unfinished and two interrupted ones. As in the case of the Legende of Good
Women,ourlossisnotsomuchthatoftheadditionalstoriesasofthecompletedframework.Thewonderfulcharacter
sketchesoftheProloguearecarriedyetfartherbytheTalksontheRoadwhichlinkthedifferenttales,andtwoofthese
Talks,inwhichtheWifeofBathandthePardonerrespectivelyedifythecompany,havetheimportanceofseparateTales,
butbetweentheTalesthathavecomedowntoustherearesevenlinksmissing,4anditwaslefttoalaterandweaker
handtonarrate,inthe"TaleofBeryn,"theadventuresofthepilgrimsatCanterbury.

ThereferencetotheLyfofSeyntCecyleintheProloguetotheLegendeofGoodWomengivesexternalproofthatChaucer
included earlier work in the scheme of the Canterbury Tales, and mention has been made of other stories which are
indisputablyearly.IntheabsenceofanysuchmetricaltestsashaveprovedusefulinthecaseofShakespeare,thedatesat
whichseveraloftheTaleswerecomposedremaindoubtful,whileinthecaseofatleasttwo,theClerk'staleofGrisilde
andtheMonk'stragedies,thereisevidenceofearlyworkbeingrevisedandsupplemented.Itisfortunatelyimpossibleto
separatetheprologuetothecharminglytoldstoryof"yongeHughofLincoln"fromthetaleitself,and,withthe"quod
sche"inthesecondlineasproofthatChaucerwasherewritingspeciallyforhisPrioress,weareforbiddentolimitthenew
storiestoanyonemetreortone.Therecanbenodoubt,however,thatwhatmaybecalledtheTalesoftheChurls(Miller,
Reeve, Summoner, Friar, &c.), and the conversational outpourings of the Pardoner and Wife of Bath, form, with the
immortalPrologue,themostimportantanddistinctiveadditionstotheolderwork.Inthese,andinthePardoner'sstoryof
DeathandtheThreeRevellers,andtheNun'sPriest'smasterlyhandlingofthefableoftheCockandFox,bothofthemfree
fromthegrossnesswhichmarkstheothers,Chaucertakesstorieswhichcouldhavebeentoldinashortpageofproseand
elaboratesthemwithalltheskillinnarrationwhichhehadsedulouslycultivated.TheconjugalreminiscencesoftheWife
ofBathandtheReeve'sTalewithitsabominableclimax(lightenedalittlebyAleyn'sfarewell,lines316319)areamong
thegreatthingsinChaucer,assurelyasTroilus,andPalamonandArcyteandthePrologue.Theyhelpnotablytogivehim
thewidthofrangewhichmaycertainlybeclaimedforhim.

Inorsoonafter1391Chaucerwroteinproseforanelevenyearoldreader,whomheaddressesas"LitelLowismyson,"a
treatiseontheuseoftheAstrolabe,itsshortprologuebeingtheprettiestspecimenofhisprose.Thewearisometaleof
"MelibeeandhiswyfPrudence,"whichwasperhapsasmuchadmiredinEnglishasithadbeeninLatinandFrench,may
havebeentranslatedatanytime.ThesermononPenitence,usedastheParson'sTale,wasprobablytheworkofhisold
age."Envoys"tohisfriendsScoganandBukton,atranslationofsomebaladesbySirOtesdeGranson,andtheCompleynt
tohisPurscompletetherecordofhisminorpoetry.Wehavehisownstatementthatinhisyouthhehadwrittenmany
Balades,RoundelsandVirelayesinhonourofLove,andthetwosongsembeddedrespectivelyintheParlementofFoules
andtheProloguetotheLegendeofGoodWomenarecharmingandmusical.Hisextantshorterpoems,however,whether
earlyorlate,offernoexcuseforclaiminghighrankforhimasalyrist.Hehadverylittlesheersingingpower,andthough
therearefinelinesinhisshortpoems,witnessthefamous"Fleefrothepreesanddwellwithsoothfastnesse,"theylack

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thesustainedconcentrationofgreatwork.Fromthedrama,again,Chaucerwascutoff,anditisidletoarguefromthe
innumerabledramatictouchesinhispoemsandhisgiftofcharacterizationastowhathemighthavedonehadhelived
twocenturieslater.Hisownagedelightedinstories,andhegaveitthestoriesitdemanded,investedwithahumanity,a
graceandstrengthwhichplacehimamongtheworld'sgreatestnarrativepoets,andwhichbringtheEnglandofhisown
day,withallthecolourandwarmthoflife,wonderfullyneartoallhisreaders.

ThepartplayedbyChaucerinthedevelopmentoftheEnglishlanguagehasoftenbeenoverrated.Heneithercorruptedit,
asusedtobesaid,byintroducingFrenchwordswhichitwouldotherwisehaveavoided,norboreanysuchpartinfixingit
aswasafterwardsplayedbythetranslatorsoftheBible.Whenhewasgrowingup,educatedsocietyinEnglandwasstill
bilingual,andthechangesinvocabularyandpronunciationwhichtookplaceduringhislifewerethenaturalresultsofa
society, which had been bilingual with a bias towards French, giving an exclusive preference to English. The practical
identityofChaucer'slanguagewiththatofGowershowsthatbothmerelyusedthebestEnglishoftheirdaywiththecare
and slightly conservative tendency which befitted poets. Chaucer's service to the English language lies in his decisive
successhavingmadeitimpossibleforanylaterEnglishpoettoattainfame,asGowerhaddone,bywritingalternativelyin
LatinandFrench.Theclaimwhichshouldbemadeforhimisthat,atleastasregardspoetry,heprovedthatEnglishwas
"sufficient."

Chaucerborrowedbothhisstanzaformsandhis"decasyllabic"couplets(mostlywithanextrasyllableattheendofthe
line)fromGuillaumeMachault,andhismusic,likethatofhisFrenchmasterandhissuccessors,dependsverylargelyon
assigning to every syllable its full value, and more especially on the due pronunciation of the final e. The slower
movement of change in Scotland allowed time for Chaucer to exercise a potent influence on Scottish poetry, but in
Englandthisfinale,towhichmostoftheearliergrammaticalformsbyChaucer'stimehadbeenreduced,itselffellrapidly
intodisuseduringthe15thcentury,andaseriousbarrierwasthusraisedtotheappreciationoftheartisticvalueofhis
verse.Hisdisciples,HoccleveandLydgate,whoatfirsthadcaughtsomeechoesofhisrhythms,graduallyyieldedtothe
changeinpronunciation,sothattherewasnolivingtraditiontohanddownhissecret,whilesuccessivecopyistsreduced
his text to a state in which it was only by accident that lines could be scanned correctly. For fully three centuries his
reputation was sustained solely by his narrative power, his warmest panegyrists betraying no consciousness that they
werepraisingoneofthegreatesttechnicalmastersofpoetry.Evenwhenthusmaimed,however,hisworksfoundreaders
andloversineverygeneration,andeveryimprovementinhistexthassethisfameonasurerbasis.

Bythistimetheparaphraserswerealreadyatwork,DrydenrewritingthetalesoftheKnight,theNun'sPriestandtheWife
ofBath,andPopetheMerchant's.In1737(reprintedin1740)thePrologueandKnight'sTalewereedited(anonymously)
by Thomas Morell "from the most authentic manuscripts," and here, though by dint of much violence and with many
mistakes,Chaucer'slineswereforthefirsttimeinprintgiveninaforminwhichtheycouldbescanned.Thispromiseof
betterthings(MorellstillthoughtitnecessarytoaccompanyhistextwiththeparaphrasesbyBettertonandDryden)was
fulfilled by a fine edition ofthe Canterbury Tales (17751778), in which Thomas Tyrwitts scholarly instinctsproduced a
comparatively good text from secondrate manuscripts and accompanied it with valuable illustrative notes. The next
editionofanyimportancewasthateditebyThomaswrightforthePercySocietyin18481851,basedontheerraticbut
valuableBritishMuseummanuscriptHarley7334,containingreadingswhichmustbeeitherChaucer'ssecondthoughtsor
theemendationsofabrilliantlycleverscribe.In1866RichardMorrisreeditedthistextinamorescholarlymannerforthe
AldineeditionoftheBritishPoets,andinthefollowingyearproducedfortheClarendonPressSeriesaschooleditionof
thePrologueandTalesoftheKnightandNun'sPriest,editedwiththefulnessandcarepreviouslybestowedonlyonGreek
andLatinclassics.

AsupplementaryvolumeoftheOxfordedition,entitledChaucerianandotherPieces,issuedbyProfessorSkeatin1897,
containstheproseandversewhichhisearlypublishersandeditors,fromPynsonandThynneonwards,includedamong
hisWorksbywayofillustration,butwhichhadgraduallycometoberegardedasformingpartofhistext.Thereasonsfor
theirrejectionarefullystatedbyProfessorSkeatintheworknamedandalsoinTheChaucerCanon(1900).Manyofthese
pieceshavenowbeentracedtootherauthors,andtheirexclusionhashelpedtoclearnotonlyChaucer'stextbutalsohis
biography,whichused(asinthe"Life"publishedbyWilliamGodwinintwoquartovolumesin1803)tobeencumbered
withinferencesfromworksnowknownnottobeChaucer's,notablytheTestamentofLovewrittenbyThomasUsk.All
informationaboutChaucer'slifeavailablein1900willbefoundsummarizedbyMrR.E.G.KirkinLifeRecordsofChaucer,
partiv.,publishedbytheChaucerSocietyinthatyear.

1ThepositionsoftheHouseofFameandPalamonandArcytearestillmattersofcontroversy.

2TheFrenchinfluencesonthisPrologue,itsconnexionwiththeFlowerandtheLeafcontroversy,andthepriorityofwhat
hadpreviouslybeenreckonedasthesecondor"B"formofthePrologueoverthe"A,"weredemonstratedinpapersby
Prof.Kittredgeon"ChaucerandsomeofhisFriends"inModernPhilology,vol.i.(Chicago,1903),andbyMrJ.L.Loweson

73

"TheProloguetotheLegendofGoodWomen"inPublicationsoftheModernLanguageAssociationofAmerica,vol.xis.,
December,1904.

3TheTalksontheRoadshowclearlythatonlyonePriestinattendanceonthePrioress,andtwotalestoeachnarrator,
were originally contemplated, but the "Prestes titre" in line 164 of the Prologue, and the bald couplet (line 793 sq.)
explainingthateachpilgrimwastotelltwotaleseachway,wereprobablybothalterationsmadebyChaucerinmoments
ofamazinghopefulness.Thejourneywasreckoneda31days'ride,andeightorninetalesadaywouldsurelyhavebeena
sufficientallowance.

4TheabsenceoftheselinksnecessitatesthedivisionoftheCanterburyTalesintoninegroups,towhich,forpurposesof
quotation,thelettersAtoIhavebeenassigned,thelinenumerationoftheTalesineachgroupbeingcontinuous.
Pollard,A.W."GeoffreyChaucer."
EncyclopediaBritannica,11thEd.,vol.VI.

GeoffreyChaucer'sCanterburyTales

ChaucerispresumedtohavestudiedlawintheInnerTemple(anInnofCourt)ataboutthistime,althoughdefiniteproof
islacking.ItisrecordedthathebecameamemberoftheBritishroyalfamilycourtofEdwardIIIasavalet,yeoman,or
esquireon20June1367,apositionwhichcouldentailanynumberofjobs.Hetravelledabroadmanytimes,atleastsome
oftheminhisroleasavalet.In1368,hemayhaveattendedtheweddingofLionelofAntwerptoViolante,daughterof
GaleazzoIIVisconti,inMilan.TwootherliterarystarsoftheerawhowereinattendancewereJeanFroissartandPetrarch.
AroundthistimeChaucerisbelievedtohavewritten''TheBookoftheDuchess''inhonorofBlancheofLancaster,thelate
wifeofJohnofGauntwhodiedin1369.

ChaucertravelledtoPicardythenextyearaspartofthemilitaryexpedition,andvisitedGenoaandFlorencein1373.Itis
onthisItalytripthatitisspeculatedhecameintocontactwithMiddleAgesItalianpoetry,theformsandstoriesofwhich
he would use later. One other trip he took in 1377 seems shrouded in mystery, with records of the time conflicting in
details. Later documents suggest it was a mission, along with Jean Froissart, to arrange a marriage between the future
RichardIIofEnglandandaFrenchprincess,therebyendingtheHundredYearsWar.Ifthiswasthepurposeoftheirtrip,
theyseemtohavebeenunsuccessful,asnoweddingoccurred.

In1378,RichardIIsentChaucerasanenvoy/secretdispatchtotheViscontiandtoSirJohnHawkwood,EnglishManat
Arms/Soldier for Hire, in Milan. It is on the person of John Hawkwood that Chaucer based his Knight's Character. The
Knight,basedonhisdescription/dressandappearance,looksexactlylikeasoldierforhire/mercenarywouldhavelooked
inthefourteenthcentury.

A possible indication that his career as a writer was appreciated came when Edward III of England granted Chaucer ''a
gallonofwinedailyfortherestofhislife''forsomeunspecifiedtask.Thiswasanunusualgrant,butgivenonadayof
celebration, St. George's Day, 1374, when artistic endeavours were traditionally rewarded, it is assumed to have been
another early poetic work. It is not known which, if any, of Chaucer's extant works prompted the reward but the
suggestion of poet to a king places him as a precursor to later poets laureate. Chaucer continued to collect the liquid
stipenduntilRichardIIcametopower,afterwhichitwasconvertedtoamonetarygranton18April,1378.

ChaucerobtainedtheverysubstantialjobofComptrolleroftheCustomsfortheportofLondon,whichChaucerbeganon
8June1374.Hemusthavebeensuitedfortheroleashecontinuedinitfortwelveyears,alongtimeinsuchapostatthat

74

period.Hislifegoesundocumentedformuchofthenexttenyearsbutitisbelievedthathewrote(orbegan)mostofhis
famousworksduringthistimeperiod.Hewasmentionedinlawpapersof4May1380,involvedinthe''raptus''ofCecilia
Chaumpaigne. What ''raptus'' means, rape or possibly kidnapping, is unclear, but the incident seems to have been
resolvedquicklyanddidnotleaveastainonChaucer'sreputation.ItisnotknownifChaucerwasinthecityofLondonat
thetimeofthePeasants'Revolt(theTowerofLondonwasstormedin1381).

Whilestillworkingascomptroller,ChaucerappearstohavemovedtoKent,beingappointedasoneofthecommissioners
ofpeaceforKent,atatimewhenFrenchinvasionwasapossibility.Heisthoughttohavestartedworkon''TheCanterbury
Tales''intheearly1380s(thePilgrims'WayusedbyhisfictionalcharactersontheirwaytoCanterburyCathedralpasses
throughKent).HealsobecameaMemberofParliamentforKentin1386.Thereisnofurtherreferenceafterthisdateto
Philippa,Chaucer'swife,andsheispresumedtohavediedin1387.HesurvivedthepoliticalupheavalscausedbytheLords
AppellantsdespitethefactthatChaucerknewwellsomeofthemenexecutedovertheaffair.

On12July1389,ChaucerwasappointedtheClerkoftheWorks,asortofConstructionforemanorganizingmostofthe
king'sbuildingprojects.Nomajorworkswerebegunduringhistenure,buthedidconductrepairsonWestminsterPalace,
St.George'sChapel,Windsor,continuebuildingthewharfattheTowerofLondon,andbuildthestandsforatournament
held in 1390. It may have been a difficult job but it paid well: two shillings a day, over three times his salary as a
comptroller.InSeptember1390,recordssaythathewasrobbed,andpossiblyinjured,whileconductingthebusinessand
itwasshortlyafter,on17June1391,thathestoppedworkinginthiscapacity.Almostimmediately,on22June,hebegan
asdeputyforesterintheroyalforestofNorthPetherton,Somerset.Thiswasnosinecure,withmaintenanceanimportant
partofthejob,althoughthereweremanyopportunitiestoderiveprofit.ItisbelievedthatChaucerstoppedworkonthe
CanterburyTalessometimetowardstheendofthisdecade.

SoonaftertheoverthrowofhispatronRichardIIofEnglandin1399,Chaucervanishedfromthehistoricalrecord.Heis
believedtohavediedofunknowncauseson25October,1400,butthereisnofirmevidenceforthisdate,asitcomesfrom
theengravingonhistomb,whichwasbuiltmorethanonehundredyearsafterChaucer'sdeath.Thereissomefanciful
speculationmostrecentlyinTerryJones'book''WhoMurderedChaucer?AMedievalMysterythathewasmurderedby
enemiesofRichardIIorevenontheordersofhissuccessorHenryIVofEngland.Thereishowevernosolidevidenceto
supportthisclaim.

The new king(Henry IV) didrenew thegrants assignedto Chaucer byRichard, but in ''The Complaint of Chaucerto his
Purse;Chaucerhintsthatthegrantsmightnothavebeenpaid.ThelastmentionofChaucerinthehistoricalrecordison
5June1400,whensomemoniesowingtohimwerepaid.ChaucerwasburiedinWestminsterAbbeyinLondon,aswashis
rightowingtothejobshehadperformedandthenewhousehehadleasednearbyon24December1399.In1556his
remains were transferred to a more ornate tomb, making Chaucer the first writer interred in the area now known as
Poets'Corner.

Chaucer'sCanterburyTales
TheCanterburyTalescontrastswithotherliteratureoftheperiodinthenaturalismofitsnarrative,thevarietyofstories
thepilgrimstellandthevariedcharacterswhoareengagedinthepilgrimage.Manyofthestoriesnarratedbythepilgrims
seemtofittheirindividualcharactersandsocialstanding,althoughsomeofthestoriesseemillfittingtotheirnarrators,
perhapsasaresultoftheincompletestateofthework.Chaucerdrewonreallifeforhiscastofpilgrims:theinnkeeper
shares the name of a contemporary keeper of an inn in Southwark, and reallife identities for the Wife of Bath, the
Merchant,theManofLawandtheStudenthavebeensuggested.ThemanyjobsChaucerheldinmedievalsocietypage,
soldier,messenger,valet,bureaucrat,foremanandadministratorprobablyexposedhimtomanyofthetypesofpeople
hedepictedintheTales.Hewasabletoshapetheirspeechandsatirizetheirmannersinwhatwastobecomepopular
literatureamongpeopleofthesametypes.
Chaucer'sworksaresometimesgroupedinto,firstaFrenchperiod,thenanItalianperiodandfinallyanEnglishperiod,
with Chaucer being influenced by those countries' literatures in turn. Certainly Troilus and Criseyde is a middle period
work with its reliance on the forms of Italian poetry, little known in England at the time, but to which Chaucer was
probablyexposedduringhisfrequenttripsabroadoncourtbusiness.Inaddition,itsuseofaclassicalantiquityclassical
subjectanditselaborate,courtlylanguagesetsitapartasoneofhismostcompleteandwellformedworks.InTroilusand
Criseyde Chaucer draws heavily on his source, Bocaccio, and on the late Latin philosopher Boethius. However, it is The
CanterburyTales,whereinhefocusesonEnglishsubjects,withbawdyjokesandrespectedfiguresoftenbeingundercut
withhumourthathascementedhisreputation.

75

Chaucer'sLinguistic

Chaucerwroteincontinentalaccentualsyllabicmetre,astylewhichhaddevelopedsincearoundthetwelfthcenturyasan
alternativetothealliterativeAngloSaxon.Chaucerisknownformetricalinnovation,inventingtherhyme,andhewasone
ofthefirstEnglishpoetstousethefivestressline,theiambicpentameter,inhiswork,withonlyafewanonymousshort
works using it before him. The arrangement of these fivestress lines into rhyming couplets, first seen in his Legend of
GoodWomeninmuchofhislaterworkandbecameoneofthestandardpoeticformsinEnglish.Hisearlyinfluenceasa
satiristisalsoimportant,withthecommonhumorousdevice,thefunnyaccentofaregional,apparentlymakingitsfirst
appearanceinTheReevesTale.
ThepoetryofChaucer,alongwithotherwritersoftheera,iscreditedwithhelpingtostandardizetheLondonDialectof
theMiddleEnglishacombinationoftheKentishandMidlandsdialects.Thisisprobablyoverstated;theinfluenceofthe
court,chanceryandbureaucracyofwhichChaucerwasapartremainsamoreprobableinfluenceonthedevelopment
ofStandardEnglish,ModernEnglishissomewhatdistancedfromthelanguageofChaucer'spoemsowingtotheeffectof
the GreatVowel Shift some time afterhisdeath. This change in the pronunciation ofEnglish, stillnot fullyunderstood,
makesthereadingofChaucerdifficultforthemodernaudience,thoughitisthoughtbysomethatthemodernScottish
accentiscloselyrelatedtothesoundofMiddleEnglish.ThestatusofthefinaleinChaucer'sverseisuncertain:itseems
likelythatduringtheperiodofChaucer'swritingthefinalewasdroppingoutofcolloquialEnglishandthatitsusewas
somewhatirregular.Chaucer'sversificationsuggeststhatthefinaleissometimestobevocalised,andsometimestobe
silent;however,thisremainsapointonwhichthereisdisagreement.Whenitisvocalised,mostscholarspronounceitasa
schwa. Apart from the irregular spelling, much of the vocabulary is recognisable to the modern reader. Chaucer is also
recordedintheOxfordDictionaryasthefirstauthortousemanycommonEnglishwordsinhiswritings.Thesewordswere
probably frequently used in the language at the time but Chaucer, with his ear for common speech, is the earliest
manuscript source. Acceptable, alkali, altercation, amble, angrily, annex, annoyance, approaching, arbitration, armless,
army,arrogant,arsenic,arc,artilleryandaspectarejustsomeofthosefromthefirstletterofthealphabet.

Literary
Chaucer's early popularity is attested by the many poets who imitated his works. John Lydgate was one of earliest
imitators who wrote a continuation to the Tales. Later a group of poets including Gavin Douglas, William Dunbar and
RobertHenrysonwereknownastheScottishChauceriansfortheirindebtednesstohisstyle.Manyofthemanuscriptsof
Chaucer's works contain material from these admiring poets and the later romantic era poets' appreciation of Chaucer
wascolouredbytheirnotknowingwhichoftheworksweregenuine.17thand18thcenturywriters,suchasJohnDryden,
admiredChaucerforhisstories,butnotforhisrhythmandrhyme,asfewcriticscouldthenreadMiddleEnglishandthe
texthadbeenbutcheredbyprinters,leavingasomewhatunadvisablemess.Itwasnotuntilthelate19thcenturythatthe
official Chaucerian canon, accepted today, was decided upon; largely as a result of Walter William Skeat's work. One
hundredandfiftyyearsafterhisdeath,TheCanterburyTaleswasselectedbyWilliamCaxtontobeoneofthefirstbooks
tobeprintedinEngland.

Chaucer'sEnglish

76


Although Chaucer's language is much closer to modern English than the text of Beowulf, it differs enough that most
publications modernise (and sometimes bowdlerise) his idiom. Following is a sample from the prologue of the
"SummonersTalethatcomparesChaucer'stexttoamoderntranslation:
Line

Original
Thisfrerebosteththatheknowethhelle,
AndGoditwoot,thatitislitelwonder;
Freresandfeendesbeenbutlyteasonder.
For,pardee,yehanoftetymeherdtelle
Howthatafrereravyshedwastohelle
Inspiritonesbyavisioun;
Andasanangelladdehymupanddoun,
Toshewenhymthepeynesthatthewere,
Inaltheplacesaughhenatafrere;
Ofootherfolkhesaughynoweinwo.
Untothisangelspakthefreretho:
Now,sire,quodhe,hanfreresswichagrace
Thatnoonofhemshalcometothisplace?
Yis,quodthisaungel,manyamillioun!
Anduntosathanasheladdehymdoun.
Andnowhathsathanas,seithhe,atayl
Brodderthanofacarrykisthesayl.
Holdupthytayl,thousathanas!quodhe;
sheweforththyners,andlatthefrerese
Whereisthenestoffreresinthisplace!
Anderthathalfafurlongweyofspace,
Rightsoasbeesoutswarmenfromanhyve,
Outofthedevelesersthergonnedryve
Twentythousandfreresonaroute,
Andthurghouthelleswarmedalaboute,
Andcomenagaynasfasteastheymaygon,
Andinhiserstheycrepteneverychon.
Heclaptehistaylagaynandlayfulstille.

Translation
Thisfriarboaststhatheknowshell,
AndGodknowsthatitislittlewonder;
Friarsandfiendsareseldomfarapart.
For,byGod,youhaveofttimesheardtell
Howaravishedfriarwenttohell
Inspirit,oncebyavision;
Andasanangelledhimupanddown,
Toshowhimthepainsthatwerethere,
Inthewholeplacehesawnotonefriar;
Hesawenoughofotherfolkinwoe.
Totheangelspokethefriarthus:
"Nowsir,"saidhe,"Arefriarsinsuchgoodgrace
Thatnoneofthemcometothisplace?"
"Yes,"answeredtheangel,"manyamillion!"
AndtheangelledhimdowntoSatan.
Hesaid,"AndSatanhasatail,
Broaderthanalargeship'ssail.
Holdupyourtail,Satan!"heordered.
"Showyourarse,andletthefriarsee
Wherethenestoffriarsisinthisplace!"
Andbeforehalfafurlongofspace,
Justasbeesswarmfromahive,
Outofthedevil'sarsetheredrove
Twentythousandfriarsonaroute,
Andtheyswarmedalloverhell,
Andcameagainasfastastheyhadgone,
Andeveryonecreptbackintohisarse.
Heclappedhistailagainandlayverystill.

Thegeneralprologue

77


HerebygynneththeBookoftheTalesofCaunterbury(withthetranslation)

1WhanthatAprillwithhisshouressoote
WhenAprilwithitssweetsmellingshowers
2ThedroghteofMarchhathpercedtotheroote,
HaspiercedthedroughtofMarchtotheroot,
3Andbathedeveryveyneinswichlicour
Andbathedeveryvein(oftheplants)insuchliquid
4Ofwhichvertuengendredistheflour;
Bywhichpowerthefloweriscreated;
5WhanZephiruseekwithhissweetebreeth
WhentheWestWindalsowithitssweetbreath,
6Inspiredhathineveryholtandheeth
Ineverywoodandfieldhasbreathedlifeinto
7Thetendrecroppes,andtheyongesonne
Thetendernewleaves,andtheyoungsun
8HathintheRamhishalfcoursyronne,
HasrunhalfitscourseinAries,
9Andsmalefowelesmakenmelodye,
Andsmallfowlsmakemelody,
10Thatslepenalthenyghtwithopenye
Thosethatsleepallthenightwithopeneyes
11(SoprikethhemNatureinhircorages),
(SoNatureincitesthemintheirhearts),
12Thannelongenfolktogoononpilgrimages,
Thenfolklongtogoonpilgrimages,
13Andpalmeresfortosekenstraungestrondes,
Andprofessionalpilgrimstoseekforeignshores,
14Tofernehalwes,kowtheinsondrylondes;
Todistantshrines,knowninvariouslands;
15Andspeciallyfromeveryshiresende
Andspeciallyfromeveryshire'send
16OfEngelondtoCaunterburytheywende,
OfEnglandtoCanterburytheytravel,
17Thehoolyblisfulmartirfortoseke,
Toseektheholyblessedmartyr,
18Thathemhathholpenwhanthattheywereseeke.
Whohelpedthemwhentheyweresick.

Thebedroomsandthestableswerespacious,
29Andwelwewerenesedattebeste.
Andwewerewellaccommodatedinthebestway.
30Andshortly,whanthesonnewastoreste,
Andinbrief,whenthesunwas(gone)torest,
31SohaddeIspokenwithhemeverichon
Ihadsospokenwitheveryoneofthem
32ThatIwasofhirfelaweshipeanon,
ThatIwasoftheirfellowshipstraightway,
33Andmadeforwarderlyfortoryse,
Andmadeagreementtoriseearly,
34TotakeoureweytherasIyowdevyse.
TotakeourwaywhereI(will)tellyou.
35Butnathelees,whilIhavetymeandspace,
Butnonetheless,whileIhavetimeandopportunity,
36ErthatIfertherinthistalepace,
BeforeIproceedfurtherinthistale,
37Methynkethitacordaunttoresoun
Itseemstomeinaccordwithreason
38Totelleyowalthecondicioun
Totellyouallthecircumstances
39Ofechofhem,soasitsemedme,
Ofeachofthem,asitseemedtome,
40Andwhichetheyweren,andofwhatdegree,
Andwhotheywere,andofwhatsocialrank,
41Andeekinwhatarraythattheywereinne;
Andalsowhatclothingthattheywerein;
42AndataknyghtthanwolIfirstbigynne.
AndataknightthenwillIfirstbegin.
43AKNYGHTtherwas,andthataworthyman,
AKNIGHTtherewas,andthat(onewas)aworthy
man,
44Thatfrothetymethathefirstbigan
Whofromthetimethathefirstbegan
45Toridenout,helovedchivalrie,
Torideout,helovedchivalry,
46Troutheandhonour,fredomandcurteisie.
Fidelityandgoodreputation,generosityand
courtesy.
47Fulworthywasheinhislordeswerre,
Hewasveryworthyinhislord'swar,
48Andthertohaddeheriden,nomanferre,
Andforthathehadridden,nomanfarther,
49Aswelincristendomasinhethenesse,
AswellinChristendomasinheathenlands,
50Andeverehonouredforhisworthynesse;
And(was)everhonoredforhisworthiness;
51AtAlisaundrehewaswhanitwaswonne.
HewasatAlexandriawhenitwaswon.
52Fuloftetymehehaddethebordbigonne
Hehadsatverymanytimesintheplaceofhonor,
53AbovenallenacionsinPruce;
Above(knightsof)allnationsinPrussia;

19Bifilthatinthatsesononaday,
Ithappenedthatinthatseasonononeday,
20InSouthwerkattheTabardasIlay
InSouthwarkattheTabardInnasIlay
21Redytowendenonmypilgrymage
Readytogoonmypilgrimage
22ToCaunterburywithfuldevoutcorage,
ToCanterburywithaverydevoutspirit,
23Atnyghtwascomeintothathostelrye
Atnighthadcomeintothathostelry
24Welnyneandtwentyinacompaignye
Wellnineandtwentyinacompany
25Ofsondryfolk,byaventureyfalle
Ofvarioussortsofpeople,bychancefallen
26Infelaweshipe,andpilgrimesweretheyalle,
Infellowship,andtheywereallpilgrims,
27ThattowardCaunterburywoldenryde.
WhointendedtoridetowardCanterbury.
28Thechambresandthestableswerenwyde,

78

54InLettowhaddehereysedandinRuce,
HehadcampaignedinLithuaniaandinRussia,
55NoCristenmansoofteofhisdegree.
NoChristianmanofhisranksooften.
56InGernadeattheseegeeekhaddehebe
AlsohehadbeeninGrenadaatthesiege
57OfAlgezir,andrideninBelmarye.
OfAlgeciras,andhadriddeninMorocco.
58AtLyeyswasheandatSatalye,
HewasatAyashandatAtalia,
59Whantheywerewonne,andintheGreteSee
Whentheywerewon,andintheMediterranean
60Atmanyanoblearmeehaddehebe.
Hehadbeenatmanyanobleexpedition.
61Atmortalbatailleshaddehebeenfiftene,
Hehadbeenatfifteenmortalbattles,
62AndfoughtenforourefeithatTramyssene
AndfoughtforourfaithatTlemcen
63Inlystesthries,andayslaynhisfoo.
Threetimesinformalduels,andeachtimeslainhis
foe.
64Thisilkeworthyknyghthaddebeenalso
Thissameworthyknighthadalsobeen
65SomtymewiththelordofPalatye
AtonetimewiththelordofBalat
66AgaynanotherhetheninTurkye;
AgainstanotherheatheninTurkey;
67Andeveremoorehehaddeasovereynprys.
Andevermorehehadanoutstandingreputation
68Andthoughthathewereworthy,hewaswys,
Andalthoughhewasbrave,hewasprudent,
69Andofhisportasmeekeasisamayde.
Andofhisdeportmentasmeekasisamaid.
70Henevereyetnovileynyenesayde
Heneveryetsaidanyrudeword
71Inalhislyfuntonomanerwight.
Inallhislifeuntoanysortofperson.
72Hewasaverray,parfitgentilknyght.
Hewasatrulyperfect,nobleknight.
73Butfortotellenyowofhisarray,
Buttotellyouofhisclothing,
74Hishorsweregoode,buthewasnatgay.
Hishorsesweregood,buthewasnotgailydressed.
75Offustianheweredagypon
Heworeatunicofcoarsecloth
76Albismoteredwithhishabergeon,
Allstained(withrust)byhiscoatofmail,
77Forhewaslateycomefromhisviage,
Forhewasrecentlycome(back)fromhisexpedition,
78Andwentefortodoonhispilgrymage.
Andwenttodohispilgrimage.

InFlanders,inArtois,andPicardy,
87Andbornhymweel,asofsolitelspace,
Andconductedhimselfwell,forsolittleaspaceof
time,
88Inhopetostondeninhisladygrace.
Inhopetostandinhislady'sgoodgraces.
89Embroudedwashe,asitwereameede
Hewasembroidered,asifitwereamead
90Alfuloffresshefloures,whyteandreede.
Allfulloffreshflowers,whiteandred.
91Syngyngehewas,orfloytynge,altheday;
Singinghewas,orfluting,alltheday;
92HewasasfresshasisthemonthofMay.
HewasasfreshasisthemonthofMay.
93Shortwashisgowne,withsleveslongeandwyde.
Hisgownwasshort,withlongandwidesleeves.
94Welkoudehesitteonhorsandfaireryde.
Hewellknewhowtositonhorseandhandsomely
ride.
95Hekoudesongesmakeandwelendite,
Heknewhowtomakesongsandwellcompose(the
words),
96Justeandeekdaunce,andweelpurtreyeandwrite.
Joustandalsodance,andwelldrawandwrite.
97Sohootehelovedethatbynyghtertale
Helovedsopassionatelythatatnighttime
98Hesleepnamoorethandoothanyghtyngale.
Hesleptnomorethandoesanightingale.
99Curteishewas,lowely,andservysable,
Courteoushewas,humble,andwillingtoserve,
100Andcarfbifornhisfaderatthetable.
Andcarvedbeforehisfatheratthetable.
101AYEMANhaddeheandservantznamo
He(theKnight)hadAYEOMANandnomoreservants
102Atthattyme,forhymlisterideso,
Atthattime,foritpleasedhimsototravel,
103Andhewascladincoteandhoodofgrene.
Andhe(theyeoman)wascladincoatandhoodof
green.
104Asheefofpecokarwes,brightandkene,
Asheafofpeacockarrows,brightandkeen,
105Underhisbelthebarfulthriftily
Hecarriedunderhisbeltveryproperly
106(Welkoudehedressehistakelyemanly;
(Hewellknewhowtocareforhisequipmentasa
yeomanshould;
107Hisarwesdroupednoghtwithfethereslowe),
Hisarrowsdidnotfallshortbecauseofdrooping
feathers),
108Andinhishandhebaaramyghtybowe.
Andinhishandhecarriedamightybow.
109Anotheedhaddehe,withabrounvisage.
Hehadaclosecroppedhead,withabrownface.
110Ofwodecraftwelkoudehealtheusage.
Hewellknewallthepracticeofwoodcraft.
111Uponhisarmhebaaragaybracer,
Heworeanelegantarcher'swristguarduponhis
arm,
112Andbyhissydeaswerdandabokeler,
Andbyhissideaswordandasmallshield,
113Andonthatoothersydeagaydaggere
Andonthatothersideanelegantdagger
114Harneisedwelandsharpaspointofspere;
Wellornamentedandsharpasthepointofaspear;
115ACristopheronhisbrestofsilversheene.
AChristophermedalofbrightsilveronhisbreast.

79Withhymtherwashissone,ayongSQUIER,
Withhimtherewashisson,ayoungSQUIRE,
80Alovyereandalustybacheler,
Aloverandalivelybachelor,
81Withlokkescrulleastheywereleydinpresse.
Withlockscurledasiftheyhadbeenlaidinacurler.
82Oftwentyyeerofagehewas,Igesse.
Hewastwentyyearsofage,Iguess.
83Ofhisstaturehewasofevenelengthe,
Ofhisstaturehewasofmoderateheight,
84Andwonderlydelyvere,andofgreetstrengthe.
Andwonderfullyagile,andofgreatstrength.
85Andhehaddebeensomtymeinchyvachie
Andhehadbeenforatimeonacavalryexpedition
86InFlaundres,inArtoys,andPycardie,

79

Butsorelysheweptifoneofthemweredead,
149Orifmensmootitwithayerdesmerte;
Orifsomeonesmoteitsmartlywithastick;
150Andalwasconscienceandtendreherte.
Andallwasfeelingandtenderheart.
151Fulsemylyhirwympulpynchedwas,
Herwimplewaspleatedinaveryseemlymanner,
152Hirnosetretys,hireyengreyeasglas,
Hernosewellformed,hereyesgrayasglass,
153Hirmouthfulsmal,andthertosofteandreed.
Hermouthverysmall,andmoreoversoftandred.
154Butsikerlyshehaddeafairforheed;
Butsurelyshehadafairforehead;
155Itwasalmoostaspannebrood,Itrowe;
Itwasalmostnineinchesbroad,Ibelieve;
156For,hardily,shewasnatundergrowe.
For,certainly,shewasnotundergrown.
157Fulfetyswashircloke,asIwaswar.
Hercloakwasverywellmade,asIwasaware.
158Ofsmalcoralaboutehirearmshebar
Aboutherarmsheboreofsmallcoral
159Apeireofbedes,gaudedalwithgrene,
Asetofbeads,adornedwithlargegreenbeads,
160Andtheronhengabroochofgoldfulsheene,
Andthereonhungabroochofverybrightgold,
161OnwhichtherwasfirstwriteacrownedA,
OnwhichtherewasfirstwrittenanAwithacrown,
162AndafterAmorvincitomnia.
Andafter"Loveconquersall."

116Anhornhebar,thebawdrykwasofgrene;
Hecarriedahorn,theshoulderstrapwasgreen;
117Aforsterwashe,soothly,asIgesse.
Hewasaforester,truly,asIguess.
118TherwasalsoaNonne,aPRIORESSE,
TherewasalsoaNun,aPRIORESS,
119Thatofhirsmylyngwasfulsympleandcoy;
Whowasverysimpleandmodestinhersmiling;
120HiregrettesteoothwasbutbySeinteLoy;
HergreatestoathwasbutbySaintLoy;
121AndshewasclepedmadameEglentyne.
AndshewascalledMadamEglantine.
122Fulweelshesoongtheservicedyvyne,
Shesangthedivineserviceverywell,
123Entunedinhirnosefulsemely;
Intonedinhernoseinaverypolitemanner;
124AndFrensshshespakfulfaireandfetisly,
AndshespokeFrenchverywellandelegantly,
125AfterthescoleofStratfordatteBowe,
InthemannerofStratfordattheBow,
126ForFrensshofParyswastohireunknowe.
ForFrenchofPariswastoherunknown.
127Atmetewelytaughtwasshewithalle;
Atmealsshewaswelltaughtindeed;
128Sheleetnomorselfromhirlippesfalle,
Sheletnomorselfallfromherlips,
129Newettehirfyngresinhirsaucedepe;
Norwetherfingersdeepinhersauce;
130Welkoudeshecarieamorselandwelkepe
Shewellknewhowtocarryamorsel(tohermouth)
andtakegoodcare
131Thatnodropenefilleuponhirebrest.
Thatnodropfelluponherbreast.
132Incurteisiewassetfulmuchelhirlest.
Hergreatestpleasurewasingoodmanners.
133Hiroverlippewypedshesoclene
Shewipedherupperlipsoclean
134Thatinhircoppetherwasnoferthyngsene
Thatinhercuptherewasseennotinybit
135Ofgrece,whanshedronkenhaddehirdraughte.
Ofgrease,whenshehaddrunkherdrink.
136Fulsemelyafterhirmetesheraughte.
Shereachedforherfoodinaveryseemlymanner.
137Andsikerlyshewasofgreetdesport,
Andsurelyshewasofexcellentdeportment,
138Andfulplesaunt,andamyableofport,
Andverypleasant,andamiableindemeanor,
139Andpeynedhiretocountrefetecheere
Andshetookpainstoimitatethemanners
140Ofcourt,andtobeenestatlichofmanere,
Ofcourt,andtobedignifiedinbehavior,
141Andtobenholdendigneofreverence.
Andtobeconsideredworthyofreverence.
142Butfortospekenofhireconscience,
Buttospeakofhermoralsense,
143Shewassocharitableandsopitous
Shewassocharitableandsocompassionate
144Shewoldewepe,ifthatshesaughamous
Shewouldweep,ifshesawamouse
145Kaughtinatrappe,ifitweredeedorbledde.
Caughtinatrap,ifitweredeadorbled.
146Ofsmalehoundeshaddeshethatshefedde
Shehadsomesmallhoundsthatshefed
147Withrostedflessh,ormilkandwastelbreed.
Withroastedmeat,ormilkandfinewhitebread.
148Butsooreweptesheifoonofhemweredeed,

163AnotherNONNEwithhirehaddeshe,
ShehadanotherNUNwithher,
164Thatwashirchapeleyne,andpreestesthre.
Whowashersecretary,andthreepriests.
165AMONKtherwas,afairforthemaistrie,
TherewasaMONK,anextremelyfineone,
166Anoutridere,thatlovedevenerie,
Anoutrider(amonkwithbusinessoutsidethe
monastery),wholovedhunting,
167Amanlyman,tobeenanabbotable.
Avirileman,qualifiedtobeanabbot.
168Fulmanyadeynteehorshaddeheinstable,
Hehadverymanyfinehorsesinhisstable,
169Andwhanherood,menmyghtehisbrydelheere
Andwhenherode,onecouldhearhisbridle
170Gyngleninawhistlyngewyndalscleere
Jingleinawhistlingwindasclear
171Andeekasloudeasdooththechapelbelle
Andalsoasloudasdoesthechapelbelle
172Therasthislordwaskepereofthecelle.
Wherethislordwaspriorofthesubordinate
monastery.
173ThereuleofSeintMaureorofSeintBeneit
TheruleofSaintMaurusorofSaintBenedict
174Bycausethatitwasoldandsomdelstreit
Becauseitwasoldandsomewhatstrict
175ThisilkeMonkleetoldethyngespace,
ThissameMonkletoldthingspassaway,
176Andheeldaftertheneweworldthespace.
Andfollowedthebroadercustomsofmoderntimes.
177Heyafnatofthattextapulledhen,
Hegavenotapluckedhenforthattext
178Thatseiththathuntersbennathoolymen,
Thatsaysthathuntersarenotholymen,
179Nethatamonk,whanheisrecchelees,
Northatamonk,whenheisheedlessofrules,

80

210Inalletheordresfoureisnoonthatkan
Inallthefourordersoffriarsisnoonethatknows
211Somuchelofdaliaunceandfairlangage.
Somuchofsociabilityandelegantspeech.
212Hehaddemaadfulmanyamariage
Hehadmadeverymanyamarriage
213Ofyongewommenathisowenecost.
Ofyoungwomenathisowncost.
214Untohisordrehewasanoblepost.
Hewasanoblesupporterofhisorder.
215Fulwelbilovedandfamulierwashe
Verywellbelovedandfamiliarwashe
216Withfrankeleynsoveralinhiscontree,
Withlandownerseverywhereinhiscountry,
217Andeekwithworthywommenofthetoun;
Andalsowithworthywomenofthetown;
218Forhehaddepowerofconfessioun,
Forhehadpowerofconfession,
219Asseydehymself,moorethanacurat,
Ashesaidhimself,morethanaparishpriest,
220Forofhisordrehewaslicenciat.
Forhewaslicensedbyhisorder.
221Fulswetelyherdeheconfessioun,
Heheardconfessionverysweetly,
222Andplesauntwashisabsolucioun:
Andhisabsolutionwaspleasant:
223Hewasanesymantoyevepenaunce,
Hewasalenientmaningivingpenance,
224Therashewistetohaveagoodpitaunce.
Whereheknewhewouldhaveagoodgift.
225Foruntoapovreordrefortoyive
Fortogivetoapoororder(offriars)
226Issignethatamaniswelyshryve;
Isasignthatamaniswellconfessed;
227Forifheyaf,hedorstemakeavaunt,
Forifhegave,he(thefriar)daredtoassert,
228Hewistethatamanwasrepentaunt;
Heknewthatamanwasrepentant;
229Formanyamansohardisofhisherte,
Formanyamanissohardinhisheart,
230Hemaynatwepe,althoghhymsooresmerte.
Hecannotweep,althoughhepainfullysuffers.
231Therforeinstedeofwepyngeandpreyeres
Thereforeinsteadofweepingandprayers
232Menmooteyevesilvertothepovrefreres.
Onemaygivesilvertothepoorfriars.
233Histypetwasayfarsedfulofknyves
Hishoodwasalwaysstuffedfullofknives
234Andpynnes,fortoyevenfairewyves.
Andpins,togivetofairwives.
235Andcerteinlyhehaddeamuryenote:
Andcertainlyhehadamerryvoice:
236Welkoudehesyngeandpleyenonarote;
Hewellknewhowtosingandplayonarote(string
instrument);
237Ofyeddyngeshebaaroutrelythepris.
Heabsolutelytooktheprizeforrecitingballads.
238Hisnekkewhitwasastheflourdelys;
Hisneckwaswhiteasalilyflower;
239Thertohestrongwasasachampioun.
Furthermorehewasstrongasachampionfighter.
240Heknewthetaverneswelineverytoun
Heknewthetavernswellineverytown
241Andeverichhostilerandtappestere
Andeveryinnkeeperandbarmaid
242Betthanalazarorabeggestere,
Betterthanaleperorabeggarwoman,

180Isliknedtilafisshthatiswaterlees
Islikeafishthatisoutofwater
181Thisistoseyn,amonkoutofhiscloystre.
Thisistosay,amonkoutofhiscloister.
182Butthilketextheeldhenatworthanoystre;
Butheconsideredthatsametextnotworthan
oyster;
183AndIseydehisopinionwasgood.
AndIsaidhisopinionwasgood.
184Whatsholdehestudieandmakehymselvenwood,
Whyshouldhestudyandmakehimselfcrazy,
185Uponabookincloystrealweytopoure,
Alwaystoporeuponabookinthecloister,
186Orswynkenwithhishandes,andlaboure,
Orworkwithhishands,andlabor,
187AsAustynbit?Howshaltheworldbeserved?
AsAugustinecommands?Howshalltheworldbe
served?
188LatAustynhavehisswynktohymreserved!
LetAugustinehavehisworkreservedtohim!
189Therforehewasaprikasouraright:
Thereforehewasindeedavigoroushorseman:
190Grehoundeshehaddeasswiftasfowelinflight;
Hehadgreyhoundsasswiftasfowlinflight;
191Ofprikyngandofhuntyngforthehare
Oftrackingandofhuntingforthehare
192Wasalhislust,fornocostwoldehespare.
Wasallhispleasure,bynomeanswouldherefrain
fromit.
193Iseighhisslevespurfiledatthehond
Isawhissleeveslinedatthehand
194Withgrys,andthatthefynesteofalond;
Withsquirrelfur,andthatthefinestintheland;
195Andfortofestnehishoodunderhischyn,
Andtofastenhishoodunderhischin,
196Hehaddeofgoldywroghtafulcuriouspyn;
Hehadaveryskillfullymadepinofgold;
197Aloveknotteinthegretterendetherwas.
Therewasanelaborateknotinthelargerend.
198Hisheedwasballed,thatshoonasanyglas,
Hisheadwasbald,whichshonelikeanyglass,
199Andeekhisface,ashehaddebeenenoynt.
Andhisfacedidtoo,asifhehadbeenrubbedwith
oil.
200Hewasalordfulfatandingoodpoynt;
Hewasaveryplumplordandingoodcondition;
201Hiseyenstepe,androllyngeinhisheed,
Hiseyeswereprominent,androllinginhishead,
202Thatstemedasaforneysofaleed;
Whichgleamedlikeafurnaceunderacauldron;
203Hisbootessouple,hishorsingreetestaat.
Hisbootssupple,hishorseinexcellentcondition.
204Nowcerteinlyhewasafairprelaat;
Nowcertainlyhewasahandsomeecclesiastical
dignitary;
205Hewasnatpaleasaforpynedgoost.
Hewasnotpaleasatormentedspirit.
206Afatswanlovedhebestofanyroost.
Afatswanlovedhebestofanyroast.
207Hispalfreywasasbrounasisaberye.
Hissaddlehorsewasasbrownasisaberry.
208AFREREtherwas,awantowneandamerye,
TherewasaFRIAR,apleasurelovingandmerryone,
209Alymytour,afulsolempneman.
Alimiter(withanassignedterritory),averysolemn
man.

81

271Inmottelee,andhyeonhorsehesat;
Wearingparticoloredcloth,andproudlyhesaton
hishorse;
272UponhisheedaFlaundrysshbeverhat,
Uponhishead(heworea)Flemishbeaverhat,
273Hisbootesclaspedfaireandfetisly.
Hisbootswerebuckledhandsomelyandelegantly.
274Hisresonshespakfulsolempnely,
Hisopinionshespokeverysolemnly,
275Sownyngealweyth'encreesofhiswynnyng.
Concerningalwaystheincreaseofhisprofits.
276Hewoldetheseewerekeptforanythyng
Hewantedtheseatobeguardedatallcosts
277BitwixeMiddelburghandOrewelle.
BetweenMiddelburgh(Holland)andOrwell
(England).
278Welkoudeheineschaungesheeldesselle.
Hewellknewhowtodealinforeigncurrencies.
279Thisworthymanfulwelhiswitbisette:
Thisworthymanemployedhiswitverywell:
280Therwistenowightthathewasindette,
Therewasnoonewhoknewthathewasindebt,
281Soestatlywasheofhisgovernaunce
Hewassodignifiedinmanaginghisaffairs
282Withhisbargaynesandwithhischevyssaunce.
Withhisbuyingandsellingandwithhisfinancial
deals.
283Forsothehewasaworthymanwithalle,
Truly,hewasaworthymanindeed,
284But,soothtoseyn,Inoothowmenhymcalle.
But,tosaythetruth,Idonotknowwhatmencall
him.

243Foruntoswichaworthymanashe
Foruntosuchaworthymanashe
244Acordednat,asbyhisfacultee,
Itwasnotsuitable,inviewofhisofficialposition,
245Tohavewithsikelazarsaqueyntaunce.
Tohaveacquaintancewithsicklepers.
246Itisnathonest;itmaynatavaunce,
Itisnotrespectable;itcannotbeprofitable,
247Fortodeelenwithnoswichporaille,
Todealwithanysuchpoorpeople,
248Butalwithricheandselleresofvitaille.
Butallwithrichpeopleandsellersofvictuals.
249Andoveral,therasprofitsholdearise,
Andeverywhere,whereprofitshouldarise,
250Curteishewasandlowelyofservyse;
Hewascourteousandgraciouslyhumble;
251Thernasnomannowhersovertuous.
Therewasnomananywheresocapable(ofsuch
work).
252Hewasthebestebeggereinhishous;
Hewasthebestbeggarinhishouse;
252a[Andyafacerteynfermeforthegraunt;
[Andhegaveacertainfeeforhisgrant(ofbegging
rights);
252aNoonofhisbretherencamtherinhishaunt;]
Noneofhisbrethrencamethereinhisterritory;]
253Forthoghawydwehaddenoghtasho,
Forthoughawidowhadnotashoe,
254Soplesauntwashis"Inprincipio,"
Sopleasantwashis"Inthebeginning,"
255Yetwoldehehaveaferthyng,erhewente.
Yethewouldhaveafarthing,beforehewentaway.
256Hispurchaswaswelbettrethanhisrente.
Histotalprofitwasmuchmorethanhisproper
income.
257Andragehekoude,asitwererightawhelp.
Andheknewhowtofrolic,asifhewereindeeda
pup.
258Inlovedayestherkoudehemuchelhelp,
Heknewhowtobemuchhelpondaysforresolving
disputes,
259Fortherhewasnatlykacloysterer
Fortherehewasnotlikeacloisteredmonk
260Withathredbarecope,asisapovrescoler,
Withathreadbarecope,likeapoorscholar,
261Buthewaslykamaisterorapope.
Buthewaslikeamasterofartsorapope.
262Ofdoubleworstedewashissemycope,
Ofwide(expensive)clothwashisshortcloak,
263Thatroundedasabelleoutofthepresse.
Whichwasroundasabellfreshfromthe
clothespress.
264Somwhathelipsed,forhiswantownesse,
Somewhathelisped,forhisaffectation,
265TomakehisEnglisshsweeteuponhistonge;
TomakehisEnglishsweetuponhistongue;
266Andinhisharpyng,whanthathehaddesonge,
Andinhisharping,whenhehadsung,
267Hiseyentwynkledinhisheedaryght
Hiseyestwinkledinhisheadexactly
268Asdoonthesterresinthefrostynyght.
Asdothestarsinthefrostynight.
269ThisworthylymytourwasclepedHuberd.
ThisworthyfriarwascalledHuberd.

285ACLERKtherwasofOxenfordalso,
TherewasalsoaCLERK(scholar)fromOxford,
286Thatuntologykhaddelongeygo.
Wholongbeforehadbegunthestudyoflogic.
287Asleenewashishorsasisarake,
Hishorsewasasleanasisarake,
288Andhenasnatrightfat,Iundertake,
Andhewasnotveryfat,Iaffirm,
289Butlookedholwe,andthertosobrely.
Butlookedemaciated,andmoreoverabstemious.
290Fulthredbarewashisoverestecourtepy,
Hisshortovercoatwasverythreadbare,
291Forhehaddegetenhymyetnobenefice,
Forhehadnotyetobtainedanecclesiasticalliving,
292Newassoworldlyfortohaveoffice.
Norwasheworldlyenoughtotakesecular
employment.
293Forhymwasleverehaveathisbeddesheed
Forhewouldratherhaveattheheadofhisbed
294Twentybookes,cladinblakorreed,
Twentybooks,boundinblackorred,
295OfAristotleandhisphilosophie
OfAristotleandhisphilosophy
296Thanrobesriche,orfithele,orgaysautrie.
Thanrichrobes,orafiddle,oranelegantpsaltery.
297Butalbethathewasaphilosophre,
Buteventhoughhewasaphilosopher,
298Yethaddehebutlitelgoldincofre;
Neverthelesshehadbutlittlegoldinhisstrongbox;
299Butalthathemyghteofhisfreendeshente,
Butallthathecouldgetfromhisfriends,
300Onbookesandonlernyngeheitspente,
Hespentonbooksandonlearning,
301Andbisilyganforthesoulespreye

270AMARCHANTwastherwithaforkedberd,
TherewasaMERCHANTwithaforkedbeard,

82

332Whitwashisberdasisthedayesye;
Hisbeardwaswhiteasadaisy;
333Ofhiscomplexiounhewassangwyn.
Astohistemperament,hewasdominatedbythe
humorblood.
334Wellovedhebythemorweasopinwyn;
Hewelllovedabitofbreaddippedinwineinthe
morning;
335Tolyvenindelitwaseverehiswone,
Hiscustomwasalwaystoliveindelight,
336ForhewasEpicurusowenesone,
ForhewasEpicurus'ownson,
337Thatheeldopiniounthatpleyndelit
Whoheldtheopinionthatpurepleasure
338Wasverrayfeliciteeparfit.
Wastrulyperfecthappiness.
339Anhousholdere,andthatagreet,washe;
Hewasahouseholder,andagreatoneatthat;
340SeintJulianhewasinhiscontree.
HewasSaintJulian(patronofhospitality)inhis
country.
341Hisbreed,hisale,wasalweysafteroon;
Hisbread,hisale,wasalwaysofthesame(good)
quality;
342Abettreenvynedmanwasnowhernoon.
Nowherewasthereanymanbetterstockedwith
wine.
343Withoutebakemetewasneverehishous,
Hishousewasneverwithoutbakedpies
344Offisshandflessh,andthatsoplentevous
Offishandmeat,andthatsoplentiful
345Itsnewedinhishousofmeteanddrynke;
Thatinhishouseitsnowedwithfoodanddrink;
346Ofalledeynteesthatmenkoudethynke,
Ofallthedaintiesthatmencouldimagine,
347Afterthesondrysesonsoftheyeer,
Inaccordwiththevariousseasonsoftheyear,
348Sochaungedhehismeteandhissoper.
Sohevariedhismiddaymealandhissupper.
349Fulmanyafatpartrichhaddeheinmuwe,
Hehadverymanyfatpartridgesinpens,
350Andmanyabreemandmanyaluceinstuwe.
Andmanyabreamandmanyapikeinhisfishpond.
351Wowashiscookbutifhissaucewere
Woewashiscookunlesshissaucewas
352Poynauntandsharp,andredyalhisgeere.
Hotlyspicedandsharp,andreadyallhiscooking
equipment.
353Histabledormantinhishallealway
Inhishallhisdiningtablealways
354Stoodredycoveredalthelongeday.
Stoodcovered(withtablecloth)andreadyallthe
longday.
355Atsessiounstherwashelordandsire;
Hepresidedaslordandsireatcourtsessions;
356Fuloftetymehewasknyghtoftheshire.
Hewasamemberofparliamentmanytimes.
357Ananlaasandagipseralofsilk
Adaggerandapurseallofsilk
358Heengathisgirdel,whitasmornemilk.
Hungathisbelt,whiteasmorningmilk.
359Ashirrevehaddehebeen,andacontour.
Hehadbeenasheriff,andanauditoroftaxes.
360Wasnowherswichaworthyvavasour.
Therewasnowheresuchaworthylandowner.

Anddiligentlydidprayforthesouls
302Ofhemthatyafhymwherwithtoscoleye.
Ofthosewhogavehimthewherewithaltoattendthe
schools.
303Ofstudietookhemoostcureandmoostheede.
Hetookmostcareandpaidmostheedtostudy.
304Noghtowordspakhemoorethanwasneede,
Hespokenotonewordmorethanwasneeded,
305Andthatwasseydinformeandreverence,
Andthatwassaidwithdueformalityandrespect,
306Andshortandquykandfulofhysentence;
Andshortandlivelyandfullofelevatedcontent;
307Sownyngeinmoralvertuwashisspeche,
Hisspeechwasconsonantwithmoralvirtue,
308Andgladlywoldehelerneandgladlyteche.
Andgladlywouldhelearnandgladlyteach.
309ASERGEANTOFTHELAWE,warandwys,
ASERGEANTOFTHELAW(highrankingattorney),
prudentandwise,
310ThatoftenhaddebeenattheParvys,
WhooftenhadbeenatthePorchofSt.Paul's(where
lawyersgather)
311Therwasalso,fulricheofexcellence.
Wasalsothere,veryrichinsuperiorqualities.
312Discreethewasandofgreetreverence
Hewasjudiciousandofgreatdignity
313Hesemedswich,hiswordeswerensowise.
Heseemedsuch,hiswordsweresowise.
314Justicehewasfulofteninassise,
Hewasveryoftenajudgeinthecourtofassizes,
315Bypatenteandbypleyncommissioun.
Byroyalappointmentandwithfulljurisdiction.
316Forhisscienceandforhisheighrenoun,
Forhisknowledgeandforhisexcellentreputation,
317Offeesandrobeshaddehemanyoon.
Hehadmanygrantsofyearlyincome.
318Sogreetapurchasourwasnowhernoon:
Therewasnowheresogreatalandbuyer:
319Alwasfeesympletohymineffect;
Infact,allwasunrestrictedpossessiontohim;
320Hispurchasyngmyghtenatbeeninfect.
Hispurchasingcouldnotbeinvalidated.
321Nowhersobisyamanashethernas,
Therewasnowheresobusyamanashe,
322Andyethesemedbisierthanhewas.
Andyetheseemedbusierthanhewas.
323Intermeshaddehecaasanddoomesalle
HehadinYearBooksallthecasesanddecisions
324ThatfromthetymeofkyngWilliamwerefalle.
ThatfromthetimeofkingWilliamhaveoccurred.
325Thertohekoudeenditeandmakeathyng,
Furthermore,heknewhowtocomposeanddrawup
alegaldocument,
326Therkoudenowightpyncheathiswrityng;
Sothatnoonecouldfindaflawinhiswriting;
327Andeverystatutkoudehepleynbyrote.
Andhekneweverystatutecompletelybyheart.
328Heroodbuthoomlyinamedleecote,
Herodebutsimplyinaparticoloredcoat,
329Girtwithaceintofsilk,withbarressmale;
Girdedwithabeltofsilk,withsmallstripes;
330OfhisarraytelleInolengertale.
Itellnolongertaleofhisclothing.
331AFRANKELEYNwasinhiscompaignye.
AFRANKLINwasinhiscompany.

83

361ANHABERDASSHEREandaCARPENTER,
AHABERDASHERandaCARPENTER,
362AWEBBE,aDYERE,andaTAPYCER
AWEAVER,aDYER,andaTAPESTRYMAKER
363Andtheywereclothedalleinolyveree
Andtheywereallclothedinonelivery
364Ofasolempneandagreetfraternitee.
Ofasolemnandagreatparishguild.
365Fulfresshandnewehirgeereapikedwas;
Theirequipmentwasadornedallfreshlyandnew;
366Hirknyveswerechapednoghtwithbras
Theirkniveswerenotmountedwithbrass
367Butalwithsilver,wroghtfulcleneandweel,
Butentirelywithsilver,wroughtveryneatlyandwell,
368Hiregirdlesandhirpoucheseverydeel.
Theirbeltsandtheirpurseseverybit.
369Welsemedechofhemafairburgeys
Eachofthemwellseemedasolidcitizen
370Tositteninayeldehalleonadeys.
Tositonadaisinacityhall.
371Everich,forthewisdomthathekan,
Everyoneofthem,forthewisdomthatheknows,
372Wasshaplyfortobeenanalderman.
Wassuitabletobeanalderman.
373Forcatelhaddetheyynoghandrente,
Fortheyhadenoughpossessionsandincome,
374Andeekhirwyveswoldeitwelassente;
Andalsotheirwiveswouldwellassenttoit;
375Andellescerteynweretheytoblame.
Andotherwisecertainlytheywouldbetoblame.
376Itisfulfairtobeenycleped"madame,"
Itisveryfinetobecalled"mylady,"
377Andgoontovigiliesalbifore,
Andgotofeastsonholidayevesheadingthe
procession,
378Andhaveamantelroiallicheybore.
Andhaveagownwithatrainroyallycarried.

Hehadadaggerhangingonacord
393Aboutehisnekke,underhisarmadoun.
Abouthisneck,downunderhisarm.
394Thehootesomerhaddemaadhishewealbroun;
Thehotsummerhadmadehishueallbrown;
395Andcerteinlyhewasagoodfelawe.
Andcertainlyhewasabooncompanion.
396Fulmanyadraughteofwynhadheydrawe
Hehaddrawnverymanyadraftofwine
397FroBurdeuxward,whilthatthechapmansleep.
WhilecomingfromBordeaux,whilethemerchant
slept.
398Ofnyceconsciencetookhenokeep.
Hehadnoconcernforascrupulousconscience.
399Ifthathefaughtandhaddethehyerhond,
Ifhefoughtandhadtheupperhand,
400Bywaterhesentehemhoomtoeverylond.
Hesentthemhomebywatertoeveryland(they
walkedtheplank).
401Butofhiscrafttorekenewelhistydes,
Butofhisskilltoreckonwellhistides,
402Hisstremes,andhisdaungershymbisides,
Hiscurrents,andhisperilsnearathand,
403Hisherberwe,andhismoone,hislodemenage,
Hisharbors,andpositionsofhismoon,his
navigation,
404ThernasnoonswichfromHulletoCartage.
TherewasnoneothersuchfromHulltoCartagena
(Spain).
405Hardyhewasandwystoundertake;
Hewasboldandprudentinhisundertakings;
406Withmanyatempesthaddehisberdbeenshake.
Hisbeardhadbeenshakenbymanyatempest.
407Heknewallethehavenes,astheywere,
Heknewalltheharbors,howtheywere,
408FroGootlondtothecapeofFynystere,
FromGotlandtotheCapeofFinisterre,
409AndeverycrykeinBritaigneandinSpayne.
AndeveryinletinBrittanyandinSpain.
410HisbargeyclepedwastheMaudelayne.
HisshipwascalledtheMaudelayne.

379ACOOKtheyhaddewithhemforthenones
ACOOKtheyhadwiththemfortheoccasion
380Toboillethechikneswiththemarybones,
Toboilthechickenswiththemarrowbones,
381Andpoudremarchanttartandgalyngale.
Andtartpoudremarchantandgalingale(spices).
382WelkoudeheknoweadraughteofLondounale.
HewellknewhowtojudgeadraftofLondonale.
383Hekouderooste,andsethe,andbroille,andfrye,
Heknewhowtoroast,andboil,andbroil,andfry,
384Makenmortreux,andwelbakeapye.
Makestews,andwellbakeapie.
385Butgreetharmwasit,asitthoughteme,
Butitwasagreatharm,asitseemedtome,
386Thatonhisshyneamormalhaddehe.
Thathehadanopensoreonhisshin.
387Forblankmanger,thatmadehewiththebeste.
Asforwhitepudding,hemadethatofthebest
quality.

411WithustherwasaDOCTOUROFPHISIK;
WithustherewasaDOCTOROFMEDICINE
412Inalthisworldnewasthernoonhymlik,
Inallthisworldtherewasnoonelikehim,
413Tospekeofphisikandofsurgerye,
Tospeakofmedicineandofsurgery,
414Forhewasgroundedinastronomye.
Forhewasinstructedinastronomy.
415Hekeptehispacientafulgreetdeel
Hetookcareofhispatientverymanytimes
416Inhouresbyhismagyknatureel.
In(astronomicallysuitable)hoursby(useof)his
naturalscience.
417Welkoudehefortunentheascendent
Hewellknewhowtocalculatetheplanetaryposition
418Ofhisymagesforhispacient.
Ofhisastronomicaltalismansforhispatient.
419Heknewthecauseofeverichmaladye,
Heknewthecauseofeverymalady,
420Wereitofhoot,orcoold,ormoyste,ordrye,
Wereitofhot,orcold,ormoist,ordryelements,
421Andwheretheyengendred,andofwhathumour.
Andwheretheywereengendered,andbywhat
bodilyfluid.
422Hewasaverray,parfitpraktisour:

388ASHIPMANwasther,wonyngeferbyweste;
ASHIPMANwasthere,dwellingfarinthewest;
389ForaughtIwoot,hewasofDertemouthe.
ForallIknow,hewasfromDartmouth.
390Herooduponarouncy,ashekouthe,
Herodeuponacarthorse,insofarasheknewhow,
391Inagowneoffaldyngtotheknee.
Inagownofwoolencloth(thatreached)totheknee.
392Adaggerehangyngeonalaashaddehe

84

Hewasatruly,perfectpractitioner:
423Thecauseyknowe,andofhisharmtheroote,
Thecauseknown,andthesourceofhis(patient's)
harm,
424Anonheyafthesikemanhisboote.
Straightwayhegavethesickmanhisremedy.
425Fulredyhaddehehisapothecaries
Hehadhisapothecariesallready
426Tosendehymdroggesandhisletuaries,
Tosendhimdrugsandhiselectuaries,
427Forechofhemmadeootherfortowynne
Foreachofthemmadetheothertoprofit
428Hirfrendshipenasnatnewetobigynne.
Theirfriendshipwasnotrecentlybegun.
429WelknewhetheoldeEsculapius,
HewellknewtheoldAesculapius,
430AndDeyscorides,andeekRufus,
AndDioscorides,andalsoRufus,
431OldeYpocras,Haly,andGalyen,
OldHippocrates,Haly,andGalen,
432Serapion,Razis,andAvycen,
Serapion,Rhazes,andAvicenna,
433Averrois,Damascien,andConstantyn,
Averroes,JohntheDamascan,andConstantine,
434Bernard,andGatesden,andGilbertyn.
Bernard,andGaddesden,andGilbertus.
435Ofhisdietemesurablewashe,
Hewasmoderateinhisdiet,
436Foritwasofnosuperfluitee,
Foritwasofnoexcess,
437Butofgreetnorissynganddigestible.
Butgreatlynourishinganddigestible.
438HisstudiewasbutlitelontheBible.
HisstudywasbutlittleontheBible.
439Insangwynandinpershecladwasal,
Hewascladallinredandinblue,
440Lynedwithtaffataandwithsendal.
Linedwithtaffetaandwithsilk.
441Andyethewasbutesyofdispence;
Andyethewasmoderateinspending;
442Hekeptethathewaninpestilence.
Hekeptwhatheearnedin(timesof)plague.
443Forgoldinphisikisacordial,
Sinceinmedicinegoldisarestorativefortheheart,
444Thereforehelovedegoldinspecial.
Thereforehelovedgoldinparticular.

455ThatonaSondaywerenuponhirheed.
ThatonaSundaywereuponherhead.
456Hirhosenwerenoffynscarletreed,
Herstockingswereoffinescarletred,
457Fulstreiteyteyd,andshoesfulmoysteandnewe.
Verycloselylaced,andshoesverysuppleandnew.
458Booldwashirface,andfair,andreedofhewe.
Boldwasherface,andfair,andredofhue.
459Shewasaworthywommanalhirlyve:
Shewasaworthywomanallherlife:
460Housbondesatchirchedoreshehaddefyve,
Shehad(married)fivehusbandsatthechurchdoor,
461Withoutenoothercompaignyeinyouthe
Notcountingothercompanyinyouth
462Butthereofnedethnattospekeasnowthe.
Butthereisnoneedtospeakofthatrightnow.
463AndthrieshaddeshebeenatJerusalem;
AndshehadbeenthreetimesatJerusalem;
464Shehaddepassedmanyastraungestrem;
Shehadpassedmanyaforeignsea;
465AtRomeshehaddebeen,andatBoloigne,
ShehadbeenatRome,andatBoulogne,
466InGaliceatSeintJame,andatColoigne.
InGaliciaatSaintJames(ofCompostella),andat
Cologne.
467Shekoudemuchelofwandryngebytheweye.
Sheknewmuchaboutwanderingbytheway.
468Gattothedwasshe,soothlyfortoseye.
Shehadteethwidelysetapart,trulytosay.
469Uponanamblereesilyshesat,
Shesateasilyuponapacinghorse,
470Ywympledwel,andonhirheedanhat
Wearingalargewimple,andonherheadahat
471Asbroodasisabokeleroratarge;
Asbroadasabucklerorashield;
472Afootmantelaboutehirhipeslarge,
Anoverskirtaboutherlargehips,
473Andonhirfeetapaireofsporessharpe.
Andonherfeetapairofsharpspurs.
474Infelaweshipewelkoudeshelaugheandcarpe.
Infellowshipshewellknewhowtolaughandchatter.
475Ofremediesoflovesheknewperchaunce,
Sheknew,asithappened,aboutremediesforlove
476Forshekoudeofthatarttheoldedaunce.
Forsheknewtheolddance(tricksofthetrade)of
thatart.

445AgoodWIFwastherOFbisideBATHE,
TherewasagoodWIFEOFbesideBATH,
446Butshewassomdeldeef,andthatwasscathe.
Butshewassomewhatdeaf,andthatwasapity.
447Ofcloothmakyngshehaddeswichanhaunt
Shehadsuchaskillinclothmaking
448ShepassedhemofYpresandofGaunt.
ShesurpassedthemofYpresandofGhent.
449Inaltheparisshewifnewasthernoon
Inalltheparishtherewasnowife
450Thattotheoffryngebiforehiresholdegoon;
WhoshouldgototheOfferingbeforeher;
451Andiftherdide,certeynsowroothwasshe
Andiftheredid,certainlyshewassoangry
452Thatshewasoutofallecharitee.
Thatshewasoutofallcharity(loveforherneighbor).
453Hircoverchiefsfulfynewerenofground;
Herkerchiefswereveryfineintexture;
454Idorstesweretheyweyedentenpound
Idaresweartheyweighedtenpound

477Agoodmanwastherofreligioun,
Agoodmanwasthereofreligion,
478AndwasapovrePERSOUNOFATOUN,
And(he)wasapoorPARSONOFATOWN,
479Butrichehewasofhoolythoghtandwerk.
Buthewasrichinholythoughtandwork.
480Hewasalsoalernedman,aclerk,
Hewasalsoalearnedman,ascholar,
481ThatCristesgospeltrewelywoldepreche;
WhowouldpreachChrist'sgospeltruly;
482Hisparisshensdevoutlywoldeheteche.
Hewoulddevoutlyteachhisparishioners.
483Benygnehewas,andwonderdiligent,
Hewasgracious,andwonderfullydiligent,
484Andinadversiteefulpacient,
Andverypatientinadversity,
485Andswichhewasyprevedoftesithes.
Andsuchhewasprovenmanytimes.
486Fulloothwerehymtocursenforhistithes,
Hewasveryreluctanttoexcommunicatefor

85

518Butinhistechyngdiscreetandbenygne.
Butinhisteachingcourteousandkind.
519Todrawenfolktohevenebyfairnesse,
Todrawfolktoheavenbygentleness,
520Bygoodensample,thiswashisbisynesse.
Bygoodexample,thiswashisbusiness.
521Butitwereanypersoneobstinat,
Unlessitwereanobstinateperson,
522Whatsohewere,ofheighorloughestat,
Whoeverhewas,ofhighorlowrank,
523Hymwoldehesnybbensharplyforthenonys.
Hewouldrebukehimsharplyatthattime.
524AbettrepreestItrowethatnowhernoonys.
Ibelievethatnowhereisthereabetterpriest.
525Hewaitedafternopompeandreverence,
Heexpectednopompandceremony,
526Nemakedhimaspicedconscience,
Normadehimselfanoverlyfastidiousconscience,
527ButCristeslooreandhisapostlestwelve
ButChrist'steachingandHistwelveapostles
528Hetaughte;butfirsthefolwedithymselve.
Hetaught;butfirsthefollowedithimself.

(nonpaymentof)histithes,
487Butratherwoldeheyeven,outofdoute,
Butratherwouldhegive,thereisnodoubt,
488Untohispovreparisshensaboute
Untohispoorparishionersabout
489Ofhisoffryngandeekofhissubstaunce.
Someofhisoffering(receivedatmass)andalsosome
ofhisincome.
490Hekoudeinlitelthynghavesuffisaunce.
Heknewhowtohavesufficiencyinfewpossessions.
491Wydwashisparisshe,andhousesferasonder,
Hisparishwaswide,andhousesfarapart,
492Butheneleftenat,forreynnethonder,
Buthedidnotomit,forrainnorthunder,
493Insiknessenorinmeschieftovisite
Insicknessorintroubletovisit
494Theferresteinhisparisshe,mucheandlite,
Thoselivingfarthestawayinhisparish,highranking
andlow,
495Uponhisfeet,andinhishandastaf.
Goingbyfoot,andinhishandastaff.
496Thisnobleensampletohissheepheyaf,
Hegavethisnobleexampletohissheep,
497Thatfirsthewroghte,andafterwardhetaughte.
Thatfirsthewrought,andafterwardhetaught.
498Outofthegospelhethowordescaughte,
Hetookthosewordsoutofthegospel,
499Andthisfigureheaddedeektherto,
Andthismetaphorheaddedalsotothat,
500Thatifgoldruste,whatshalirendo?
Thatifgoldrust,whatmustirondo?
501Forifapreestbefoul,onwhomwetruste,
Forifapriest,onwhomwetrust,shouldbefoul
502Nowonderisalewedmantoruste;
Itisnowonderforalaymantogobad;
503Andshameitis,ifapresttakekeep,
Anditisashame,ifapriestisconcerned:
504Ashitenshepherdeandaclenesheep.
Ashitstainedshepherdandacleansheep.
505Weloghteapreestensamplefortoyive,
Welloughtapriesttogiveanexample,
506Byhisclennesse,howthathissheepsholdelyve.
Byhispurity,howhissheepshouldlive.
507Hesettenathisbeneficetohyre
Hedidnotrentouthisbenefice(ecclesiasticalliving)
508Andleethissheepencombredinthemyre
Andleavehissheepencumberedinthemire
509AndrantoLondoununtoSeintePoules
AndruntoLondonuntoSaintPaul's
510Tosekenhymachaunterieforsoules,
Toseekanappointmentasachantrypriest(praying
forapatron)
511Orwithabretherhedtobeenwithholde;
Ortobehired(asachaplain)byaguild;
512Butdwelteathoom,andkeptewelhisfolde,
Butdweltathome,andkeptwellhissheepfold
(parish),
513Sothatthewolfnemadeitnatmyscarie;
Sothatthewolfdidnotmakeitgowrong;
514Hewasashepherdeandnoghtamercenarie.
Hewasashepherdandnotahireling.
515Andthoughhehoolywereandvertuous,
Andthoughhewasholyandvirtuous,
516Hewastosynfulmennatdespitous,
Hewasnotscornfultosinfulmen,
517Neofhisspechedaungerousnedigne,
Nordomineeringnorhaughtyinhisspeech,

529WithhymtherwasaPLOWMAN,washisbrother,
WithhimtherewasaPLOWMAN,whowashis
brother,
530Thathaddeyladofdongfulmanyafother;
Whohadhauledverymanyacartloadofdung;
531Atreweswynkereandagoodwashe,
Hewasatrueandgoodworker,
532Lyvyngeinpeesandparfitcharitee.
Livinginpeaceandperfectlove.
533Godlovedhebestwithalhishooleherte
HelovedGodbestwithallhiswholeheart
534Atalletymes,thoghhimgamedorsmerte,
Atalltimes,whetheritpleasedorpainedhim,
535Andthannehisneigheborrightashymselve.
Andthen(heloved)hisneighborexactlyashimself.
536Hewoldethresshe,andthertodykeanddelve,
Hewouldthresh,andmoreovermakeditchesand
dig,
537ForCristessake,foreverypovrewight,
ForChrist'ssake,foreverypoorperson,
538Withoutenhire,ifitlayinhismyght.
Withoutpayment,ifitlayinhispower.
539Histithespaydehefulfaireandwel,
Hepaidhistithescompletelyandwell,
540Botheofhispropreswynkandhiscatel.
Bothofhisownlaborandofhispossessions.
541Inatabardherooduponamere.
Herodeinatabard(sleevelessjacket)uponamare.
542TherwasalsoaREVE,andaMILLERE,
TherewasalsoaREEVE,andaMILLER,
543ASOMNOUR,andaPARDONERalso,
ASUMMONER,andaPARDONERalso,
544AMAUNCIPLE,andmyselftherwerenamo.
AMANCIPLE,andmyselftherewerenomore.
545TheMILLEREwasastoutcarlforthenones;
TheMILLERwasastoutfellowindeed;
546Fulbyghewasofbrawn,andeekofbones.
Hewasverystrongofmuscle,andalsoofbones.
547Thatprovedwel,foroveraltherhecam,
Thatwaswellproven,forwhereverhecame,
548Atwrastlyngehewoldehavealweytheram.

86

Atwrestlinghewouldalwaystakethetheprize.
549Hewasshortsholdred,brood,athikkeknarre;
Hewasstoutlybuilt,broad,alargeframedfellow;
550Therwasnodorethathenoldeheveofharre,
Therewasnodoorthathewouldnotheaveoffits
hinges,
551Orbrekeitatarennyngwithhisheed.
Orbreakitbyrunningatitwithhishead.
552Hisberdasanysoweorfoxwasreed,
Hisbeardwasredasanysoworfox,
553Andthertobrood,asthoughitwereaspade.
Andmoreoverbroad,asthoughitwereaspade.
554Uponthecoprightofhisnosehehade
Upontheexacttopofhisnosehehad
555Awerte,andtheronstoodatoftofherys,
Awart,andthereonstoodatuftofhairs,
556Reedasthebrustlesofasoweserys;
Redasthebristlesofasow'sears;
557Hisnosethirlesblakewereandwyde.
Hisnostrilswereblackandwide.
558Aswerdandabokelerbarhebyhissyde.
Heworeaswordandabucklerbyhisside.
559Hismouthasgreetwasasagreetforneys.
Hismouthwasaslargeasalargefurnace.
560Hewasajanglereandagoliardeys,
Hewasaloudmouthandabuffoon,
561Andthatwasmoostofsynneandharlotries.
Andthatwasmostlyofsinanddeedsofharlotry.
562Welkoudehestelencornandtollenthries;
Hewellknewhowtostealcornandtakepayment
threetimes;
563Andyethehaddeathombeofgold,pardee.
Andyethehadathumbofgold,indeed.
564Awhitcoteandablewhoodweredhe.
Heworeawhitecoatandabluehood.
565Abaggepipewelkoudehebloweandsowne,
Hewellknewhowtoblowandplayabagpipe,
566Andtherwithalhebroghteusoutoftowne.
Andwiththathebroughtusoutoftown.

580OfanylordthatisinEngelond,
OfanylordthatisinEngland,
581Tomakehymlyvebyhispropregood
Tomakehimlivebyhisownwealth
582Inhonourdettelees(butifhewerewood),
Inhonoranddebtless(unlesshewerecrazy),
583Orlyveasscarslyashymlistdesire;
Orliveaseconomicallyasitpleasedhimtodesire;
584Andablefortohelpenalashire
And(theywouldbe)abletohelpallashire
585Inanycaasthatmyghtefalleorhappe.
Inanyemergencythatmightoccurorhappen.
586AndyetthisManciplesettehirallercappe.
AndyetthisManciplefooledthemall.
587TheREVEwasasclendrecolerikman.
TheREEVEwasaslendercholericman.
588Hisberdwasshaveasnyaseverhekan;
Hisbeardwasshavedascloseaseverhecan;
589Hisheerwasbyhiserysfulroundyshorn;
Hishairwascloselycroppedbyhisears;
590Histopwasdokkedlykapreestbiforn.
Thetopofhisheadinfrontwascutshortlikea
priest's.
591Fullongewerehisleggesandfullene,
Hislegswereverylongandverylean,
592Ylykastaf;therwasnocalfysene.
Likeastick;therewasnocalftobeseen.
593Welkoudehekepeagernerandabynne;
Hewellknewhowtokeepagranaryandastorage
bin;
594Therwasnoonauditourkoudeonhimwynne.
Therewasnoauditorwhocouldearnanything(by
catchinghim).
595Welwistehebythedroghteandbythereyn
Hewellknewbythedroughtandbytherain
596Theyeldyngeofhisseedandofhisgreyn.
(Whatwouldbe)theyieldofhisseedandofhisgrain.
597Hislordessheep,hisneet,hisdayerye,
Hislord'ssheep,hiscattle,hisherdofdairycows,
598Hisswyn,hishors,hisstoor,andhispultrye
Hisswine,hishorses,hislivestock,andhispoultry
599WashoollyinthisRevesgovernynge,
WaswhollyinthisReeve'scontrol,
600Andbyhiscovenantyaftherekenynge,
Andinaccordwithhiscontracthegavethe
reckoning,
601Synthathislordwastwentyyeerofage.
Sincehislordwastwentyyearsofage.
602Therkoudenomanbryngehyminarrerage.
Therewasnomanwhocouldfindhiminarrears.
603Thernasbaillif,nehierde,norootherhyne,
Therewasnofarmmanager,norherdsman,nor
otherservant,
604Thatheneknewhissleighteandhiscovyne;
Whosetrickeryandtreacheryhedidnotknow;
605Theywereadradofhymasofthedeeth.
Theywereafraidofhimasoftheplague.
606Hiswonyngwasfulfaireuponanheeth;
Hisdwellingwasverynicelysituateduponanheath;
607Withgrenetreesyshadwedwashisplace.
Hisplacewasshadedbygreentrees.
608Hekoudebettrethanhislordpurchace.
Hecouldbuypropertybetterthanhislordcould.
609Fulrichehewasastoredpryvely.
Hewassecretlyveryrichlyprovided.
610Hislordwelkoudeheplesensubtilly,

567AgentilMAUNCIPLEwastherofatemple,
TherewasafineMANCIPLEofatemple(lawschool),
568Ofwhichachatoursmyghtetakeexemple
Ofwhombuyersofprovisionsmighttakeexample
569Fortobewiseinbyyngeofvitaille;
Forhowtobewiseinbuyingofvictuals;
570Forwheitherthathepaydeortookbytaille,
Forwhetherhepaid(cash)ortook(goods)oncredit,
571Algatehewaytedsoinhisachaat
Alwayshewatchedso(carefullyforhisopportunity)
inhispurchases
572Thathewasaybifornandingoodstaat.
Thathewasalwaysaheadandingoodstate.
573NowisnatthatofGodafulfairgrace
NowisnotthataveryfairgraceofGod
574Thatswichalewedmanneswitshalpace
Thatsuchanunlearnedman'switshallsurpass
575Thewisdomofanheepoflernedmen?
Thewisdomofaheapoflearnedmen?
576Ofmaistreshaddehemothanthriesten,
Hehadmorethanthreetimestenmasters,
577Thatwerenoflaweexpertandcurious,
Whowereexpertandskillfulinlaw,
578Ofwhichtherwereaduszeyneinthathous
Ofwhomtherewereadozeninthathouse
579Worthytobeenstywardesofrenteandlond
Worthytobestewardsofrentandland

87

641Nowonderis,heherdeitaltheday;
Thatisnowonder,hehearditalltheday;
642Andeekyeknowenwelhowthatajay
Andalsoyouknowwellhowajay
643Kanclepen"Watte"aswelaskanthepope.
Cancallout"Walter"aswellasthepopecan.
644Butwhosokoudeinootherthynghymgrope,
Butwhoeverknewhowtoexaminehiminother
matters,
645Thannehaddehespentalhisphilosophie;
(Wouldfindthat)hehadusedupallhislearning;
646Ay"Questioquidiuris"woldehecrie.
Always"Thequestionis,whatpointofthelaw
applies?"hewouldcry.
647Hewasagentilharlotandakynde;
Hewasafinerascalandakindone;
648Abettrefelawesholdemennoghtfynde.
Onecouldnotfindabetterfellow.
649Hewoldesuffreforaquartofwyn
Foraquartofwinehewouldallow
650Agoodfelawetohavehisconcubyn
Agoodfellowtohavehisconcubine
651Atwelfmonth,andexcusehymattefulle;
Fortwelvemonths,andexcusehimcompletely;
652Fulprivelyafyncheekkoudehepulle.
Secretlyhealsoknewhowtopulloffaclevertrick.
653Andifhefoondowheragoodfelawe,
Andifhefoundanywhereagoodfellow,
654Hewoldetechenhimtohavenoonawe
Hewouldteachhimtohavenoawe
655Inswichcaasoftheercedekenescurs,
Ofthearchdeacon'scurse(ofexcommunication)in
suchacase,
656Butifamannessoulewereinhispurs;
Unlessaman'ssoulwereinhispurse;
657Forinhispurshesholdeypunysshedbe.
Forinhispursehewouldbepunished.
658"Pursistheercedekeneshelle,"seydehe.
"Purseisthearchdeacon'shell,"hesaid.
659ButwelIwoothelyedrightindede;
ButwellIknowheliedrightcertainly;
660Ofcursyngoghteechgiltymanhimdrede,
Eachguiltymanoughttobeafraidof
excommunication,
661Forcurswolsleerightasassoillyngsavith,
Forexcommunicationwillslayjustasforgiveness
saves,
662AndalsowarhymofaSignificavit.
AndlethimalsobewareofaSignificavit(orderfor
imprisonment).
663Indaungerhaddeheathisowenegise
Inhiscontrolhehadashepleased
664Theyongegirlesofthediocise,
Theyoungpeopleofthediocese,
665Andknewhirconseil,andwasalhirreed.
Andknewtheirsecrets,andwastheadviserofthem
all.
666Agerlandhaddehesetuponhisheed,
Hehadsetagarlanduponhisheed,
667Asgreetasitwereforanalestake.
Aslargeasifitwereforthesignofatavern
668Abokeleerhaddehemaadhymofacake.
Hehadmadehimselfashieldofacake.

Hewellknewhowtopleasehislordsubtly,
611Toyeveandlenehymofhisowenegood,
Bygivingandlendinghimsomeofhislord'sown
possessions,
612Andhaveathank,andyetacoteandhood.
Andhavethanks,andalsoacoatandhood(asa
reward).
613Inyouthehehaddelernedagoodmyster:
Inyouthhehadlearnedagoodcraft:
614Hewasawelgoodwrighte,acarpenter.
Hewasaverygoodcraftsman,acarpenter.
615ThisRevesatuponafulgoodstot
ThisReevesatuponaverygoodhorse
616ThatwasalpomelygreyandhighteScot.
ThatwasalldapplegrayandwascalledScot.
617Alongsurcoteofpersuponhehade,
Hehadonalongoutercoatofdarkblue,
618Andbyhissydehebaararustyblade.
Andbyhissideheworearustysword.
619OfNorthfolkwasthisReveofwhichItelle,
OfNorthfolkwasthisReeveofwhomItell,
620BisideatounmenclepenBaldeswelle.
NeartoatownmencallBawdeswelle.
621Tukkedhewasasisafrereaboute,
Hehadhiscoathitchedupandbelted,likeafriar,
622Andevereheroodthehyndresteofoureroute.
Andeverherodeasthelastofourcompany.
623ASOMONOURwastherwithusinthatplace,
TherewasaSUMMONERwithusinthatplace,
624Thathaddeafyrreedcherubynnesface,
Whohadafireredcherubim'sface,
625Forsaucefleemhewas,witheyennarwe.
Foritwaspimpledanddiscolored,withswollen
eyelids.
626Ashoothewasandlecherousasasparwe,
Hewasashotandlecherousasasparrow,
627Withscalledbrowesblakeandpiledberd.
Withblack,scabbybrowsandabeardwithhairfallen
out.
628Ofhisvisagechildrenwereaferd.
Childrenwereafraidofhisface.
629Thernasquyksilver,lytarge,nebrymstoon,
Therewasnomercury,leadmonoxide,norsulphur,
630Boras,ceruce,neoilleoftartrenoon,
Borax,whitelead,noranyoiloftarter,
631Neoynementthatwoldeclenseandbyte,
Norointmentthatwouldcleanseandburn,
632Thathymmyghtehelpenofhiswhelkeswhite,
Thatcouldcurehimofhiswhitepustules,
633Noroftheknobbessittyngeonhischekes.
Noroftheknobssittingonhischeeks.
634Wellovedhegarleek,oynons,andeeklekes,
Hewelllovedgarlic,onions,andalsoleeks,
635Andfortodrynkenstrongwyn,reedasblood;
Andtodrinkstrongwine,redasblood;
636Thannewoldehespekeandcrieashewerewood.
Thenhewouldspeakandcryoutasifhewerecrazy.
637Andwhanthatheweldronkenhaddethewyn,
Andwhenhehaddrunkdeeplyofthewine,
638ThannewoldehespekenowordbutLatyn.
ThenhewouldspeaknowordbutLatin.
639Afewetermeshaddehe,twoorthre,
Hehadafewlegalterms,twoorthree,
640Thathehadlernedoutofsomdecree
Thathehadlearnedoutofsometextofecclesiastical
law

669WithhymtherroodagentilPARDONER
WithhimthererodeafinePARDONER
670OfRouncivale,hisfreendandhiscompeer,

88

Butwiththeserelics,whenhefound
702Apovrepersondwellyngeuponlond,
Apoorparsondwellinginthecountryside,
703Uponadayhegathymmooremoneye
Inonedayhegothimselfmoremoney
704Thanthatthepersongatinmonthestweye;
Thantheparsongotintwomonths;
705Andthus,withfeynedflateryeandjapes,
Andthus,withfeignedflatteryandtricks,
706Hemadethepersonandthepeplehisapes.
Hemadefoolsoftheparsonandthepeople.
707Buttrewelytotellenattelaste,
Buttrulytotellatthelast,
708Hewasinchircheanobleecclesiaste.
Hewasinchurchanobleecclesiast.
709Welkoudeheredealessounorastorie,
Hewellknewhowtoreadalessonorastory,
710Butalderbesthesonganoffertorie;
ButbestofallhesanganOffertory;
711Forwelhewiste,whanthatsongwassonge,
Forheknewwell,whenthatsongwassung,
712Hemosteprecheandwelaffilehistonge
Hemustpreachandwellsmoothhisspeech
713Towynnesilver,ashefulwelkoude;
Towinsilver,asheverywellknewhow;
714Thereforehesongthemurierlyandloude.
Thereforehesangthemoremerrilyandloud.

OfRouncivale,hisfriendandhiscompanion,
671ThatstreightwascomenfrothecourtofRome.
WhohadcomestraightfromthecourtofRome.
672Fulloudehesoong"Comhider,love,tome!"
Veryloudhesang"Comehither,love,tome!"
673ThisSomonourbartohymastifburdoun;
ThisSummonerharmonizedwithhiminastrong
bass;
674Wasneveretrompeofhalfsogreetasoun.
Therewasneveratrumpetofhalfsogreatasound.
675ThisPardonerhaddeheerasyelowaswex,
ThisPardonerhadhairasyellowaswax,
676Butsmotheitheengasdoothastrikeofflex;
Butsmoothithungasdoesaclumpofflax;
677Byounceshengehislokkesthathehadde,
Bysmallstrandshungsuchlocksashehad,
678Andtherwithhehisshuldresoverspradde;
Andhespreadthemoverhisshoulders;
679Butthynneitlay,bycolponsoonandoon.
Butthinitlay,bystrandsonebyone.
680Buthood,forjolitee,weredhenoon,
Buttomakeanattractiveappearance,heworeno
hood,
681Foritwastrussedupinhiswalet.
Foritwastrussedupinhisknapsack.
682Hymthoughteheroodalofthenewejet;
Itseemedtohimthatherodeintheverylateststyle;
683Dischevelee,savehiscappe,heroodalbare.
Withhairunbound,saveforhiscap,herodeallbare
headed.
684Swicheglaryngeeyenhaddeheasanhare.
Hehadglaringeyessuchashasahare.
685Avernyclehaddehesoweduponhiscappe.
HehadsewnaVeronicauponhiscap.
686Hiswalet,bifornhyminhislappe,
Beforehiminhislap,(hehad)hisknapsack,
687BretfulofpardouncomenfromRomealhoot.
BrimfulofpardonscomeallfreshfromRome.
688Avoyshehaddeassmalashathagoot.
Hehadavoiceassmallasagoathas.
689Noberdhaddehe,neneveresholdehave;
Hehadnobeard,norneverwouldhave;
690Assmotheitwasasitwerelateshave.
It(hisface)wasassmoothasifitwererecently
shaven.
691Itrowehewereageldyngoramare.
Ibelievehewasaeunuchorahomosexual.
692Butofhiscraft,froBerwykintoWare
Butastohiscraft,fromBerwicktoWare
693Newastherswichanotherpardoner.
Therewasnootherpardonerlikehim.
694Forinhismalehehaddeapilwebeer,
Forinhispouchhehadapillowcase,
695WhichthatheseydewasOureLadyveyl;
WhichhesaidwasOurLady'sveil;
696Heseydehehaddeagobetoftheseyl
Hesaidhehadapieceofthesail
697ThatSeintPeterhadde,whanthathewente
ThatSaintPeterhad,whenhewent
698Uponthesee,tilJhesuCristhymhente.
Uponthesea,untilJesusChristtookhim.
699Hehaddeacroysoflatounfulofstones,
Hehadacrossoflatten(brasslikealloy)covered
withstones,
700Andinaglashehaddepiggesbones.
Andinaglasscontainerhehadpigs'bones.
701Butwiththiserelikes,whanthathefond

715NowhaveItooldyousoothly,inaclause,
NowhaveItoldyoutruly,briefly,
716Th'estaat,th'array,thenombre,andeekthecause
Therank,thedress,thenumber,andalsothecause
717Whythatassembledwasthiscompaignye
Whythiscompanywasassembled
718InSouthwerkatthisgentilhostelrye
InSouthwarkatthisfinehostelry
719ThathightetheTabard,fastebytheBelle.
ThatiscalledtheTabard,closebytheBell.
720Butnowistymetoyowfortotelle
Butnowitistimetotelltoyou
721Howthatwebarenusthatilkenyght,
Howweconductedourselvesthatsamenight,
722Whanwewereinthathostelriealyght;
Whenwehadarrivedinthathostelry;
723AndafterwolItelleofourviage
AndafterthatIwilltellofourjourney
724Andaltheremenauntofourepilgrimage.
Andalltherestofourpilgrimage.
725ButfirstIprayyow,ofyourecurteisye,
ButfirstIprayyow,ofyourcourtesy,
726Thatyen'aretteitnatmyvileynye,
Thatyoudonotattributeittomyrudeness,
727ThoghthatIpleynlyspekeinthismateere,
ThoughIspeakplainlyinthismatter,
728Totelleyowhirwordesandhircheere,
Totellyoutheirwordsandtheirbehavior,
729NethoghIspekehirwordesproprely.
NorthoughIspeaktheirwordsaccurately.
730ForthisyeknowenalsowelasI:
ForthisyouknowaswellasI:
731Whososhaltelleataleafteraman,
Whoevermustrepeatastoryaftersomeone,
732Hemootreherceasnyaseverehekan
Hemustrepeatascloselyaseverheknowshow
733Everichaword,ifitbeinhischarge,
Everysingleword,ifitbeinhispower,
734Alspekeheneversorudelicheandlarge,

89

Althoughhemayspeakeversorudelyandfreely,
735Orellishemoottellehistaleuntrewe,
Orelsehemusttellhistaleinaccurately,
736Orfeynethyng,orfyndewordesnewe.
Ormakeupthings,orfindnewwords.
737Hemaynatspare,althoghhewerehisbrother;
Hemaynotrefrainfrom(tellingthetruth),although
hewerehisbrother;
738Hemootaswelseyeowordasanother.
Hemustaswellsayonewordasanother.
739Cristspakhymselffulbrodeinhoolywrit,
Christhimselfspokeveryplainlyinholywrit,
740Andwelyewootnovileynyeisit.
Andyouknowwellitisnorudeness.
741EekPlatoseith,whosokanhymrede,
AlsoPlatosays,whosoeverknowshowtoreadhim,
742Thewordesmootebecosyntothedede.
Thewordsmustbecloselyrelatedtothedeed.
743AlsoIpreyyowtoforyeveitme,
AlsoIprayyoutoforgiveittome,
744AlhaveInatsetfolkinhirdegree
AlthoughIhavenotsetfolkinorderoftheirrank
745Heereinthistale,asthattheysholdestonde.
Hereinthistale,astheyshouldstand.
746Mywitisshort,yemaywelunderstonde.
Mywitisshort,youcanwellunderstand.

Iwouldgladlymakeyouhappy,ifIknewhow.
767AndofamyrtheIamrightnowbythoght,
AndIhavejustnowthoughtofanamusement,
768Todoonyowese,anditshalcostenoght.
Togiveyoupleasure,anditshallcostnothing.
769"YegoontoCaunterburyGodyowspeede,
"YougotoCanterburyGodgiveyousuccess,
770Theblisfulmartirquiteyowyouremeede!
Maytheblessedmartyrgiveyouyourreward!
771AndwelIwoot,asyegoonbytheweye,
AndwellIknow,asyougobytheway,
772Yeshapenyowtotalenandtopleye;
Youintendtotelltalesandtoamuseyourselves;
773Fortrewely,confortnemyrtheisnoon
Fortruly,itisnocomfortnormirth
774Toridebytheweyedoumbasastoon;
Toridebythewaydumbasastone;
775AndtherforewolImakenyowdisport,
AndthereforeIwillmakeagameforyou,
776AsIseydeerst,anddoonyowsomconfort.
AsIsaidbefore,andprovideyousomepleasure.
777Andifyowlikethallebyoonassent
Andifpleasesyouallunanimously
778Fortostondenatmyjuggement,
Tobesubjecttomyjudgment,
779AndfortowerkenasIshalyowseye,
AndtodoasIshalltellyou,
780Tomorwe,whanyeridenbytheweye,
Tomorrow,whenyouridebytheway,
781Now,bymyfadersoulethatisdeed,
Now,bythesoulofmyfatherwhoisdead,
782Butyebemyrie,Iwolyeveyowmynheed!
Unlessyoubemerry,Iwillgiveyoumyhead!
783Hooldupyourehondes,withoutenmoorespeche."
Holdupyourhands,withoutmorespeech."

747GreetchieremadeoureHoostuseverichon,
OurHostmadegreathospitalitytoeveryoneofus,
748Andtothesopersetteheusanon.
Andtothesupperhesetusstraightway.
749Heserveduswithvitailleatthebeste;
Heserveduswithvictualsofthebestsort;
750Strongwasthewyn,andweltodrynkeusleste.
Thewinewasstrong,anditwellpleasedustodrink.
751AsemelymanOUREHOOSTEwaswithalle
OURHOSTwasanimpressivemanindeed
752Fortobeenamarchalinanhalle.
(Qualified)tobeamasterofceremoniesinahall.
753Alargemanhewaswitheyenstepe
Hewasalargemanwithprominenteyes
754AfairerburgeyswasthernooninChepe
TherewasnobetterbusinessmaninCheapside
755Booldofhisspeche,andwys,andwelytaught,
Boldofhisspeech,andwise,andwellmannered,
756Andofmanhodhymlakkederightnaught.
Andhelackednothingatallofthequalitiesproperto
aman.
757Eekthertohewasrightamyrieman;
Alsomoreoverhewasarightmerryman;
758Andaftersoperpleyenhebigan,
Andaftersupperhebegantobemerry,
759Andspakofmyrtheamongesotherethynges,
Andspokeofmirthamongotherthings,
760Whanthatwehaddemaadourerekenynges,
Whenwehadpaidourbills,
761Andseydethus:"Now,lordynges,trewely,
Andsaidthus:"Now,gentlemen,truly,
762Yebeentomerightwelcome,hertely;
Youarerightheartilywelcometome;
763Forbymytrouthe,ifthatIshalnatlye,
Forbymyword,ifIshallnotlie(Imustsay),
764Isaughnatthisyeersomyrieacompaignye
Isawnotthisyearsomerryacompany
765Atonesinthisherberweasisnow.
Atonetimeinthislodgingasis(here)now.
766FaynwoldeIdoonyowmyrthe,wisteIhow.

784Oureconseilwasnatlongefortoseche.
Ourdecisionwasnotlongtoseekout.
785Usthoughteitwasnoghtworthtomakeitwys,
Itseemedtousitwasnotworthwhiletodeliberate
onit,
786Andgrauntedhymwithoutenmooreavys,
And(we)grantedhisrequestwithoutmore
discussion,
787Andbadhimseyehisvoirditashymleste.
Andaskedhimtosayhisdecisionasitpleasedhim.
788"Lordynges,"quodhe,"nowherknethforthebeste;
"Gentlemen,"saidhe,"nowlistenforthebestcourse
ofaction;
789Buttaakitnought,Ipreyyow,indesdeyn.
But,Iprayyow,donottakeitindisdain(scornit).
790Thisisthepoynt,tospekenshortandpleyn,
Thisisthepoint,tospeakbrieflyandclearly,
791Thatechofyow,toshortewithoureweye,
Thateachofyow,tomakeourwayseemshortby
thismeans,
792Inthisviageshaltelletalestweye
Musttelltwotalesinthisjourney
793ToCaunterburyward,Imeneitso,
OnthewaytoCanterbury,thatiswhatImean,
794Andhomwardheshaltellenotheretwo,
Andonthehomewardtripheshalltelltwoothers,
795Ofaventuresthatwhilomhanbifalle.
Aboutadventuresthatinoldtimeshavehappened.
796Andwhichofyowthatberethhymbestofalle
Andwhoeverofyouwhodoesbestofall

90

797Thatistoseyn,thattellethinthiscaas
Thatistosay,whotellsinthiscase
798Talesofbestsentenceandmoostsolaas
Talesofbestmoralmeaningandmostpleasure
799Shalhaveasoperatoureallercost
Shallhaveasupperatthecostofusall
800Heereinthisplace,sittyngebythispost,
Hereinthisplace,sittingbythispost,
801WhanthatwecomeagaynfroCaunterbury.
WhenwecomebackfromCanterbury.
802Andfortomakeyowthemooremury,
Andtomakeyouthemoremerry,
803Iwolmyselvengoodlywithyowryde,
Iwillmyselfgladlyridewithyou,
804Rightatmynowenecost,andbeyouregyde;
Entirelyatmyowncost,andbeyourguide;
805Andwhosowolemyjuggementwithseye
Andwhosoeverwillnotacceptmyjudgment
806Shalpayealthatwespendenbytheweye.
Shallpayallthatwespendbytheway.
807Andifyevouchesaufthatitbeso,
Andifyougrantthatitbeso,
808Telmeanon,withoutenwordesmo,
Tellmestraightway,withoutmorewords,
809AndIwolerlyshapemetherfore."
AndIwillgetreadyearlyforthis."

828Andseyde,"Lordynges,herkneth,ifyowleste.
Andsaid,"Gentlemen,listen,ifyouplease.
829Yewootyoureforeward,andIityowrecorde.
Youknowyouragreement,andIremindyouofit.
830Ifevensongandmorwesongaccorde,
Ifwhatyousaidlastnightagreeswithwhatyousay
thismorning,
831Latsenowwhoshaltellethefirstetale.
Let'sseenowwhoshalltellthefirsttale.
832AseveremoteIdrynkewynorale,
AseverImaydrinkwineorale,
833Whosoberebeltomyjuggement
Whosoevermayberebeltomyjudgment
834Shalpayeforalthatbytheweyisspent.
Shallpayforallthatisspentbytheway.
835Nowdrawethcut,erthatweferrertwynne;
Nowdrawstraws,beforewedepartfurther(from
London);
836Hewhichthathaththeshortesteshalbigynne.
Hewhohastheshortestshallbegin.
837SireKnyght,"quodhe,"mymaysterandmylord,
SirKnight,"saidhe,"mymasterandmylord,
838Nowdrawethcut,forthatismynaccord.
Nowdrawastraw,forthatismydecision.
839Comethneer,"quodhe,"myladyPrioresse.
Comenearer,"hesaid,"myladyPrioress.
840Andye,sireClerk,latbeyoureshamefastnesse,
Andyou,sirClerk,letbeyourmodesty,
841Nestudiethnoght;leyhondto,everyman!"
Andstudynot;layhandto(drawastraw),every
man!"
842Anontodraweneverywightbigan,
Everypersonbeganstraightwaytodraw,
843Andshortlyfortotellenasitwas,
Andshortlytotellasitwas,
844Wereitbyaventure,orsort,orcas,
Wereitbychance,ordestiny,orluck,
845Thesotheisthis:thecutfiltotheKnyght,
Thetruthisthis:thedrawfelltotheKnight,
846Ofwhichfulblitheandgladwaseverywyght,
Forwhicheveryonewasveryhappyandglad,
847Andtellehemostehistale,aswasresoun,
Andhemusttellhistale,aswasreasonable,
848Byforewardandbycomposicioun,
Byourpreviouspromiseandbyformalagreement,
849Asyehanherd;whatnedethwordesmo?
Asyouhaveheard;whatmorewordsareneeded?
850Andwhanthisgoodemansaughthatitwasso,
Andwhenthisgoodmansawthatitwasso,
851Ashethatwyswasandobedient
Likeonewhowaswiseandobedient
852Tokepehisforewardbyhisfreeassent,
Tokeephisagreementbyhisfreeassent,
853Heseyde,"SynIshalbigynnethegame,
Hesaid,"SinceImustbeginthegame,
854What,welcomebethecut,aGoddesname!
What!Welcomebethedraw,inGod'sname!
855Nowlatusryde,andherknethwhatIseye."
Nowletusride,andlistentowhatIsay."
856Andwiththatwordwerydenforthoureweye,
Andwiththatwordwerodeforthonourway,
857Andhebiganwithrightamyriecheere
Andhebeganwithatrulymerrydemeanor
858Histaleanon,andseydeasyemayheere.
Totellhistalestraightway,andsaidasyoumayhear.

810Thisthyngwasgraunted,andoureothesswore
Thisthingwasgranted,andouroathssworn
811Withfulgladherte,andpreydenhymalso
Withverygladhearts,and(we)prayedhimalso
812Thathewoldevouchesauffortodoso,
Thathewouldconsenttodoso,
813Andthathewoldebeenouregovernour,
Andthathewouldbeourgovernor,
814Andofouretalesjugeandreportour,
Andjudgeandscorekeeperofourtales,
815Andsetteasoperatacerteynpris,
Andsetasupperatacertainprice,
816Andwewolreuledbeenathisdevys
Andwewillberuledashewishes
817Inheighandlough;andthusbyoonassent
Ineveryrespect;andthusunanimously
818Webeenacordedtohisjuggement.
Weareaccordedtohisjudgment.
819Andtheruponthewynwasfetanon;
Andthereuponthewinewasfetchedimmediately;
820Wedronken,andtorestewenteechon,
Wedrank,andeachonewenttorest,
821Withoutenanylengertaryynge.
Withoutanylongertarrying.
822Amorwe,whanthatdaybigantosprynge,
Inthemorning,whendaybegantospring,
823UproosoureHoost,andwasoureallercok,
OurHostarose,andwastheroosterofusall
(awakenedus).
824Andgadredeustogidrealleinaflok,
Andgatheredustogetherallinaflock,
825Andforthweridenalitelmoorethanpaas
Andforthwerodeatlittlemorethanawalk
826UntotheWateryngofSeintThomas;
UntotheWateringofSaintThomas;
827AndthereoureHoostbiganhishorsareste
AndthereourHoststoppedhishorse

91

92

TheWifeofBath'sTale

[Alisoun,theWifeofBath,hasbeenmarriedfivetimesandisreadyforanotherhusband:Christneverspecifiedhowmany
timesawomanshouldmarry.Virginityisfinebutwivesarenotcondemned;theApostlesaidthatmyhusbandwouldbe
mydebtor,andIhavepoweroverhisbody.Threeofmyhusbandsweregoodandtwobad.Thefirstthreewereoldandrich
andIpickedthemclean.Oneofmyoldhusbands,emboldenedwithdrink,wouldcomehomeandpreachagainstwomen;
butIgotthebetterofhim.Myfourthhusbandwasyoungandhehadamistress.Ipretendedtobeunfaithfulandmade
himburninhisowngrease.IalreadyhadmyeyeonyoungJankin,pallbearerformyfourth,andhebecamemyfifthand
favoritehusband.Hebeatme.OncewhenhewasreadingaloudfromhisBookofWickedWives,Itoreapagefromhis
book,andheknockedmedown(sohardIamstilldeaffromit).Ipretendedtobedying,andwhenheleanedovertoask
forgiveness,Iknockedhimintothefireplace.Wemadeup,andhegavemefullsovereigntyinmarriage;thereafterIwas
kindandfaithful,andwelivedinbliss.]

ThePrologeoftheWyvesTaleofBathe(withthetranslation)

16SpakinrepreeveoftheSamaritan:
SpokeinreproofoftheSamaritan:
17`Thouhastyhadfyvehousbondes,'quodhe,
`Thouhasthadfivehusbands,'hesaid,
18`Andthatilkemanthatnowhaththee
`Andthatsamemanthatnowhasthee
19Isnoghtthynhousbonde,'thusseydehecerteyn.
Isnotthyhusband,'thushesaidcertainly.
20Whatthathementetherby,Ikannatseyn;
Whathemeantbythis,Icannotsay;
21ButthatIaxe,whythatthefiftheman
ButIask,whythefifthman
22WasnoonhousbondetotheSamaritan?
WasnohusbandtotheSamaritan?
23Howmanyemyghteshehaveinmariage?
Howmanymightshehaveinmarriage?
24YetherdeIneveretelleninmynage
Ineveryetheardtellinmylifetime
25Uponthisnombrediffinicioun.
Adefinitionofthisnumber.
26Menmaydevyneandglosen,upanddoun,
Menmayconjectureandinterpretineveryway,
27ButwelIwoot,expres,withoutelye,
ButwellIknow,expressly,withoutlie,
28Godbadusfortowexeandmultiplye;
Godcommandedustogrowfruitfulandmultiply;
29ThatgentiltextkanIwelunderstonde.
ThatgentletextIcanwellunderstand.
30EekwelIwoot,heseydemynhousbonde
AlsoIknowwell,hesaidmyhusband

1"Experience,thoughnoonauctoritee
"Experience,thoughnowrittenauthority
2Wereinthisworld,isrightynoghforme
Wereinthisworld,isgoodenoughforme
3Tospekeofwothatisinmariage;
Tospeakofthewoethatisinmarriage;
4For,lordynges,sithItwelveyeerwasofage,
For,gentlemen,sinceIwastwelveyearsofage,
5ThonkedbeGodthatiseterneonlyve,
ThankedbeGodwhoiseternallyalive,
6HousbondesatchirchedoreIhavehadfyve
Ihavehadfivehusbandsatthechurchdoor
7IfIsooftemyghtehaveyweddedbee
IfIsooftenmighthavebeenwedded
8Andallewereworthymeninhirdegree.
Andallwereworthymenintheirway.
9Butmewastoold,certeyn,natlongeagoonis,
Buttomeitwastold,certainly,itisnotlongago,
10ThatsiththatCristnewenteneverebutonis
ThatsinceChristwentneverbutonce
11Toweddyng,intheCaneofGalilee,
Toawedding,intheCanaofGalilee,
12Thatbythesameensampletaughteheme
Thatbythatsameexamplehetaughtme
13ThatInesholdeweddedbebutones.
ThatIshouldbeweddedbutonce.
14Herkneeek,lo,whichasharpwordforthenones,
Listenalso,lo,whatasharpwordforthispurpose,
15Bisideawelle,Jhesus,Godandman,
Besideawell,Jesus,Godandman,

93

31Sholdeletefaderandmooderandtaketome.
Shouldleavefatherandmotherandtaketome.
32Butofnonombremencionmadehe,
Buthemadenomentionofnumber,
33Ofbigamye,orofoctogamye;
Ofmarryingtwo,orofmarryingeight;
34Whysholdementhannespekeofitvileynye?
Whyshouldmenthenspeakevilofit?

56AndJacobeek,asferforthasIkan;
AndJacobalso,insofarasIknow;
57Andechofhemhaddewyvesmothantwo,
Andeachofthemhadmorethantwowives,
58Andmanyanotherholymanalso.
Andmanyanotherholymanalso.
59Whercanyeseye,inanymanereage,
Wherecanyoufind,inanyhistoricalperiod,
60ThathyeGoddefendedmariage
ThathighGodforbadmarriage
61Byexpresword?Iprayyow,tellethme.
Byexpressword?Iprayyou,tellme.
62Orwherecomandedhevirginitee?
Orwherecommandedhevirginity?
63Iwootaswelasye,itisnodrede,
Iknowaswellasyou,itisnodoubt,
64Th'apostel,whanhespekethofmaydenhede,
Theapostle,whenhespeaksofmaidenhood,
65Heseydethatprecepttherofhaddehenoon.
Hesaidthathehadnopreceptconcerningit.
66Menmayconseilleawommantobeenoon,
Menmayadviseawomantobeone,
67Butconseillyngisnocomandement.
Butadviceisnocommandment.
68Heputteitinoureowenejuggement;
Heleftittoourownjudgment;
69ForhaddeGodcomandedmaydenhede,
ForhadGodcommandedmaidenhood,
70Thannehaddehedampnedweddyngwiththedede.
Thenhadhedamnedmarriagealongwiththeact(of
procreation).
71Andcertes,iftherwerenoseedysowe,
Andcertainly,iftherewerenoseedsown,
72Virginitee,thannewherofsholdeitgrowe?
Thenfromwhatshouldvirginitygrow?
73Pouldorstenatcomanden,atteleeste,
Inanycase,Pauldarednotcommand
74Athyngofwhichhismaisteryafnoonheeste.
Athingofwhichhismastergavenocommand.
75Thedartissetupforvirginitee;
Theprizeissetupforvirginity;
76Cacchewhosomay,whorennethbestlatsee.
Catchitwhoevercan,let'sseewhorunsbest.

35Lo,heerethewisekyng,daunSalomon;
Lo,(consider)herethewiseking,danSalomon;
36Itrowehehaddewyvesmothanoon.
Ibelievehehadwivesmorethanone.
37AswoldeGoditlevefulwereuntome
AswouldGoditwerelawfuluntome
38Toberefresshedhalfsoofteashe!
Toberefreshedhalfsooftenashe!
39WhichyifteofGodhaddeheforallehiswyvys!
WhatagiftofGodhehadbecauseofallhiswives!
40Nomanhathswichthatinthisworldalyveis.
Nomanthatinthisworldisalivehassuch(agift).
41Godwoot,thisnoblekyng,astomywit,
Godknows,thisnobleking,accordingtomy
judgment,
42Thefirstenyghthadmanyamyriefit
Thefirstnighthadmanyamerryfit
43Withechofhem,sowelwashymonlyve.
Witheachofthem,sowellthingswentforhiminhis
lifetime.
44YblessedbeGodthatIhaveweddedfyve!
BlessedbeGodthatIhaveweddedfive!
44a[OfwhicheIhavepykedoutthebeste,
[OfwhichIhavepickedoutthebest,
44bBotheofherenetherpursandofherecheste.
Bothoftheirlowerpurse(scrotum)andoftheir
strongbox.
44cDiversescolesmakenparfytclerkes,
Differingschoolsmakeperfectclerks,
44dAnddiversepractykinmanysondrywerkes
Anddifferingpracticeinmanyvariousworks
44eMakeththewerkmanparfytsekirly;
Makestheworkmantrulyperfect;
44fOffyvehusbondesscoleiyngamI.]
Offivehusbands'schoolingamI.]
45Welcomethesixte,whanthatevereheshal.
Welcomethesixth,wheneverheshallappear.
46Forsothe,Iwolnatkepemechaastinal.
Fortruly,Iwillnotkeepmyselfchasteineverything.
47Whanmynhousbondeisfrotheworldygon,
Whenmyhusbandisgonefromtheworld,
48SomCristenmanshalweddemeanon,
SomeChristianmanshallwedmestraightway,
49Forthanneth'apostleseiththatIamfree
ForthentheapostlesaysthatIamfree
50Towedde,aGoddeshalf,whereitlikethme.
Towed,byGod'sside(Iswear),whereveritpleases
me.
51Heseiththattobeweddedisnosynne;
Hesaysthattobeweddedisnosin;
52Betistobeweddedthantobrynne.
Itisbettertobeweddedthantoburn.
53Whatrekkethme,thoghfolkseyevileynye
WhatdoIcare,thoughfolkspeakevil
54OfshrewedLamethandhisbigamye?
OfcursedLamechandhisbigamy?
55IwootwelAbrahamwasanhoolyman,
IknowwellAbrahamwasaholyman,

77Butthiswordisnattakenofeverywight,
Butthisworddoesnotapplytoeveryperson,
78ButtherasGodlustgyveitofhismyght.
ButwhereGoddesirestogiveitbyhispower.
79Iwootwelthatth'apostelwasamayde;
Iknowwellthattheapostlewasavirgin;
80Butnathelees,thoghthathewrootandsayde
Butnonetheless,thoughhewroteandsaid
81Hewoldethateverywightwereswichashe,
Hewouldthateverypersonweresuchashe,
82Alnysbutconseiltovirginitee.
Allisnothingbutadviceto(adopt)virginity.
83Andfortobeenawyfheyafmeleve
Andhegavemeleavetobeawife
84Ofindulgence;sonysitnorepreve
Byexplicitpermission;soitisnotblameful
85Toweddeme,ifthatmymakedye,
Towedme,ifmymateshoulddie,
86Withoutenexcepcionofbigamye.
Withoutobjectiononthegroundsofbigamy.
87Alwereitgoodnowommanfortotouche
Althoughitwouldbegoodtotouchnowoman
88Hementeasinhisbedorinhiscouche,

94

Hemeantinhisbedorinhiscouch,
89Forperilisbothefyrandtowt'assemble;
Foritisperiloustoassemblebothfireandflax;
90Yeknowewhatthisensamplemayresemble.
Youknowwhatthisexamplemayapplyto.
91Thisisalandsom:heheeldvirginitee
Thisisthesumofit:heheldvirginity
92Mooreparfitthanweddynginfreletee.
Moreperfectthanweddinginweakness.
93FreleteeclepeI,butifthatheandshe
WeaknessIcallit,unlessheandshe
94Woldeledenalhirlyfinchastitee.
Wouldleadalltheirlifeinchastity.

Interpretwhoeverwill,andsaybothupanddown
120Thattheyweremakedforpurgacioun
Thattheyweremadeforpurgation
121Ofuryne,andourebothethyngessmale
Ofurine,andbothoursmallthings
122Wereeektoknoweafemelefromamale,
Werealsotoknowafemalefromamale,
123Andfornoonoothercausesayyeno?
Andfornoothercausedoyousayno?
124Theexperiencewootwelitisnoghtso.
Theexperienceknowswellitisnotso.
125Sothattheclerkesbenatwithmewrothe,
Providedthattheclerksbenotangrywithme,
126Iseythis:thattheymakedbenforbothe;
Isaythis:thattheyaremadeforboth;
127Thatistoseye,forofficeandforese
Thatistosay,forurinationandforease
128Ofengendrure,therwenatGoddisplese.
Ofprocreation,inwhichwedonotdispleaseGod.
129Whysholdemenellesinhirbookessette
Whyelseshouldmensetintheirbooks
130Thatmanshalyeldetohiswyfhiredette?
Thatmanshallpaytohiswifeherdebt?
131Nowwherwithsholdehemakehispaiement,
Nowwithwhatshouldhemakehispayment,
132Ifheneusedhisselyinstrument?
Ifhedidnotusehisblessedinstrument?
133Thanneweretheymaaduponacreature
Thenweretheymadeuponacreature
134Topurgeuryne,andeekforengendrure.
Topurgeurine,andalsoforprocreation.

95Igraunteitwel;Ihavenoonenvie,
Igrantitwell;Ihavenoenvy,
96Thoghmaydenhedepreferrebigamye.
Thoughmaidenhoodmayhaveprecedenceovera
secondmarriage.
97Itlikethhemtobeclene,bodyandgoost;
Itpleasesthemtobeclean,bodyandspirit;
98OfmynestaatInylnatmakenoboost,
OfmystateIwillmakenoboast,
99Forwelyeknowe,alordinhishoushold,
Forwellyouknow,alordinhishousehold,
100Henathnateveryvesselalofgold;
Hehasnoteveryutensilallofgold;
101Sommebeenoftree,anddoonhirlordservyse.
Someareofwood,anddotheirlordservice.
102Godclepethfolktohyminsondrywyse,
Godcallsfolktohiminvariousways,
103AndeverichhathofGodapropreyifte
AndeachonehasofGodanindividualgift
104Somthis,somthat,ashymlikethshifte.
Somethis,somethat,asitpleasesHimtoprovide.

135ButIseyenoghtthateverywightisholde,
ButIsaynotthateverypersonisrequired,
136ThathathswichharneysasItoyowtolde,
ThathassuchequipmentasItoyoutold,
137Togoonandusenheminengendrure.
Togoandusetheminprocreation.
138Thannesholdementakeofchastiteenocure.
Thenshouldmenhavenoregardforchastity.
139Cristwasamaydeandshapenasaman,
Christwasavirginandshapedlikeaman,
140Andmanyaseint,siththattheworldbigan;
Andmanyasaint,sincetheworldbegan;
141Yetlyvedtheyevereinparfitchastitee.
Yetlivedtheyeverinperfectchastity.
142Inylenvyenovirginitee.
Iwillenvynovirginity.
143Lathembebreedofpuredwheteseed,
Letthembebreadofpurewheatseed,
144Andlatuswyveshotenbarlybreed;
Andletuswivesbecalledbarleybread;
145Andyetwithbarlybreed,Marktellekan,
Andyetwithbarleybread,Markcantellit,
146OureLordJhesurefresshedmanyaman.
OurLordJesusrefreshedmanyaman.
147InswichestaatasGodhathclepedus
InsuchestateasGodhascalledus
148Iwolpersevere;Inamnatprecius.
Iwillpersevere;Iamnotfussy.
149InwyfhodIwolusemyninstrument
InwifehoodIwillusemyinstrument
150AsfrelyasmyMakerehathitsent.
AsfreelyasmyMakerhasitsent.
151IfIbedaungerous,Godyevemesorwe!
IfIbeniggardly,Godgivemesorrow!
152Mynhousbondeshalithavebotheeveandmorwe,

105Virginiteeisgreetperfeccion,
Virginityisgreatperfection,
106Andcontinenceeekwithdevocion,
Andcontinencealsowithdevotion,
107ButCrist,thatofperfeccioniswelle,
ButChrist,whoisthesourceofperfection,
108Badnateverywighthesholdegoselle
Didnotcommandthateveryoneshouldgosell
109Althathehadde,andgyveittothepoore,
Allthathehad,andgiveittothepoor,
110Andinswichwisefolwehymandhisfoore.
Andinsuchwisefollowhimandhisfootsteps.
111Hespaktohemthatwoldelyveparfitly;
Hespoketothosewhowouldliveperfectly;
112Andlordynges,byyoureleve,thatamnatI.
Andgentlemen,byyourleave,Iamnotthat.
113Iwolbistowetheflourofalmynage
Iwillbestowtheflowerofallmyage
114Intheactesandinfruytofmariage.
Intheactsandinfruitofmarriage.
115Tellemealso,towhatconclusion
Tellmealso,towhatpurpose
116Weremembresmaadofgeneracion,
Weremembersofgenerationmade,
117Andofsoparfitwysa[wright]ywroght?
AndbysoperfectlywiseaWorkmanwrought?
118Trustethrightwel,theywerenatmaadfornoght.
Trustrightwell,theywerenotmadefornothing.
119Glosewhosowole,andseyebotheupanddoun

95

Myhusbandshallhaveitbotheveningsandmornings,
153Whanthathymlistcomeforthandpayehisdette.
Whenitpleaseshimtocomeforthandpayhisdebt.
154AnhousbondeIwolhaveIwolnatlette
AhusbandIwillhaveIwillnotdesist
155Whichshalbebothemydettourandmythral,
Whoshallbebothmydebtorandmyslave,
156Andhavehistribulacionwithal
Andhavehissufferingalso
157Uponhisflessh,whilthatIamhiswyf.
Uponhisflesh,whileIamhiswife.
158Ihavethepowerduryngealmylyf
Ihavethepowerduringallmylife
159Uponhisproprebody,andnoghthe.
Overhisownbody,andnothe.
160RightthustheAposteltoldeituntome,
RightthustheApostletoldituntome,
161Andbadourehousbondesfortoloveusweel.
Andcommandedourhusbandstoloveuswell.
162Althissentencemeliketheverydeel"
Allthissentencepleasesmeeverybit"

184"Dame,Iwoldeprayeyow,ifyourewylitwere,"
"Madam,Iwouldprayyou,ifitwereyourwill,"
185SeydethisPardoner,"asyebigan,
SaidthisPardoner,"asyoubegan,
186Telleforthyouretale,sparethfornoman,
Tellforthyourtale,refrainfornoman,
187Andtecheusyongemenofyourepraktike."
Andteachusyoungmenofyourpractice."
188"Gladly,"quodshe,"sithitmayyowlike;
"Gladly,"shesaid,"sinceitmaypleaseyou;
189ButyetIprayetoalthiscompaignye,
ButyetIpraytoallthiscompany,
190IfthatIspekeaftermyfantasye,
IfIspeakaccordingtomyfancy,
191AstakethnotagriefofthatIseye,
DonotbeannoyedbywhatIsay,
192Formynententenysbutfortopleye.
Formyintentionisonlytoamuse.
193Now,sire,nowwolItelleforthmytale.
Now,sir,nowwillItellforthmytale.
194AseveremooteIdrynkenwynorale,
AsevermayIdrinkwineorale,
195Ishalseyesooth;thohousbondesthatIhadde,
Ishallspeakthetruth;thosehusbandsthatIhad,
196Asthreofhemweregoode,andtwowerebadde.
Threeofthemweregood,andtwowerebad.
197Thethreweregoodemen,andriche,andolde;
Thethreeweregoodmen,andrich,andold;
198Unnethemyghtetheythestatutholde
Hardlymighttheythestatutehold(paythedebt)
199Inwhichthattheywereboundenuntome.
Inwhichtheywerebounduntome.
200YewootwelwhatImeeneofthis,pardee!
YouknowwellwhatImeanofthis,byGod!
201AshelpmeGod,IlaughewhanIthynke
SohelpmeGod,IlaughwhenIthink
202HowpitouslyanyghtImadehemswynke!
HowpitifullyatnightImadethemwork!
203And,bymyfey,Itoldeofitnostoor.
And,bymyfaith,Isetnostorebyit.
204Theyhadmeyevenhirlondandhirtresoor;
Theyhadgivenmetheirlandandtheirtreasure;
205Menedednatdolengerdiligence
Ineedednotworkhardanylonger
206Towynnehirlove,ordoonhemreverence.
Towintheirlove,ordothemreverence.
207Theylovedmesowel,byGodabove,
Theylovedmesowell,byGodabove,
208ThatInetoldenodeynteeofhirlove!
ThatIreckonedlittleoftheirlove!
209Awyswommanwolbisyehireevereinoon
Awisewomanwillbeconstantlybusy
210Togetehirelove,ye,therasshehathnoon.
Togettheirlove,yes,whenshehasnone.
211ButsithIhaddehemhoollyinmynhond,
ButsinceIhadthemwhollyinmyhand,
212Andsiththeyhaddemeyevenalhirlond,
Andsincetheyhadmegivenalltheirland,
213WhatsholdeItakenkeephemfortoplese,
WhyshouldItakecaretopleasethem,
214Butitwereformyprofitandmynese?
Unlessitwereformyprofitandmypleasure?
215Isettehemsoawerke,bymyfey,
Isetthemsotowork,bymyfaith,
216Thatmanyanyghttheysongen`Weilawey!'

163UpstirtethePardoner,andthatanon;
UpsprangthePardoner,andthatatonce;
164"Now,dame,"quodhe,"byGodandbySeintJohn!
"Now,madam,"hesaid,"byGodandbySaintJohn!
165Yebeenanobleprechourinthiscas.
Youareanoblepreacherinthiscase.
166Iwasaboutetoweddeawyf;allas!
Iwasabouttowedawife;alas!
167WhatsholdeIbyeitonmyflesshsodeere?
WhyshouldIpayforitsodearlyonmyflesh?
168YethaddeIlevereweddenowyftoyeere!"
YetwouldIratherwednowifethisyear!"
169"Abyde!"quodshe,"mytaleisnatbigonne.
"Wait!"shesaid,"mytaleisnotbegun.
170Nay,thoushaltdrynkenofanothertonne,
Nay,thoushaltdrinkfromanotherbarrel,
171ErthatIgo,shalsavoureworsthanale.
BeforeIgo,whichshalltasteworsethanale.
172AndwhanthatIhavetooldtheeforthmytale
AndwhenIhavetoldtheeforthmytale
173Oftribulacioninmariage,
Ofsufferinginmarriage,
174OfwhichIamexpertinalmynage
OfwhichIamexpertinallmylife
175Thisistoseyn,myselfhavebeenthewhippe
Thisistosay,myselfhavebeenthewhip
176Thanmaystowchesewheitherthouwoltsippe
Thanmaythouchoosewhetherthouwillsip
177OfthilketonnethatIshalabroche.
OfthatsamebarrelthatIshallopen.
178Bewarofit,erthoutonyapproche;
Bewareofit,beforethoutoonearapproach;
179ForIshaltelleensamplesmothanten.
ForIshalltellexamplesmorethanten.
180`Whosothatnylbewarbyotheremen,
`Whoeverwillnotbewarnedby(theexamplesof)
othermen,
181Byhymshulotheremencorrectedbe.'
Shallbeanexamplebywhichothermenshallbe
corrected.'
182ThesamewordeswritethPtholomee;
ThesamewordswritesPtholomy;
183RedeinhisAlmageste,andtakeitthere."
ReadinhisAlmagest,andtakeitthere."

96

Thatmanyanighttheysang`Woeisme!'
217Thebaconwasnatfetforhem,Itrowe,
Thebaconwasnotfetchedforthem,Ibelieve,
218ThatsommenhaninEssexatDunmowe.
ThatsomemenhaveinEssexatDunmowe.
219Igovernedhemsowel,aftermylawe,
Igovernedthemsowell,accordingtomylaw,
220Thatechofhemfulblisfulwasandfawe
Thateachofthemwasveryblissfulandeager
221Tobryngemegayethyngesfrothefayre.
Tobringmegaythingsfromthefair.
222TheywerefulgladwhanIspaktohemfaire,
TheywereverygladwhenIspoketothempleasantly,
223For,Goditwoot,Ichiddehemspitously.
For,Godknowsit,Icruellyscoldedthem.

249Toweddeapovrewomman,forcostage;
Towedapoorwoman,becauseofexpense;
250Andifthatsheberiche,ofheighparage,
Andifsheberich,ofhighbirth,
251Thanneseistowthatitisatormentrie
Thenthousayestthatitisatorment
252Tosoffrehireprideandhiremalencolie.
Toputupwithherprideandherangrymoods.
253Andifthatshebefair,thouverrayknave,
Andifshebefair,thouutterknave,
254Thouseystthateveryholourwolhirehave;
Thousayestthateverylecherwantstohaveher;
255Shemaynowhileinchastiteeabyde,
Shecannotremainchasteforanylengthoftime,
256Thatisassailleduponechasyde.
Whoisassailedoneveryside.

224NowherknethhouIbaarmeproprely,
NowlistenhowwellIconductedmyself,
225Yewisewyves,thatkanunderstonde.
Youwisewives,thatcanunderstand.
226Thusshuldeyespekeandberehemwrongonhonde,
Thusshouldyouspeakandaccusethemwrongfully,
227Forhalfsoboldelykanthernoman
Forhalfsoboldlycantherenoman
228Swereandlyen,asawommankan.
Swearandlie,asawomancan.
229Iseynatthisbywyvesthatbeenwyse,
Idonotsaythisconcerningwivesthatarewise,
230Butifitbewhantheyhemmysavyse.
Unlessitbewhentheyareilladvised.
231Awyswyf,ifthatshekanhirgood,
Awisewife,ifsheknowswhatisgoodforher,
232Shalberenhymonhondethecowiswood,
Shalldeceivehimbyswearingthebirdiscrazy,
233Andtakewitnesseofhirowenemayde,
Andproveitbytakingwitnessofherownmaid
234Ofhirassent.ButherknethhowIsayde:
Whoisinleaguewithher.ButlistenhowIspoke:

257Thouseystsomfolkdesirenusforrichesse,
Thousayestsomefolkdesireusforriches,
258Sommeforoureshap,andsommeforourefairnesse,
Someforourshape,andsomeforourfairness,
259Andsomforshekanouthersyngeordaunce,
Andonebecauseshecaneithersingordance,
260Andsomforgentillesseanddaliaunce;
Andsomebecauseofnobledescentandflirtatious
talk;
261Somforhirhandesandhirarmessmale;
Somebecauseoftheirhandsandtheirslenderarms;
262Thusgothaltothedevel,bythytale.
Thusgoesalltothedevil,accordingtoyou.
263Thouseystmenmaynatkepeacastelwal,
Thousayestmenmaynotdefendacastlewall,
264Itmaysolongeassailledbeenoveral.
Itmaysolongbeassailedonallsides.
265Andifthatshebefoul,thouseistthatshe
Andifshebeugly,thousayestthatshe
266Coveitetheverymanthatshemayse,
Covetseverymanthatshemaysee,
267Forasaspanyelshewolonhymlepe,
Forlikeaspanielshewillonhimleap,
268Tilthatshefyndesommanhiretochepe.
Untilshefindsomemantobuy(take)her.
269Nenoonsogreygoosgooththerinthelake
Nordoesanygoosegothereinthelake,nomatter
howdrab,
270As,seistow,wolbeenwithoutemake.
That,thousayest,willbewithoutamate.
271Andseystitisanhardthyngfortowelde
Andthousayestitisahardthingtocontrol
272Athyngthatnomanwole,histhankes,helde.
Athingthatnomanwill,willingly,hold.
273Thusseistow,lorel,whanthowgoosttobedde,
Thussayestthou,scoundrel,whenthougoesttobed,
274Andthatnowysmannedethfortowedde,
Andthatnowisemanneedstowed,
275Nenomanthatentendethuntohevene.
Noranymanthathopes(togo)toheaven.
276Withwildethonderdyntandfirylevene
Withwildthunderboltandfierylightning
277Mootethywelkednekkebetobroke!
Maythywrinkledneckbebrokeninpieces!

235`Sireoldekaynard,isthisthynarray?
`Sirolddodderingfool,isthisthydoing?
236Whyismyneigheboreswyfsogay?
Whyismyneighbor'swifesogay?
237Sheishonouredoveralthershegooth;
Sheishonoredeverywhereshegoes;
238Isitteathoom;Ihavenothriftyclooth.
Isitathome;Ihavenodecentclothing.
239Whatdostowatmyneigheboreshous?
Whatdostthouatmyneighbor'shouse?
240Isshesofair?Artowsoamorous?
Isshesofair?Artthousoamorous?
241Whatrowneyewithouremayde?Benedicite!
Whatdoyouwhisperwithourmaid?Blessme!
242Sireoldelecchour,latthyjapesbe!
Siroldlecher,letthytricksbe!
243AndifIhaveagossiborafreend,
AndifIhaveaclosefriendoranacquaintance,
244Withoutengilt,thouchidestasafeend,
Innocently,thouscoldlikeafiend,
245IfthatIwalkeorpleyeuntohishous!
IfIwalkorgountohishousetoamusemyself!
246Thoucomesthoomasdronkenasamous,
Thoucomesthomeasdrunkasamouse,
247Andprechestonthybench,withyvelpreef!
Andpreachonthybench,badlucktoyou!
248Thouseisttomeitisagreetmeschief
Thousayesttomeitisagreatmisfortune

278Thowseystthatdroppynghouses,andeeksmoke,
Thousayestthatleakyhouses,andalsosmoke,
279Andchidyngwyvesmakenmentoflee

97

Andscoldingwivesmakementoflee
280Outofhirowenehouses;a,benedicitee!
Outoftheirownhouses;ah,blessme!
281Whateylethswichanoldmanfortochide?
Whatailssuchanoldmantochidelikethat?

Thekeysofthystrongboxawayfromme?
310Itismygoodaswelasthyn,pardee!
Itismypropertyaswellasthine,byGod!
311What,wenestowmakeanydiotofouredame?
What,thinkthoutomakeafooloftheladyofthe
house?
312NowbythatlordthatcalledisSeintJame,
NowbythatlordthatiscalledSaintJames,
313Thoushaltnatbothe,thoghthatthouwerewood,
Thoushaltnotboth,thoughthouwerecrazywith
anger,
314Bemaisterofmybodyandofmygood;
Bemasterofmybodyandofmyproperty;
315Thatoonthoushaltforgo,maugreethyneyen.
Oneofthemthoumustgiveup,despiteanythingyou
cando.
316Whathelpithitofmetoenquereorspyen?
Whathelpsittoinquireaboutmeorspy?
317Itrowethouwoldestlokemeinthychiste!
Ibelievethouwouldlockmeinthystrongbox!
318Thousholdestseye,"Wyf,gowhertheeliste;
Thoushouldsay,"Wife,gowhereyouplease;
319Taakyouredisport;Iwolnatlevenotalys.
Enjoyyourself;Iwillnotbelieveanygossip.
320Iknoweyowforatrewewyf,dameAlys."
Iknowyouforatruewife,dameAlys."
321Welovenomanthattakethkeporcharge
Welovenomanwhotakesnoticeorconcernabout
322Wherthatwegoon;wewolbenatourelarge.
Wherewego;wewillbefree(todoaswewish).

282Thowseystwewyveswoloureviceshide
Thousayestwewiveswillhideourvices
283Tilwebefast,andthannewewolhemshewe
Untilwebesecurelytied(inmarriage),andthenwe
willthemshow
284Welmaythatbeaproverbeofashrewe!
Wellmaythatbeaproverbofascoundrel!
285Thouseistthatoxen,asses,hors,andhoundes,
Thousayestthatoxen,asses,horses,andhounds,
286Theybeenassayedatdiversestoundes;
Theyaretriedoutanumberoftimes;
287Bacyns,lavours,erthatmenhembye,
Basins,washbowls,beforementhembuy,
288Spoonesandstooles,andalswichhousbondrye,
Spoonsandstools,andallsuchhouseholditems,
289Andsobeenpottes,clothes,andarray;
Andsoarepots,clothes,andadornments;
290Butfolkofwyvesmakennoonassay,
Butfolkofwivesmakenotrial,
291Tiltheybeweddedoldedotardshrewe!
Untiltheyareweddedolddodderingscoundrel!
292Andthanne,seistow,wewolourevicesshewe.
Andthen,sayestthou,wewillshowourvices.

323Ofallemenyblessedmoothebe,
Ofallmenblessedmayhebe,
324Thewiseastrologien,DaunPtholome,
Thewiseastrologer,DanPtolemy,
325ThatseiththisproverbeinhisAlmageste:
WhosaysthisproverbinhisAlmagest:
326"Ofallemenhiswysdomisthehyeste
"Ofallmenhiswisdomisthehighest
327Thatrekkethneverewhohaththeworldinhonde."
Whonevercareswhohastheworldinhiscontrol."
328Bythisproverbethoushaltunderstonde,
Bythisproverbthoushaltunderstand,
329Havethouynogh,whatthartheereccheorcare
Ifthouhaveenough,whyshouldthoutakenoteor
care
330Howmyrilythatotherefolkesfare?
Howmerrilyotherfolksfare?
331For,certeyn,oldedotard,byyoureleve,
For,certainly,oldsenilefool,byyourleave,
332Yeshulhavequeynterightynoghateve.
Youshallhavepudendumrightenoughateve.
333Heistogreetanygardthatwoldewerne
Heistoogreatamiserthatwouldrefuse
334Amantolighteacandleathislanterne;
Amantolightacandleathislantern;
335Heshalhaveneverthelasselight,pardee.
Heshallhaveneverthelesslight,byGod.
336Havethouynogh,theetharnatpleynethee.
Ifthouhaveenough,thouneednotcomplain.

293Thouseistalsothatitdisplesethme
Thousayestalsothatitdispleasesme
294Butifthatthouwoltpreysemybeautee,
Unlessthouwillpraisemybeauty,
295Andbutthoupourealweyuponmyface,
Andunlessthoupeeralwaysuponmyface,
296Andclepeme"fairedame"ineveryplace.
Andcallme"dearlady"ineveryplace.
297Andbutthoumakeafeesteonthilkeday
Andunlessthoumakeafeastonthatsameday
298ThatIwasborn,andmakemefresshandgay;
ThatIwasborn,andmakemehappyandgay;
299Andbutthoudotomynoricehonour,
Andunlessthoudohonortomynurse,
300Andtomychambererewithinnemybour,
Andtomychambermaidwithinmybedchamber,
301Andtomyfadresfolkandhisallyes
Andtomyfather'sfolkandhisallies
302Thusseistow,oldebarelfuloflyes!
Thussayestthou,oldbarrelfuloflies!
303AndyetofoureapprenticeJanekyn,
AndyetofourapprenticeJanekin,
304Forhiscrispeheer,shynyngeasgoldsofyn,
Becauseofhiscurlyhair,shininglikegoldsofine,
305Andforhesquierethmebotheupanddoun,
Andbecausehefamiliarlyattendsmeeverywhere,
306Yethastowcaughtafalssuspecioun.
Yethastthoucaughtafalsesuspicion.
307Iwolhymnoght,thoghthouweredeedtomorwe!
Idonotwanthim,thoughthouweredeadtomorrow!

337Thouseystalso,thatifwemakeusgay
Thousayestalso,thatifwemakeourselvesgay
338Withclothyng,andwithpreciousarray,
Withclothing,andwithpreciousadornments,
339Thatitisperilofourechastitee;
Thatitisdangeroustoourchastity;

308Buttelmethis:whyhydestow,withsorwe,
Buttellmethis:whyhidestthou,badlucktoyou,
309Thekeyesofthychesteaweyfrome?

98

340Andyetwithsorwe!thoumostenforcethee,
Andyetbadlucktothee!thoumustreinforcethy
argument,
341AndseyethisewordesintheApostlesname:
AndsaythesewordsintheApostle'sname:
342"Inhabitmaadwithchastiteeandshame
"Inclothingmadewithchastityandshame
343Yewommenshulapparailleyow,"quodhe,
Youwomenshallapparelyourselves,"hesaid,
344"Andnoghtintressedheerandgayperree,
"Andnotincarefullyarrangedhairandgayprecious
stones,
345Asperles,newithgold,neclothesriche."
Suchaspearls,norwithgold,norrichcloth."
346Afterthytext,neafterthyrubriche,
Inaccordancewiththytext,norinaccordwiththy
interpretation,
347Iwolnatwircheasmuchelasagnat.
Iwillnotdoasmuchasagnat.

370Butifaselywyfbeoonoftho?
Withoutapoorwife'sbeingoneofthem?
371Thouliknesteekwommeneslovetohelle,
Thoualsocomparewomen'slovetohell,
372Tobareynelond,therwatermaynatdwelle.
Tobarrenland,wherewatermaynotremain.
373Thouliknestitalsotowildefyr;
ThoucompareitalsotoGreek(inextinguishable)fire;
374Themooreitbrenneth,themooreithathdesir
Themoreitburns,themoreithasdesire
375Toconsumeeverythyngthatbrentwolebe.
Toconsumeeverythingthatwillbeburned.
376Thouseyest,rightaswormesshendeatree,
Thousayest,justaswormsdestroyatree,
377Rightsoawyfdestroyethhirehousbonde;
Rightsoawifedestroysherhusband;
378Thisknowetheythatbeentowyvesbonde.'
Thisknowtheywhoareboundtowives.'

348Thouseydestthis,thatIwaslykacat;
Thousaidthis,thatIwaslikeacat;
349Forwhosowoldesengeacattesskyn,
Forifanyonewouldsingeacat'sskin,
350Thannewoldethecatweldwelleninhisin;
Thenwouldthecatwellstayinhisdwelling;
351Andifthecattesskynbeslykandgay,
Andifthecat'sskinbesleekandgay,
352Shewolnatdwelleinhousehalfaday,
Shewillnotstayinhousehalfaday,
353Butforthshewole,eranydaybedawed,
Butforthshewill(go),beforeanydaybedawned,
354Toshewehirskynandgoonacaterwawed.
Toshowherskinandgoyowlinglikeacatinheat.
355Thisistoseye,ifIbegay,sireshrewe,
Thisistosay,ifIbewelldressed,sirscoundrel,
356Iwolrenneoutmyborelfortoshewe.
Iwillrunouttoshowmypoorclothes.

379Lordynges,rightthus,asyehaveunderstonde,
Gentlemen,rightthus,asyouhaveheard,
380BaarIstiflymyneoldehousbondesonhonde
Ifirmlysworetomyoldhusbands
381Thatthustheyseydeninhirdronkenesse;
Thatthustheysaidintheirdrunkenness;
382Andalwasfals,butthatItookwitnesse
Andallwasfalse,butItookwitness
383OnJanekyn,andonmynecealso.
OnJanekin,andonmyniecealso.
384OLord!ThepeyneIdidehemandthewo,
OLord!ThepainIdidthemandthewoe,
385Fulgiltelees,byGoddessweetepyne!
Entirelyguiltless(theywere),byGod'ssweetpain!
386ForasanhorsIkoudebyteandwhyne.
ForlikeahorseIcouldbiteandwhinny.
387Ikoudepleyne,andyitwasinthegilt,
Icouldcomplain,andyetwasinthewrong,
388OrellesoftentymehaddeIbeenspilt.
OrelsemanytimeshadIbeenruined.
389Whosothatfirsttomillecomth,firstgrynt;
Whoeverfirstcomestothemill,firstgrinds;
390Ipleynedfirst,sowasourewerreystynt.
Icomplainedfirst,sowasourwarended.
391Theywerefulgladetoexcusehemblyve
Theywereverygladtoexcusethemselvesquickly
392Ofthyngofwhichtheynevereagiltehirlyve.
Ofthingsofwhichtheywereneverguiltyintheir
lives.
393OfwencheswoldeIberenhemonhonde,
OfwencheswouldIfalselyaccusethem,
394Whanthatforsykunnethesmyghtetheystonde.
Whenforsicknesstheycouldhardlystand.

357Sireoldefool,whathelpeththeetospyen?
Siroldfool,whathelpisitfortheetospy?
358ThoghthoupreyeArguswithhishundredyen
ThoughthouprayArguswithhishundredeyes
359Tobemywardecors,ashekanbest,
Tobemybodyguard,ashebestknowshow,
360Infeith,heshalnatkepemebutmelest;
Infaith,heshallnotkeepmebutasIplease;
361YetkoudeImakehisberd,somootIthee!
YetcouldIdeceivehim,asImayprosper!
362Thouseydesteekthattherbeenthyngesthre,
Thousaidalsothattherearethreethings,
363Thewhichethyngestroublenalthiserthe,
Thewhichthingstroubleallthisearth,
364Andthatnowightmayenduretheferthe.
Andthatnoonecanendurethefourth.
365Oleevesireshrewe,Jhesushortethylyf!
Odearsirscoundrel,Jesusshortenthylife!
366Yetprechestowandseystanhatefulwyf
Yetthoupreachestandsayestahatefulwife
367Yrekenedisforoonofthisemeschances.
Isreckonedasoneofthesemisfortunes.
368Beenthernoneotheremanerresemblances
Aretherenoothersortsofcomparisons
369Thatyemaylikneyoureparablesto,
Thatyoucanuseinyoursayings,

395YettikledIhisherte,forthathe
YetItickledhisheart,forhe
396WendethatIhaddeofhymsogreetchiertee!
BelievedthatIhadofhimsogreataffection!
397Iswoorthatalmywalkyngeoutbynyghte
Isworethatallmywalkingoutbynight
398Wasfort'espyewenchesthathedighte;
Wastospyoutwencheswithwhomhehad
intercourse;
399UnderthatcolourhaddeImanyamyrthe.
UnderthatpretenseIhadmanyamirth.
400Foralswichwitisyevenusinourebyrthe;

99

Forallsuchwitisgivenusinourbirth;
401Deceite,wepyng,spynnyngGodhathyive
Deceit,weeping,spinningGodhasgiven
402Towommenkyndely,whilthattheymaylyve.
Towomennaturally,whiletheymaylive.
403AndthusofothyngIavaunteme:
AndthusofonethingIboast:
404AtteendeIhaddethebettreinechdegree,
AttheendIhadthebetterineveryway,
405Bysleighte,orforce,orbysommanerthyng,
Bytrickery,orforce,orbysomesuchthing,
406Asbycontinueelmurmurorgrucchyng.
Asbycontinualgrumblingorgrouching.
407Namelyabeddehaddentheymeschaunce:
Especiallyinbedtheyhadmisfortune:
408TherwoldeIchideanddohemnoplesaunce;
TherewouldIscoldanddothemnopleasure;
409Iwoldenolengerinthebedabyde,
Iwouldnolongerinthebedabide,
410IfthatIfeltehisarmovermysyde,
IfIfelthisarmovermyside,
411Tilhehadmaadhisraunsonuntome;
Untilhehadpaidhispenaltytome;
412ThannewoldeIsuffrehymdohisnycetee.
ThenwouldIallowhimtodohisfoolishness.
413AndtherforeeverymanthistaleItelle,
AndthereforethistaleItelltoeveryman,
414Wynnewhosomay,foralisfortoselle;
Anyonecanprofit,foreverythingisforsale;
415Withemptyhandmenmaynonehaukeslure.
Onecanlurenohawkswithanemptyhand.
416ForwynnyngwoldeIalhislustendure,
ForprofitIwouldendureallhislust,
417Andmakemeafeynedappetit;
Andmakemeafeignedappetite;
418AndyetinbaconhaddeIneveredelit.
Andyetinbacon(oldmeat)Ineverhaddelight.
419ThatmademethatevereIwoldehemchide,
ThatmademesothatIwouldalwaysscoldthem,
420Forthoghthepopehaddesetenhembiside,
Forthoughthepopehadsatbesidethem,
421Iwoldenatsparehemathirowenebord,
Iwouldnotsparethemattheirowntable,
422For,bymytrouthe,Iquittehemwordforword.
For,bymytroth,Ipaidthembackwordforword.
423AshelpemeverrayGodomnipotent,
AshelpmetrueGodomnipotent,
424ThoughIrightnowsholdemakemytestament,
ThoughIrightnowshouldmakemywill,
425Ineowehemnatawordthatitnysquit.
Iowethemnotonewordthathasnotbeenavenged.
426Ibroghteitsoaboutebymywit
Ibroughtitsoaboutbymywit
427Thattheymosteyeveitup,asforthebeste,
Thattheyhadtogiveitup,asthebesttheycoulddo,
428Orelleshaddeweneverebeeninreste;
Orelsehadweneverbeenatpeace;
429Forthoghhelookedasawoodleon,
Forthoughhelookedlikeafuriouslion,
430Yetsholdehefailleofhisconclusion.
Yetshouldhefailtoattainhisgoal.

Comenear,myspouse,letmekissthycheek!
434Yesholdebeenalpacientandmeke,
Youshouldbeallpatientandmeek,
435Andhanasweetespicedconscience,
Andhaveasweettenderdisposition,
436SithyesoprecheofJobespacience.
SinceyousopreachofJob'spatience.
437Suffrethalwey,synyesowelkanpreche;
Sufferalways,sinceyousowellcanpreach;
438Andbutyedo,certeinweshalyowteche
Andunlessyoudo,certainlyweshallteachyou
439Thatitisfairtohaveawyfinpees.
Thatitisfairtohaveawifeinpeace.
440Oonofustwomostebowen,doutelees,
Oneofustwomustbow,doubtless,
441Andsithamanismooreresonable
Andsinceamanismorereasonable
442Thanwommanis,yemostebeensuffrable.
Thanawomanis,youmustbeabletobearsuffering.
443Whateylethyowtogrucchethusandgrone?
Whatailsyoutogrouchthusandgroan?
444Isitforyewoldehavemyqueynteallone?
Isitbecauseyouwanttohavemypudendumallto
yourself?
445Wy,taakital!Lo,haveiteverydeel!
Why,takeitall!Lo,haveiteverybit!
446Peter!Ishreweyow,butyeloveitweel;
BySaintPeter!Iwouldcurseyou,ifyoudidnotloveit
well;
447ForifIwoldesellemybelechose,
ForifIwouldsellmy`prettything,'
448Ikoudewalkeasfresshasisarose;
Icouldwalkasfresh(newlyclothed)asisarose;
449ButIwolkepeitforyoureowenetooth.
ButIwillkeepitforyourownpleasure.
450Yebetoblame,byGod!Iseyyowsooth.'
Youaretoblame,byGod!Itellyouthetruth.'
451Swichemanerewordeshaddeweonhonde.
Suchsortsofwordswehadinhand.
452NowwolIspekenofmyfourthehousbonde.
NowwillIspeakofmyfourthhusband.
453Myfourthehousbondewasarevelour
Myfourthhusbandwasareveller
454Thisistoseyn,hehaddeaparamour
Thisistosay,hehadamistress
455AndIwasyongandfulofragerye,
AndIwasyoungandfullofplayfulness,
456Stibournandstrong,andjolyasapye.
Stubbornandstrong,andjollyasamagpie.
457HowkoudeIdauncetoanharpesmale,
HowwellIcoulddancetoasmallharp,
458Andsynge,ywis,asanynyghtyngale,
Andsing,indeed,likeanynightingale,
459WhanIhaddronkeadraughteofsweetewyn!
WhenIhaddrunkadraftofsweetwine!
460Metellius,thefoulecherl,theswyn,
Metellius,thefoulchurl,theswine,
461Thatwithastafbiraftehiswyfhirlyf,
Whowithastaffdeprivedhiswifeofherlife,
462Forshedrankwyn,thoghIhaddebeenhiswyf,
Becauseshedrankwine,ifIhadbeenhiswife,
463Hesholdenathandauntedmefrodrynke!
Heshouldnothavefrightenedmeawayfromdrink!
464AndafterwynonVenusmosteIthynke,
AndafterwineonVenusmustIthink,

431ThannewoldeIseye,`Goodelief,taakkeep
ThenIwouldsay,`Sweetheart,see
432HowmekelylookethWilkyn,ouresheep!
HowmeeklylooksWilly,oursheep!
433Comneer,myspouse,latmebathycheke!

100

465Foralsosikerascoldengendrethhayl,
Forassurelyascoldengendershail,
466Alikerousmouthmostehanalikeroustayl.
Agluttonousmouthmusthavealecheroustail.
467Inwommenvinolentisnodefence
Indrunkenwomenthereisnodefense
468Thisknowenlecchoursbyexperience.
Thislechersknowbyexperience.

497Alishistombenoghtsocuryus
Althoughhistombisnotsoelaborate
498AswasthesepulcreofhymDaryus,
AswasthesepulcherofthatDarius,
499WhichthatAppelleswroghtesubtilly;
WhichAppelleswroughtskillfully;
500Itnysbutwasttoburyehympreciously.
Itisnothingbutwastetoburyhimexpensively.
501Lathymfarewel;Godyevehissoulereste!
Lethimfarewell;Godgivehissoulrest!
502Heisnowinhisgraveandinhischeste.
Heisnowinhisgraveandinhiscasket.

469ButLordCrist!whanthatitremembrethme
ButLordChrist!whenIremember
470Uponmyyowthe,andonmyjolitee,
Myyouth,andmygaiety,
471Ittiklethmeaboutemynherteroote.
Itticklesmetothebottomofmyheart.
472Untothisdayitdoothmynherteboote
Untothisdayitdoesmyheartgood
473ThatIhavehadmyworldasinmytyme.
ThatIhavehadmyworldinmytime.
474Butage,allas,thatalwoleenvenyme,
Butage,alas,thatallwillpoison,
475Hathmebiraftmybeauteeandmypith.
Hasdeprivedmeofmybeautyandmyvigor.
476Latgo.Farewel!Thedevelgotherwith!
Letitgo.Farewell!Thedevilgowithit!
477Theflourisgoon;therisnamooretotelle;
Theflourisgone;thereisnomoretotell;
478Thebren,asIbestkan,nowmosteIselle;
Thebran,asIbestcan,nowImustsell;
479ButyettoberightmyriewolIfonde.
ButyetIwilltrytoberightmerry.
480NowwolItellenofmyfourthehousbonde.
NowwillItellofmyfourthhusband.

503NowofmyfifthehousbondewolItelle.
NowofmyfifthhusbandIwilltell.
504Godletehissouleneverecomeinhelle!
Godlethissoulnevercomeinhell!
505Andyetwashetomethemoosteshrewe;
Andyethewastomethegreatestscoundrel;
506ThatfeeleIonmyribbesalbyrewe,
ThatfeelIonmyribsoneafteranother,
507Andevereshaluntomynendyngday.
Andevershalluntomyfinalday.
508Butinourebedhewassofresshandgay,
Butinourbedhewassolivelyandgay,
509Andtherwithalsowelkoudehemeglose,
Andmoreoverhesowellcoulddeceiveme,
510Whanthathewoldehanmybelechose;
Whenhewouldhavemy`prettything';
511Thatthoghhehaddemebeteoneverybon,
Thatthoughhehadbeatmeoneverybone,
512Hekoudewynneagaynmyloveanon.
Hecouldwinbackmylovestraightway.
513ItroweIlovedhymbest,forthathe
IbelieveIlovedhimbest,becausehe
514Wasofhislovedaungeroustome.
Wasofhislovestandoffishtome.
515Wewommenhan,ifthatIshalnatlye,
Wewomenhave,ifIshallnotlie,
516Inthismatereaqueyntefantasye:
Inthismatteracuriousfantasy:
517Waytewhatthyngwemaynatlightlyhave,
Notethatwhateverthingwemaynoteasilyhave,
518Therafterwolwecriealdayandcrave.
Wewillcryalldayandcraveforit.
519Forbedeusthyng,andthatdesirenwe;
Forbidusathing,andwedesireit;
520Preesseonusfaste,andthannewolwefle.
Pressonusfast,andthenwillweflee.
521Withdaungeroutewealourechaffare;
Withniggardlinesswespreadoutallourmerchandise;
522Greetpreesatmarketmakethdeereware,
Agreatcrowdatthemarketmakeswaresexpensive,
523Andtogreetcheepisholdeatlitelprys:
Andtoogreatasupplymakesthemoflittlevalue:
524Thisknowetheverywommanthatiswys.
Everywomanthatiswiseknowsthis.

481Iseye,Ihaddeinhertegreetdespit
Isay,Ihadinheartgreatanger
482Thatheofanyootherhaddelit.
Thathehaddelightinanyother.
483Buthewasquit,byGodandbySeintJoce!
Buthewaspaidback,byGodandbySaintJoce!
484Imadehymofthesamewodeacroce;
Imadehimacrossofthesamewood;
485Natofmybody,innofoulmanere,
Notofmybody,innofoulmanner,
486Butcerteinly,Imadefolkswichcheere
Butcertainly,Itreatedfolkinsuchaway
487ThatinhisowenegreceImadehymfrye
ThatImadehimfryinhisowngrease
488Forangre,andforverrayjalousye.
Foranger,andforpurejealousy.
489ByGod,inertheIwashispurgatorie,
ByGod,inearthIwashispurgatory,
490ForwhichIhopehissoulebeinglorie.
ForwhichIhopehissoulmaybeinglory.
491For,Goditwoot,hesatfulofteandsong,
For,Godknowsit,hesatveryoftenandcriedoutin
pain,
492Whanthathisshoofulbitterlyhymwrong.
Whenhisshoeverybitterlypinchedhim.
493Therwasnowight,saveGodandhe,thatwiste,
Therewasnopersonwhoknewit,saveGodandhe,
494Inmanywise,howsooreIhymtwiste.
Inmanyaway,howpainfullyItorturedhim.
495HedeydewhanIcamfroJerusalem,
HediedwhenIcamefromJerusalem,
496Andlithygraveundertheroodebeem,
Andliesburiedundertheroodbeam,

525MyfifthehousbondeGodhissouleblesse!
MyfifthhusbandGodblesshissoul!
526WhichthatItookforlove,andnorichesse,
WhomItookforlove,andnoriches,
527HesomtymewasaclerkofOxenford,
HewasformerlyaclerkofOxford,
528Andhaddeleftscole,andwenteathomtobord
Andhadleftschool,andcamehometoboard
529Withmygossib,dwellyngeinouretoun;

101

562Andwostowwhy?Fortheywereusedweel.
Andknowthouwhy?Becausetheywerewellused.

Withmyclosefriend,dwellinginourtown;
530Godhavehirsoule!HirnamewasAlisoun.
Godhavehersoul!HernamewasAlisoun.
531Sheknewmynherte,andeekmyprivetee,
Sheknewmyheart,andalsomysecrets,
532Betthanoureparisshepreest,somootIthee!
Betterthanourparishpriest,asImayprosper!
533TohirebiwreyedImyconseilal.
ToherIrevealedallmysecrets.
534Forhaddemynhousbondepissedonawal,
Forhadmyhusbandpissedonawall,
535Ordoonathyngthatsholdehancosthislyf,
Ordoneathingthatshouldhavecosthislife,
536Tohire,andtoanotherworthywyf,
Toher,andtoanotherworthywife,
537Andtomynece,whichthatIlovedweel,
Andtomyniece,whomIlovedwell,
538Iwoldehantooldhisconseileverydeel.
Iwouldhavetoldeveryoneofhissecrets.
539AndsoIdidefuloften,Goditwoot,
AndsoIdidveryoften,Godknowsit,
540Thatmadehisfaceoftenreedandhoot
Thatmadehisfaceoftenredandhot
541Forverrayshame,andblamedhymselfforhe
Fortrueshame,andblamedhimselfbecausehe
542Hadtooldtomesogreetapryvetee.
Hadtoldtomesogreatasecret.

563NowwolItellenforthwhathappedme.
NowwillItellforthwhathappenedtome.
564Iseyethatinthefeeldeswalkedwe,
Isaythatinthefieldswewalked,
565Tiltrewelywehaddeswichdaliance,
Untiltrulywehadsuchflirtation,
566ThisclerkandI,thatofmypurveiance
ThisclerkandI,thatformyprovisionforthefuture
567Ispaktohymandseydehymhowthathe,
Ispoketohimandsaidtohimhowhe,
568IfIwerewydwe,sholdeweddeme.
IfIwereawidow,shouldwedme.
569ForcerteinlyIseyfornobobance
ForcertainlyIsaythisfornoboast
570YetwasIneverewithoutenpurveiance
Iwasneveryetwithoutprovidingbeforehand
571Ofmariage,n'ofotherethyngeseek.
Formarriage,norforotherthingsalso.
572Iholdeamouseshertenatworthaleek
Iholdamouse'sheartnotworthaleek
573Thathathbutoonholefortosterteto,
Thathasbutoneholetofleeto,
574Andifthatfaille,thanneisalydo.
Ifthatshouldfail,thenallislost.

543AndsobifelthatonesinaLente
AndsoithappenedthatonceinaSpringtime
544SooftentymesItomygossybwente,
SincefrequentlyIwenttovisitmyclosefriend,
545ForevereyetIlovedtobegay,
ForIalwayslovedtobegay,
546AndfortowalkeinMarch,Averill,andMay,
AndtowalkinMarch,April,andMay,
547Frohoustohous,toheeresondrytalys
Fromhousetohouse,tohearvariousbitsofgossip
548ThatJankynclerk,andmygossybdameAlys,
ThatJankintheclerk,andmyclosefrienddameAlys,
549AndImyself,intothefeeldeswente.
AndImyself,intothefieldswent.
550MynhousbondewasatLondounalthatLente;
MyhusbandwasatLondonallthatSpring;
551Ihaddethebettreleyserfortopleye,
Ihadthebetteropportunitytoamusemyself,
552Andfortose,andeekfortobeseye
Andtosee,andalsotobeseen
553Oflustyfolk.WhatwisteIwhermygrace
Byamorousfolk.WhatdidIknowaboutwheremy
goodfortune
554Wasshapenfortobe,orinwhatplace?
Wasdestinedtobe,orinwhatplace?
555TherforeImademyvisitaciouns
ThereforeImademyvisitations
556Tovigiliesandtoprocessiouns,
Toreligiousfeastsandtoprocessions,
557Toprechyngeek,andtothisepilgrimages,
Topreachingalso,andtothesepilgrimages,
558Topleyesofmyracles,andtomariages,
Toplaysaboutmiracles,andtomarriages,
559Andwereduponmygayescarletgytes.
Andworemygayscarletrobes.
560Thisewormes,nethisemotthes,nethisemytes,
Theseworms,northesemoths,northesemites,
561Uponmyperil,fretehemneveradeel;
Uponmyperil(Iswear),chewedonthemneverabit;

575Ibarhymonhondehehaddeenchantedme
Ifalselysworethathehadenchantedme
576Mydametaughtemethatsoutiltee
Mymothertaughtmethattrick
577AndeekIseydeImetteofhymalnyght,
AndalsoIsaidIdreamedofhimallnight,
578HewoldehanslaynmeasIlayupright,
HewouldhaveslainmeasIlayonmyback,
579Andalmybedwasfulofverrayblood;
Andallmybedwasfullofrealblood;
580`ButyetIhopethatyeshaldomegood,
`ButyetIhopethatyoushalldomegood,
581Forbloodbitokenethgold,asmewastaught.'
Forbloodsymbolizesgold,asIwastaught.'
582Andalwasfals;Idremedofitrightnaught,
Andallwasfalse;Idreamedofitnotatall,
583ButasIfolwedaymydamesloore,
ButIfollowedalwaysmymother'steaching,
584Aswelofthisasofotherethyngesmoore.
Aswellinthisasinotherthingsmore.
585Butnow,sire,latmesewhatIshalseyn.
Butnow,sir,letmeseewhatIshallsay.
586Aha!ByGod,Ihavemytaleageyn.
Aha!ByGod,Ihavemytaleagain.
587Whanthatmyfourthehousbondewasonbeere,
Whenmyfourthhusbandwasonthefuneralbier,
588Iweepalgate,andmadesorycheere,
Iweptcontinuously,andactedsorry,
589Aswyvesmooten,foritisusage,
Aswivesmustdo,foritisthecustom,
590Andwithmycoverchiefcoveredmyvisage,
Andwithmykerchiefcoveredmyface,
591ButforthatIwaspurveyedofamake,
ButbecauseIwasprovidedwithamate,
592Iweptebutsmal,andthatIundertake.
Iweptbutlittle,andthatIaffirm.

102

Itooknonotice,providedthathepleasedme,
626Howpoorehewas,neeekofwhatdegree.
Howpoorhewas,noralsoofwhatrank.

593Tochirchewasmynhousbondebornamorwe
Tochurchwasmyhusbandcarriedinthemorning
594Withneighebores,thatforhymmadensorwe;
Byneighbors,whoforhimmadesorrow;
595AndJankyn,oureclerk,wasoonoftho.
AndJankin,ourclerk,wasoneofthose.
596AshelpmeGod,whanthatIsaughhymgo
AshelpmeGod,whenIsawhimgo
597Afterthebeere,methoughtehehaddeapaire
Afterthebier,Ithoughthehadapair
598Ofleggesandoffeetsocleneandfaire
Oflegsandoffeetsoneatandfair
599ThatalmynherteIyafuntohishoold.
ThatallmyheartIgaveuntohiskeeping.
600Hewas,Itrowe,twentywynteroold,
Hewas,Ibelieve,twentyyearsold,
601AndIwasfourty,ifIshalseyesooth;
AndIwasforty,ifIshalltellthetruth;
602ButyetIhaddealweyacoltestooth.
ButyetIhadalwaysacolt'stooth.
603GattothedIwas,andthatbicammeweel;
WithteethsetwideapartIwas,andthatbecameme
well;
604IhaddetheprenteofseinteVenusseel.
IhadtheprintofSaintVenus'sseal.
605AshelpmeGod,Iwasalustyoon,
AshelpmeGod,Iwasalustyone,
606Andfaire,andriche,andyong,andwelbigon,
Andfair,andrich,andyoung,andwellfixed,
607Andtrewely,asmynehousbondestoldeme,
Andtruly,asmyhusbandstoldme,
608Ihaddethebestequoniammyghtebe.
Ihadthebestpudendumthatmightbe.
609Forcertes,IamalVenerien
Forcertainly,IamallinfluencedbyVenus
610Infeelynge,andmynherteisMarcien.
Infeeling,andmyheartisinfluencedbyMars.
611Venusmeyafmylust,mylikerousnesse,
Venusmegavemylust,myamorousness,
612AndMarsyafmemysturdyhardynesse;
AndMarsgavememysturdyboldness;
613MynascendentwasTaur,andMarstherinne.
MyascendantwasTaurus,andMarswastherein.
614Allas,allas!Thateverelovewassynne!
Alas,alas!Thateverlovewassin!
615Ifolwedaymyninclinacioun
Ifollowedalwaysmyinclination
616Byvertuofmyconstellacioun;
Byvirtueofthestateoftheheavensatmybirth;
617ThatmademeIkoudenoghtwithdrawe
ThatmademethatIcouldnotwithdraw
618MychambreofVenusfromagoodfelawe.
MychamberofVenusfromagoodfellow.
619YethaveIMartesmarkuponmyface,
YethaveIMars'markuponmyface,
620Andalsoinanotherpriveeplace.
Andalsoinanotherprivateplace.
621ForGodsowysbemysavacioun,
ForasGodmaybemysalvation,
622Inelovedneverebynodiscrecioun,
Ineverlovedinmoderation,
623Buteverefolwedemynappetit,
Butalwaysfollowedmyappetite,
624Alwereheshort,orlong,orblak,orwhit;
Whetherhewereshort,ortall,orblackhaired,or
blond;
625Itooknokep,sothathelikedme,

627WhatsholdeIseyebut,atthemonthesende,
WhatshouldIsaybut,atthemonth'send,
628Thisjolyclerk,Jankyn,thatwassohende,
Thisjollyclerk,Jankin,thatwassocourteous,
629Hathweddedmewithgreetsolempnytee,
Hasweddedmewithgreatsolemnity,
630AndtohymyafIalthelondandfee
AndtohimIgaveallthelandandproperty
631Thateverewasmeyeventherbifoore.
Thateverwasgiventomebeforethen.
632Butafterwardrepentedmefulsoore;
ButafterwardIrepentedverybitterly;
633Henoldesuffrenothyngofmylist.
Hewouldnotallowmeanythingofmydesires.
634ByGod,hesmootmeonesonthelyst,
ByGod,hehitmeonceontheear,
635ForthatIrenteoutofhisbookaleef,
BecauseItorealeafoutofhisbook,
636Thatofthestrookmynerewaxaldeef.
Sothatofthestrokemyearbecamealldeaf.
637StibournIwasasisaleonesse,
Iwasasstubbornasisalioness,
638Andofmytongeaverrayjangleresse,
Andofmytongueatruechatterbox,
639AndwalkeIwolde,asIhaddoonbiforn,
AndIwouldwalk,asIhaddonebefore,
640Fromhoustohous,althoughhehaditsworn;
Fromhousetohouse,althoughhehadswornthe
contrary;
641Forwhichheoftentymeswoldepreche,
Forwhichheoftentimeswouldpreach,
642AndmeofoldeRomayngeestesteche;
AndteachmeofoldRomanstories;
643HowheSympliciusGallusleftehiswyf,
Howhe,SimpliciusGallus,lefthiswife,
644Andhireforsookfortermeofalhislyf,
Andforsookherforrestofallhislife,
645Noghtbutforopenhevededhehirsay
Becauseofnothingbutbecausehesawherbare
headed
646Lookyngeoutathisdoreuponaday.
Lookingoutathisdooroneday.
647AnotherRomayntoldehemebyname,
AnotherRomanhetoldmebyname,
648That,forhiswyfwasatasomeresgame
Who,becausehiswifewasatamidsummerrevel
649Withoutenhiswityng,heforsookhireeke.
Withouthisknowledge,heforsookheralso.
650AndthannewoldeheuponhisBibleseke
AndthenhewouldseekinhisBible
651ThatilkeproverbeofEcclesiaste
ThatsameproverbofEcclesiasticus
652Wherehecomandethandforbedethfaste
Wherehecommandsandstrictlyforbidsthat
653Manshalnatsuffrehiswyfgorouleaboute.
Manshouldsufferhiswifegowanderabout.
654Thannewoldeheseyerightthus,withoutendoute:
Thenwouldhesayrightthus,withoutdoubt:
655`Whosothatbuyldethhishousalofsalwes,
`Whoeverbuildshishouseallofwillowtwigs,

103

656Andprikethhisblyndehorsoverthefalwes,
Andspurshisblindhorseovertheopenfields,
657Andsuffrethhiswyftogosekenhalwes,
Andsuffershiswifetogoonpilgrimages,
658Isworthytobeenhangedonthegalwes!'
Isworthytobehangedonthegallows!'
659Butalfornoght,Isettenoghtanhawe
Butallfornothing,Igavenotahawthornberry
660Ofhisproverbesn'ofhisoldesawe,
Forhisproverbsnorforhisoldsayings,
661NeIwoldenatofhymcorrectedbe.
NorwouldIbecorrectedbyhim.
662Ihatehymthatmyvicestellethme,
Ihatehimwhotellsmemyvices,
663Andsodoomo,Godwoot,ofusthanI.
Andsodomoreofus,Godknows,thanI.
664Thismadehymwithmewoodaloutrely;
Thismadehimallutterlyfuriouswithme;
665Inoldenoghtforberehyminnocas.
Iwouldnotputupwithhiminanyway.

Fortrustwell,itisanimpossibility
689Thatanyclerkwolspekegoodofwyves,
Thatanyclerkwillspeakgoodofwomen,
690Butifitbeofhoolyseinteslyves,
Unlessitbeofholysaints'lives,
691Neofnoonootherwommanneverthemo.
Norofanyotherwomaninanyway.
692Whopeyntedetheleon,telmewho?
Whopaintedthelion,tellmewho?
693ByGod,ifwommenhaddewritenstories,
ByGod,ifwomenhadwrittenstories,
694Asclerkeshanwithinnehireoratories,
Asclerkshavewithintheirstudies,
695Theywoldehanwritenofmenmoorewikkednesse
Theywouldhavewrittenofmenmorewickedness
696ThanalthemarkofAdammayredresse.
Thanallthemalesexcouldsetright.
697ThechildrenofMercurieandofVenus
ThechildrenofMercury(clerks)andofVenus(lovers)
698Beeninhirwirkyngfulcontrarius;
Aredirectlycontraryintheiractions;
699Mercurielovethwysdamandscience,
Mercuryloveswisdomandknowledge,
700AndVenuslovethryotanddispence.
AndVenuslovesriotandextravagantexpenditures.
701And,forhirediversedisposicioun,
And,becauseoftheirdiversedispositions,
702Echfallethinotheresexaltacioun.
Eachfallsintheother'smostpowerfulastronomical
sign.
703Andthus,Godwoot,Mercurieisdesolat
Andthus,Godknows,Mercuryispowerless
704InPisces,wherVenusisexaltat,
InPisces(theFish),whereVenusisexalted,
705AndVenusfalleththerMercurieisreysed.
AndVenusfallswhereMercuryisraised.
706Therforenowommanofnoclerkispreysed.
Thereforenowomanispraisedbyanyclerk.
707Theclerk,whanheisoold,andmaynoghtdo
Theclerk,whenheisold,andcannotdo
708OfVenuswerkesworthhisoldesho,
AnyofVenus'sworksworthhisoldshoe,
709Thannesithedoun,andwritinhisdotage
Thenhesitsdown,andwritesinhisdotage
710Thatwommenkannatkepehirmariage!
Thatwomencannotkeeptheirmarriage!

666NowwolIseyeyowsooth,bySeintThomas,
NowwillItellyouthetruth,bySaintThomas,
667WhythatIrenteoutofhisbookaleef,
WhyItorealeafoutofhisbook,
668ForwhichhesmootmesothatIwasdeef.
ForwhichhehitmesohardthatIwasdeaf.
669Hehaddeabookthatgladly,nyghtandday,
Hehadabookthatregularly,nightandday,
670Forhisdesporthewolderedealway;
Forhisamusementhewouldalwaysread;
671HeclepeditValerieandTheofraste,
HecalleditValerieandTheofrastus,
672Atwhichbookheloughalweyfulfaste.
Atwhichbookhealwaysheartilylaughed.
673AndeektherwassomtymeaclerkatRome,
AndalsotherewasonceaclerkatRome,
674Acardinal,thathighteSeintJerome,
Acardinal,whoiscalledSaintJerome,
675ThatmadeabookagaynJovinian;
ThatmadeabookagainstJovinian;
676InwhichbookeektherwasTertulan,
InwhichbookalsotherewasTertullian,
677Crisippus,Trotula,andHelowys,
Crisippus,Trotula,andHeloise,
678ThatwasabbessenatferfroParys,
WhowasabbessnotfarfromParis,
679AndeektheParablesofSalomon,
AndalsotheParablesofSalomon,
680OvidesArt,andbookesmanyon,
Ovid'sArt,andmanyotherbooks,
681Andallethisewereboundeninovolume.
Andallthesewereboundinonevolume.
682Andeverynyghtanddaywashiscustume,
Andeverynightanddaywashiscustom,
683Whanhehaddeleyserandvacacioun
Whenhehadleisureandsparetime
684Fromootherworldlyoccupacioun,
Fromotherworldlyoccupations,
685Toredenonthisbookofwikkedwyves.
Toreadinthisbookofwickedwives.
686Heknewofhemmolegendesandlyves
Heknewofthemmorelegendsandlives
687ThanbeenofgoodewyvesintheBible.
ThanareofgoodwomenintheBible.
688Fortrustethwel,itisanimpossible

711Butnowtopurpos,whyItoldethee
Butnowtothepoint,whyItoldthee
712ThatIwasbetenforabook,pardee!
ThatIwasbeatenforabook,byGod!
713UponanyghtJankyn,thatwasouresire,
UponanightJankin,thatwasmasterofourhouse,
714Reddeonhisbook,ashesatbythefire,
Readonhisbook,ashesatbythefire,
715OfEvafirst,thatforhirwikkednesse
OfEvefirst,howforherwickedness
716Wasalmankyndebroghttowrecchednesse,
Allmankindwasbroughttowretchedness,
717ForwhichthatJhesuCristhymselfwasslayn,
ForwhichJesusChristhimselfwasslain,
718Thatboghteuswithhishertebloodagayn.
Whoboughtusbackwithhisheart'sblood.
719Lo,heereexpresofwommanmayyefynde
Lo,hereclearlyofwomanyoumayfind
720Thatwommanwasthelosofalmankynde.
Thatwomanwasthecauseofthelossofallmankind.

104

721ThoreddehemehowSampsonlostehisheres:
ThenhereadmehowSampsonlosthishair:
722Slepynge,hislemmankitteitwithhirsheres;
Sleeping,hislovercutitwithhershears;
723Thurghwhichtresonlostehebothehisyen.
Throughwhichtreasonhelostbothhiseyes.
724Thoreddeheme,ifthatIshalnatlyen,
Thenhereadtome,ifIshallnotlie,
725OfHerculesandofhisDianyre,
OfHerculesandofhisDianyre,
726Thatcausedhymtosettehymselfafyre.
Whocausedhimtosethimselfonfire.

Haspoisoned,becauseshewashisfoe;
752Lucia,likerous,lovedhirehousbondeso
Lucia,lecherous,lovedherhusbandsomuch
753That,forhesholdealweyuponhirethynke,
That,sothatheshouldalwaysthinkuponher,
754Sheyafhymswichamanerelovedrynke
Shegavehimsuchasortoflovedrink
755Thathewasdeederitwerebythemorwe;
Thathewasdeadbeforeitwasmorning;
756Andthusalgateshousbondeshansorwe.
Andthusalwayshusbandshavesorrow.
757ThannetoldehemehowoonLatumyus
ThenhetoldmehowoneLatumius
758CompleyneduntohisfelaweArrius
ComplaineduntohisfellowArrius
759Thatinhisgardyngrowedswichatree
Thatinhisgardengrewsuchatree
760Onwhichheseydehowthathiswyvesthre
Onwhichhesaidhowhisthreewives
761Hangedhemselfforhertedespitus.
Hangedthemselvesforthemaliceoftheirhearts
762`Oleevebrother,'quodthisArrius,
`Odearbrother,'thisArriussaid,
763`Yifmeaplanteofthilkeblissedtree,
`Givemeashootofthatsameblessedtree,
764Andinmygardynplantedshalitbee.'
Andinmygardenshallitbeplanted.'

727Nothyngforgathethecareandthewo
Heforgotnotabitofthecareandthewoe
728ThatSocrateshaddewithhiswyvestwo,
ThatSocrateshadwithhistwowives,
729HowXantippacastepisseuponhisheed.
HowXantippacastepissuponhishead.
730Thisselymansatstilleasheweredeed;
Thispoormansatstillasifheweredead;
731Hewipedhisheed,namooredorsteheseyn,
Hewipedhishead,nomoredaredhesay,
732But`Erthatthonderstynte,comthareyn!'
But`Beforethunderstops,therecomesarain!'
733OfPhasipha,thatwasthequeeneofCrete,
OfPhasipha,thatwasthequeenofCrete,
734Forshrewednesse,hymthoughtethetaleswete;
Forsheermalignancy,hethoughtthetalesweet;
735Fy!Speknamooreitisagrislythyng
Fie!Speaknomoreitisagrislything
736Ofhirehorriblelustandhirlikyng.
Ofherhorriblelustandherpleasure.

765Oflatterdate,ofwyveshathhered
Oflatterdate,ofwiveshasheread
766Thatsommehanslaynhirhousbondesinhirbed,
Thatsomehaveslaintheirhusbandsintheirbed,
767Andletehirlecchourdightehirealthenyght,
Andletherlechercopulatewithherallthenight,
768Whanthatthecorpslayinthefloorupright.
Whenthecorpselayinthefloorflatonitsback.
769Andsommehandryvenaylesinhirbrayn,
Andsomehavedrivennailsintheirbrains,
770Whilthattheyslepte,andthustheyhadhemslayn.
Whiletheyslept,andthustheyhadthemslain.
771Sommehanhemyevepoysouninhiredrynke.
Somehavegiventhempoisonintheirdrink.
772Hespakmooreharmthanhertemaybithynke,
Hespokemoreharmthanheartmayimagine,
773Andtherwithalheknewofmoproverbes
Andconcerningthisheknewofmoreproverbs
774Thaninthisworldthergrowengrasorherbes.
Thaninthisworldtheregrowgrassorherbs.
775`Betis,'quodhe,`thynhabitacioun
`Betteris,'hesaid,`thyhabitation
776Bewithaleonorafouldragoun,
Bewithalionorafouldragon,
777Thanwithawommanusyngefortochyde.
Thanwithawomanaccustomedtoscold.
778Betis,'quodhe,`hyeintheroofabyde,
Betteris,'hesaid,`tostayhighintheroof,
779Thanwithanangrywyfdouninthehous;
Thanwithanangrywifedowninthehouse;
780Theybeensowikkedandcontrarious,
Theyaresowickedandcontrary,
781Theyhatenthathirhousbondeslovenay.'
Theyalwayshatewhattheirhusbandslove.'
782Heseyde,`Awommancasthirshameaway,
Hesaid,`Awomancaststheirshameaway,
783Whanshecastofhirsmok';andforthermo,
Whenshecastsoffherundergarment';and

737OfClitermystra,forhirelecherye,
OfClitermystra,forherlechery,
738Thatfalslymadehirehousbondefortodye,
Thatfalselymadeherhusbandtodie,
739Hereddeitwithfulgooddevocioun.
Hereaditwithverygooddevotion.
740Hetoldemeeekforwhatoccasioun
Hetoldmealsoforwhatoccasion
741AmphioraxatThebeslostehislyf.
AmphioraxatThebeslosthislife.
742Mynhousbondehaddealegendeofhiswyf,
Myhusbandhadalegendofhiswife,
743Eriphilem,thatforanoucheofgold
Eriphilem,thatforabroochofgold
744HathprivelyuntotheGrekestold
HassecretlyuntotheGreekstold
745Wherthathirhousbondehiddehyminaplace,
Whereherhusbandhidhiminaplace,
746ForwhichhehaddeatThebessorygrace.
ForwhichhehadatThebesasadfate.
747OfLyviatoldeheme,andofLucye:
OfLiviatoldheme,andofLucie:
748Theybothemadehirhousbondesfortodye,
Theybothmadetheirhusbandstodie,
749Thatoonforlove,thatootherwasforhate.
Thatoneforlove,thatotherwasforhate.
750Lyviahirhousbonde,onanevenlate,
Liviaherhusband,onalateevening,
751Empoysonedhath,forthatshewashisfo;

105

furthermore,
784`Afairwomman,butshebechaastalso,
`Afairwoman,unlesssheisalsochaste,
785Islykagoldrynginasowesnose.'
Islikeagoldringinasow'snose.'
786Whowoldewene,orwhowoldesuppose,
Whowouldbelieve,orwhowouldsuppose,
787Thewothatinmynhertewas,andpyne?
Thewoethatinmyheartwas,andpain?

Andofhistongue,andofhishandalso;
816Andmadehymbrennehisbookanonrighttho.
Andmadehimburnhisbookimmediatelyrightthen.
817AndwhanthatIhaddegetenuntome,
AndwhenIhadgottenuntome,
818Bymaistrie,althesoveraynetee,
Bymastery,allthesovereignty,
819Andthatheseyde,`Mynowenetrewewyf,
Andthathesaid,`Myowntruewife,
820Doastheelustthetermeofalthylyf;
Doasyoupleasetherestofallthylife;
821Keepthynhonour,andkeepeekmynestaat'
Guardthyhonor,andguardalsomyreputation'
822Afterthatdaywehaddenneverdebaat.
Afterthatdayweneverhadanargument.
823Godhelpemeso,Iwastohymaskynde
AsGodmayhelpme,Iwastohimaskind
824AsanywyffromDenmarkuntoYnde,
AsanywifefromDenmarkuntoIndia,
825Andalsotrewe,andsowashetome.
Andalsotrue,andsowashetome.
826IpreytoGod,thatsitinmagestee,
IpraytoGod,whositsinmajesty,
827Soblessehissouleforhismercydeere.
Soblesshissoulforhismercydear.
828NowwolIseyemytale,ifyewolheere."
NowwillIsaymytale,ifyouwillhear."

788AndwhanIsaughhewoldeneverefyne
AndwhenIsawhewouldnevercease
789Toredenonthiscursedbookalnyght,
Readingonthiscursedbookallnight,
790AlsodeynlythreleveshaveIplyght
AllsuddenlyhaveIpluckedthreeleaves
791Outofhisbook,rightasheradde,andeke
Outofhisbook,rightasheread,andalso
792Iwithmyfestsotookhymonthecheke
Iwithmyfistsohithimonthecheek
793Thatinourefyrhefilbakwardadoun.
Thatinourfirehefelldownbackwards.
794Andheupstirteasdoothawoodleoun,
Andheleapedupasdoesafuriouslion,
795Andwithhisfesthesmootmeontheheed
Andwithhisfisthehitmeonthehead
796ThatinthefloorIlayasIweredeed.
ThatonthefloorIlayasifIweredead.
797AndwhanhesaughhowstillethatIlay,
AndwhenhesawhowstillIlay,
798Hewasagastandwoldehanfledhisway,
Hewasfrightenedandwouldhavefledonhisway,
799TilattelasteoutofmyswoghIbreyde.
UntilatthelastoutofmyswoonIawoke.
800`O!hastowslaynme,falsetheef?'Iseyde,
`O!hastthouslainme,falsethief?'Isaid,
801`Andformylandthushastowmordredme?
`Andformylandthushastthoumurderedme?
802ErIbedeed,yetwolIkissethee.'
BeforeIamdead,yetwillIkissthee.'

Beholdethewordesbitwenethe
SomonourandtheFrere
829TheFrerelough,whanhehaddeherdalthis;
TheFriarlaughed,whenhehadheardallthis;
830"Nowdame,"quodhe,"sohaveIjoyeorblis,
"Nowdame,"hesaid,"asImayhavejoyorbliss,
831Thisisalongpreambleofatale!"
Thisisalongpreambleofatale!"
832AndwhantheSomonourherdetheFreregale,
AndwhentheSummonerheardtheFriarcryout,
833"Lo,"quodtheSomonour,"Goddesarmestwo!
"Lo,"saidtheSummoner,"ByGod'stwoarms!
834Afrerewolentremettehymeveremo.
Afriarwillalwaysintrudehimself(inothers'affairs).
835Lo,goodemen,aflyeandeekafrere
Lo,goodmen,aflyandalsoafriar
836Wolfalleineverydysshandeekmateere.
Willfallineverydishandalsoeverydiscussion.
837Whatspekestowofpreambulacioun?
Whatspeakestthouofperambulation?
838What!amble,ortrotte,orpees,orgositdoun!
What!amble,ortrot,orkeepstill,orgositdown!
839Thoulettestouredisportinthismanere."
Thouspoilourfuninthismanner."

803Andneerhecam,andkneledfaireadoun,
Andnearhecame,andkneeledgentlydown,
804Andseyde,`DeeresusterAlisoun,
Andsaid,`DearsisterAlisoun,
805AshelpmeGod,Ishaltheeneveresmyte!
SohelpmeGod,Ishallnever(again)smitethee!
806ThatIhavedoon,itisthyselftowyte.
WhatIhavedone,itisthyselftoblame(youdroveme
toit).
807Foryeveitme,andthatItheebiseke!'
Forgiveitme,andthatIbeseechthee!'
808AndyeteftsoonesIhittehymonthecheke,
AndyetimmediatelyIhithimonthecheek,
809Andseyde,`Theef,thusmuchelamIwreke;
Andsaid,`Thief,thusmuchamIavenged;
810NowwolIdye,Imaynolengerspeke.'
NowwillIdie,Imaynolongerspeak.'
811Butattelaste,withmuchelcareandwo,
Butatthelast,withmuchcareandwoe,
812Wefilleacordedbyusselventwo.
Wemadeanagreementbetweenourtwoselves.
813Heyafmealthebridelinmynhond,
Hegavemeallthecontrolinmyhand,
814Tohanthegovernanceofhousandlond,
Tohavethegovernanceofhouseandland,
815Andofhistonge,andofhishondalso;

840"Ye,woltowso,sireSomonour?"quodtheFrere;
"Yes,wiltthouhaveitthus,sirSummoner?"saidthe
Friar;
841"Now,bymyfeithIshal,erthatIgo,
"Now,bymyfaithIshall,beforeIgo,
842Telleofasomonourswichataleortwo
Tellofasummonersuchataleortwo
843Thatallethefolkshallaugheninthisplace."
Thatallthefolkshalllaughinthisplace."
844"Nowelles,Frere,Ibishrewethyface,"
"Nowotherwise,Friar,Icursethyface,"

106

845QuodthisSomonour,"andIbishreweme,
SaidthisSummoner,"andIcursemyself,
846ButifItelletalestwoorthre
UnlessItelltalestwoorthree
847OffrereserIcometoSidyngborne
OffriarsbeforeIcometoSiitingbourne
848ThatIshalmakethynhertefortomorne,
ThatIshallmakethyhearttomourn,
849ForwelIwootthypacienceisgon."
ForwellIknowthypatienceisgone."

873Fortheraswonttowalkenwasanelf
Forwhereanelfwasaccustomedtowalk
874Therwalkethnowthelymytourhymself
Therewalksnowthelicensedbeggingfriarhimself
875Inundermelesandinmorwenynges,
Inlatemorningsandinearlymornings,
876Andseythhismatynsandhishoolythynges
Andsayshismorningprayersandhisholythings
877Ashegoothinhislymytacioun.
Ashegoesinhisassigneddistrict.
878Wommenmaygosauflyupanddoun.
Womenmaygosafelyupanddown.
879Ineverybusshorundereverytree
Ineverybushorundereverytree
880Therisnoonootherincubusbuthe,
Thereisnootherevilspiritbuthe,
881Andhenewoldoonhembutdishonour.
Andhewillnotdothemanyharmexceptdishonor.

850OureHoostecride"Pees!Andthatanon!"
OurHostcried"Peace!Andthatrightnow!"
851Andseyde,"Latthewommantellehiretale.
Andsaid,"Letthewomantellhertale.
852Yefareasfolkthatdronkenbenofale.
Youactlikefolkthataredrunkonale.
853Do,dame,telleforthyouretale,andthatisbest."
Do,dame,tellforthyourtale,andthatisbest."

882AndsobifelthatthiskyngArthour
AndsoithappenedthatthiskingArthur
883Haddeinhishousalustybacheler,
Hadinhishousealustybachelor,
884Thatonadaycamridyngefroryver,
Thatononedaycameridingfromhawking,
885Andhappedthat,alloneashewasborn,
Andithappenedthat,aloneashewasborn,
886Hesaughamaydewalkyngehymbiforn,
Hesawamaidenwalkingbeforehim,
887Ofwhichmaydeanon,maugreehirheed,
Ofwhichmaidenstraightway,despiteallshecould
do,
888Byverrayforce,heraftehiremaydenhed;
Byutterforce,hetookawayhermaidenhead;
889Forwhichoppressiounwasswichclamour
Forwhichwrongwassuchclamor
890AndswichpursuteuntothekyngArthour
AndsuchdemandforjusticeuntokingArthur
891Thatdampnedwasthisknyghtfortobedeed,
Thatthisknightwascondemnedtobedead,
892Bycoursoflawe,andsholdehanlosthisheed
Bycourseoflaw,andshouldhavelosthishead
893Paraventureswichwasthestatuttho
Perhapssuchwasthestatutethen
894Butthatthequeeneandotherladyesmo
Exceptthatthequeenandotherladiesaswell
895Solongepreyedenthekyngofgrace
Solongprayedthekingforgrace
896Tilhehislyfhymgrauntedintheplace,
Untilhegrantedhimhisliferightthere,
897Andyafhymtothequeene,alathirwille,
Andgavehimtothequeen,allatherwill,
898Tochesewheithershewoldehymsaveorspille.
Tochoosewhethershewouldhimsaveorputto
death.

854"Alredy,sire,"quodshe,"rightasyowlest,
"Allready,sir,"shesaid,"rightasyouplease,
855IfIhavelicenceofthisworthyFrere."
IfIhavepermissionofthisworthyFriar."
856"Yis,dame,"quodhe,"telforth,andIwolheere."
"Yes,dame,"hesaid,"tellforth,andIwillhear."
HeereendeththeWyfofBathehirProloge
TheWifeofBath'sTale
HeerebigynneththeTaleoftheWyfofBathe

857Inth'oldedayesoftheKyngArthour,
IntheolddaysofKingArthur,
858OfwhichthatBritonsspekengreethonour,
OfwhomBritonsspeakgreathonor,
859Alwasthislandfulfildoffayerye.
Thislandwasallfilledfullofsupernaturalcreatures.
860Theelfqueene,withhirjolycompaignye,
Theelfqueen,withherjollycompany,
861Dauncedfulofteinmanyagrenemede.
Dancedveryofteninmanyagreenmead.
862Thiswastheoldeopinion,asIrede;
Thiswastheoldbelief,asIread;
863Ispekeofmanyehundredyeresago.
Ispeakofmanyhundredyearsago.
864Butnowkannomansenoneelvesmo,
Butnownomancanseeanymoreelves,
865Fornowthegretechariteeandprayeres
Fornowthegreatcharityandprayers
866Oflymytoursandotherehoolyfreres,
Oflicensedbeggarsandotherholyfriars,
867Thatsercheneverylondandeverystreem,
Thatoverruneverylandandeverystream,
868Asthikkeasmotesinthesonnebeem,
Asthickasspecksofdustinthesunbeam,
869Blessyngehalles,chambres,kichenes,boures,
Blessinghalls,chambers,kitchens,bedrooms,
870Citees,burghes,castels,hyetoures,
Cities,towns,castles,hightowers,
871Thropes,bernes,shipnes,dayeryes
Villages,barns,stables,dairies
872Thismakeththattherbennofayeryes.
Thismakesitthattherearenofairies.

899Thequeenethankeththekyngwithalhirmyght,
Thequeenthanksthekingwithallhermight,
900Andafterthisthusspakshetotheknyght,
Andafterthisshespokethustotheknight,
901Whanthatshesaughhirtyme,uponaday:
Whenshesawhertime,uponaday:
902"Thoustandestyet,"quodshe,"inswicharray
"Thoustandestyet,"shesaid,"insuchcondition,
903Thatofthylyfyethastownosuretee.
Thatofthylifeyetthouhastnoassurance
904Igrantetheelyf,ifthoukansttellenme

107

Igranttheelife,ifthoucansttellme
905Whatthyngisitthatwommenmoostdesiren.
Whatthingitisthatwomenmostdesire.
906Bewar,andkeepthynekkeboonfromiren!
Beware,andkeepthyneckbonefromiron(axe)!
907Andifthoukanstnattellenitanon,
Andifthoucanstnottellitrightnow,
908YetwolIyevetheelevefortogon
YetIwillgivetheeleavetogo
909Atwelfmonthandaday,tosecheandleere
Atwelvemonthandaday,toseektolearn
910Anansweresuffisantinthismateere;
Asatisfactoryanswerinthismatter;
911AndsureteewolIhan,erthatthoupace,
AndIwillhave,beforethougo,apledge
912Thybodyfortoyeldeninthisplace."
Tosurrenderthybodyinthisplace."

936Fortobefreeanddorightasuslest,
Tobefreeanddojustasweplease,
937Andthatnomanrepreveusofourevice,
Andthatnomanreproveusforourvices,
938Butseyethatwebewiseandnothyngnyce.
Butsaythatwearewiseandnotatallsilly.
939Fortrewelytherisnoonofusalle,
Fortrulythereisnotoneofusall,
940Ifanywightwolclaweusonthegalle,
Ifanyonewillscratchusonthesorespot,
941Thatwenelkike,forheseithussooth.
Thatwewillnotkickback,becausehetellsusthe
truth.
942Assay,andheshalfyndeitthatsodooth;
Tryit,andwhoeversodoesshallfindittrue;
943For,beweneversoviciouswithinne,
For,beweneversoviciouswithin,
944Wewolbeenholdenwiseandcleneofsynne.
Wewanttobeconsideredwiseandcleanofsin.

913Wowasthisknyght,andsorwefullyhesiketh;
Woewasthisknight,andsorrowfullyhesighs;
914Butwhat!Hemaynatdoalashymliketh.
Butwhat!Hecannotdoallashepleases.
915Andatthelastehecheeshymfortowende
Andatthelasthechosetoleave
916Andcomeagayn,rightattheyeresende,
Andcomeagain,exactlyattheyear'send,
917WithswichanswereasGodwoldehympurveye;
WithsuchanswerasGodwouldprovidehim;
918Andtakethhisleve,andwendethforthhisweye.
Andtakeshisleave,andgoesforthonhisway.

945Andsommeseynthatgreetdelithanwe
Andsomesaythatwehavegreatdelight
946Fortobeenholdenstable,andeeksecree,
Tobeconsideredsteadfast,andalso(abletokeepa)
secret,
947Andinopurposstedefastlytodwelle,
Andinonepurposesteadfastlytoremain,
948Andnatbiwreyethyngthatmenustelle.
Andnotrevealthingsthatmentellus.
949Butthattaleisnatwortharakestele.
Butthattaleisnotwortharakehandle.
950Pardee,wewommenkonnenothynghele;
ByGod,wewomencanhidenothing;
951WitnesseonMydawolyeheerethetale?
WitnessonMidaswillyouhearthetale?

919Heseketheveryhousandeveryplace
Heseekseveryhouseandeveryplace
920Whereashehopethfortofyndegrace
Wherehehopestohavetheluck
921Tolernewhatthyngwommenlovenmoost,
Tolearnwhatthingwomenlovemost,
922Buthenekoudearryveninnocoost
Buthecouldnotarriveinanyregion
923Wherashemyghtefyndeinthismateere
Wherehemightfindinthismatter
924Twocreaturesaccordyngeinfeere.
Twocreaturesagreeingtogether.
925Sommeseydewommenlovenbestrichesse,
Somesaidwomenloverichesbest,
926Sommeseydehonour,sommeseydejolynesse,
Somesaidhonor,somesaidgaiety,
927Sommerichearray,sommeseydenlustabedde,
Somerichclothing,somesaidlustinbed,
928Andoftetymetobewydweandwedde.
Andfrequentlytobewidowandwedded.
929Sommeseydethatourehertesbeenmoostesed
Somesaidthatourheartsaremosteased
930Whanthatwebeenyflateredandyplesed.
Whenweareflatteredandpleased.
931Hegoothfulnythesothe,Iwolnatlye.
Hegoesverynearthetruth,Iwillnotlie.
932Amanshalwynneusbestwithflaterye,
Amanshallwinusbestwithflattery,
933Andwithattendanceandwithbisynesse
Andwithattentionsandwithsolicitude
934Beenweylymed,bothemooreandlesse.
Wearecaught,everyoneofus.

952Ovyde,amongesotherethyngessmale,
Ovid,amongothersmallmatters,
953SeydeMydahadde,underhislongeheres,
SaidMidashad,underhislonghair,
954Growyngeuponhisheedtwoasseseres,
Twoass'sears,growinguponhishead,
955Thewhichevicehehyddeashebestmyghte
Thewhichvicehehidashebestcould
956Fulsubtillyfromeverymannessighte,
Veryskillfullyfromeveryman'ssight,
957That,savehiswyf,therwisteofitnamo.
That,exceptforhiswife,thereknewofitnoothers.
958Helovedhiremoost,andtrustedhirealso;
Helovedhermost,andtrustedheralso;
959Hepreyedehirethattonocreature
Heprayedherthattonocreature
960Shesholdetellenofhisdisfigure.
Sheshouldtellofhisdisfigurement.
961Sheswoorhim,"Nay";foralthisworldtowynne,
Shesworehim,"Nay";forallthisworldtowin,
962Shenoldedothatvileynyeorsynne,
Shewouldnotdothatdishonororsin,
963Tomakehirhousbondehansofoulaname.
Tomakeherhusbandhavesofoulareputation.
964Shenoldenattelleitforhiroweneshame.
Shewouldnottellitforherownshame.
965Butnathelees,hirthoughtethatshedyde
Butnonetheless,shethoughtthatshewoulddie
966Thatshesolongesholdeaconseilhyde;

935Andsommeseyenthatwelovenbest
Andsomesaythatwelovebest

108

Ifsheshouldhideasecretsolong;
967Hirthoughteitswalsosooreaboutehirherte
Shethoughtitswelledsosoreaboutherheart
968Thatnedelysomwordhiremosteasterte;
Thatnecessarilysomewordmustescapeher;
969Andsithshedorstetelleittonoman,
Andsinceshedaredtellittonoman,
970Dountoamareysfastebysheran
Sherandowntoamarshcloseby
971Tilshecamtherehirhertewasafyre
Untilshecamethereherheartwasafire
972Andasabitorebomblethinthemyre,
Andasabitternbumblesinthemire,
973Sheleydehirmouthuntothewaterdoun:
Shelaidhermouthdownuntothewater:
974"Biwreyemenat,thouwater,withthysoun,"
"Betraymenot,thouwater,withthysound,"
975Quodshe;"totheeItelleitandnamo;
Shesaid;"totheeItellitandnoothers;
976Mynhousbondehathlongeasseserystwo!
Myhusbandhastwolongassesears!
977Nowismynhertealhool;nowisitoute.
Nowismyheartallwhole;nowisitout.
978Imyghtenolengerkepeit,outofdoute."
Icouldnolongerkeepit,withoutdoubt."
979Heeremayyese,thoghweatymeabyde,
Hereyoumaysee,thoughweatimeabide,
980Yetoutitmoot;wekannoconseilhyde.
Yetoutitmustcome;wecanhidenosecret.
981Theremenantofthetaleifyewolheere,
Theremnantofthetaleifyouwillhear,
982RedethOvyde,andtheryemayitleere.
ReadOvid,andthereyoumaylearnit.

Therecannomanimagineanugliercreature.
1000Agayntheknyghtthisoldewyfganryse,
Attheknight'scomingthisoldwifedidrise,
1001Andseyde,"Sireknyght,heerforthnelithnowey.
Andsaid,"Sirknight,thereliesnoroadoutofhere.
1002Telmewhatthatyeseken,byyourefey!
Tellmewhatyouseek,byyourfaith!
1003Paraventureitmaythebettrebe;
Perhapsitmaybethebetter;
1004Thiseoldefolkkanmuchelthyng,"quodshe.
Theseoldfolkknowmanythings,"shesaid.
1005"Myleevemooder,"quodthisknyght,"certeyn
"Mydearmother,"saidthisknight,"certainly
1006InambutdeedbutifthatIkanseyn
IamasgoodasdeadunlessIcansay
1007Whatthyngitisthatwommenmoostdesire.
Whatthingitisthatwomenmostdesire.
1008Koudeyemewisse,Iwoldewelquiteyourehire."
Ifyoucouldteachme,Iwouldwellrepayyou."
1009"Plightmethytroutheheereinmynhand,"quod
she,
"Pledgemethywordhereinmyhand,"shesaid,
1010"ThenextethyngthatIrequerethee,
"ThenextthingthatIrequireofthee,
1011Thoushaltitdo,ifitlyeinthymyght,
Thoushaltdoit,ifitliesinthypower,
1012AndIwoltelleityoweritbenyght."
AndIwilltellittoyoubeforeitisnight."
1013"Haveheermytrouthe,"quodtheknyght,"I
grante."
"Haveheremypledgedword,"saidtheknight,"I
agree."
1014"Thanne,"quodshe,"Idarmewelavante
"Then,"shesaid,"Idaremewellboast
1015Thylyfissauf,forIwolstondetherby;
Thylifeissafe,forIwillstandthereby;
1016Uponmylyf,thequeenewolseyeasI.
Uponmylife,thequeenwillsayasI.
1017Latsewhichistheproudesteofhemalle
Let'sseewhichistheproudestofthemall
1018Thatwerethonacoverchieforacalle
Thatwearsakerchieforahairnet
1019ThatdarseyenayofthatIshaltheeteche.
Thatdaressay`nay'ofwhatIshallteachthee.
1020Latusgoforthwithoutenlengerspeche."
Letusgoforthwithoutlongerspeech."
1021Thorownedsheapistelinhisere,
Thenshewhisperedamessageinhisear,
1022Andbadhymtobegladandhavenofere.
Andcommandedhimtobegladandhavenofear.
1023Whantheybecomentothecourt,thisknyght
Whentheyarecometothecourt,thisknight
1024Seydehehadholdehisday,ashehaddehight,
Saidhehadheldhisday,ashehadpromised,
1025Andredywashisanswere,ashesayde.
Andhisanswerwasready,ashesaid.
1026Fulmanyanoblewyf,andmanyamayde,
Verymanyanoblewife,andmanyamaid,
1027Andmanyawydwe,forthattheybeenwise,
Andmanyawidow,becausetheyarewise,
1028Thequeenehirselfsittyngeasajustise,
Thequeenherselfsittingasajustice,
1029Assembledbeen,hisanswerefortoheere;

983Thisknyght,ofwhichmytaleisspecially,
Thisknight,ofwhommytaleisinparticular,
984Whanthathesaughhemyghtenatcometherby
Whenhesawhemightnotcometothat
985Thisistoseye,whatwommenlovemoost
Thisistosay,whatwomenlovemost
986Withinnehisbrestfulsorwefulwasthegoost.
Withinhisbreastverysorrowfulwasthespirit.
987Buthoomhegooth;hemyghtenatsojourne;
Buthomehegoes;hecouldnotlinger;
988Thedaywascomethathomwardmostehetourne.
Thedaywascomethathomewardhemustturn.
989Andinhisweyithappedhymtoryde,
Andinhiswayhehappenedtoride,
990Inalthiscare,underaforestsyde,
Inallthiscare,nearaforestside,
991Wherashesaughuponadauncego
Wherehesawuponadancego
992Ofladyesfoureandtwenty,andyetmo;
Ladiesfourandtwenty,andyetmore;
993Towardthewhichedauncehedrowfulyerne,
Towardthewhichdancehedrewveryeagerly,
994Inhopethatsomwysdomsholdehelerne.
Inhopethatheshouldlearnsomewisdom.
995Butcerteinly,erhecamfullythere,
Butcertainly,beforehecamefullythere,
996Vanysshedwasthisdaunce,henystewhere.
Vanishedwasthisdance,heknewnotwhere.
997Nocreaturesaughhethatbarlyf,
Hesawnocreaturethatborelife,
998Saveonthegrenehesaughsittyngeawyf
Saveonthegreenhesawsittingawoman
999Afoulerwightthermaynomandevyse.

109

Areassembled,tohearhisanswer;
1030Andafterwardthisknyghtwasbodeappeere.
Andafterwardthisknightwascommandedto
appear.

ForGod'slove,chooseanewrequest!
1061Taakalmygoodandlatmybodygo."
Takeallmygoodsandletmybodygo."
1062"Nay,thanne,"quodshe,"Ishreweusbothetwo!
"Nay,then,"shesaid,"Icursebothofustwo!
1063ForthoghthatIbefoul,andoold,andpoore
ForthoughIamugly,andold,andpoor
1064Inoldeforalthemetal,neforoore
Iwouldnotforallthemetal,norforore
1065Thatunderertheisgraveorlithabove,
Thatunderearthisburiedorliesabove,
1066ButifthywyfIwere,andeekthylove."
HaveanythingexceptthatIwerethywife,andalso
thylove."

1031Toeverywightcomandedwassilence,
Silencewascommandedtoeveryperson,
1032Andthattheknyghtsholdetelleinaudience
Andthattheknightshouldtellinopencourt
1033Whatthyngthatworldlywommenlovenbest.
Whatthing(itis)thatworldlywomenlovebest.
1034Thisknyghtnestoodnatstilleasdothabest,
Thisknightstoodnotsilentasdoesabeast,
1035Buttohisquestiounanonanswerde
Buttohisquestionstraightwayanswered
1036Withmanlyvoys,thatalthecourtitherde:
Withmanlyvoice,sothatallthecourtheardit:

1067"Mylove?"quodhe,"nay,mydampnacioun!
"Mylove?"hesaid,"nay,mydamnation!
1068Allas,thatanyofmynacioun
Alas,thatanyofmyfamily
1069Sholdeeveresofouledisparagedbe!"
Shouldeverbesofoullydegraded!"
1070Butalfornoght;theendeisthis,thathe
Butallfornaught;theendisthis,thathe
1071Constreynedwas;henedesmostehirewedde,
Constrainedwas;hemustbynecessitywedher,
1072Andtakethhisoldewyf,andgoothtobedde.
Andtakeshisoldwife,andgoestobed.

1037"Myligelady,generally,"quodhe,
"Myliegelady,withoutexception,"hesaid,
1038"Wommendesirentohavesovereynetee
"Womendesiretohavesovereignty
1039Asweloverhirhousbondashirlove,
Aswelloverherhusbandasherlove,
1040Andfortobeeninmaistriehymabove.
Andtobeinmasteryabovehim.
1041Thisisyouremoostedesir,thoghyemekille.
Thisisyourgreatestdesire,thoughyoukillme.
1042Doothasyowlist;Iamheeratyourewille."
Doasyouplease;Iamheresubjecttoyourwill."
1043Inalthecourtnewastherwyf,nemayde,
Inallthecourttherewasnotwife,normaid,
1044Newydwethatcontrariedthathesayde,
Norwidowthatdeniedwhathesaid,
1045Butseydenhewasworthyhanhislyf.
Butsaidthathewasworthytohavehislife.
1046Andwiththatwordupstirtetheoldewyf,
Andwiththatwordupsprangtheoldwoman,
1047Whichthattheknyghtsaughsittyngeonthegrene:
Whomtheknightsawsittingonthegreen:
1048"Mercy,"quodshe,"mysovereynladyqueene!
"Mercy,"shesaid,"mysovereignladyqueen!
1049Erthatyourecourtdeparte,domeright.
Beforeyourcourtdeparts,domejustice.
1050Itaughtethisanswereuntotheknyght;
Itaughtthisanswertotheknight;
1051Forwhichheplightemehistrouthethere,
Forwhichhepledgedmehiswordthere,
1052ThefirstethyngthatIwoldehymrequere
ThefirstthingthatIwouldaskofhim
1053Hewoldeitdo,ifitlayinhismyghte.
Hewoulddo,ifitlayinhispower.
1054BiforethecourtthannepreyeIthee,sirknyght,"
BeforethecourtthenIpraythee,sirknight,"
1055Quodshe,"thatthoumetakeuntothywyf,
Saidshe,"thatthoutakemeasthywife,
1056ForwelthouwoostthatIhavekeptthylyf.
ForwellthouknowthatIhavesavedthylife.
1057IfIseyefals,seynay,uponthyfey!"
IfIsayfalse,say`nay',uponthyfaith!"

1073Nowwoldensommenseye,paraventure,
Nowwouldsomemensay,perhaps,
1074ThatformynecligenceIdonocure
ThatbecauseofmynegligenceImakenoeffort
1075Totellenyowthejoyeandalth'array
Totellyouthejoyandalltherichdisplay
1076Thatatthefeestewasthatilkeday.
Thatwasatthe(wedding)feastthatsameday.
1077TowhichthyngshortlyanswerenIshal:
TowhichthingshortlyIshallanswer:
1078Iseyethernasnojoyenefeesteatal;
Isaytherewasnojoynorfeastatall;
1079Thernasbuthevynesseandmuchesorwe.
Therewasnothingbutheavinessandmuchsorrow.
1080Forprivelyheweddedhireonmorwe,
Forheweddedherinprivateinthemorning,
1081Andaldayafterhiddehymasanowle,
Andalldayafterhidhimselflikeanowl,
1082Sowowashym,hiswyflookedsofoule.
Sowoefulwashe,hiswifelookedsougly.
1083Greetwasthewotheknyghthaddeinhisthoght,
Greatwasthewoetheknighthadinhisthought,
1084Whanhewaswithhiswyfabeddeybroght;
Whenhewasbroughttobedwithhiswife;
1085Hewalwethandheturnethtoandfro.
Hewallowsandheturnstoandfro.
1086Hisoldewyflaysmylyngeeveremo,
Hisoldwifelaysmilingevermore,
1087Andseyde,"Odeerehousbonde,benedicitee!
Andsaid,"Odearhusband,blessme!
1088Faretheveryknyghtthuswithhiswyfasye?
Doeseveryknightbehavethuswithhiswifeasyou
do?
1089IsthisthelaweofkyngArthureshous?
IsthisthelawofkingArthur'shouse?
1090Iseveryknyghtofhissodangerous?

1058Thisknyghtanswerde,"Allasandweylawey!
Thisknightanswered,"Alasandwoeisme!
1059Iwootrightwelthatswichwasmybiheste.
Iknowrightwellthatsuchwasmypromise.
1060ForGoddeslove,ascheesanewerequeste!

110

Iseveryknightofhissoaloof?
1091Iamyoureoweneloveandyourewyf;
Iamyourownloveandyourwife;
1092Iamshewhichthatsavedhathyourelyf,
Iamshewhohassavedyourlife,
1093And,certes,yetnedideIyownevereunright;
And,certainly,Ididyouneverwrongyet;
1094Whyfareyethuswithmethisfirstenyght?
Whybehaveyouthuswithmethisfirstnight?
1095Yefarenlykamanhadlosthiswit.
Youactlikeamanwhohadlosthiswit.
1096Whatismygilt?ForGoddeslove,telit,
Whatismyoffense?ForGod'slove,tellit,
1097Anditshalbeenamended,ifImay."
Anditshallbeamended,ifIcan."

Forwhichweclaimtobeofnoblelineage,
1121Yetmaytheynatbiquethefornothyng
Yettheycannotbequeathbyanymeans
1122Tonoonofushirvertuouslyvyng,
Toanyofustheirvirtuousliving,
1123Thatmadehemgentilmenycalledbe,
Thatmadethembecallednoblemen,
1124Andbadusfolwenheminswichdegree.
Andcommandedustofollowtheminsuchmatters.
1125"WelkanthewisepoeteofFlorence,
"WellcanthewisepoetofFlorence,
1126ThathighteDant,spekeninthissentence.
WhoiscalledDante,speakonthismatter.
1127Lo,inswichmanerrymisDantestale:
Lo,insuchsortofrimeisDante'sspeech:
1128`Fulseldeuprisethbyhisbranchessmale
`Veryseldomgrowsupfromitssmallbranches
1129Prowesseofman,forGod,ofhisgoodnesse,
Nobilityofman,forGod,ofhisgoodness,
1130Wolethatofhymweclaymeouregentillesse';
Wantsustoclaimournobilityfromhim';
1131Forofoureeldresmaywenothyngclayme
Forfromourancestorswecanclaimnothing
1132Buttemporelthyng,thatmanmayhurteand
mayme.
Excepttemporalthings,thatmayhurtandinjurea
man.

1098"Amended?"quodthisknyght,"Allas,nay,nay!
"Amended?"saidthisknight,"Alas,nay,nay!
1099Itwolnatbeenamendedneveremo.
Itwillnotbeamendedevermore.
1100Thouartsoloothly,andsoooldalso,
Thouartsoloathsome,andsooldalso,
1101Andthertocomenofsoloughakynde,
Andmoreoverdescendedfromsuchlowborn
lineage,
1102ThatlitelwonderisthoghIwalweandwynde.
ThatlittlewonderisthoughItossandtwistabout.
1103SowoldeGodmynhertewoldebreste!"
SowouldGodmyheartwouldburst!"

1133"EekeverywightwootthisaswelasI,
"AlsoeverypersonknowsthisaswellasI,
1134Ifgentillessewereplantednatureelly
Ifnobilitywereplantednaturally
1135Untoacerteynlynagedounthelyne,
Untoacertainlineagedowntheline,
1136Pryveeandapertthannewoldetheyneverefyne
Theninprivateandinpublictheywouldnevercease
1137Todoonofgentillessethefaireoffice;
Todothejustdutiesofnobility;
1138Theymyghtedonovileynyeorvice.
Theycoulddonodishonororvice.

1104"Isthis,"quodshe,"thecauseofyoureunreste?"
"Isthis,"shesaid,"thecauseofyourdistress?"
1105"Ye,certeinly,"quodhe,"nowonderis."
"Yes,certainly,"hesaid,"itisnowonder."
1106"Now,sire,"quodshe,"Ikoudeamendealthis,
"Now,sir,"shesaid,"Icouldamendallthis,
1107Ifthatmeliste,eritweredayesthre,
IfIpleased,beforethreedayswerepast,
1108Sowelyemyghtebereyowuntome.
Providingthatyoumightbehavewelltowardsme.

1139"Taakfyrandberitinthederkestehous
"Takefireandbearitinthedarkesthouse
1140BitwixthisandthemountofKaukasous,
BetweenthisandthemountofCaucasus,
1141Andlatmenshettethedoresandgothenne;
Andletmenshutthedoorsandgoaway;
1142Yetwolethefyrasfairelyeandbrenne
Yetwillthefireasbrightlyblazeandburn
1143Astwentythousandmenmyghteitbiholde;
Asiftwentythousandmenmightitbehold;
1144Hisofficenatureelaywolitholde,
Itsnaturalfunctionitwillalwayshold,
1145Upperilofmylyf,tilthatitdye.
Onperilofmylife(Isay),untilitdies.

1109"But,foryespekenofswichgentillesse
"But,sinceyouspeakofsuchnobility
1110Asisdescendedoutofoldrichesse,
Asisdescendedoutofoldriches,
1111Thattherforesholdenyebegentilmen,
Thatthereforeyoushouldbenoblemen,
1112Swicharroganceisnatworthanhen.
Sucharroganceisnotworthahen.
1113Lookewhothatismoostvertuousalway,
Lookwhoismostvirtuousalways,
1114Pryveeandapert,andmoostentendethay
Inprivateandpublic,andmostintendsever
1115Todothegentildedesthathekan;
Todothenobledeedsthathecan;
1116Taakhymforthegrettestgentilman.
Takehimforthegreatestnobleman.
1117Cristwoleweclaymeofhymouregentillesse,
Christwantsustoclaimournobilityfromhim,
1118Natofoureeldresforhireoldrichesse.
Notfromourancestorsfortheiroldriches.
1119Forthoghtheyyeveusalhirheritage,
Forthoughtheygiveusalltheirheritage,
1120Forwhichweclaymetobeenofheighparage,

1146"Heeremayyesewelhowthatgenterye
"Heremayyouseewellthatnobility
1147Isnatannexedtopossessioun,
Isnotjoinedwithpossession,
1148Sithfolknedoonhiroperacioun
Sincefolknotdobehaveastheyshould
1149Alwey,asdooththefyr,lo,inhiskynde.
Always,asdoesthefire,lo,initsnature.
1150For,Goditwoot,menmayweloftenfynde

111

For,Godknowsit,menmaywelloftenfind
1151Alordessonedoshameandvileynye;
Alord'ssondoingshameanddishonor;
1152Andhethatwolehanprisofhisgentrye,
Andhewhowillhavepraiseforhisnoblebirth,
1153Forhewasborenofagentilhous
Becausehewasbornofanoblehouse
1154Andhaddehiseldresnobleandvertuous,
Andhadhisnobleandvirtuousancestors,
1155Andnelhymselvendonogentildedis
Andwillnothimselfdoanynobledeeds
1156Nefolwenhisgentilauncestrethatdeedis,
Norfollowhisnobleancestrythatisdead,
1157Henysnatgentil,beheducorerl,
Heisnotnoble,behedukeorearl,
1158Forvileynssynfuldedesmakeacherl.
Forchurlishsinfuldeedsmakeachurl.
1159Forgentillessenysbutrenomee
Fornobilityisnothingbutrenown
1160Ofthyneauncestres,forhireheighbountee,
Ofthyancestors,fortheirgreatgoodness,
1161Whichisastrangethyngtothypersone.
Whichisathingnotnaturallypartofthyperson.
1162ThygentillessecomethfroGodallone.
ThynobilitycomesfromGodalone.
1163Thannecomthoureverraygentillesseofgrace;
Thenourtruenobilitycomesfromgrace;
1164Itwasnothyngbiquetheuswithoureplace.
Itwasnotatallbequeathedtouswithoursocial
rank.

Wouldnotchooseaviciousformofliving.
1183Gladpoverteisanhonestthyng,certeyn;
Gladpovertyisanhonestthing,certain;
1184ThiswoleSenecandothereclerkesseyn.
ThiswillSenecaandotherclerkssay.
1185Whosothathalthympaydofhispoverte,
Whoeverconsidershimselfsatisfiedwithhis
poverty,
1186Iholdehymriche,alhaddehenatasherte.
Iconsiderhimrich,althoughhehadnotashirt.
1187Hethatcoveitethisapovrewight,
Hewhocovetsisapoorperson,
1188Forhewoldehanthatisnatinhismyght;
Forhewouldhavethatwhichisnotinhispower;
1189Buthethatnoghthath,necoveitethhave,
Buthewhohasnothing,norcovetstohave
anything,
1190Isriche,althoughyeholdehymbutaknave.
Isrich,althoughyouconsiderhimbutaknave.
1191Verraypoverte,itsyngethproprely;
Truepoverty,itrightlysings;
1192Juvenalseithofpovertemyrily:
Juvenalsaysofpovertymerrily:
1193`Thepovreman,whanhegothbytheweye,
`Thepoorman,whenhegoesalongtheroadway,
1194Biforethetheveshemaysyngeandpleye.'
Beforethethieveshemaysingandplay.'
1195Poverteishatefulgoodand,asIgesse,
Povertyisahatefulgoodand,asIguess,
1196Afulgreetbryngereoutofbisynesse;
Averygreatremoverofcares;
1197Agreetamendereeekofsapience
Agreatamenderalsoofwisdom
1198Tohymthattakethitinpacience.
Tohimthattakesitinpatience.
1199Poverteisthis,althoughitsemealenge:
Povertyisthis,althoughitmayseemmiserable:
1200Possessiounthatnowightwolchalenge.
Apossessionthatnoonewillchallenge.
1201Povertefulofte,whanamanislowe,
Povertyveryoften,whenamanislow,
1202MakethhisGodandeekhymselftoknowe.
MakeshimknowhisGodandalsohimself.
1203Poverteaspectacleis,asthynkethme,
Povertyisaneyeglass,asitseemstome,
1204Thurghwhichhemayhisverrayfreendessee.
Throughwhichonemayseehistruefriends.
1205Andtherfore,sire,synthatInoghtyowgreve,
Andtherefore,sir,sinceIdonotinjureyou,
1206Ofmypovertenamooreyemerepreve.
You(should)nolongerreprovemeformypoverty.

1165"Thenkethhounoble,asseithValerius,
"Thinkhownoble,assaysValerius,
1166WasthilkeTulliusHostillius,
WasthatsameTulliusHostillius,
1167Thatoutofpoverteroostoheighnoblesse.
Thatoutofpovertyrosetohighnobility.
1168ReedethSenek,andredetheekBoece;
ReadSeneca,andreadalsoBoethius;
1169Thershulyeseenexpresthatitnodredeis
Thereshallyouseeclearlythatitisnodoubt
1170Thatheisgentilthatdoothgentildedis.
Thatheisnoblewhodoesnobledeeds.
1171Andtherfore,leevehousbonde,Ithusconclude:
Andtherefore,dearhusband,Ithusconclude:
1172Alwereitthatmyneauncestreswererude,
Althoughitissothatmyancestorswererude,
1173YetmaythehyeGod,andsohopeI,
YetmaythehighGod,andsohopeI,
1174Grantemegracetolyvenvertuously.
Grantmegracetolivevirtuously.
1175ThanneamIgentil,whanthatIbigynne
ThenamInoble,whenIbegin
1176Tolyvenvertuouslyandweyvesynne.
Tolivevirtuouslyandabandonsin.

1207"Now,sire,ofeldeyerepreveme;
"Now,sir,ofoldageyoureproveme;
1208Andcertes,sire,thoghnoonauctoritee
Andcertainly,sir,thoughnoauthority
1209Wereinnobook,yegentilsofhonour
Wereinanybook,yougentlefolkofhonor
1210Seynthatmensholdeanooldwightdoonfavour
Saythatmenshouldbecourteoustoanoldperson
1211Andclepehymfader,foryouregentillesse;
Andcallhimfather,becauseofyournobility;
1212AndauctoursshalIfynden,asIgesse.
AndauthorsshallIfind,asIguess.

1177"Andtherasyeofpovertemerepreeve,
"Andwhereasyoureprovemeforpoverty,
1178ThehyeGod,onwhomthatwebileeve,
ThehighGod,onwhomwebelieve,
1179Inwilfulpovertecheestolyvehislyf.
Involuntarypovertychosetolivehislife.
1180Andcerteseveryman,mayden,orwyf
Andcertainlyeveryman,maiden,orwoman
1181MayunderstondethatJhesus,hevenekyng,
CanunderstandthatJesus,heaven'sking,
1182Newoldenatcheseaviciouslyvyng.

1213"NowtheryeseyethatIamfoulandold,
"NowwhereyousaythatIamuglyandold,

112

1214Thandredeyounoghttobeenacokewold;
Thandonotfeartobeacuckold;
1215Forfiltheandeelde,alsomootIthee,
Forfilthandoldage,asImayprosper,
1216Beengretewardeynsuponchastitee.
Aregreatguardiansofchastity.
1217Butnathelees,synIknoweyouredelit,
Butnonetheless,sinceIknowyourdelight,
1218Ishalfulfilleyoureworldlyappetit.
Ishallfulfillyourworldlyappetite.

1239"Kysme,"quodshe,"webenolengerwrothe,
"Kissme,"shesaid,"wearenolongerangry,
1240For,bymytrouthe,Iwolbetoyowbothe
For,bymytroth,Iwillbetoyouboth
1241Thisistoseyn,ye,bothefairandgood.
Thisistosay,yes,bothfairandgood.
1242IpreytoGodthatImootestervenwood,
IpraytoGodthatImaydieinsane
1243ButItoyowbealsogoodandtrewe
UnlessItoyoubeasgoodandtrue
1244Aseverewaswyf,synthattheworldwasnewe.
Aseverwaswife,sincetheworldwasnew.
1245AndbutIbetomornasfairtoseene
AndunlessIamtomorrowmorningasfairtobeseen
1246Asanylady,emperice,orqueene,
Asanylady,empress,orqueen,
1247Thatisbitwixetheestandekethewest,
Thatisbetweentheeastandalsothewest,
1248Doothwithmylyfanddethrightasyowlest.
Dowithmylifeanddeathrightasyouplease.
1249Castupthecurtyn,lookehowthatitis."
Castupthecurtain,lookhowitis."

1219"Chesenow,"quodshe,"oonofthisethynges
tweye:
"Choosenow,"shesaid,"oneofthesetwothings:
1220TohanmefoulandoldtilthatIdeye,
TohavemeuglyandolduntilIdie,
1221Andbetoyowatrewe,humblewyf,
Andbetoyouatrue,humblewife,
1222Andnevereyowdispleseinalmylyf,
Andneverdispleaseyouinallmylife,
1223Orellesyewolhanmeyongandfair,
Orelseyouwillhavemeyoungandfair,
1224Andtakeyoureaventureoftherepair
Andtakeyourchancesofthecrowd
1225Thatshalbetoyourehousbycauseofme,
Thatshallbeatyourhousebecauseofme,
1226Orinsomootherplace,maywelbe.
Orinsomeotherplace,asitmaywellbe.
1227Nowcheseyourselven,wheitherthatyowliketh."
Nowchooseyourself,whicheveryouplease."

1250Andwhantheknyghtsaughverrailyalthis,
Andwhentheknightsawtrulyallthis,
1251Thatshesofairwas,andsoyongtherto,
Thatshesowasbeautiful,andsoyoungmoreover,
1252Forjoyehehentehireinhisarmestwo.
Forjoyheclaspedherinhistwoarms.
1253Hishertebathedinabathofblisse.
Hisheartbathedinabathofbliss.
1254Athousandtymeareweheganhirekisse,
Athousandtimeinarowhedidherkiss,
1255Andsheobeyedhymineverythyng
Andsheobeyedhimineverything
1256Thatmyghtedoonhymplesanceorlikyng.
Thatmightdohimpleasureorenjoyment.

1228Thisknyghtavysethhymandsoresiketh,
Thisknightdeliberatesandpainfullysighs,
1229Butattelasteheseydeinthismanere:
Butatthelasthesaidinthismanner:
1230"Myladyandmylove,andwyfsodeere,
"Myladyandmylove,andwifesodear,
1231Iputmeinyourewisegovernance;
Iputmeinyourwisegovernance;
1232Chesethyoureselfwhichmaybemoostplesance
Chooseyourselfwhichmaybemostpleasure
1233Andmoosthonourtoyowandmealso.
Andmosthonortoyouandmealso.
1234Idonoforsthewheitherofthetwo,
Idonotcarewhichofthetwo,
1235Forasyowliketh,itsuffisethme."
Forasitpleasesyou,isenoughforme."

1257Andthustheylyveuntohirlyvesende
Andthustheyliveuntotheirlives'end
1258Inparfitjoye;andJhesuCristussende
Inperfectjoy;andJesusChristussend
1259Housbondesmeeke,yonge,andfresshabedde,
Husbandsmeek,young,andvigorousinbed,
1260Andgracet'overbydehemthatwewedde;
Andgracetooutlivethemwhomwewed;
1261AndeekIprayeJhesushortehirlyves
AndalsoIprayJesusshortentheirlives
1262Thatnoghtwolbegovernedbyhirwyves;
Thatwillnotbegovernedbytheirwives;
1263Andoldeandangrynygardesofdispence,
Andoldandangrymisersinspending,
1264Godsendehemsooneverraypestilence!
Godsendthemsoontheverypestilence!

1236"ThannehaveIgeteofyowmaistrie,"quodshe,
"ThenhaveIgottenmasteryofyou,"shesaid,
1237"SynImaycheseandgoverneasmelest?"
"SinceImaychooseandgovernasIplease?"
1238"Ye,certes,wyf,"quodhe,"Iholdeitbest."
"Yes,certainly,wife,"hesaid,"Iconsideritbest."
HeereendeththeWyvesTaleofBathe

Comments

113

ThewifeofBathsPrologue

HerprologuegivesinsightintotheroleofwomenintheLateMiddleAgesandisprobablyofinteresttoChaucerhimself,
forthecharacterisoneofhismostdevelopedones,withherprologuetwiceaslongashertale.Healsogoessofarasto
describe two sets of clothing for her in his General Prologue. She holds her own among the bickering pilgrims, and
evidenceinthemanuscriptssuggeststhatalthoughshewasfirstassignedadifferent,plainertaleperhapstheonetold
bytheShipmanshereceivedherpresenttaleashersignificanceincreased.ShecallsherselfbothAlysonandAlysinthe
prologue,buttoconfusemattersthesearealsothenamesofher'gossib'(aclosefriendorgossip),whomshementions
severaltimes,aswellasmanyfemalecharactersthroughoutTheCanterburyTales.
TheWifeofBathbelievesherselfanexpertontherelationsbetweenmenandwomen,havinghadfivehusbandsherself,
beginningwithherfirstatage12.Sheprovidesalonghistoryanddefendshermanymarriageswithselectedquotations
fromBiblicalandothersources,glossedtosupportherviews.Shealsoexpandsonthestatusofsex,claimingthatvirginity
is not necessary to be a good and virtuous person, and asks the rhetorical question of what genitals are for, if not for
procreation.ManyofhercommentsarecounterargumentstothoseputforthbySt.Jerome,mainlyinhiswork"Against
Jovinianus".
She is both direct and opinionated, particularly about the futility of men attempting to gain sovereignty or domination
overwomen,andheropinionspreparethereaderforhertale,oftenmislabeledabretonlai,abouttheroleofsovereignty
inmarriage.
Thetaleisoftenregardedasthefirstofthesocalled"marriagegroup"oftales,whichincludestheClerk's,theMerchant's
and the Franklin's tales. But some scholars contest this grouping, first proposed by Chaucer scholar George Lyman
Kittredge,notleastbecausethelatertalesofMelibeeandtheNunsPriestalsodiscussthistheme.Aseparationbetween
talesthatdealwithmoralissuesandonesthatdealwithmagicalissues,astheWifeofBath'sdoes,isfavouredbysome
scholars.
At the start of her prologue, the Wifeof Bath argues that experienceand homegrown wisdom are better guides in life
thantexts,scripture,andtradition.Shepositsthatherexperiencemakeshereminentlysuitedtotellataleofwomenand
theirtruedesire,andhertalecanbeseenasarefutationofthewaywomenhavebeenglossed"byearliermalewriters.
ChaucermayhaveintendedtobothpokefunattheWifeofBath'sincompleteunderstandingofthesourcessheusesand
to show her spunk and native intelligence. Since the tale isn't very supportive of a switch in gender roles, given the
subservient nature of the old woman at the end, it is unclear whether Chaucer was supportive of strong independent
femalepersonalities.

TheWifeofBathstale
HertalebeginswithanallusiontotheabsenceoffairiesinmoderndayandtheirprevalenceinKingArthur'stime.She
thenstartsinonhertalethoughsheinterruptsandisinterruptedseveraltimesthroughoutthetelling,creatingseveral
digressions.AknightinKingArthur'scourtrapesawomaninacornfield.Bylaw,hispunishmentisdeath,butthequeen
intercedes on his behalf, and the king turns the knight over to her for judgement. The queen punishes the knight by
sendinghimoutonaquesttofindoutwhatwomenreallywant"morethananythingelse,"givinghimayearandadayto
discoveritandhavinghiswordthathewillreturn.Ifhefailstosatisfythequeenwithhisanswer,heforfeitshislife.He
searches,buteverywomanhefindssayssomethingdifferent,fromrichestoflattery.
On his way back to the queen after failing to find the truth, he sees four and twenty ladies dancing. They disappear
suddenly, leavingbehind anold hag whom heasks for help. She says she'll tell himthe answer that will save him if he
promisestograntherrequestatatimeshechooses.Heagreesandtheygobacktothecourtwherethequeenpardons
himafterheexplainsthatwhatwomenwantmostis"tohavethesovereigntyaswellupontheirhusbandastheirlove,
andtohavemasterytheirmanabove."Theoldwomancriesouttohimbeforethecourtthatshesavedhimandthather
rewardwillbethathetakesherashiswifeandlovesher.Heprotests,buttonoavail,andthemarriagetakesplacethe
nextday.
Theoldwomanandtheknightconverseabouttheknight'shappinessintheirmarriagebedanddiscussthatheisunhappy
becausesheisuglyandlowborn.Shediscoursesupontheoriginsofgentility,astoldbyJesusandDante,andreflectson
theoriginsofpoverty.Shesayshecanchoosebetweenherbeinguglyandfaithfulorbeautifulandunfaithful.Hegivesthe
choicetohertobecomewhateverwouldbringthemosthonourandhappinesstothembothandshe,pleasedwithher
masteryofherhusband,becomesfairandfaithfultolivewithhimhappilyuntiltheendoftheirdays.

114

Wewommenhan,ifthatIshalnatlye,
Inthismatereaqueyntefantasye:
Waytewhatthyngwemaynatlightlyhave,
Therafterwolwecriealdayandcrave.
Forbedeusthyng,andthatdesirenwe;
Preesseonusfaste,andthannewolwefle.

Theme

Throughoutthe Roman Catholic Church Middle Ages authority was in the books andthe men whowrote them. Dutiful
monks, friars and brothers copied the sacred texts worshipfully as repositories of truth; the books, then, were sacred
treasuriesthesemenwerewillingtodiedefending.Theyweremenofthebook,andthebookwastheirdistinctivecultural
achievement.

Butthatwholeworldwassweptawaybybubonicplague,theBlackDeathof134951,whenChaucerwastenoreleven
andonethirdofEuropespopulationdied.ThepilgrimsinChaucerspoemareallsurvivorsofthatcataclysm,newmen
andwomeninanewworld.

Theoldchurchhierarchywasunabletostoptheplague.Thesurvivorslookedaboutfornewsourcesofauthority,andone
placeanumberofthembeganrelyingonwastheirownexperience."Iknowbyexperiencethattheoldchurchfathers
werewrongwhentheywrotex(ory),"thesenewEuropeansclaimed.AndthatistheshapeoftheWifeofBathsopening
claim:FromexperienceIknowthewoethatisinmarriage.

IntheIntroductiontotheCambridgeUniversityPresseditionof''TheWifeofBathsPrologueandTale''JamesWinnysums
itupthisway:Againsttheaccumulatedlearningofhertimessheposesthepungentwisdomofproverbialsayings,and
thecertaintiesofknowledgewhichshehasgainedinthecutandthrustofdailyevents.Onesideofthecontestfetchesits
opinionsfromwrittencommentaries,notconsultingtheevidenceoftangiblefactbutregardingthepronouncementsof
theChurchandtheSchoolmenasunassailableauthority.Theotherbasesitselfuponthecertaintyofeverydayevents,and
thepressingrealitiesofhumanaffairs,wherelearnedopinionsseeminsubstantial."(16)

Thetaleutilizesthe"loathlylady"motif,theoldestexamplesofwhicharethemedievalIrishsovereigntymythslikethatof
NialloftheNineHostages.Arthur'snephewGawaingoesonanearlyidenticalquesttodiscoverwhatwomentrulywantin
the medieval poem ''The Wedding of Sir Gawain and Dame Ragnelle'', and the ballad "The Marriage of Sir Gawain", a
retelling of the same story. The usual formula is simply that the woman will be a hag during the day and a beautiful
womanatnight.Where"TheWife'sTale"differsfromthesestoriesistheinitialrapeandhisemphasisonfaithfulnessand
theredemptivedecisionoftheknight.Theknight'sdecisionoffaithfulnessorfairness,hischoiceofthemosthonourable
option,andthenhiseventualrewardformakingtherightchoice,displayshischivalrousnature.BoththetaleandtheWife
ofBath'sprologuedealwiththequestionofwhohascontrolinrelationshipsbetweenmenandwomen.

Critics are divided on the personality of the Wife of Bath. Some see her as a strong independent woman while others
regardherasaterribleoldharridan.Thislatterviewishelpedbypotentialhintsinthetextthatshemayhavemurdered
herfourthhusband.AsignificantbodyofmodernliterarycriticismregardstheWifeofBathasattackingthesubstantial
body of antifeminist literature known by the later middle ages, though these critics are cognisant of the fact that
[[feminism]],asadistinctpoliticalandintellectualmovement,didnotemergeuntilthenineteenthcentury.Chaucerwas
takinginspirationfromasignificantamountofmisogynistliteraturearoundatthetimebutitissubjecttodebatewhether
heiscopyingthesesentimentsorslylylampooningthem.

TherearealsotheoriesthattheWife'stalewaswrittentoeaseChaucer'sguiltyconscience.Itisrecordedthatin1380
associatesofChaucerstoodsuretyforanamountequaltohalfhisyearlysalaryforachargebroughtbyCeciliaChampaign
for"derapto"rapeorabduction;thesameviewhasbeentakenofhisLegendofGoodWomen,whichChaucerhimself
describes as a penance. It remains important, however, as with any author, to observe the difference between the
author'sintentionsandthemultiplicityofpotentialmeaningsinthetext.

115

TheEnglishLiteratureasapartofGeneralMedievalEuropeanLiterature.
OneofthemoststrikinggeneralfactsinthelaterMiddleAgesistheuniformityoflifeinmanyofitsaspectsthroughoutall
WesternEurope.Itwasonlyduringthisperiodthatthemodernnations,acquiringnationalconsciousness,begandefinitely
to shape themselves out of the chaos which had followed the fall of the Roman Empire. The Roman Church, firmly
established in every corner of every land, was the actual inheritor of much of the unifying power of the Roman
government,andthefeudalsystemeverywheregavetosocietythesamepoliticalorganizationandideals.Inatruersense,
perhaps,thanatanylatertime,WesternEuropewasonegreatbrotherhood,thinkingmuchthesamethoughts,speaking
inpartthesamespeech,andactuatedbythesamebeliefs.Atleast,theliteratureoftheperiod,largelycomposedand
copiedbythegreatarmyofmonks,exhibitseverywhereathoroughuniformityintypesandideas.
WeofthetwentiethcenturyshouldnotallowourselvestothinkvaguelyoftheMiddleAgesasabenightedorshadowy
periodwhenlifeandthepeoplewhoconstitutedithadscarcelyanythingincommonwithourselves.Inrealitythemenof
the Middle Ages were moved by the same emotions and impulses as our own, and their lives presented the same
incongruousmixtureofnobilityandbaseness.Yetitistruethattheexternalsoftheirexistencewerestrikinglydifferent
from those of more recent times. In society the feudal systemlords with their serfs, towns struggling for municipal
independence,kingsandnoblesdoing,peaceablyorwithviolence,verymuchwhattheypleased;aconstantconditionof
public or private war; cities walled as a matter of course for protection against bands of robbers or hostile armies; the
countrystilllargelycoveredwithforests,wildernesses,andfens;roadsinfestedwithbrigandsandsobadthattravelwas
scarcelypossibleexceptonhorseback;inprivatelife,mostofthemoderncomfortsunknown,andthehouses,evenofthe
wealthy,sofilthyanduncomfortablethatallclassesregularly,almostnecessarily,spentmostofthedaylighthoursinthe
openair;inindustrynocoal,factories,orlargemachinery,butinthetownsguildsofworkmeneachturningoutbyhand
hisslowproductofsinglearticles;almostnoeducationexceptforpriestsandmonks,almostnoconceptionsofgenuine
scienceorhistory,butinsteadtheabstractsystemofscholasticlogicandphilosophy,highlyingeniousbuthighlyfantastic;
in religion no outward freedom of thought except for a few courageous spirits, but the arbitrary dictates of a despotic
hierarchy,insistingonanironboundcreedwhichtheremorselessprocessoftimewassteadilyrenderingmoreandmore
inadequatethisofferssomeslightsuggestionoftheconditionsoflifeforseveralcenturies,endingwiththeperiodwith
whichwearenowconcerned.
Inmedievalliteraturelikewisethemodernstudentencountersmuchwhichseemsatfirstsightgrotesque.Oneofthemost
conspicuousexamplesisthepervasiveuseofallegory.ThemenoftheMiddleAgesoftenwrote,aswedo,indirectterms
andofsimplethings,butwhentheywishedtoriseabovethecommonplacetheyturnedwithafrequencywhichtoday
appears astonishing to the devices of abstract personification and veiled meanings. No doubt this tendency was due in
parttoanidealizingdissatisfactionwiththecrudenessoftheiractuallife(aswellastofrequentinabilitytoenterintothe
realm of deeper and finer thought without the aid of somewhat mechanical imagery); and no doubt it was greatly
furtheredalsobythemedievalpassionfortranslatingintoelaborateandfantasticsymbolismallthedetailsoftheBible
narratives. But from whatever cause, the tendency hardened into a ruling convention; thousands upon thousands of
medievalmanuscriptsseemtodeclarethattheworldisamirageofshadowyforms,orthatitexistsmerelytobodyforth
remoteandhighlysurprisingideas.
OfallthesecountlessallegoriesnonewasreiteratedwithmoreunweariedpersistencethanthatoftheSevenDeadlySins
(thosesinswhichinthedoctrineoftheChurchleadtospiritualdeathbecausetheyarewilfullycommitted).Thesesinsare:
Covetousness, Unchastity,Anger, Gluttony,Envy, Sloth,and,chief of all, Pride, the earliest ofall, through whichLucifer
wasmovedtohisfatalrebellionagainstGod,whencespringallhumanills.Eachoftheseven,however,wasinterpretedas
including so many related offences that among them they embraced nearly the whole range of possible wickedness.
Personified, the SevenSins in themselvesalmost dominate medieval literature, a sort of shadowyevil pantheon. Moral
andreligiousquestionscouldscarcelybediscussedwithoutregardtothem;andtheymaintaintheircommandingplace
evenaslateasinSpenser's'FaerieQueene,'attheveryendofthesixteenthcentury.TotheSevenSinswerecommonly
opposed, but with much less emphasis, the Seven Cardinal Virtues, Faith, Hope, Charity (Love), Prudence, Temperance,
Chastity,andFortitude.Again,almostasprominentastheSevenSinswasthefigureofFortunewithherrevolvingwheel,a
goddesswhomtheviolentvicissitudesandtragediesoflifeledthemenoftheMiddleAges,inspiteoftheirChristianity,to
bringoverfromclassicalliteratureandvirtuallytoacceptasarealdivinity,withalmostabsolutecontrolinhumanaffairs.
IntheseventeenthcenturyShakespeare'splaysarefullofallusionstoher,butsoforthatmatteristheeverydaytalkofall
ofusinthetwentiethcentury.

Literatureinthethreelanguages.
ItisnottothepurposeinastudylikethepresenttogivespecialattentiontotheliteraturewritteninEnglandinLatinand
French;wecanspeakonlybrieflyofthatcomposedinEnglish.ButinfactwhentheEnglishhadmadeitsnewbeginning,

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abouttheyear1200,thesamegeneralformsflourishedinallthreelanguages,sothatwhatissaidingeneraloftheEnglish
appliesalmostasmuchtotheothertwoaswell.

ReligiousLiterature
Wemayvirtuallydividealltheliteratureoftheperiod,roughly,into(1)Religiousand(2)Secular.Butitmustbeobserved
thatreligiouswritingswerefarmoreimportantasliteratureduringtheMiddleAgesthaninmorerecenttimes,andthe
separationbetweenreligiousandsecularlessdistinctthanatpresent.Theformsofthereligiousliteraturewerelargely
thesameasinthepreviousperiod.Thereweresongs,manyofthemaddressedtotheVirgin,somenotonlybeautifulin
their sincere and tender devotion, speaking for the finer spirits in an age of crudeness and violence, but occasionally
beautifulaspoetry.TherewereparaphrasesofmanypartsoftheBible,livesofsaints,inbothverseandprose,andvarious
othermiscellaneouswork.Perhapsworthyofspecialmentionamongsingleproductionsisthe'CursorMundi'(Surveyorof
the World), an early fourteenth century poem of twentyfour thousand lines ('Paradise Lost' has less than eleven
thousand),relatinguniversalhistoryfromthebeginning,onthebasisoftheBiblicalnarrative.Mostimportantofallfor
theirpromiseofthefuture,therewerethegermsofthemoderndramaintheformoftheChurchplays;buttothesewe
shallgivespecialattentioninalaterchapter.

SecularLiterature
Insecularliteraturethevarietywasgreaterthaninreligious.Wemaybeginbytranscribingoneortwoofthesongs,which,
thoughnotasnumerousthenasinsomelaterperiods,showthatthegreattraditionofEnglishsecularlyricpoetryreaches
backfromourowntimetothatoftheAngloSaxonswithoutabreak.Thebestknownofallisthe'CuckooSong,'ofthe
thirteenthcentury,intendedtobesunginharmonybyfourvoices:
Sumerisicumenin;
Lhudesing,cuccu!
Growethsedandblowethmed
Andspringththewdenu.
Sing,cuccu!
Awebletethafterlomb,
Lhouthaftercalvecu.
Bullucsterteth,buckeverteth;
Muriesing,cuccu!
Cuccu,cuccu,
Welsingesthu,cuccu;
Neswikthunevernu.

Summeriscomein;loudsing,cuckoo!Growstheseedandbloomsthemead[meadow]andbudsthewoodanew.Sing,
cuckoo!Theewebleatsforthelamb,lowsforthecalfthecow.Thebullockgambols,thebuckleaps;merrilysing,cuckoo!
Cuckoo,cuckoo,wellsingestthou,cuckoo;ceasethounevernow.
Thenextisthefirststanzaof'Alysoun'('FairAlice'):
BytueneMershantAveril,
Whenspraybeginnthtospringe,
Thelutelfoulhathhirewyl
Onhyreludtosynge.
Iehlibbeinlovelonginge
Forsemlokestofallethinge;
Hemaymeblissebringe;
Ichaminhirebaundoun.
Anhendyhapichabbeybent;
Iehotfromheveneitismesent;
Fromallewymmenmiloveislent
AntlyhtonAlysoun.

BetweenMarchandApril,Whenthesproutbeginstospring,thelittlebirdhasherdesireInhertonguetosing.Ilivein
lovelongingForthefairestofallthings;Shemaybringmebliss;Iamathermercy.AluckylotIhavesecured;Ithinkfrom
heavenitissentme;fromallwomenmyloveisturnedAndislightedonAlysoun.

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Therewerealsopoliticalandsatiricalsongsandmiscellaneouspoemsofvarioussorts,amongthemcertain'Bestiaries,'
accountsofthesupposedhabitsofanimals,generallydrawnoriginallyfromclassicaltradition,andmostofthemhighly
fantasticandallegorizedintheinterestsofmoralityandreligion.Therewasanabundanceofextremelyrealisticcoarse
tales, hardly belonging to literature, in both prose and verse. The popular ballads of the fourteenth century we must
reserve for later consideration. Most numerous of all the prose works, perhaps, were the Chronicles, which were
producedgenerallyinthemonasteriesandchieflyinthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturies,thegreaterpartinLatin,some
inFrench,andafewinrudeEnglishverse.ManyofthemweremereannalsliketheAngloSaxonChronicle,butsomewere
the lifelong works of men with genuinehistorical vision. Somedealt merely with the history ofEngland, or a part of it,
otherswiththatoftheentireworldasitwasknowntomedievalEurope.Themajoritywillneverbewithdrawnfromthe
obscurityofthemanuscriptsonwhichthepatientcareoftheirauthorsinscribedthem;othershavebeenprintedinfull
andserveasthemainbasisforourknowledgeoftheeventsoftheperiod.

TheRomances
Butthechiefformofsecularliteratureduringtheperiod,beginninginthemiddleofthetwelfthcentury,wastheromance,
especially the metrical (verse) romance. The typical romances were the literary expression of chivalry. They were
composedbytheprofessionalminstrels,someofwhom,asinAngloSaxontimes,wererichlysupportedandrewardedby
kingsandnobles,whileothersstillwanderedaboutthecountry,alwayswelcomeinthemanorhouses.There,likeScott's
LastMinstrel,theyrecitedtheirsometimesalmostendlessworksfrommemory,inthegreathallsorintheladies'bowers,
totheaccompanimentofoccasionalstrainsontheirharps.Fortwoorthreecenturiestheromancesweretothelordsand
ladies,andtothewealthiercitizensofthetowns,muchwhatnovelsaretothereadingpublicofourownday.Byfarthe
greaterpartoftheromancescurrentinEnglandwerewritteninFrench,whetherbyNormansorbyFrenchnativesofthe
English provinces in France, and the English ones which have been preserved are mostly translations or imitations of
Frenchoriginals.Theromancesareextremerepresentativesofthewholeclassofliteratureofalltimestowhichtheyhave
giventhename.Franklyabandoninginthemaintheworldofreality,theycarryintothatofidealizedandglamorousfancy
the chief interests of the medieval lords and ladies, namely, knightly exploits in war, and lovemaking. Love in the
romances, also, retains all its courtly affectations, together with that worship of woman by man which in the twelfth
century was exalted into a sentimental art by the poetsof wealthy and luxurious Provence inSouthern France.Sideby
side, again, with war and love, appears in the romances medieval religion, likewise conventionalized and childishly
superstitious,butinsomeinadequatedegreeamitigatorofcrueltyandarestraineroflawlesspassion.Artistically,insome
respects or all, the greater part of the romances are crude and immature. Their usual main or only purpose is to hold
attention by successions of marvellous adventures, natural or supernatural; of structure, therefore, they are often
destitute;thecharactersareordinarilymeretypes;andmotivationislittleconsidered.Therewere,however,exceptional
authors, genuine artists, masters of meter and narrative, possessed by a true feeling for beauty; and in some of the
romancesthepsychologicalanalysisoflove,inparticular,issubtileandpowerful,thedirectprecursorofoneofthemain
developmentsinmodernfiction.
Theromancesmayveryroughlybegroupedintofourgreatclasses.Firstintime,perhaps,comethosewhicharederived
fromtheearlierFrenchepicsandinwhichlove,ifitappearsatall,issubordinatedtothemilitaryexploitsofCharlemagne
andhistwelvepeersintheirwarsagainsttheSaracens.Secondaretheromanceswhich,batteredsalvagefromagreater
past, retell in strangely altered romantic fashion the great stories of classical antiquity, mainly the achievements of
Alexander the Great and the tragic fortunes of Troy. Third come the Arthurian romances, and fourth those scattering
miscellaneousoneswhichdonotbelongtotheotherclasses,dealing,mostofthem,withnativeEnglishheroes.Ofthese,
two,'KingHorn'and'Havelok,'springdirectfromthecommonpeopleandinbothsubstanceandexpressionreflectthe
hard reality of their lives, while 'Guy of Warwick' and 'Bevis of Hampton,' which are among the best known but most
tediousofallthelist,belong,intheiroriginalform,totheupperclasses.
OfalltheromancestheArthurianarebyfarthemostimportant.TheybelongpeculiarlytoEnglishliterature,becausethey
are based on traditions of British history,but they have assumed a very prominentplace in the literature of thewhole
westernworld.Richinvariedcharactersandincidentstowhichauniversalsignificancecouldbeattached,intheirown
timetheywerethemostpopularworksoftheirclass;andlivingonvigorouslyaftertheotherswereforgotten,theyhave
continued to form one of the chief quarries of literary material and one of the chief sources of inspiration for modern
poetsandromancers.Itseemswellworthwhile,therefore,tooutlinebrieflytheirliteraryhistory.
The period in which their scene is nominally laid is that of the AngloSaxon conquest of Great Britain. Of the actual
historicaleventsofthisperiodextremelylittleisknown,andeventhecapitalquestionwhethersuchapersonasArthur
everreallyexistedcanneverreceiveadefiniteanswer.TheonlycontemporarywriteroftheleastimportanceistheBriton
(priestormonk),Gildas,whoinaviolentLatinpamphletofabouttheyear550('TheDestructionandConquestofBritain')
denounceshiscountrymenfortheirsinsandurgesthemtouniteagainsttheSaxons;andGildasgivesonlytheslightest

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sketchofwhathadactuallyhappened.HetellshowaBritishking(towhomlatertraditionassignsthenameVortigern)
invited in the AngloSaxons as allies against the troublesome northern Scots and Picts, and how the AngloSaxons,
victorious against these tribes, soon turned in furious conquest against the Britons themselves, until, under a certain
AmbrosiusAurelianus, a man 'ofRoman race,' the Britons successfullydefended themselves and at last in the battle of
MountBadoncheckedtheSaxonadvance.
NextinorderafterGildas,butnotuntilabouttheyear800,appearsastrangelyjumbleddocument,lasteditedbyacertain
Nennius,andentitled'HistoriaBritonum'(TheHistoryoftheBritons),whichaddstoGildas'outlinetraditions,naturaland
supernatural, which had meanwhile been growing up among the Britons (Welsh). It supplies the names of the earliest
Saxonleaders,HengistandHorsa(whoalsofigureinthe'AngloSaxonChronicle'),andnarratesatlengththeirtreacherous
dealingswithVortigern.AmongotherstorieswefindthatofVortigern'stower,whereGildas'Ambrosiusappearsasaboy
ofsupernaturalnature,destinedtodevelopintheromancesintothegreatmagicianMerlin.InNennius'bookoccursalso
theearliestmentionofArthur,who,inacomparativelysoberpassage,issaid,sometimeafterthedaysofVortigern,to
have'foughtagainsttheSaxons,togetherwiththekingsoftheBritons,buthehimselfwasleaderinthebattles.'Alist,
also,isgivenofhistwelvevictories,endingwithMountBadon.Itisimpossibletodecidewhetherthereisreallyanytruth
in this account of Nennius, or whether it springs wholly from the imagination of the Britons, attempting to solace
themselvesfortheirnationaloverthrow;butitallowsustobelieveifwechoosethatsometimeintheearlysixthcentury
therewasaBritishleaderofthenameofArthur,whobymilitarygeniusrosetohighcommandandforawhilebeatback
theSaxonhordes.Atmost,however,itshouldbeclearlyrealized,Arthurwasprobablyonlyalocalleaderinsomelimited
region,and,farfromfillingthesplendidplacewhichheoccupiesinthelaterromances,wasbutthehardpressedcaptain
ofafewthousandbarbarousandhalfarmedwarriors.
For three hundred years longer the traditions about Arthur continued to develop among the Welsh people. The most
importantchangewhichtookplacewasArthur'selevationtothepositionofchiefherooftheBritish(Welsh)raceandthe
subordinationtohim,ashisfollowers,ofalltheothernativeheroes,mostofwhomhadoriginallybeengods.ToArthur
himselfcertaindivineattributeswereadded,suchashispossessionofmagicweapons,amongthemtheswordExcalibur.
ItalsocametobepassionatelybelievedamongtheWelshthathewasnotreallydeadbutwouldsomedayreturnfrom
the mysterious Other World to which he had withdrawn and reconquer the island for his people. It was not until the
twelfthcenturythattheseArthuriantraditions,thecherishedheritageoftheWelshandtheircousins,theBretonsacross
the English Channel in France, were suddenly adopted as the property of all Western Europe, so that Arthur became a
universalChristianhero.Thisremarkabletransformation,nodoubtinsomedegreeinevitable,wasactuallybroughtabout
chiefly through the instrumentality of a single man, a certain English archdeacon of Welsh descent, Geoffrey of
Monmouth. Geoffrey, a literary and ecclesiastical adventurer looking about for a means of making himself famous, put
forth about the year 1136, in Latin, a 'History of the Britons' from the earliest times to the seventh century, in which,
imitating the form of the serious chronicles, he combined in cleverly impudent fashion all the adaptable miscellaneous
material,fictitious,legendary,ortraditional,whichhefoundathand.IndealingwithArthur,Geoffreygreatlyenlargeson
GildasandNennius;inpart,nodoubt,fromhisowninvention,inpart,perhaps,fromWelshtradition.HeprovidesArthur
with a father, King Uther, makes of Arthur's wars against the Saxons only his youthful exploits, relates at length how
ArthurconqueredalmostallofWesternEurope,andaddstotheearlierstorythefiguresofMerlin,Guenevere,Modred,
Gawain, Kay, and Bedivere. What is not least important, he gives to Arthur's reign much of the atmosphere of feudal
chivalrywhichwasthatoftherulingclassofhisownage.
Geoffrey mayor may not have intendedhis astonishing story to be seriously accepted, but in fact it was received with
almostuniversalcredence.Forcenturiesitwasincorporatedinoutlineorinexcerptsintoalmostallthesoberchronicles,
andwhatisofmuchmoreimportanceforliterature,itwastakenupandrehandledinvariousfashionsbyverynumerous
romancers. About twentyyears after Geoffrey wrote,the FrenchpoetWace, an English subject,paraphrased hisentire
'History'invivid,fluent,anddiffuseverse.Waceimpartstothewhole,inathoroughgoingway,themannersofchivalry,
andadds,amongotherthings,amentionoftheRoundTable,whichGeoffrey,somewhatcharyofthesupernatural,had
chosentoomit,thoughitwasoneoftheearlyelementsoftheWelshtradition.Otherpoetsfollowed,chiefamongthem
the delightful Chretien of Troyes, all writing mostly of the exploits of single knights at Arthur's court, which they made
over, probably, from scattering tales of Welsh and Breton mythology. To declare that most romantic heroes had been
knights of Arthur's circle now became almost a matter of course. Prose romances also appeared, vast formless
compilations, which gathered up into themselves story after story, according to the fancy of each successive editor.
GreatestoftheadditionstothesubstanceofthecyclewasthestoryoftheHolyGrail,originallyanaltogetherindependent
legend. Important changes necessarily developed. Arthur himself, in many of the romances, was degraded from his
positionofthebravestknighttobetheinactivefigureheadofabrilliantcourt;andtheonlyreallyhistoricalelementinthe
story,hisstruggleagainsttheSaxons,wasthrustfarintothebackground,whilealltheemphasiswaslaidontheromantic
achievementsofthesingleknights.

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LAGHAMON'S'BRUT.'ThusithadcomeaboutthatArthur,originallythenationalherooftheWelsh,andthedeadlyfoeof
theEnglish,wasadopted,asaChristianchampion,notonlyforoneofthemedievalNineWorthiesofallhistory,butfor
thespecialgloryoftheEnglishraceitself.InthatlighthefiguresinthefirstimportantworkinwhichnativeEnglish
reemergesaftertheNormanConquest,the'Brut'(Chronicle)wherein,abouttheyear1200,Laghamonparaphrased
Wace'sparaphraseofGeoffrey.
[Footnote:Laghamon'snameisgenerallywritten'Layamon,'butthisisincorrect.Theword'Brut'comesfromthename
'Brutus,' according to Geoffrey a Trojan hero and eponymous founder of the British race. Standing at the beginning of
British(andEnglish)history,hisnamecametobeappliedtothewholeofit,justasthefirsttwoGreekletters,alphaand
beta,havegiventhenametothealphabet.]
LaghamonwasahumbleparishpriestinWorcestershire,andhisthirtytwothousandhalflines,inwhichheimperfectly
follows the AngloSaxon alliterative meter, are rathercrude; though theyareby nomeansdull, rather are often strong
withtheoldtimeAngloSaxonfightingspirit.InlanguagealsothepoemisalmostpurelySaxon;occasionallyitadmitsthe
Frenchdeviceofrime,butitissaidtoexhibit,alltold,fewerthanahundredwordsofFrenchorigin.Expandingthroughout
onWace'sversion,Laghamonaddssomeminorfeatures;butEnglishwasnotyetreadytotakeaplacebesideFrenchand
Latinwiththereadingclass,andthepoemexercisednoinfluenceonthedevelopmentoftheArthurianstoryoronEnglish
literature.

SirGawainandTheGreenKnight.
Wecanmakespecialmentionofonlyoneotherromance,whichallstudentsshouldreadinmoderntranslation,namely,
'SirGawain(pronouncedGaw'wain)andtheGreenKnight.'Thisisthebriefandcarefullyconstructedworkofanunknown
butveryrealpoeticartist,wholivedacenturyandmorelaterthanLaghamonandprobablyalittleearlierthanChaucer.
Thestoryconsistsoftwooldfolktales,herefinelyunitedintheformofanArthurianromanceandsotreatedastobring
out all the better side of knightly feeling, with which the author is in charming sympathy. Like many other medieval
writings,thisoneispreservedbymerechanceinasinglemanuscript,whichcontainsalsothreeslightlyshorterreligious
poems(ofathousandortwolinesapiece),allpossiblybythesameauthorastheromance.Oneoftheminparticular,'The
Pearl,'isanarrativeofmuchfinefeeling,whichmaywellhavecomefromsotrueagentlemanashe.Thedialectisthatof
the Northwest Midland, scarcely more intelligible to modern readers thanAngloSaxon,but it indicates that the author
belonged to the same border region between England and Wales from which came also Geoffrey of Monmouth and
Laghamon,aregionwhereSaxonandNormanelementsweremingledwithCelticfancyanddelicacyoftemperament.The
meter, also, is interestingthe AngloSaxon unrimed alliterative verse, but divided into long stanzas of irregular length,
eachendingina'bob'offiveshortriminglines.
'SirGawainandtheGreenKnight'mayveryfittinglybringtoacloseourhastysurveyoftheentireNormanFrenchperiod,
aperiodmainlyofformation,whichhasleftnoliteraryworkofgreatandpermanentfame,butinwhich,afterall,there
weresomesincereandtalentedwriters,whohavefallenintoforgetfulnessratherthroughtheuntowardaccidentsoftime
thanfromlackofgenuinemeritinthemselves.

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TheEndofTheMiddleAges.About1350toabout1500
Thefirstfiftyyears.Politicalandsocialconditions.
Ofthecenturyandahalf,from1350to1500,whichformsourthirdperiod,themostimportantpartforliteraturewasthe
firstfiftyyears,whichconstitutestheageofChaucer.
Themiddleofthefourteenthcenturywasalsothemiddleoftheexternallybrilliantfiftyyears'reignofEdwardIII.In1337
EdwardhadbeguntheterriblethoughofteninterruptedseriesofcampaignsinFrancewhichhistoriansgrouptogetheras
the Hundred Tears' War, and having won the battle of Crecy against amazing odds, he had inaugurated at his court a
periodofsplendorandluxury.Thecountryasawholewasreallyincreasinginprosperity;Edwardwasfosteringtrade,and
thetownsandsomeofthetownmerchantswerebecomingwealthy;buttheoppressivenessofthefeudalsystem,now
becomingoutgrown,wasapparent,abusesinsocietyandstateandchurchwerealmostintolerable,andthespiritwhich
wastocreateourmodernage,beginningalreadyinItalytomovetowardtheRenaissance,wasfeltinfaintstirringseven
sofartotheNorthasEngland.
Thetowns,indeed,wereachievingtheirfreedom.Thankstocompactorganization,theywerelooseningthebondsoftheir
dependenceonthelordsorbishopstowhommostofthempaidtaxes;andtheallianceoftheirrepresentativeswiththe
knightsoftheshire(countrygentlemen)intheHouseofCommons,nowaseparatedivisionofParliament,waslayingthe
foundation of the political power of the whole middle class. But the feudal system continued to rest cruelly on the
peasants. Still bound, most of them, to the soil, as serfs of the land or tenants with definite and heavy obligations of
service, living in dark and filthy hovels under indescribably unhealthy conditions, earning a wretched subsistence by
ceaselesslabor,andalmostaltogetheratthemercyofmasterswhoregardedthemasscarcelybetterthanbeasts,theirlot
wasindeedpitiable.Neverthelesstheirspiritwasnotbrokennortheirstatesohopelessasitseemed.Itwasbythearchers
of the class of yeomen (small freeholders), men akin in origin and interests to the peasants, that the victories in the
French wars were won, and the knowledge that this was so created in the peasants an increased selfrespect and an
increaseddissatisfaction.Theirgropingeffortstobettertheirconditionreceivedstrongstimulusalsofromtheravagesof
theterribleBlackDeath,apestilencewhich,sweepingoffatitsfirstvisitation,in1348,atleasthalfthepopulation,andon
two later recurrences only smaller proportions, led to a scarcity of laborers and added strength to their demand for
commutationofpersonalservicesbymoneypaymentsandforhigherwages.Thisdemandwasmetbytherulingclasses
with sternly repressive measures, and the socialistic Peasants' Revolt of John Ball and Wat Tyler in 1381 was violently
crushedoutinblood,butitexpressedagreathumancryforjusticewhichcouldnotpermanentlybedenied.
HandinhandwiththeStateanditsinstitutions,inthisperiodasbefore,stoodtheChurch.Holdinginthetheoreticalbelief
of almost every one the absolute power of all men's salvation or spiritual death, monopolizing almost all learning and
education, the Church exercised in the spiritual sphere, and to no small extent in the temporal, a despotic tyranny, a
tyrannyemployedsometimesforgood,sometimesforevil.Astheonlyevenpartiallydemocraticinstitutionoftheageit
attracted to itself the most ambitious and able men of all classes. Though social and personal influence were powerful
withinitsdoors,asalwaysinallhumanorganizations,neverthelessthesonofaserfforwhomtherewasnoothermeans
of escape from his servitude might steal to the nearest monastery and there, gaining his freedom by a few months of
concealment,mighthope,ifheprovedhisability,torisetothehighestposition,tobecomeabbot,bishoporperhapseven
Pope.WithintheChurchweremanysincereandablemenunselfishlydevotingtheirlivestotheserviceoftheirfellows;
butthemoraltoneoftheorganizationasawholehadsufferedfromitsworldlyprosperityandpower.Initsnumerous
secular lordships and monastic orders it had become possessor of more than half the land in England, a proportion
constantly increased through the legacies left by religiousminded persons for their souls' salvation; but from its vast
income,severaltimesgreaterthanthatoftheCrown,itpaidnotaxes,andowingallegianceonlytothePopeitwasin
effectaforeignpower,sometimesopenlyhostiletothenationalgovernment.Themonasteries,thoughstillperforming
importantpublicfunctionsascentersofeducation,charity,andhospitality,hadrelaxedtheirdiscipline,andthelivesof
themonkswereoftenscandalous.TheDominicanandFranciscanfriars,also,whohadcometoEnglandinthethirteenth
century,soonafterthefoundationoftheirordersinItaly,andwhohadbeenfullatfirstofpassionatezealforthespiritual
and physical welfare of the poor, had now departed widely from their early character and become selfish, luxurious,
ignorant, and unprincipled. Much the same was true of the 'secular' clergy (those not members of monastic orders,
correspondingtotheentireclergyofProtestantchurches).Thenthereweresuchunworthycharlatansasthepardoners
and professional pilgrims, traveling everywhere under special privileges and fleecing the credulous of their money with
fraudulentrelicsandpreposterousstoriesofedifyingadventure.Allthiscorruptionwasclearenoughtoeveryintelligent
person,andweshallfinditanobjectofconstantsatirebytheauthorsoftheage,butitwastoofirmlyestablishedtobe
easilyorquicklyrootedout.

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'Mandeville'sVoyage'
One of the earliest literary works of the period, however, was uninfluenced by these social and moral problems, being
rather a very complete expression of the naive medieval delight in romantic marvels. This is the highly entertaining
'Voyage and Travels of Sir John Mandeville.' This clever book was actually written at Liege, in what is now Belgium,
sometimebeforetheyear1370,andintheFrenchlanguage;fromwhich,attainingenormouspopularity,itwasseveral
timestranslatedintoLatinandEnglish,andlaterintovariousotherlanguages.Fivecenturieshadtopassbeforescholars
succeeded in demonstrating that the asserted author, 'Sir John Mandeville,' never existed, that the real author is
undiscoverable,andthatthispretendedaccountofhisjourneyingsoveralltheknownandimaginedworldisacompilation
fromalargenumberofpreviousworks.Yetthebook(theEnglishversionalongwiththeothers)reallydeserveditslong
continuedreputation.ItstalesoftheEthiopianPresterJohn,ofdiamondsthatbypropercarecanbemadetogrow,of
treeswhosefruitisanoddsortoflambs,andahundredotherequallyremarkablephenomena,arenarratedwithskilful
verisimilitudeandstillstronglyholdthereader'sinterest,eveniftheynolongercommandbelief.Withallhiscredulity,
too,theauthorhassomeoddendsofgenuinescience,amongotherstheconvictionthattheearthisnotflatbutround.In
styletheEnglishversionsreflectthealmostuniversalmedievaluncertaintyofsentencestructure;neverthelesstheyare
straightforwardandclear;andthebookisnotableasthefirstexampleinEnglishaftertheNormanConquestofproseused
notforreligiousedificationbutforamusement(thoughwiththepurposealsoofgivinginstruction).'Mandeville,'however,
isaveryminorfigurewhencomparedwithhisgreatcontemporaries,especiallywiththechiefofthem,GeoffreyChaucer.

TheFifteenthCentury.
The15thcent.isnotdistinguishedinEnglishletters,dueinparttothesocialdislocationcausedbytheprolongedWarsof
theRoses.Ofthemany15thcenturyimitatorsofChaucerthebestknownareJohnLydgateandThomasHoccleve.Other
poetsofthetimeincludeStephenHawesandAlexanderBarclayandtheScotspoetsWilliamDunbar,RobertHenryson,
andGawinDouglas.ThepoetryofJohnSkelton,whichismostlysatiric,combinesmedievalandRenaissanceelements.
WilliamCaxtonintroducedprintingtoEnglandin1475andin1485printedSirThomasMalory'sMorted'Arthur.Thisprose
work,writteninthetwilightofchivalry,caststheArthuriantalesintocoherentformandviewsthemwithawarenessthat
they represent a vanishing way of life. The miracle play, a long cycle of short plays based upon biblical episodes, was
popular throughout the Middle Ages in England. The morality play, an allegorical drama centering on the struggle for
man'ssoul,originatedinthe15thcent.ThefinestofthegenreisEveryman.
WithChaucer'sdeathin1400thehalfcenturyoforiginalcreativeliteratureinwhichheisthemainfigurecomestoanend,
and for a hundred and fifty years thereafter there is only a single author of the highest rank. For this decline political
confusion is the chief cause; first, in the renewal of the Hundred Years' War, with its sordid effort to deprive another
nation of its liberty, and then in the brutal and meaningless War of the Roses, a mere cutthroat civil butchery of rival
factionswithnorealprincipleatstake.Throughoutthefifteenthcenturytheleadingpoets(ofprosewewillspeaklater)
were avowed imitators of Chaucer, and therefore at best only secondrate writers. Most of them were Scots, and best
knownistheScottishking,JamesI.Fortraditionseemscorrectinnamingthismonarchastheauthorofaprettypoem,
'TheKing'sQuair'('TheKing'sQuire,'thatisBook),whichrelatesinamedievaldreamallegoryoffourteenhundredlines
howthecaptiveauthorseesandfallsinlovewithaladywhomintheendFortunepromisestobestowuponhim.Thismay
wellbethepoeticrecordofKingJames'eighteenyearcaptivityinEnglandandhisactualmarriagetoanobleEnglishwife.
IncomplimenttohimChaucer'sstanzaofsevenlines(rimingababbcc),whichKingJamesemploys,hasreceivedthename
of'rimeroyal.'

The'popular'ballads.
Largelytothefifteenthcentury,however,belongthoseoftheEnglishandScottish'popular'balladswhichtheaccidentsof
time have not succeeded in destroying. We have already considered the theory of the communal origin of this kind of
poetryintheremoteprehistoricpast,andhaveseenthattheballadscontinuetoflourishvigorouslydowntothelater
periodsofcivilization.ThestillexistingEnglishandScottishballadsaremostly,nodoubt,theworkofindividualauthorsof
thefifteenthandsixteenthcenturies,butnonethelesstheyexpressthelittlechangingmindandemotionsofthegreat
bodyofthecommonpeoplewhohadbeensingingandrepeatingballadsforsomanythousandyears.Reallyessentially
'popular,'too,inspiritarethemorepretentiouspoemsofthewanderingprofessionalminstrels,whichhavebeenhanded
down along with the others, just as the minstrels were accustomed to recite both sorts indiscriminately. Such minstrel
balladsarethefamousonesonthebattleofChevyChase,orOtterburn.Theproductionofgenuinepopularballadsbegan
to wane in the fifteenth century when the printing press gave circulation to the output of cheap London writers and
substituted reading for the verbal memory by which the ballads had been transmitted, portions, as it were, of a half

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mysterious and almost sacred tradition. Yet the existing ballads yielded slowly, lingering on in the remote regions, and
those which have been preserved were recovered during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries by collectors from
simplemenandwomenlivingapartfromthemaincurrentsoflife,towhoseheartsandlipstheywerestilldear.Indeed
even now theballads and balladmaking are not altogether dead, butmay stillbefound nourishing in such outskirts of
civilization as the cowboy plains of Texas, Rocky Mountain mining camps, or the nooks and corners of the Southern
Alleghenies.
Thetrue'popular'balladshaveaqualitypeculiarlytheirown,whichrendersthemfarsuperiortothesixteenthcentury
imitations and which noconscious literaryartist has ever successfully reproduced. Longfellow's 'Skeleton inArmor' and
Tennyson's'Revenge'arestirringartisticballads,buttheyarealtogetherdifferentintoneandeffectfromtheauthentic
'popular'ones.Someoftheelementswhichgotomakethispeculiar'popular'qualitycanbedefinitelystated.
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

The 'popular' ballads are the simple and spontaneous expression of the elemental emotion of the people,
emotionoftencrudebutabsolutelygenuineandunaffected.Phrasesareoftenrepeatedintheballads,justasin
thetalkofthecommonman,forthesakeofemphasis,butthereisneithercomplexityofplotorcharacterization
norattemptatdecorativeliteraryadornmentthestoryandtheemotionwhichitcallsforthareallinall.Itisthis
simple,directfervoroffeeling,thestraightforwardoutpouringoftheauthors'hearts,thatgivestheballadstheir
power and entitles them toconsiderationamong the far more finished works of conscious literature. Both the
emotionandthemoralsoftheballads,also,arepagan,oratleastpreChristian;vengeanceonone'senemiesis
asmuchavirtueasloyaltytoone'sfriends;themostshamefulsinsarecowardiceandtreacheryinwarorlove;
andtheloveisoftenlawless.
Fromfirsttolastthetreatmentofthethemesisobjective,dramatic,andpicturesque.Everythingisaction,simple
feeling,orvividscenes,withnomerelyabstractmoralizing(exceptinafewunusualcases);andoftenmuchofthe
storyorsentimentisimpliedratherthandirectlystated.Thistoo,ofcourse,isthenaturalmannerofthecommon
man,amannerperfectlyeffectiveeitherinanimatedconversationorinthechantofaminstrel,whereexpression
andgesturecandosomuchoftheworkwhichtherestraintsofcivilizedsocietyhavetransferredtowords.
To this spirit and treatment correspond the subjects of the ballads. They are such as make appeal to the
underlyinghumaninstinctsbraveexploitsinindividualfightingorinorganizedwar,andtheromanceandpathos
andtragedyofloveandoftheothermovingsituationsofsimplelife.Fromthe'popular'natureoftheballadsit
hasresultedthatmanyofthemareconfinedwithinnoboundariesofraceornation,but,originatingonehere,
one there, are spread in very varying versions throughout the whole, almost, of the world. Purely English,
however, are those which deal with Robin Hood and his 'merry men,' idealized imaginary heroes of the Saxon
commonpeopleinthedoggedstrugglewhichtheymaintainedforcenturiesagainsttheiroppressivefeudallords.
Thecharactersand'properties'oftheballadsofallclassesaregenerallytypicalortraditional.Therearethebrave
champion,whethernobleorcommonman,whoconquersorfallsagainstoverwhelmingodds;thefaithfullover
of either sex; the woman whose constancy, proving stronger than man's fickleness, wins back her lover to her
sideatlast;thetraitorousoldwoman(victimoftheblindandcruelprejudicewhichafteracenturyortwowas
oftentosendhertothestakeasawitch);theloyallittlechild;andsomefewothers.
Theverbalstyleoftheballads,liketheirspirit,isvigorousandsimple,generallyunpolishedandsometimesrough,
butoftenpowerfulwithitstersedramaticsuggestiveness.Theusual,thoughnottheonly,poeticformisthefour
linedstanzainlinesalternatelyoffourandthreestressesandrimingonlyinthesecondandfourthlines.Besides
therefrainswhichareperhapsarelicofcommunalcompositionandtheconventionalepithetswhichtheballads
sharewithepicpoetrytherearenumeroustraditionalballadexpressionsrathermeaninglessformulasandline
tags used only to complete the rime or meter, the common useful scrapbag reserve of these unpretentious
poets.ThelicenseofAngloSaxonpoetryinthenumberoftheunstressedsyllablesstillremains.Butitisevident
thattheexistingversionsoftheballadsaregenerallymoreimperfectthantheoriginalforms;theyhavesuffered
from the corruptions of generations of oral repetition, which the scholars who have recovered them have
preserved with necessary accuracy, but which for appreciative reading editors should so far as possible revise
away.

Amongthebestormostrepresentativesingleballadsare:TheHuntingoftheCheviot(otherwisecalledTheAncientBallad
ofChevyChaseclearlyofminstrelauthorship);SirPatrickSpens;RobinHoodandGuyofGisborne;AdamBell,Clymofthe
Clough,andWilliamofCloudeslee;CaptainCar,orEdomo'Gordon;KingEstmere(thoughthishasbeensomewhataltered
byBishopPercy,whohadanddestroyedtheonlysurvivingcopyofit);Edward,Edward;YoungWaters;SweetWilliam's
Ghost;LordThomasandFairAnnet.KinmontWillieisveryfine,butseemstobelargelytheworkofSirWalterScottand
thereforenottruly'popular.'

SirThomasMaloryandhis'MorteDarthur.'
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Theonefifteenthcenturyauthorofthefirstrank,abovereferredto,isSirThomasMalory(theaispronouncedasintally).
HeisprobablytobeidentifiedwiththeSirThomasMalorywhoduringthewarsinFranceandthecivilstrifeoftheRoses
thatfollowedwasanadherentoftheEarlsofWarwickandwhodiedin1471undersentenceofoutlawrybythevictorious
EdwardIV.Andsomepassingobservations,atleast,inhisbookseemtoindicatethatifheknewandhadsharedallthe
splendorandinspirationofthelastyearsofmedievalchivalry,hehadexperiencedalsothedisappointmentandbitterness
of defeat and prolonged captivity. Further than this we know of him only that he wrote 'Le Morte Darthur' and had
finisheditby1467.
Malory'spurposewastocollectinasingleworkthegreatbodyofimportantArthurianromanceandtoarrangeitinthe
formofacontinuoushistoryofKingArthurandhisknights.Hecalledhisbook'LeMorteDarthur,'TheDeathofArthur,
fromthetitleofseveralpopularArthurianromancestowhich,sincetheydealtonlywithArthur'slateryearsanddeath,it
wasproperlyenoughapplied,andfromwhichitseemstohavepassedintogeneralcurrencyasanamefortheentirestory
of Arthur's life. [Footnote: Since the French word 'Morte' is feminine, the preceding article was originally 'La,' but the
wholenamehadcometobethoughtofasacompoundphraseandhenceasmasculineorneuteringender.]Actuallyto
gettogetheralltheArthurianromanceswasnotpossibleforanymaninMalory'sday,orinanyother,buthegatheredup
agoodlynumber,mostofthem,atleast,writteninFrench,andcombinedthem,onthewholewithunusualskill,intoa
workofaboutonetenththeiroriginalbulk,whichstillranks,withallqualifications,asoneofthemasterpiecesofEnglish
literature.Dealingwithsuchmiscellaneousmaterial,hecouldnotwhollyavoidinconsistencies,sothat,forexample,he
sometimes introduces in full health in a later book a knight whom a hundred pages earlier he had killed and regularly
buried;butthisneednotcausethereaderanythingworsethanmildamusement.NotMalorybuthisage,also,istoblame
forhissometimeshazyandpuzzledtreatmentofthesupernaturalelementinhismaterial.Intheremoteearliestformof
the stories, as Celtic myths, this supernatural element was no doubt frank and very large, but Malory's authorities, the
moreskepticalFrenchromancers,adaptingittotheirownage,hadoftenmoreorlessfullyrationalizedit;transforming,
forinstance,theblackriverofDeathwhichtheoriginalheroesoftenhadtocrossonjourneystotheCelticOtherWorld
into a rude and forbidding moat about the hostile castle into which the romancers degraded the Other World itself.
Countless magic details, however, still remained recalcitrant to such treatment; and they evidently troubled Malory,
whose devotion to his story was earnest and sincere. Some of them he omits, doubtless as incredible, but others he
retains,ofteninaformwheretheimpossibleismerelygarbledintotheunintelligible.Forasingleinstance,inhisseventh
bookhedoesnotsatisfactorilyexplainwhythevaliantGarethonhisarrivalatArthur'scourtasksatfirstonlyforayear's
foodanddrink.Intheoriginalstory,wecanseetoday,Garethmusthavebeenunderawitch'sspellwhichcompelledhim
toaseasonofdistastefulservitude;butthismotivatingbitofsuperstitionMalorydiscards,orrather,inthiscase,ithad
beenlostfromthestoryatamuchearlierstage.Itresults,therefore,thatMalory'ssupernaturalincidentsareoftenfar
fromclearandsatisfactory;yetthereaderislittletroubledbythisdifficultyeitherinsothoroughlyromanticawork.
OthertechnicalfaultsmayeasilybepointedoutinMalory'sbook.Thoroughunity,eitherinthewholeorintheseparate
storiessolooselywoventogether,couldnotbeexpected;incontinualreadingthelongsuccessionofsimilarcombatafter
combatandtheconstantrepetitionofstereotypedphrasesbecomemonotonousforapresentdayreader;anditmustbe
confessedthatMaloryhaslittleofthemodernliterarycraftsman'spowerofcloseknitstyleorproportionandemphasisin
details. But these faults also may be overlooked, and the work is truly great, partly because it is an idealist's dream of
chivalry,aschivalrymighthavebeen,achivalryoffaithfulknightswhowentaboutredressinghumanwrongsandwere
loyalloversandzealousservantsofHolyChurch;greatalsobecauseMalory'sheartisinhisstories,sothathetellsthemin
themainwell,andinveststhemwithadelightfulatmosphereofromancewhichcanneverloseitsfascination.
Thestyle,also,inthenarrowersense,isstrongandgood,anddoesitsparttomakethebook,exceptfortheWiclifBible,
unquestionably the greatest monument of English prose of the entire period before the sixteenth century. There is no
affectationofelegance,butratherknightlystraightforwardnesswhichhaspowerwithoutlackofease.Thesentencesare
oftenlong,butalways'loose'andclear;andshortonesareoftenusedwiththeinstinctiveskillofsincerity.Everythingis
picturesqueanddramaticandeverywherethereischivalrousfeelingandgenuinehumansympathy.

WilliamCaxtonandtheintroductionofprintingtoEngland,1476
Malory'sbookisthefirstgreatEnglishclassicwhichwasgiventotheworldinprintinsteadofwrittenmanuscript;forit
was shortly after Malory's death that the printing press was brought to England by William Caxton. The invention of
printing, perhaps the most important event of modern times, took place in Germany not long after the middle of the
fifteenthcentury,andthedevelopmentoftheartwasrapid.Caxton,ashrewdandenterprisingKentishman,wasbyfirst
profession a cloth merchant, and having taken up his residence across the Channel, was appointed by the king to the
important post of Governor of the English Merchants in Flanders. Employed later in the service of the Duchess of
Burgundy (sister of Edward IV), his ardent delight in romances led him to translate into English a French 'Recueil des
HistoiresdeTroye'(CollectionoftheTroyStories).Tosupplythelargedemandforcopiesheinvestigatedandmastered

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the new art by which they might be so wonderfully multiplied and about 1475, at fifty years of age, set up a press at
Bruges in the modern Belgium, where he issued his 'Recueil,' which was thus the first English book ever put into print.
Duringthenextyear,1476,justacenturybeforethefirsttheaterwastobebuiltinLondon,CaxtonreturnedtoEngland
andestablishedhisshopinWestminster,thenaLondonsuburb.Duringthefifteenremainingyearsofhislifehelabored
diligently,printinganaggregateofmorethanahundredbooks,whichtogethercomprisedoverfourteenthousandpages.
Aside from Malory's romance, which he put out in 1485, the most important of his publications was an edition of
Chaucer's'CanterburyTales.'WhilelaboringasapublisherCaxtonhimselfcontinuedtomaketranslations,andinspiteof
many difficulties he, together with his assistants, turned into English from French no fewer than twentyone distinct
works.FromeverypointofviewCaxton'sservicesweregreat.Astranslatorandeditorhisstyleiscarelessanduncertain,
butlikeMalory'sitissincereandmanly,andvitalwithenergyandenthusiasm.Asprinter,inatimeofrapidchangesinthe
language,whenthroughthewarsinFranceandhergrowinginfluencethesecondgreatinfusionofLatinFrenchwordswas
comingintotheEnglishlanguage,hedidwhatcouldbedoneforconsistencyinformsandspelling.Partlymedievaland
partlymoderninspirit,hemayfittinglystandattheclose,ornearlyattheclose,ofourstudyofthemedievalperiod.

TheMedievalDrama
For the sake of clearness we have reserved for a separate chapter the discussion of the drama of the whole medieval
period,which,thoughitdidnotreachaveryhighliterarylevel,wasoneofthemostcharacteristicexpressionsoftheage.
Itshouldbeemphasizedthattonootherformdoeswhatwehavesaidofthesimilarityofmedievalliteraturethroughout
WesternEuropeapplymoreclosely,sothatwhatwefindtrueofthedramainEnglandwouldforthemostpartholdgood
fortheothercountriesaswell.

Jugglers,FolkPlays,Pageants.
AtthefalloftheRomanEmpire,whichmarksthebeginningoftheMiddleAges,thecorruptRomandrama,proscribedby
theChurch,hadcometoanunhonoredend,andtheactorshadbeenmergedintothegreatbodyofdisreputablejugglers
andinferiorminstrelswhowanderedoverallChristendom.Theperformancesofthesesocialoutcasts,crudeandimmoral
astheywere,continuedforcenturiesunsuppressed,becausetheyrespondedtothedemandfordramaticspectaclewhich
isoneofthedeepestthoughnotleasttroublesomeinstinctsinhumannature.Thesamedemandwaspartlysatisfiedalso
by the rude country folkplays, survivals of primitive heathen ceremonials, performed at such festival occasions as the
harvest season, which in all lands continue to flourish among the country people long after their original meaning has
beenforgotten.InEnglandthefolkplays,throughouttheMiddleAgesandinremotespotsdownalmosttothepresent
time, sometimes took the form of energetic dances (Morris dances, they came to be called, through confusion with
Moorishperformancesofthesamegeneralnature).Othersofthem,however,exhibitedinthemidstofmuchroughand
tumblefightingandbuffoonery,aslightthreadofdramaticaction.Theircharactersgraduallycametobeaconventional
set,partlyfamousfiguresofpopulartradition,suchasSt.George,RobinHood,MaidMarian,andtheGreenDragon.Other
offshootsofthefolkplaywerethe'mummings'and'disguisings,'collectivenamesformanyformsofprocessions,shows,
andotherentertainments,suchas,amongtheupperclasses,thatprecursoroftheElizabethanMaskinwhichagroupof
personsindisguise,invitedoruninvited,attendedaformaldancingparty.InthelaterpartoftheMiddleAges,also,there
were the secular pageants, spectacular displays (rather different from those of the twentieth century) given on such
occasions as when a king or other person of high rank made formal entry into a town. They consisted of an elaborate
scenic background set up near the city gate or on the street, with figures from allegorical or traditional history who
engagedinsomepantomimeordeclamation,butwithverylittledramaticdialog,ornone.

Tropes,LiturgicalPlays,andMysteryPlays.
Butalltheseforms,thoughtheywerenotaltogetherwithoutlaterinfluence,wereveryminoraffairs,andtherealdrama
oftheMiddleAgesgrewup,withoutdesignandbythemerenatureofthings,fromtheregularservicesoftheChurch.
Wemusttryinthefirstplacetorealizeclearlytheconditionsunderwhichthechurchservice,themass,wasconducted
during all the medieval centuries. We should picture to ourselves congregations of persons for the most part grossly
ignorant,ofunquestioningthoughverysuperficialfaith,andofemotionseasilyarousedtofeverheat.OftheLatinwords
oftheservicetheyunderstoodnothing;andoftheBiblestorytheyhadonlyaverygeneralimpression.Itwasnecessary,
therefore,thattheserviceshouldbegivenastronglyspectacularandemotionalcharacter,andtothisendnoeffortwas
spared. The great cathedrals and churches were much the finest buildings of the time, spacious with lofty pillars and
shadowyrecesses,richinsculpturedstoneandinpaintedwindowsthatcastonthewallsandpavementssoftandglowing
patternsofmanycolorsandshiftingforms.Theserviceitselfwasingreatpartmusical,theconfidentnotesofthefullchoir
joiningwiththeresonantorgantones;andafteralltheresttherichlyrobedpriestsandministrantspassedalongtheaisles
in stately processions enveloped in fragrant clouds of incense. That the eye if not the ear of the spectator, also, might

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catchsomedefiniteknowledge,thepriestsastheyreadtheBiblestoriessometimesdisplayedpaintedrollswhichvividly
picturedtheprincipaleventsoftheday'slesson.
Still,however,alackwasstronglyfelt,andatlast,accidentallyandslowly,begantheprocessofdramatizingtheservices.
First,inevitably,tobesotreatedwasthecentralincidentofChristianfaith,thestoryofChrist'sresurrection.Theearliest
stepswereverysimple.First,duringtheceremoniesonGoodFriday,thedaywhenChristwascrucified,thecrosswhich
stood all the year above the altar, bearing the Savior's figure, was taken down and laid beneath the altar, a dramatic
symboloftheDeathandBurial;andtwodayslater,on'thethirdday'oftheBiblephraseology,thatisonEasterSunday,as
thestoryoftheResurrectionwaschantedbythechoir,thecrosswasuncoveredandreplaced,amidtherejoicingsofthe
congregation.Next,andbeforetheNormanConquest,theGospeldialogbetweentheangelandthethreeMarysatthe
tombofChristcamesometimestobechantedbythechoirinthoseresponseswhicharecalled'tropes':
'Whomseekyeinthesepulcher,OChristians?''JesusofNazareththecrucified,Oangel.''Heisnothere;hehasarisenas
hesaid.Go,announcethathehasrisenfromthesepulcher.'Afterthisalittledramaticactionwasintroducedalmostasa
matterofcourse.Onepriestdressedinwhiterobessat,torepresenttheangel,byoneofthesquarebuilttombsnearthe
junctionofnaveandtransept,andthreeothers,personatingtheMarys,advancedslowlytowardhimwhiletheychanted
theirportionofthesamedialog.Asthelastmomentouswordsoftheangeldiedawayajubilant'TeDeum'burstfrom,
organ and choir, and every member of the congregation exulted, often with sobs, in the great triumph which brought
salvationtoeveryChristiansoul.
Little by little, probably, as time passed, this Easter scene was further enlarged, in part by additions from the closing
incidents of the Savior's life. A similar treatment, too, was being given to the Christmas scene, still more humanly
beautiful, of his birth in the manger, and occasionally the two scenes might be taken from their regular places in the
service, combined, and presented at any season of the year. Other Biblical scenes, as well, came to be enacted, and,
further,therewereaddedstoriesfromChristiantradition,suchasthatofAntichrist,and,ontheirparticulardays,thelives
ofChristiansaints.ThusfarthesecompositionsarecalledLiturgicalPlays,becausetheyformed,ingeneral,apartofthe
churchservice(liturgy).Butassomeofthemwereunitedintoextendedgroupsandastheinterestofthecongregation
deepened,thechurchesbegantoseemtoosmallandinconvenient,theexcitedaudiencesforgottheproperreverence,
andtheperformancesweretransferredtothechurchyard,andthen,whenthegravestonesprovedtroublesome,tothe
market place, the villagegreen, or any convenient field. By this time the people had ceased to be patient with the
unintelligible Latin, and it was replaced at first, perhaps,and inpart, by French, butfinally by English; though probably
verse was always retained as more appropriate than prose to the sacred subjects. Then, the religious spirit yielding
inevitablyinparttothatofmerrymaking,minstrelsandmountebanksbegantoflocktothecelebrations;andregularfairs,
even, grew up about them. Gradually, too, the priests lost their hold even on the plays themselves; skilful actors from
amongthelaymenbegantotakemanyoftheparts;andatlastinsometownsthetradeguilds,orunionsofthevarious
handicrafts,whichhadsecuredcontrolofthetowngovernments,assumedentirecharge.
Thesechanges,veryslowlycreepingin,onebyone,hadcomeaboutinmostplacesbythebeginningofthefourteenth
century. In 1311 a new impetus was given to the whole ceremony by the establishment of the late spring festival of
CorpusChristi,acelebrationofthedoctrineoftransubstantiation.Onthisoccasion,orsometimesonsomeotherfestival,
it became customary for the guilds to present an extended series of the plays, a series which together contained the
essential substance of the Christian story, and therefore of the Christian faith. The Church generally still encouraged
attendance,andnotonlydidallthetownspeoplejoinwholeheartedly,butfromallthecountryroundthepeasantsflocked
in. On one occasion the Pope promised the remission of a thousand days of purgatory to all persons who should be
presentattheChesterplays,andtothisexemptionthebishopofChesteraddedsixtydaysmore.
Thelistofplaysthuspresentedcommonlyincluded:TheFallofLucifer;theCreationoftheWorldandtheFallofAdam;
NoahandtheFlood;AbrahamandIsaacandthepromiseofChrist'scoming;aProcessionoftheProphets,alsoforetelling
Christ;themaineventsoftheGospelstory,withsomeadditionsfromChristiantradition;andtheDayofJudgment.The
longestcyclenowknown,thatatYork,contained,whenfullydeveloped,fiftyplays,orperhapsevenmore.Generallyeach
playwaspresentedbyasingleguild(thoughsometimestwoorthreeguildsortwoorthreeplaysmightbecombined),and
sometimes, though not always, there was a special fitness in the assignment, as when the watermen gave the play of
Noah'sArkorthebakersthatoftheLastSupper.InthisconnectedformtheplaysarecalledtheMysteryorMiracleCycles.
[Footnote: 'Miracle' was themedieval word inEngland;'Mystery'has been takenby recent scholars from the medieval
French usage. It is not connected with our usual word 'mystery,' but possibly is derived from the Latin 'ministerium,'
'function,'whichwasthenameappliedtothetradeguildasanorganizationandfromwhichourtitle'Mr.'alsocomes.]In
manyplaces,however,detachedplays,orgroupsofplayssmallerthanthefullcycles,continuedtobepresentedatone
seasonoranother.

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Eachcycleasawhole,itwillbeseen,hasanaturalepicunity,centeringaboutthemajesticthemeofthespiritualhistory
andthefinaljudgmentofallMankind.Butunitybothofmaterialandofatmospheresuffersnotonlyfromthediversity
amongtheseparateplaysbutalsofromtheviolentintrusionofthecomedyandthefarcewhichthecoarsetasteofthe
audiencedemanded.Sometimes,inthelaterperiod,altogetheroriginalandveryrealisticscenesfromactualEnglishlife
were added, like the veryclever but verycoarse parody on theNativity play in the'Towneley'cycle. More often comic
treatment was given to the Bible scenes and characters themselves. Noah's wife, for example, came regularly to be
presentedasashrew,whowouldnotenterthearkuntilshehadbeenbeatenintosubmission;andHerodalwaysappears
asablusteringtyrant,whosefamestillsurvivesinaproverbofShakespeare'scoinage'tooutHerodHerod.'
Themannerofpresentationofthecyclesvariedmuchindifferenttowns.Sometimestheentirecyclewasstillgiven,like
thedetachedplays,atasinglespot,themarketplaceorsomeothercentralsquare;butoften,toaccommodatethegreat
crowds, there were several 'stations' at convenient intervals. In the latter case each play might remain all day at a
particularstationandbecontinuouslyrepeatedasthecrowdmovedslowlyby;butmoreoftenitwasthe,spectatorswho
remained,andtheplays,mountedonmovablestages,the'pageant'wagons,weredrawninturnbytheguildapprentices
fromonestationtoanother.Whentheaudiencewasstationary,thecommonpeoplestoodinthesquareonallsidesof
the stage, while persons of higher rank or greater means were seated on temporary wooden scaffolds or looked down
fromthewindowsoftheadjacenthouses.Intheconstructionofthe'pageant'allthelittlethatwaspossiblewasdoneto
meettheneedsofthepresentation.Belowthemainfloor,orstage,wasthecurtaineddressingroomoftheactors;and
whentheplayrequired,ononesidewasattached'HellMouth,'agreatandhorriblehumanhead,whenceissuedflames
andfiendishcries,oftenthefiendsthemselves,andintowhichlostsinnerswereviolentlyhurled.Onthestagethescenery
was necessarily very simple. A small raised platform or pyramid might represent Heaven, where God the Father was
seated,andfromwhichastheactionrequiredtheangelscamedown;asingletreemightindicatetheGardenofEden;and
adoorwayanentirehouse.Inpartialcompensationthecostumeswereoftenelaborate,withallthefineryofthechurch
wardrobe and much of those of the wealthy citizens. The expense accounts of the guilds, sometimes luckily preserved,
furnish many picturesque and amusing items, such as these: 'Four pair of angels' wings, 2 shillings and 8 pence.' 'For
mendingofhellhead,6pence.''Item,linkforsettingtheworldonfire.'Apparentlywomenneveracted;menandboys
tookthewomen'sparts.Alltheplaysofthecyclewerecommonlyperformedinasingleday,beginning,atthefirststation,
perhapsasearlyasfiveo'clockinthemorning;butsometimesthreedaysorevenmorewereemployed.Totheguildsthe
givingoftheplayswasaveryseriousmatter.Ofteneachguildhada'pageanthouse'whereitstoredits'properties,'anda
pageantmasterwhotrainedtheactorsandimposedsubstantialfinesonmembersremissincooperation.
We have said that the plays were always composed in verse. The stanza forms employed differ widely even within the
same cycle, since the single plays were very diverse in both authorship and dates. The quality of the verse, generally
mediocre at the outset, has often suffered much in transmission from generation to generation. In other respects also
therearegreatcontrasts;sometimesthefeelingandpowerofasceneareadmirable,revealinganauthorofrealability,
sometimesthereisonlycrudeandwoodenamateurishness.Themedievallackofhistoricsensegivestoalltheplaysthe
settingoftheauthors'owntimes;Romanofficersappearasfeudalknights;andalltheheathens(includingtheJews)are
Saracens, worshippers of 'Mahound' and 'Termagaunt'; while the good characters, however long they may really have
livedbeforetheChristianera,swearstoutlybySt.JohnandSt.PaulandtheothermedievalChristiandivinities.Thefrank
coarsenessoftheplaysisoftenmerelydisgusting,andsuggestshowsuperficial,inmostcases,wasthemedievalreligious
sense.Withnothoughtofincongruity,too,thesewritersbroughtGodtheFatherontothestageinbodilyform,andthen,
attempting in all sincerity to show him reverence, gilded his face and put into his mouth long speeches of exceedingly
tediousdeclamation.Thewholeemphasis,asgenerallyinthereligionofthetimes,wasonthefearofhellratherthanon
theloveofrighteousness.Yetinspiteofeverythinggrotesqueandinconsistent,theplaysnodoubtlargelyfulfilledtheir
religiouspurposeandexercisedonthewholeanelevatinginfluence.ThehumblesubmissionoftheboyIsaactothewillof
God and of his earthly father, the yearning devotion of Mary the mother of Jesus, and the infinite love and pity of the
torturedChristhimself,musthavestruckintoevencallousheartsforatleastalittletimesomegenuineconsciousnessof
the beauty and power of the finer and higher life. A literary form which supplied much of the religious and artistic
nourishmentofhalfacontinentforhalfathousandyearscannotbelightlyregardedordismissed.

TheMoralityPlays.
The Mystery Plays seem to have reached their greatest popularity in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. In the
dawninglightoftheRenaissanceandthemodernspirittheygraduallywaned,thoughinexceptionalplacesandinspecial
revivalstheydidnotaltogetherceasetobegivenuntiltheseventeenthcentury.OntheContinentofEurope,indeed,they
still survive, after a fashion, in a single somewhat modernized form, the celebrated Passion Play of Oberammergau. In
Englandbytheendofthefifteenthcenturytheyhadbeenforthemostpartreplacedbyakindredspecieswhichhadlong
beengrowingupbesidethem,namelytheMoralityPlays.

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TheMoralityPlayprobablyaroseinpartfromthedesireofreligiouswriterstoteachtheprinciplesofChristianlivingina
more direct and compact fashion than was possible through the Bible stories of the Mysteries. In its strict form the
MoralityPlaywasadramatizedmoralallegory.ItwasinpartanoffshootfromtheMysteries,insomeofwhichtherehad
appearedamongtheactorsabstractallegoricalfigures,eithergoodorbad,suchasTheSevenDeadlySins,Contemplation,
and RaiseSlander. In the Moralities the majority of the characters are of this sortthough not to the exclusion of
supernaturalpersonssuchasGodandtheDevilandtheheroisgenerallyatypefigurestandingforallMankind.Forthe
control of the hero the two definitely opposing groups of Virtues and Vices contend; the commonest type of Morality
presents in brief glimpses the entire story of the hero's life, that is of the life of every man. It shows how he yields to
temptation and lives for the most part in reckless sin, but at last in spite of all his flippancy and folly is saved by
PerseveranceandRepentance,pardonedthroughGod'smercy,andassuredofsalvation.Ascomparedwiththeusualtype
ofMysteryplaystheMoralitieshadforthewritersthisadvantage,thattheyallowedsomeindependenceintheinvention
ofthestory;andhowpowerfultheymightbemadeinthehandsofareallygiftedauthorhasbeenfinelydemonstratedin
ourowntimebythestagerevivalofthebestofthem,'Everyman'(whichisprobablyatranslationfromaDutchoriginal).
Inmostcases,however,thespiritofmedievalallegoryprovedfatal,thegenuinelyabstractcharactersaremostlyshadowy
andunreal,andthespeechesoftheVirtuesareextremeexamplesofintolerablesanctimoniousdeclamation.Againstthis
tendency,ontheotherhand,thepersistentinstinctforrealismprovidedapartialantidote;theVicesareoftenverylifelike
rascals, abstract only in name. In these cases the whole plays become vivid studies in contemporary low life, largely
human and interesting except for their prolixity and the coarseness which they inherited from the Mysteries and
multiplied on their own account. During the Reformation period, in the early sixteenth century, the character of the
Moralities, more strictly so called, underwent something of a change, and they weresometimes made the vehicle for
religiousargument,especiallybyProtestants.

TheInterludes.
Earlyinthesixteenthcentury,theMoralityinitsturnwaslargelysupersededbyanothersortofplaycalledtheInterlude.
ButjustasinthecaseoftheMysteryandtheMorality,theInterludedevelopedoutoftheMorality,andthetwocannot
alwaysbedistinguished,somesingleplaysbeingdistinctlydescribedbytheauthorsas'MoralInterludes.'IntheInterludes
therealismoftheMoralitiesbecamestillmorepronounced,sothatthetypicalInterludeisnothingmorethanacoarse
farce, with no pretense at religious or ethical meaning. The name Interlude denotes literally 'a play between,' but the
meaning intended between whom or what) is uncertain. The plays were given sometimes in the halls of nobles and
gentlemen,eitherwhenbanquetswereinprogressoronotherfestivaloccasions;sometimesbeforelessselectaudiences
inthetownhallsoronvillagegreens.Theactorsweresometimesstrollingcompaniesofplayers,whomightbeminstrels
'orrustics,andweresometimesalsoretainersofthegreatnobles,allowedtopracticetheirdramaticabilityontoursabout
thecountrywhentheywerenotneededfortheirmasters'entertainment.IntheInterludeMoralitiesandInterludesfirst
appearsTheVice,aroguewhosumsupinhimselfalltheVicesoftheolderMoralitiesandservesasthebuffoon.Oneof
hismostpopularexploitswastobelabortheDevilaboutthestagewithawoodendagger,ahabitwhichtookagreathold
onthepopularimagination,asnumerousreferencesinlaterliteraturetestify.Transformedbytime,theViceappearsin
theElizabethandrama,andthereafter,astheclown.

ThelaterinfluenceoftheMedievalDrama.
Thevariousdramaticformsfromthetenthcenturytothemiddleofthesixteenthatwhichwehavethushastilyglanced
folkplays, mummings and disguisings, secular pageants, Mystery plays, Moralities, and Interludeshave little but a
historical importance. But besides demonstrating the persistence of the popular demand for drama, they exerted a
permanentinfluenceinthattheyformedcertainstagetraditionswhichweretomodifyorlargelycontrolthegreatdrama
oftheElizabethanperiodandtosomeextentoflatertimes.Amongthesetraditionswerethedisregardforunity,partlyof
action, but especially of time and place; the mingling of comedy with even the intensest scenes of tragedy; the nearly
complete lack of stage scenery, with a resultant willingness in the audience to make the largest possible imaginative
assumptions;thepresenceofcertainstockfigures,suchastheclown;andthepresentationofwomen'spartsbymenand
boys.Theplays,therefore,mustbereckonedwithindramatichistory.

TheSixteenthCentury.TheRenaissanceandtheReignofElizabeth
TheRenaissance
ThefifteenthandsixteenthcenturiesaretheperiodoftheEuropeanRenaissanceorNewBirth,oneofthethreeorfour
great transforming movements of European history. This impulse by which the medieval society of scholasticism,
feudalism,andchivalrywastobemadeoverintowhatwecallthemodernworldcamefirstfromItaly.Italy,liketherestof

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the Roman Empire, had been overrun and conquered in the fifth century by the barbarian Teutonic tribes, but the
devastation had been less complete there than in the more northern lands, and there, even more, perhaps, than in
France,thebulkofthepeopleremainedLatininbloodandincharacter.HenceitresultedthatthoughtheMiddleAges
wereinItalyaperiodofterriblepoliticalanarchy,yetItalianculturerecoveredfarmorerapidlythanthatofthenorthern
nations,whomtheItalianscontinueddowntothemodernperiodtoregardcontemptuouslyasstillmerebarbarians.By
thefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies,further,theItalianshadbecomeintellectuallyoneofthekeenestraceswhomthe
worldhaseverknown,thoughinmoralstheyweresinkingtoalmostincrediblecorruption.Alreadyinfourteenthcentury
Italy,therefore,themovementforamuchfullerandfreerintellectuallifehadbegun,andwehaveseenthatbyPetrarch
andBoccacciosomethingofthisspiritwastransmittedtoChaucer.InEnglandChaucerwasfollowedbythemedievalizing
fifteenthcentury,butinItalytherewasnosuchinterruption.
The Renaissance movement first received definite direction from the rediscovery and study of Greek literature, which
clearlyrevealedtheunboundedpossibilitiesoflifetomenwhohadbeengropingdissatisfiedwithinthenownarrowlimits
ofmedievalthought.BeforeChaucerwasdeadthestudyofGreek,almostforgotteninWesternEuropeduringtheMiddle
Ages,hadbeenrenewedinItaly,anditreceivedastillfurtherimpulsewhenatthetakingofConstantinoplebytheTurksin
1453GreekscholarsandmanuscriptswerescatteredtotheWest.Itishardforustodaytorealizethemeaningforthe
menofthefifteenthcenturyofthisrevivedknowledgeofthelifeandthoughtoftheGreekrace.ThemedievalChurch,at
firstmerelyfromthebrutalnecessitiesofaperiodofanarchy,hadforthemostpartfrownedonthejoyandbeautyoflife,
permittingpleasure,indeed,tothelaity,butasathinghalfdangerous,anddeclaringthattherewasperfectsafetyonly
withinthewallsofthenominallyasceticChurchitself.Theintellectuallife,also,nearlyrestrictedtopriestsandmonks,had
been formalized and conventionalized, until in spite of the keenness of its methods and the brilliancy of many of its
scholars,ithadbecomelargelybarrenandunprofitable.Thewholesphereofknowledgehadbeensubjectedtothemere
authorityoftheBibleandofafewgreatmindsofthepast,suchasAristotle.Allquestionswerearguedanddecidedonthe
basisoftheirassertions,whichhadoftenbecomewhollyinadequateandwereoftenwarpedintogrotesquelyimpossible
interpretations and applications. Scientific investigation was almost entirely stifled, and progress was impossible. The
wholefieldofreligionandknowledgehadbecomelargelystagnantunderanarbitrarydespotism.
To the minds which were being paralyzed under this system, Greek literature brought the inspiration for which they
longed.Foritwastheliteratureofagreatandbrilliantpeoplewho,farfromattemptingtomakeadivorcewithinman's
nature,hadaimedto'seelifesteadilyandseeitwhole,'who,givingfreeplaytoalltheirpowers,hadfoundinpleasure
andbeautysomeofthemostessentialconstructiveforces,andhadembodiedbeautyinworksofliteratureandartwhere
thesignificanceofthewholespirituallifewasmoresplendidlysuggestedthanintheachievementsofany,oralmostany,
otherperiod.Theenthusiasm,therefore,withwhichtheItaliansturnedtothestudyofGreekliteratureandGreeklifewas
boundless,anditconstantlyfoundfreshnourishment.Everyyearrestoredfromforgottenrecessesoflibrariesorfromthe
ruins of Roman villas another Greek author or volume or work of art, and those which had never been lost were
reinterpreted with much deeper insight. Aristotle was again vitalized, and Plato's noble idealistic philosophy was once
more appreciatively studied and understood. In the light of this new revelation Latin literature, also, which had never
ceasedtobealmostsuperstitiouslystudied,tookonafargreaterhumansignificance.VergilandCicerowereregardedno
longerasmysteriousprophetsfromadimlyimaginedpast,butasrealmenoffleshandblood,speakingoutofexperiences
remoteintimefromthepresentbutnolesshumanlyreal.Theword'human,'indeed,becamethechosenmottoofthe
Renaissancescholars;'humanists'wasthetitlewhichtheyappliedtothemselvesastomenforwhom'nothinghumanwas
withoutappeal.'Newcreativeenthusiasm,also,andmagnificentactualnewcreation,followedthediscoveryoftheold
treasures, creation in literature and all the arts; culminating particularly in the early sixteenth century in the greatest
groupofpainterswhomanycountryhaseverseen,LionardodaVinci,Raphael,andMichelangelo.InItaly,tobesure,the
light of the Renaissance had its palpable shadow; in breaking away from the medieval bondage into the unhesitating
enjoymentofallpleasure,thehumaniststoooftenoverleapedallrestraintsandplungedintowildexcess,oftenintomere
sensuality.HencetheItalianRenaissanceiscommonlycalledPagan,andhencewhenyoungEnglishnoblesbegantotravel
toItalytodrinkatthefountainheadofthenewinspirationmoralistsathomeprotestedwithmuchreasonagainstthe
ideas and habits which many of them brought back with their new clothes and flaunted as evidences of intellectual
emancipation. History, however, shows no great progressive movement unaccompanied by exaggerations and
extravagances.
TheRenaissance,penetratingnorthward,pastfirstfromItalytoFrance,butasearlyasthemiddleofthefifteenthcentury
EnglishstudentswerefrequentingtheItalianuniversities.SoonthestudyofGreekwasintroducedintoEngland,also,first
atOxford;anditwascultivatedwithsuchgoodresultsthatwhen,earlyinthesixteenthcentury,thegreatDutchstudent
and reformer, Erasmus, unable through poverty to reach Italy, came to Oxford instead, he found there a group of
accomplishedscholarsandgentlemenwhoseinstructionandhospitablecompanionshiparousedhisunboundeddelight.
OnememberofthisgroupwasthefinespiritedJohnColet,laterDeanofSt.Paul'sCathedralinLondon,whowastobring
newlifeintothesecondaryeducationofEnglishboysbytheestablishmentofSt.Paul'sGrammarSchool,basedonthe
principleofkindnessinplaceofthemercilessseverityofthetraditionalEnglishsystem.

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Greataswasthestimulusofliteraryculture,itwasonlyoneofseveralinfluencesthatmadeuptheRenaissance.While
Greekwasspeakingsopowerfullytothecultivatedclass,otherforceswerecontributingtorevolutionizelifeasawhole
andallmen'soutlookuponit.Theinventionofprinting,multiplyingbooksinunlimitedquantitieswherebeforetherehad
beenonlyafewmanuscriptslaboriouslycopiedpagebypage,absolutelytransformedalltheprocessesofknowledgeand
almost of thought. Not much later began the vast expansion of the physical world through geographical exploration.
TowardtheendofthefifteenthcenturythePortuguesesailor,VascodaGama,finishingtheworkofDiaz,discoveredthe
searoutetoIndiaaroundtheCapeofGoodHope.AfewyearsearlierColumbushadrevealedtheNewWorldandvirtually
proved that the earth is round, a proof scientifically completed a generation after him when Magellan's ship actually
circledtheglobe.FollowingcloseafterColumbus,theCabots,Italianborn,butnaturalizedEnglishmen,discoveredNorth
America,andforahundredyearstherivalshipsofSpain,England,andPortugalfilledthewatersofthenewWestandthe
new East. In America handfuls of Spanish adventurers conquered great empires and despatched home annual treasure
fleets of gold and silver, which the audacious English seacaptains, half explorers and half pirates, soon learned to
interceptandplunder.Themarvelswhichwereconstantlybeingrevealedasactualfactsseemednolesswonderfulthan
theextravagancesofmedievalromance;anditwasscarcelymorethanamatterofcoursethatmenshouldsearchinthe
newstrangelandsforthefountainofperpetualyouthandthephilosopher'sstone.Thesupernaturalbeingsandeventsof
Spenser's'FaerieQueene'couldscarcelyseemincredibletoanagewhereincredulitywasalmostunknownbecauseitwas
impossibletosetaboundhowfaranyonemightreasonablybelieve.Butthehorizonofman'sexpandedknowledgewas
not to be limited even to his own earth. About the year 1540, the Polish Copernicus opened a still grander realm of
speculation(nottobeadequatelypossessedforseveralcenturies)bytheannouncementthatourworldisnotthecenter
oftheuniverse,butmerelyoneofthesatellitesofitsfarsuperiorsun.
ThewholeofEnglandwasprofoundlystirredbytheRenaissancetoanewandmostenergeticlife,butnotleastwasthis
trueoftheCourt,whereforatimeliteraturewasverylargelytocenter.Sincetheoldnobilityhadmostlyperishedinthe
wars,bothHenryVII,thefounderoftheTudorline,andhisson,HenryVIII,adoptedthepolicyofreplacingitwithableand
wealthymenofthemiddleclass,whowouldbestronglydevotedtothemselves.Thecourtthereforebecameabrilliant
and crowded circle of unscrupulous but unusually adroit statesmen, and a center of lavish entertainments and display.
Under this new aristocracy the rigidity of the feudal system was relaxed, and life became somewhat easier for all the
dependentclasses.Moderncomforts,too,werelargelyintroduced,andwiththemtheItalianarts;Tudorarchitecture,in
particular, exhibited the originality and splendor of an energetic and selfconfident age. Further, both Henries, though
perhaps as essentially selfish and tyrannical as almost any of their predecessors, were politic and farsighted, and they
tookagenuineprideintheprosperityoftheirkingdom.Theyencouragedtrade;andinthepeacewhichwastheirbestgift
thewellbeingofthenationasawholeincreasedbyleapsandbounds.

TheReformation
Lastly, the literature of the sixteenth century and later was profoundly influenced by that religious result of the
Renaissance which we know as the Reformation. While in Italy the new impulses were chiefly turned into secular and
often corrupt channels, in the Teutonic lands they deeply stirred the Teutonic conscience. In 1517 Martin Luther,
protesting against the unprincipled and flippant practices that were disgracing religion, began the breach between
Catholicism, with its insistence on the supremacy of the Church, and Protestantism, asserting the independence of the
individualjudgment.InEnglandLuther'sactionrevivedthespiritofLollardism,whichhadnearlybeencrushedout,andin
spiteofaminoritydevotedtotheoldersystem,thenationasawholebegantomoverapidlytowardchange.Advocatesof
radicalrevolutionthrustthemselvesforwardinlargenumbers,whileculturedandthoughtfulmen,includingtheOxford
group,indulgedthetooidealhopeofagradualandpeacefulreform.
TheactualcourseofthereligiousmovementwasdeterminedlargelybythepersonalandpoliticalprojectsofHenryVIII.
Conservative at the outset, Henry even attacked Luther in a pamphlet, which won from the Pope for himself and his
successors the title 'Defender of the Faith.' But when the Pope finally refused Henry's demand for the divorce from
KatharineofSpain,whichwouldmakepossibleamarriagewithAnneBoleyn,Henryangrilythrewoffthepapalauthority
and declared himself the Supreme Head of the Church in England, thus establishing the separate English (Anglican,
Episcopal)church.InthebriefreignofHenry'sson,EdwardVI,theseparationwasmademoredecisive;underEdward's
sister,Mary,Catholicismwasrestored;butthelastofHenry'schildren,Elizabeth,comingtothethronein1558,gavethe
finalvictorytotheEnglishcommunion.Underallthesesovereigns(tocompleteoursummaryofthemovement)themore
radicalProtestants,Puritansastheycametobecalled,wereactiveinagitation,undeterredbyfrequentcruelpersecution
andlargelyinfluencedbythecorrespondingsectsinGermanyandbythePresbyterianismestablishedbyCalvininGeneva
andlaterbyJohnKnoxinScotland.Elizabeth'sskilfulmanagementlongkeptthemajorityofthePuritanswithintheEnglish
Church,wheretheyformedanimportantelement,workingforsimplerpracticesandintroducingthemincongregations
whichtheycontrolled.ButtowardtheendofthecenturyandofElizabeth'sreign,feelinggrewtenser,andgroupsofthe
Puritans, sometimes under persecution, definitely separated themselves from the State Church and established various
sectarianbodies.Shortlyafter1600,inparticular,theIndependents,orCongregationalists,foundedinHollandthechurch

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whichwassoontocolonizeNewEngland.Athome,underJamesI,thebreachwidened,untilthenationwasdividedinto
twohostilecamps,withresultsmostradicallydecisiveforliterature.Butforthepresentwemustreturntotheearlypart
ofthesixteenthcentury.

SirThomasMoreandhis'Utopia'
Outoftheconfusedandbitterstrifeofchurchesandparties,whiletheoutcomewasstilluncertain,issuedagreatmassof
controversialwritingwhichdoesnotbelongtoliterature.Afewworks,however,moreorlessdirectlyconnectedwiththe
religiousagitation,cannotbepassedby.
One of the most attractive and finest spirits of the reign of Henry VIII was Sir Thomas More. A member of the Oxford
group in its second generation, a close friend of Erasmus, his house a center of humanism, he became even more
conspicuousinpubliclife.Ahighlysuccessfullawyer,hewasrapidlyadvancedbyHenryVIIIincourtandinnationalaffairs,
untilonthefallofCardinalWolseyin1529hewasappointed,muchagainsthiswill,tothehighestofficeopentoasubject,
thatofLordChancellor(headofthejudicialsystem).AdevotedCatholic,hetookapartwhichmusthavebeenrevoltingto
himselfinthetorturingandburningofProtestants;buthisabsoluteloyaltytoconscienceshoweditselftobetterpurpose
wheninthealmostinevitablereverseoffortunehechoseharshimprisonmentanddeathratherthantotaketheformal
oathofallegiancetothekinginoppositiontothePope.Hisquietjestsonthescaffoldsuggesttheneverfailingsenseof
humor which was one sign of the completeness and perfect poise of his character; while the hairshirt which he wore
throughout his life and the severe penances to which he subjected himself reveal strikingly how the expression of the
deepestconvictionsofthebestnaturesmaybedeterminedbyinheritedandoutwornmodesofthought.
More'smostimportantworkwashis'Utopia,'publishedin1516.Thename,whichisGreek,meansNoPlace,andthebook
isoneofthemostfamousofthatseriesofattemptstooutlineanimaginaryidealconditionofsocietywhichbeginswith
Plato's'Republic'andhascontinuedtoourowntime.
'Utopia,'broadlyconsidered,dealsprimarilywiththequestionwhichiscommontomostofthesebooksandinwhichboth
ancientGreeceandEuropeoftheRenaissancetookaspecialinterest,namelythequestionoftherelationoftheStateand
theindividual.Itconsistsoftwoparts.InthefirstthereisavividpictureoftheterribleevilswhichEnglandwassuffering
through war, lawlessness, the wholesale and foolish application of the death penalty, the misery of the peasants, the
absorption of the land by the rich, and the other distressing corruptions in Church and State. In the second part, in
contrasttoallthis,acertainimaginaryRaphaelHythlodayedescribesthecustomsofUtopia,aremoteislandintheNew
World,towhichchancehascarriedhim.TosomeoftheidealsthussetforthMorecanscarcelyhaveexpectedtheworld
evertoattain;andsomeofthemwillhardlyappealtothemajorityofreadersofanyperiod;butinthemainhelaysdown
anadmirableprogramforhumanprogress,nosmallpartofwhichhasbeenactuallyrealizedinthefourcenturieswhich
havesinceelapsed.
ThecontrollingpurposeinthelifeoftheUtopiansistosecureboththewelfareoftheStateandthefulldevelopmentof
theindividualundertheascendancyofhishigherfaculties.TheStateisdemocratic,socialistic,andcommunistic,andthe
will of the individual is subordinated to the advantage of all, but the real interests of each and all are recognized as
identical.Everyoneisobligedtowork,butnottooverwork;sixhoursadaymaketheallottedperiod;andtherestofthe
timeisfree,butwithplentifulprovisionoflecturesandotheraidsfortheeducationofmindandspirit.Allthecitizensare
taughtthefundamentalart,thatofagriculture,andinadditioneachhasaparticulartradeorprofessionofhisown.There
isnosurfeit,excess,orostentation.Clothingismadefordurability,andeveryone'sgarmentsarepreciselylikethoseof
everyoneelse,exceptthatthereisadifferencebetweenthoseofmenandwomenandthoseofmarriedandunmarried
persons.Thesickarecarefullytended,butthevictimsofhopelessorpainfuldiseasearemercifullyputtodeathiftheyso
desire. Crime is naturally ata minimum, but those whopersist in it are made slaves (not executed, for why should the
State be deprived of their services?). Detesting war, the Utopians make a practice of hiring certain barbarians who,
conveniently,aretheirneighbors,todowhateverfightingisnecessaryfortheirdefense,andtheywinifpossible,notby
the revolting slaughter of pitched battles, but by the assassination of their enemies' generals. In especial, there is
completereligioustoleration,exceptforatheism,andexceptforthosewhourgetheiropinionswithoffensiveviolence.
'Utopia' was written and published in Latin; among the multitude of translations into many languages the earliest in
English,inwhichitisoftenreprinted,isthatofRalphRobinson,madein1551.

TheEnglishBibleandBooksofDevotion.
To this century of religious change belongs the greater part of the literary history of the English Bible and of the ritual
booksoftheEnglishChurch.SincethesuppressionoftheWiclifitemovementthecirculationoftheBibleinEnglishhad
been forbidden, but growing Protestantism insistently revived the demand for it. The attitude of Henry VIII and his

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ministerswasinconsistentanduncertain,reflectingtheirownchangingpointsofview.In1526WilliamTyndale,azealous
Protestant controversialist then in exile in Germany, published an excellent English translation of the New Testament.
Based on the proper authority, the Greek original, though with influence from Wiclif and from the Latin and German
(Luther's)version,thishasbeendirectlyorindirectlythestartingpointforallsubsequentEnglishtranslationsexceptthose
oftheCatholics.
Ten years later Tyndale suffered martyrdom, but in 1535 Miles Coverdale, later bishop of Exeter, issued in Germany a
translationofthewholeBibleinamoregraciousstylethanTyndale's,andtothisthekingandtheestablishedclergywere
now ready to give license and favor. Still two years later appeared a version compounded of those of Tyndale and
Coverdale and called, from the fictitious name of its editor, the 'Matthew' Bible. In 1539, under the direction of
ArchbishopCranmer,Coverdaleissuedarevisededition,officiallyauthorizedforuseinchurches;itsversionofthePsalms
stillstandsasthePsalteroftheEnglishChurch.In1560EnglishPuritanrefugeesatGenevaputforththe'GenevaBible,'
especiallyaccurateasatranslation,whichlongcontinuedtheacceptedversionforprivateuseamongallpartiesandforall
purposesamongthePuritans,inbothOldandNewEngland.Eightyearslater,underArchbishopParker,therewasissued
inlargevolumeformandforuseinchurchesthe'Bishops'Bible,'sonamedbecausethemajorityofitsthirteeneditors
werebishops.Thiscompletesthelistofimportanttranslationsdowntothoseof1611and1881,ofwhichweshallspeakin
theproperplace.TheBookofCommonPrayer,nowusedintheEnglishChurchcoordinatelywithBibleandPsalter,took
shapeoutofpreviousprimersofprivatedevotion,litanies,andhymns,mainlyastheworkofArchbishopCranmerduring
thereignofEdwardVI.
OftheinfluenceofthesetranslationsoftheBibleonEnglishliteratureitisimpossibletospeaktoostrongly.Theyrendered
the wholenation familiar for centuries with oneofthe grandest and most varied of all collections of books, which was
adoptedwithardentpatrioticenthusiasmasoneofthechiefnationalpossessions,andwhichhasservedasanunfailing
storehouseofpoeticanddramaticallusionsforalllaterwriters.ModernEnglishliteratureasawholeispermeatedand
enrichedtoanincalculabledegreewiththesubstanceandspiritoftheEnglishBible.

WyattandSurreyandthenewpoetry.
In the literature of fine art also the new beginning was made during the reign of Henry VIII. This was through the
introductionbySirThomasWyattoftheItalianfashionoflyricpoetry.Wyatt,amanofgentlebirth,enteredCambridgeat
theageoftwelveandreceivedhisdegreeofM.A.sevenyearslater.Hismaturelifewasthatofacourtiertowhomthe
king'sfavorbroughthighappointments,withsuchvicissitudesoffortune,includingoccasionalimprisonments,asformed
at that time a common part of the courtier's lot. Wyatt, however, was not a merely worldly person, but a Protestant
seeminglyofhighandsomewhatseveremoralcharacter.Hediedin1542attheageofthirtynineofafevercaughtashe
washastening,attheking'scommand,tomeetandwelcometheSpanishambassador.
OnoneofhismissionstotheContinent,Wyatt,likeChaucer,hadvisitedItaly.ImpressedwiththebeautyofItalianverse
and the contrasting rudeness of that ofcontemporaryEngland, he determined to remodel the latter in the style of the
former.Hereabriefhistoricalretrospectisnecessary.TheItalianpoetryofthesixteenthcenturyhaditselfbeenoriginally
an imitation, namely of the poetry of Provence in Southern France. There, in the twelfth century, under a delightful
climateandinaregionofenchantingbeauty,hadarisenaluxuriouscivilizationwhosepoets,thetroubadours,manyof
themmenofnoblebirth,hadcarriedtothefurthestextremethewomanworshipofmedievalchivalryandhadenshrined
it in lyric poetry of superb and varied sweetness and beauty. In this highly conventionalized poetry the lover is forever
sighingforhislady,acorrespondinglyobduratebeingwhosefavoristobewononlybyyearsofthemostunqualifiedand
unreasoningdevotion.FromProvence,Italyhadtakenupthestyle,andamongtheotherformsforitsexpression,inthe
twelfth and thirteenth centuries, had devised the poem of a single fourteenline stanza which we call the sonnet. The
wholemovementhadfounditsgreatmasterinPetrarch,who,inhundredsofpoems,mostlysonnets,ofperfectbeauty,
hadsungthepraisesandcrueltyofhisnearlyimaginaryLaura.
ItwasthishighlyartificialbutverybeautifulpoeticfashionwhichWyattdeliberatelysetabouttointroduceintoEngland.
Thenatureandsuccessofhisinnovationcanbesummarizedinafewdefinitestatements.
ImitatingPetrarch,Wyattnearlylimitshimselfasregardssubstancetothetreatmentoftheartificiallovetheme,
lamenting the unkindness of ladies who very probably never existed and whose favor in any case he probably
regarded verylightly;yet even so, he often strikes a manly English note of independence,declaringthat if the
ladycontinuesobstinatehewillnotdieforherlove.
2. HistoricallymuchthemostimportantfeatureofWyatt'sexperimentwastheintroductionofthesonnet,avery
substantialserviceindeed;fornotonlydidthisform,likethelovetheme,becomebyfarthemostpopularone
among English lyric poets of the next two generations, setting a fashion which was carried to an astonishing

1.

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excess; but it is the only artificial form of foreign originwhichhas ever been really adopted andnaturalized in
English, and it still remains the best instrument for the terse expression of a single poetic thought. Wyatt, it
should be observed, generally departs from the Petrarchan rimescheme, on the whole unfortunately, by
substituting a third quatrain for the first four lines of the sestet. That is, while Petrarch's rimearrangement is
eitherabbaabbacdcdcdorabbaabbacdecdeWyatt'sisusuallyabbaabbacddcee.
3. InhisattemptedreformationofEnglishmetricalirregularityWyatt,inhissonnets,showsonlytheuncertainhand
ofabeginner.Hegenerallysecuresanequalnumberofsyllablesineachline,butheoftenmerelycountsthemoff
onhisfingers,wrenchingtheaccentsallawry,andoftenviolentlyforcingtherimesaswell.Inhissongs,however,
whicharemuchmorenumerousthanthesonnets,heattainsdelightfulfluencyandmelody.His'MyLute,Awake,'
and'ForgetNotYet'arestillcountedamongthenotableEnglishlyrics.
4.
AparticularandcharacteristicpartoftheconventionalItalianlyricapparatuswhichWyatttransplantedwasthe
'conceit.' A conceit may be defined as an exaggerated figure of speech or play on words in which intellectual
cleverness figures at least as largely as real emotion and which is often dragged out to extremely complicated
lengthsofliteralapplication.AnexampleisWyatt'sdeclaration(afterPetrarch)thathislove,livinginhisheart,
advancestohisfaceandthereencamps,displayinghisbanner(whichmerelymeansthattheloverblusheswith
hisemotion).InintroducingtheconceitWyattfatheredthemostconspicuousofthesuperficialgeneralfeatures
whichweretodominateEnglishpoetryforacenturytocome.
5.
Stillanother,minor,innovationofWyattwastheintroductionintoEnglishverseoftheHoratian'satire'(moral
poem,reflectingoncurrentfollies)intheformofthreemetricalletterstofriends.Inthesethemeteristheterza
rimaofDante.
Wyatt's workwas continued by his poetical disciple andsuccessor,Henry Howard,who, as son of the Duke ofNorfolk,
heldthecourtesytitleofEarlofSurrey.AbrilliantthoughwilfulrepresentativeofTudorchivalry,anddistinguishedinwar,
Surrey seems to have occupied at Court almost the same commanding position as Sir Philip Sidney in the following
generation.Hiscareerwascutshortintragicallyironicalfashionattheageofthirtybytheplotsofhisenemiesandthe
dyingbloodthirstinessofKingHenry,whichtogetherledtohisexecutiononatrumpedupchargeoftreason.Itwasonly
oneofcountlessbrutalcourtcrimes,butitseemsthemorehatefulbecauseifthekinghaddiedasingledayearlierSurrey
couldhavebeensaved.
Surrey'sservicestopoetryweretwo:
1.
2.

HeimprovedontheversificationofWyatt'ssonnets,securingfluencyandsmoothness.
InatranslationoftwobooksofVergil's'Aneid'heintroduced,fromtheItalian,pentameterblankverse,which
was destined thenceforth to be the meter of English poetic drama and of much of the greatest English non
dramatic poetry. Further, though his poems are less numerous than those of Wyatt, his range of subjects is
somewhat broader, including some appreciative treatment of external Nature. He seems, however, somewhat
lesssincerethanhisteacher.InhissonnetsheabandonedtheformfollowedbyWyattandadopted(stillfromthe
Italian) the one which was subsequently used by Shakespeare, consisting of three independent quatrains
followed,aswithWyatt,byacoupletwhichsumsupthethoughtwithepigrammaticforce,thus:ababcdcdef
efgg.

WyattandSurreysetafashionatCourt;forsomeyearsitseemstohavebeenanalmostnecessaryaccomplishmentfor
everyyoungnobletoturnofflovepoemsafterItalianandFrenchmodels;forFrancetoohadnowtakenupthefashion.
ThesepoemsweregenerallyandnaturallyregardedasthepropertyoftheCourtandofthegentry,andcirculatedatfirst
onlyinmanuscriptamongtheauthor'sfriends;butthegeneralpublicbecamecuriousaboutthem,andin1557oneofthe
publishers of the day, Richard Tottel, securing a number of those of Wyatt, Surrey, and a few other noble or gentle
authors,publishedtheminalittlevolume,whichisknownas
'Tottel's Miscellany.' Coming as it does in the year before the accession of Queen Elizabeth, at the end of the
comparativelybarrenreignsofEdwardandMary,thisbookistakenbycommonconsentasmarkingthebeginningofthe
literatureoftheElizabethanperiod.Itwastheprematurepredecessor,also,ofanumberofsuchanthologieswhichwere
publishedduringthelatterhalfofElizabeth'sreign.

TheElizabethanPeriod
TheearlierhalfofElizabeth'sreign,also,thoughnotlackinginliteraryeffort,producednoworkofpermanentimportance.
After the religious convulsions of half a century time was required for the development of the internal quiet and
confidencefromwhichagreatliteraturecouldspring.Atlength,however,thehourgrewripeandtherecamethegreatest
outburstofcreativeenergyinthewholehistoryofEnglishliterature.UnderElizabeth'swiseguidancetheprosperityand

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enthusiasm of the nation had risen to the highest pitch, and London in particular was overflowing with vigorous life. A
special stimulus of the most intense kind came from the struggle with Spain. After a generation of halfpiratical
depredations by the English seadogs against the Spanish treasure fleets and the Spanish settlements in America, King
Philip, exasperated beyond all patience and urged on by a bigot's zeal for the Catholic Church, began deliberately to
preparetheGreatArmada,whichwastocrushatoneblowtheinsolence,theindependence,andthereligionofEngland.
Therefollowedseverallongyearsofbreathlesssuspense;thenin1588theArmadasailedandwasutterlyoverwhelmedin
oneofthemostcompletedisastersoftheworld'shistory.ThereuponthereleasedenergyofEnglandbrokeoutexultantly
into still more impetuous achievement in almost every line of activity. The great literary period is taken by common
consenttobeginwiththepublicationofSpenser's'Shepherd'sCalendar'in1579,andtoendinsomesenseatthedeathof
Elizabethin1603,thoughinthedrama,atleast,itreallycontinuesmanyyearslonger.
SeveralgeneralcharacteristicsofElizabethanliteratureandwritersshouldbeindicatedattheoutset.
1.

2.
3.
4.
5.

6.
7.

Theperiodhasthegreatvarietyofalmostunlimitedcreativeforce;itincludesworksofmanykindsinbothverse
andprose,andrangesinspiritfromtheloftiestPlatonicidealismorthemostdelightfulromancetothelevelof
veryrepulsiverealism.
Itwasmainlydominated,however,bythespiritofromance.
Itwasfullalsoofthespiritofdramaticaction,asbefittedanagewhoserestlessenterprisewaseagerlyextending
itselftoeveryquarteroftheglobe.
Instyleitoftenexhibitsromanticluxuriance,whichsometimestakestheformofelaborateaffectationsofwhich
thefavorite'conceit'isonlythemostapparent.
It was in part a period of experimentation, when the proper material and limits of literary forms were being
determined,oftentimesbymeansoffalsestartsandgrandiosefailures.Inparticular,manyeffortsweremadeto
giveprolongedpoeticaltreatmenttomanysubjectsessentiallyprosaic,forexampletosystemsoftheologicalor
scientificthought,ortothegeographyofallEngland.
ItcontinuedtobelargelyinfluencedbytheliteratureofItaly,andtoalessdegreebythoseofFranceandSpain.
The literary spirit was allpervasive, and the authors were men (not yet women) of almost every class, from
distinguishedcourtiers,likeRaleghandSidney,tothecompanyofhackwriters,whostarvedingarretsandhung
abouttheoutskirtsofthebustlingtaverns.

Prosefiction
Theperiodsawthebeginning,amongotherthings,ofEnglishprosefictionofsomethinglikethelatermoderntype.First
appeared a series of collections of short tales chiefly translated from Italian authors, to which tales the Italian name
'novella'(novel)wasapplied.Mostoftheseparatetalesarecrudeoramateurishandhaveonlyhistoricalinterest,though
asaclasstheyfurnishedtheplotsformanyElizabethandramas,includingseveralofShakespeare's.Themostimportant
collection was Painter's 'Palace of Pleasure,' in 1566. The earliest original, or partly original, English prose fictions to
appearwerehandbooksofmoralsandmannersinstoryform,andherethebeginningwasmadebyJohnLyly,whoisalso
ofsomeimportanceinthehistoryoftheElizabethandrama.In1578Lyly,attheageoftwentyfive,camefromOxfordto
London,fulloftheenthusiasmofRenaissancelearning,andevidentlydeterminedtofixhimselfasanewanddazzlingstar
intheliterarysky.Inthisambitionheachievedaremarkableandimmediatesuccess,bythepublicationofalittlebook
entitled'EuphuesandHisAnatomieofWit.''Euphues'means'thewellbredman,'andthoughthereisaslightaction,the
workismainlyaseriesofmoralizingdisquisitions(mostlyrearrangedfromSirThomasNorth'stranslationof'TheDialof
Princes'oftheSpaniardGuevara)onlove,religion,andconduct.Mostinfluential,however,forthetimebeing,wasLyly's
style,whichisthemostconspicuousEnglishexampleofthelaterRenaissancecraze,thenrampantthroughoutWestern
Europe,forrefiningandbeautifyingtheartofproseexpressioninamincinglyaffectedfashion.Witty,clever,andsparkling
atallcosts,Lylytakesespecialpainstobalancehissentencesandclausesantithetically,phraseagainstphraseandoften
word against word, sometimes emphasizing the balance also by an exaggerated use of alliteration and assonance. A
representativesentenceisthis:'Althoughtherebenonesoignorantthatdothnotknow,neitheranysoimpudentthatwill
not confesse, friendship to be the jewell of humaine joye; yet whosoever shall see this amitie grounded upon a little
affection,willsooneconjecturethatitshallbedissolveduponalightoccasion.'OthersofLyly'saffectationsarerhetorical
questions,hostsofallusionstoclassicalhistory,andliterature,andanunfailingsuccessionofsimilesfromalltherecondite
knowledge that he can command, especially from the fantastic collection of fables which, coming down through the
MiddleAgesfromtheRomanwriterPliny,wentatthattimebythenameofnaturalhistoryandwhichwehavealready
encountered in the medieval Bestiaries. Preposterous by any reasonable standard, Lyly's style, 'Euphuism,' precisely hit
theCourttasteofhisageandbecameforadecadeitsmostapprovedconversationaldialect.
Inliteraturetheimitationsof'Euphues'whichflourishedforawhilegavewaytoaseriesofromancesinauguratedbythe
'Arcadia'ofSirPhilipSidney.Sidney'sbrilliantpositionforafewyearsasthenoblestrepresentativeofchivalrousidealsin

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theintriguingCourtofElizabethisamatterofcommonfame,asishisdeathin1586attheageofthirtytwoduringthe
siege of Zutphen in Holland. He wrote 'Arcadia' for the amusement of his sister, the Countess of Pembroke, during a
period of enforced retirement beginning in 1580, but the book was not published until ten years later. It is a pastoral
romance,inthegeneralstyleofItalianandSpanishromancesoftheearlierpartofthecentury.Thepastoralisthemost
artificialliteraryforminmodernfiction.ItmaybesaidtohavebeguninthethirdcenturyB.C.withtheperfectlysincere
poemsoftheGreekTheocritus,whogivesgenuineexpressiontothelifeofactualSicilianshepherds.Butwithsuccessive
Latin, Medieval, and Renaissance writers in verse and prose the country characters and setting had become mere
disguises, sometimes allegorical, for the expression of the very far from simple sentiments of the upper classes, and
sometimes for their partly genuine longing, the outgrowth of sophisticated weariness and ennui, for rural naturalness.
Sidney'sverycomplicatedtaleofadventuresinloveandwar,muchlongerthananyofitssuccessors,isbynomeansfree
fromartificiality,butitfinelymirrorshisownknightlyspiritandremainsapermanentEnglishclassic.Amonghisfollowers
weresomeofthebetterhackwritersofthetime,whowerealsoamongtheminordramatistsandpoets,especiallyRobert
GreeneandThomasLodge.Lodge's'Rosalynde,'alsomuchinfluencedbyLyly,isinitselfaprettystoryandisnoteworthy
astheoriginalofShakespeare's'AsYouLikeIt.'
Lastly,intheconcludingdecadeofthesixteenthcentury,cameaseriesofrealisticstoriesdepictingchiefly,inmoreorless
farcical spirit, the life of the poorer classes. They belonged mostly to that class of realistic fiction which is called
picaresque,fromtheSpanishword'picaro,'arogue,becauseitbeganinSpainwiththe'LazarillodeTormes'ofDiegode
Mendoza, in 1553, and because its heroes are knavish servingboys or similar characters whose unprincipled tricks and
exploitsformedthesubstanceofthestories.InElizabethanEnglanditproducednothingofindividualnote.

EdmundSpenser,15521599.
ThefirstreallycommandingfigureintheElizabethanperiod,andoneofthechiefofallEnglishpoets,isEdmundSpenser.
[Footnote:Hisnameshouldneverbespelledwithac.]BorninLondonin1552,thesonofaclothmaker,Spenserpast
fromthenewlyestablishedMerchantTaylors'schooltoPembrokeHall,Cambridge,asasizar,orpoorstudent,andduring
thecustomarysevenyearsofresidencetookthedegreesofB.A.and,in1576,ofM.A.AtCambridgeheassimilatedtwo
ofthecontrollingforcesofhislife,themoderatePuritanismofhiscollegeandPlatonicidealism.Next,afterayearortwo
with his kinspeople in Lancashire, in the North of England, he came to London, hoping through literature to win high
political place, and attached himself to the household of Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, Queen Elizabeth's worthless
favorite.TogetherwithSidney,whowasLeicester'snephew,hewasforawhileamemberofalittlegroupofstudentswho
called themselves 'The Areopagus' and who, like occasional other experimenters of the later Renaissance period,
attempted to make over English versification by substituting for rime and accentual meter the Greek and Latin system
based on exact quantity of syllables. Spenser, however, soon outgrew this folly and in 1579 published the collection of
poems which, as we have already said, is commonly taken as marking the beginning of the great Elizabethan literary
period,namely'TheShepherd'sCalendar.'Thisisaseriesofpastoralpieces(eclogues,Spensercallsthem,bytheclassical
name) twelve in number, artificially assigned one to each month in the year. The subjects are variousthe
conventionalizedloveofthepoetforacertainRosalind;currentreligiouscontroversiesinallegory;moralquestions;the
stateofpoetryinEngland;andthepraisesofQueenElizabeth,whosealmostincrediblevanityexactedthemostfulsome
flatteryfromeverywriterwhohopedtowinanameathercourt.Thesignificanceof'TheShepherd'sCalendar'liespartly
initsgenuinefeelingforexternalNature,whichcontrastsstronglywiththehollowconventionalphrasesofthepoetryof
thepreviousdecade,andespeciallyinthevigor,theoriginality,and,insomeoftheeclogues,thebeauty,ofthelanguage
andofthevariedverse.Itwasatonceevidentthatherearealpoethadappeared.Aninterestinginnovation,diversely
judgedatthetimeandsince,wasSpenser'sdeliberateemploymentofrusticandarchaicwords,especiallyoftheNorthern
dialect, whichhe introduced partly because of their appropriateness to the imaginary characters, partly for the sake of
freshnessofexpression.They,likeotherfeaturesofthework,pointforwardto'TheFaerieQueene.'
IntheuncertaintiesofcourtintrigueliterarysuccessdidnotgainforSpenserthepoliticalrewardswhichhewasseeking,
andhewasobligedtocontenthimself,thenextyear,withanappointment,whichheviewedassubstantiallyasentenceof
exile, as secretary to Lord Grey, the governor of Ireland. In Ireland, therefore, the remaining twenty years of Spenser's
shortlifewereforthemostpartspent,amiddistressingscenesofEnglishoppressionandchronicinsurrectionamongthe
nativeIrish.AftervariousactivitiesduringseveralyearsSpensersecuredapermanenthomeinKilcolman,afortifiedtower
and estate in the southern part of the island, where the romantic scenery furnished fit environment for a poet's
imagination. And Spenser, able all his life to take refuge in his art from the crass realities of life, now produced many
poems, some of them short, but among the others the immortal 'Faerie Queene.' The first three books of this, his
crowning achievement, Spenser, under enthusiastic encouragement from Ralegh, brought to London and published in
1590.ThededicationistoQueenElizabeth,towhom,indeed,asitsheroine,thepoempaysperhapsthemostsplendid
compliment ever offered to any human being in verse. She responded with an uncertain pension of L50 (equivalent to
perhaps$1500atthepresenttime),butnotwiththegiftofpoliticalprefermentwhichwasstillSpenser'shope;andin
somebitternessofspiritheretiredtoIreland,whereinsatiricalpoemsheproceededtoattackthevanityoftheworldand

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theficklenessofmen.Hiscourtshipand,in1594,hismarriageproducedhissonnetsequence,called'Amoretti'(Italianfor
'Lovepoems'), and his 'Epithalamium,' the most magnificent of marriage hymns in English and probably in world
literature;thoughhis'Prothalamium,'inhonorofthemarriageoftwonoblesisters,isanearrivaltoit.
Spenser, a zealous Protestant as well as a finespirited idealist, was in entire sympathy with Lord Grey's policy of stern
repression of the Catholic Irish, to whom, therefore, he must have appeared merely as one of the hated crew of their
pitilesstyrants.In1598hewasappointedsheriffofthecountyofCork;butarebellionwhichbrokeoutprovedtoostrong
forhim,andheandhisfamilybarelyescapedfromthesackanddestructionofhistower.Hewassentwithdespatchesto
theEnglishCourtanddiedinLondoninJanuary,1599,nodoubtinpartasaresultofthehardshipsthathehadsuffered.
HewasburiedinWestminsterAbbey.
Spenser's 'Faerie Queene' is not only one of the longest but one of the greatest of English poems; it is also very
characteristicallyElizabethan.Todealwithsodelicateathingbythemethodofmechanicalanalysisseemsscarcelyless
thanprofanation,butaccuratecriticismcanproceedinnootherway.
1. Sources and Plan. Few poems more clearly illustrate the variety of influences from which most great literary works
result. In many respects the most direct source was the body of Italian romances of chivalry, especially the 'Orlando
Furioso' ofAriosto, which was written in the early partof the sixteenth century. These romances, in turn, combine the
personagesofthemedievalFrenchepicsofCharlemagnewithsomethingofthespiritofArthurianromanceandwitha
Renaissance atmosphere of magic and of rich fantastic beauty. Spenser borrows and absorbs all these things and
moreoverheimitatesAriostoclosely,oftenmerelytranslatingwholepassagesfromhiswork.ButthisuseoftheItalian
romances,further,carrieswithitalargeemploymentofcharacters,incidents,andimageryfromclassicalmythologyand
literature,amongotherthingstheelaboratedsimilesoftheclassicalepics.Spenserhimselfisdirectlyinfluenced,also,by
the medieval romances. Most important of all,all theseelements are shaped to thepurpose of the poem by Spenser's
highmoralaim,whichinturnspringslargelyfromhisPlatonicidealism.
WhattheplanofthepoemisSpenserexplainsinaprefatorylettertoSirWalterRalegh.Thewholeisavastepicallegory,
aiming,inthefirstplace,toportraythevirtueswhichmakeupthecharacterofaperfectknight;anidealembodiment,
seenthroughRenaissanceconceptions,ofthebestinthechivalroussystemwhichinSpenser'stimehadpassedaway,but
towhichsomechoicespiritsstilllookedbackwithregretfuladmiration.AsSpenserintended,twelvemoralvirtuesofthe
individual character, such as Holiness and Temperance, were to be presented, each personified in the hero of one of
twelve Books; and the crowning virtue, which Spenser, in Renaissance terms, called Magnificence, and which may be
interpreted as Magnanimity, was to figure as Prince (King) Arthur, nominally the central hero of the whole poem,
appearing and disappearing at frequent intervals. Spenser states in his prefatory letter that if he shall carry this first
projected labor to a successful end he may continue it in still twelve other Books, similarly allegorizing twelve political
virtues.Theallegoricalform,weshouldhardlyneedtobereminded,isanotherheritagefrommedievalliterature,butthe
effort to shape a perfect character, completely equipped to serve the State, was characteristically of the Platonizing
Renaissance. That the reader may never be in danger of forgetting his moral aim, Spenser fills the poem with moral
observations,frequentlysettingthemasguidesatthebeginningofthecantos.
2.TheAllegory.LackofUnity.Socomplexandvastaplancouldscarcelyhavebeenworkedoutbyanyhumangeniusina
perfectandclearunity,andbesidesthis,Spenser,withallhishighendowments,wasdecidedlyweakinconstructiveskill.
The allegory, at the outset, even in Spenser's own statement, is confused and hazy. For beyond the primary moral
interpretation,Spenserappliesitinvarioussecondaryorparallelways.Inthewidestsense,theentirestrugglebetween
thegoodandevilcharactersistobetakenasfiguringforththewarfarebothintheindividualsoulandintheworldatlarge
betweenRighteousnessandSin;andinsomewhatnarrowersenses,betweenProtestantismandCatholicism,andbetween
EnglandandSpain.Insomeplaces,also,itrepresentsothereventsandaspectsofEuropeanpolitics.Manyofthesingle
persons of the story, entering into each of these overlapping interpretations, bear double or triple roles. Gloriana, the
FairyQueen,isabstractlyGlory,buthumanlysheisQueenElizabeth;andfromotherpointsofviewElizabethisidentified
withseveralofthelesserheroines.SolikewisethewitchDuessaisbothPapalFalsehoodandMaryQueenofScots;Prince
ArthurbothMagnificenceand(withsorryinappropriateness)theEarlofLeicester;andothersofthecharactersstandwith
moreorlessconsistencyforsuchactualpersonsasPhilipIIofSpain,HenryIVofFrance,andSpenser'schief,LordGrey.In
fact,inRenaissancespirit,andfollowingSidney's'DefenseofPoesie,'Spenserattemptstoharmonizehistory,philosophy,
ethics, and politics, subordinating them allto theartofpoetry. The plan is grand but impracticable, and exceptfor the
originalmoralinterpretation,towhichintheearlierbookstheincidentsareskilfullyadapted,itisfruitlessasonereadsto
undertaketofollowtheallegories.Manyreadersareable,nodoubt,merelytodisregardthem,butthereareothers,like
Lowell,towhomthemoral,'whentheycomesuddenlyuponit,givesashockofunpleasantsurprise,aswhenineating
strawberriesone'steethencountergrit.'

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Thesamelackofunitypervadestheexternalstory.ThefirstBookbeginsabruptly,inthemiddle;andforclearness'sake
Spenserhadbeenobligedtoexplaininhisprefatoryletterthattherealcommencementmustbesupposedtobeascene
like those of Arthurian romance, at the court and annual feast of the Fairy Queen, where twelve adventures had been
assignedtoasmanyknights.SpenserstrangelyplannedtonarratethisbeginningofthewholeinhisfinalBook,butevenif
it had been properly placedat the outset it would haveserved only as a loose enveloping actionfor a series of stories
essentially as distinct as those in Malory. More serious, perhaps, is the lack of unity within the single books. Spenser's
geniuswasneverforstronglycondensednarrative,andfollowinghisItalianoriginals,thoughwithlessfirmness,hewove
his story as a tangled web of intermingled adventures, with almost endless elaboration and digression. Incident after
incidentisbrokenoffandlaterresumedandepisodeafterepisodeisintroduced,untilthereaderalmostabandonsany
efforttotracethemaindesign.Apartoftheconfusionisduetothemechanicalplan.EachBookconsistsoftwelvecantos
(offromfortytoninetystanzaseach)andoftentimesSpenserhasdifficultyinfillingoutthescheme.Noone,certainly,can
regret that he actually completed only a quarter of his projected work. In the six existing Books he has given almost
exhaustiveexpressiontoarichlycreativeimagination,andadditionalprolongationwouldhavedonelittlebuttorepeat.
Stillfurther,thecharacteristicRenaissancelackofcertaintyastothepropermaterialsforpoetryissometimesresponsible
for a rudely inharmonious element in the otherwise delightful romantic atmosphere. For a single illustration, the
descriptionoftheHouseofAlmainBookII,CantoNine,isatediouslyliteralmedievalallegoryoftheSoulandBody;and
occasionalrealisticdetailshereandthereinthepoematlargearemerelyrepellenttomoremoderntaste.
3.TheLackofDramaticReality.Aromanticallegorylike'TheFaerieQueene'doesnotaimatintenselifelikenessacertain
remotenessfromtheactualisoneofitschiefattractions.ButsometimesinSpenser'spoemthereaderfeelstoowidea
divorcefromreality.Partofthisfaultisascribabletotheuseofmagic,towhichthereisrepeatedbutinconsistentresort,
especially,asinthemedievalromances,fortheprotectionofthegoodcharacters.Oftentimes,indeed,bythepersistent
loadingofthediceagainstthevillainsandscapegoats,thereader'ssympathyishalfarousedintheirbehalf.Thusinthe
fight of the Red Cross Knight with his special enemy, the dragon, where, of course, the Knight must be victorious, it is
evidentthatwithouttheauthor'shelpthedragonisincomparablythestronger.Once,swoopingdownontheKnight,he
seizeshiminhistalons(whoseleasttouchwaselsewheresaidtobefatal)andbearshimaloftintotheair.Thevalorofthe
Knightcompelshimtorelaxhishold,butinsteadofmerelydroppingtheKnighttocertaindeath,hecarefullyfliesbackto
earth and sets him down in safety. More definite regard to the actual laws of life would have given the poem greater
firmnesswithoutthesacrificeofanyofitscharm.
4.TheRomanticBeauty.GeneralAtmosphereandDescription.Criticalsincerityhasrequiredustodwellthuslongonthe
defects of the poem; but once recognized we should dismiss them altogether from mind and turn attention to the far
moreimportantbeauties.Thegreatqualitiesof'TheFaerieQueene'aresuggestedbythetitle,'ThePoets'Poet,'which
CharlesLamb,withhappyinspiration,appliedtoSpenser.MostofallareweindebtedtoSpenser'shighidealism.Nopoem
in the world is nobler than 'The Faerie Queene' in atmosphere and entire effect. Spenser himself is always the perfect
gentlemanofhisownimagination,andinhiscompanywearesecurefromtheintrusionofanythingmorallybaseormean.
But in him, also, moral beauty is in full harmony with the beauty of art and the senses. Spenser was a Puritan, but a
PuritanoftheearlierEnglishRenaissance,towhomthefoesofrighteousnesswerealsothefoesofexternalloveliness.Of
thethreefierceSaracenbrotherknightswhorepeatedlyappearintheserviceofEvil,twoareSansloy,theenemyoflaw,
andSansfoy,theenemyofreligion,butthethirdisSansjoy,enemyofpleasure.Andofexternalbeautytherehasnever
beenamoregiftedloverthanSpenser.Weoftenfeel,withLowell,that'heisthepuresenseofthebeautifulincarnated.'
The poem is a romantically luxuriant wilderness of dreamily or languorously delightful visions, often rich with all the
harmonies ofform and motion andcolorand sound. AsLowell says, 'The true use of Spenser is asa galleryof pictures
whichwevisitasthemoodtakesus,andwherewespendanhourortwo,longenoughtosweetenourperceptions,notso
long as to cloy them.' His landscapes, to speak of one particular feature, are usually of a rather vague, often of a vast
nature, as suits the unreality of his poetic world, and usually, since Spenser was not a minute observer, follow the
conventionsofRenaissanceliterature.Theyarecommonlygreatplains,wideandgloomyforests(wherethetreesofmany
climates often grow together in impossible harmony), cool cavesin general, lonely, quiet, or soothing scenes, but all
unquestionableportionsofadelightfulfairyland.Tohim,itshouldbeadded,astomostmenbeforemodernSciencehad
subduedtheworldtohumanuses,thesublimeaspectsofNatureweremainlydreadful;theocean,forexample,seemed
tohimaraging'wasteofwaters,wideanddeep,'amysteriousandinsatiatedevourerofthelivesofmen.
To the beauty of Spenser's imagination, ideal and sensuous, corresponds his magnificent command of rhythm and of
sound.Asaverbalmelodist,especiallyamelodistofsweetnessandofstatelygrace,andasaharmonistofprolongedand
complexcadences,heisunsurpassable.Buthehasfullcommandofhisrhythmaccordingtothesubject,andcanrange
fromthemostdelicatesuggestionofairybeautytotheroarofthetempestorthestridentenergyofbattle.Invocabulary
and phraseology his fluency appears inexhaustible. Here, as in 'The Shepherd's Calendar,' he deliberately introduces,
especiallyfromChaucer,obsoletewordsandforms,suchastheinflectionalendinginenwhichdistinctlycontributetohis

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romantic effect. His constant use of alliteration is very skilful; thefrequency of the alliteration on w is conspicuous but
apparentlyaccidental.
5. The Spenserian Stanza. For the external medium of all this beauty Spenser, modifying the ottava rima of Ariosto (a
stanza which rimes abababcc), invented the stanza which bears his own name and which is the only artificial stanza of
Englishoriginthathaseverpassedintocurrency.[Footnote:Notethatthisisnotinconsistentwithwhatissaidabove,of
thesonnet.]TherimeschemeisababbcbccandinthelastlinetheiambicpentametergivesplacetoanAlexandrine(an
iambichexameter).Whetherornotanystanzaformisaswelladaptedasblankverseortherimedcoupletforprolonged
narrativeisaninterestingquestion,buttherecanbenodoubtthatSpenser'sstanza,firmlyunified,inspiteofitslength,
byitscentralcoupletandbythefinalityofthelastline,isadiscoveryofgenius,andthattheAlexandrine,'foreverfeeling
for the next stanza,' does much to bind the stanzas together. It has been adopted in no small number of the greatest
subsequentEnglishpoems,includingsuchvariousonesasBurns''Cotter'sSaturdayNight,'Byron's'ChildeHarold,'Keats'
'EveofSt.Agnes,'andShelley's'Adonais.'
Ingeneralstyleandspirit,itshouldbeadded,Spenserhasbeenoneofthemostpowerfulinfluencesonallsucceeding
Englishromanticpoetry.TwofurthersentencesofLowellwellsummarizehiswholegeneralachievement:
'Hisgreatmeritisintheidealtreatmentwithwhichheglorifiedcommonthingsandgildedthemwitharayofenthusiasm.
HeisastandingprotestagainstthetyrannyoftheCommonplace,andsowstheseedsofanoblediscontentwithprosaic
viewsoflifeandthedullusestowhichitmaybeput.'

Elizabethanlyricpoetry
'TheFaerieQueene'istheonlylongElizabethanpoemoftheveryhighestrank,butSpenser,aswehaveseen,isalmost
equallyconspicuousasalyricpoet.InthatrespecthewasoneamongathrongofmelodistswhomadetheElizabethanage
inmanyrespectsthegreatestlyricperiodinthehistoryofEnglishorperhapsofanyliterature.Stillgrander,tobesure,by
thenatureofthetwoforms,wastheElizabethanachievementinthedrama,whichweshallconsiderinthenextchapter;
butthelyricshavetheadvantageinsheerdelightfulnessand,ofcourse,inrapidanddirectappeal.
ThezestforlyricpoetrysomewhatartificiallyinauguratedatCourtbyWyattandSurreyseemstohavelargelysubsided,
like any other fad, after some years, but it vigorously revived, in much more genuine fashion, with the taste for other
imaginativeformsofliterature,inthelasttwodecadesofElizabeth'sreign.Itrevived,too,notonlyamongthecourtiers
butamongallclasses;innootherformofliteraturewasthediversityofauthorssomarked;almosteverywriterofthe
periodwhowasnotpurelyamanofproseseemstohavebeengiftedwiththelyricpower.
ThequalitieswhichespeciallydistinguishtheElizabethanlyricsarefluency,sweetness,melody,andanenthusiasticjoyin
life,allspontaneous,direct,andexquisite.Unitingthegenuinenessofthepopularballadwiththefinersenseofconscious
artisticpoetry,thesepoemspossessacharmdifferent,thoughinanonlyhalfdefinableway,fromthatofanyotherlyrics.
In subjects they display the usual lyric variety. There are songs of delight in Nature; a multitude of love poems of all
moods;manypastorals,inwhich,generally,thepastoralconventionssitlightlyonthegenuinepoeticalfeeling;occasional
patrioticoutbursts;andsomereflectiveandreligiouspoems.Instanzastructurethenumberofformsisunusuallygreat,
butinmostcasesstanzasareinternallyvariedandhavealargeadmixtureofshort,ringingormusing,lines.Thelyricswere
publishedsometimesincollectionsbysingleauthors,sometimesintheseriesofanthologieswhichsucceededtoTottel's
'Miscellany.'Someoftheseanthologieswerebooksofsongswiththeaccompanyingmusic;formusic,broughtwithallthe
otherculturalinfluencesfromItalyandFrance,wasnowenthusiasticallycultivated,andthesoftmelodyofmanyofthe
bestElizabethanlyricsisthatofaccomplishedcomposers.Manyofthelyrics,again,areincludedassongsinthedramasof
thetime;andShakespeare'scomediesshowhimnearlyaspreeminentamongthelyricpoetsasamongtheplaywrights.
Someofthefinestofthelyricsareanonymous.Amongthebestoftheknownpoetsarethese:GeorgeGascoigne(about
15301577),acourtierandsoldier,whobridgesthegapbetweenSurreyandSidney;SirEdwardDyer(about15451607),a
scholarandstatesman,authorofoneperfectlyric,'Mymindtomeakingdomis';JohnLyly(15531606),theEuphuistand
dramatist;NicholasBreton(about1545toabout1626),aprolificwriterinverseandproseandoneofthemostsuccessful
poets of the pastoral style; Robert Southwell (about 15621595), a Jesuit intriguer of ardent piety, finally imprisoned,
tortured,andexecutedasatraitor;GeorgePeele(1558toabout1598),thedramatist;ThomasLodge(about15581625),
poet, novelist, and physician; Christopher Marlowe (15641593), the dramatist; Thomas Nash (15671601), one of the
mostprolificElizabethanhackwriters;SamuelDaniel(15621619),scholarandcritic,memberinhislateryearsoftheroyal
householdofJamesI;BarnabeBarnes(about15691609);RichardBarnfield(15741627);SirWalterRalegh(15521618),
courtier,statesman,explorer,andscholar;JoshuaSylvester(15631618),linguistandmerchant,knownforhistranslation
of the long religious poems of the Frenchman Du Bartas, through which he exercised an influence on Milton; Francis

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Davison(about1575toabout1619),sonofacounsellorofQueenElizabeth,alawyer;andThomasDekker(about1570to
about1640),ane'erdoweeldramatistandhackwriterofirrepressibleanddelightfulgoodspirits.

Thesonnets
Inthelastdecade,especially,ofthecentury,nootherlyricformcomparedinpopularitywiththesonnet.HereEngland
wasstillfollowinginthefootstepsofItalyandFrance;ithasbeenestimatedthatinthecourseofthecenturyoverthree
hundredthousandsonnetswerewritteninWesternEurope.InEnglandaselsewheremostofthesepoemswereinevitably
ofmediocrequalityandimitativeinsubstance,ringingthechangeswithwearisomeiterationonaminimumofideas,often
withthemostextravagantuseofconceits.Petrarch'sexamplewasstillcommonlyfollowed;thesonnetsweregenerally
composedinsequences(cycles)ofahundredormore,addressedtothepoet'smoreorlessimaginarycruellady,though
the note of manly independence introduced by Wyatt is frequent. First of the important English sequences is the
'Astrophel and Stella' of Sir Philip Sidney, written about 1580, published in 1591. 'Astrophel' is a fanciful halfGreek
anagramforthepoet'sownname,andStella(Star)designatesLadyPenelopeDevereux,whoataboutthistimemarried
LordRich.ThesequencemayveryreasonablybeinterpretedasanexpressionofPlatonicidealism,thoughitissometimes
takeninasenselessconsistentwithSidney'shighreputation.OfSpenser's'Amoretti'wehavealreadyspoken.Byfarthe
finestofallthesonnetsarethebestones(aconsiderablepart)ofShakespeare'sonehundredandfiftyfour,whichwere
notpublisheduntil1609butmayhavebeenmostlywrittenbefore1600.Theirinterpretationhaslongbeenhotlydebated.
Itiscertain,however,thattheydonotformaconnectedsequence.Someofthemareoccupiedwithurgingayouthof
high rank, Shakespeare's patron, who may have been either the Earl of Southampton or William Herbert, Earl of
Pembroke,tomarryandperpetuatehisrace;othershintthestory,realorimaginary,ofShakespeare'sinfatuationfora
'darklady,'leadingtobitterdisillusion;andstillothersseemtobeoccasionalexpressionsofdevotiontootherfriendsof
one or the other sex. Here as elsewhere Shakespeare's genius, at its best, is supreme over all rivals; the first recorded
criticismspeaksofthe'sugaredsweetness'ofhissonnets;buthisgeniusisnotalwaysatitsbest.

JohnDonneandthebeginningofthe'metaphysical'poetry
Thelastdecadeofthesixteenthcenturypresentsalso,inthepoemsofJohnDonne,anewandverystrangestyleofverse.
Donne,bornin1573,possessedoneofthekeenestandmostpowerfulintellectsofthetime,buthisearlymanhoodwas
largelywastedindissipation,thoughhestudiedtheologyandlawandseemstohaveseenmilitaryservice.Itwasduring
thisperiodthathewrotehislovepoems.Then,whilelivingwithhiswifeandchildreninuncertaindependenceonnoble
patrons, he turned to religious poetry. At last he entered the Church, became famous as one of the most eloquent
preachersofthetime,andthroughthefavorofKingJameswasrapidlypromoteduntilhewasmadeDeanofSt.Paul's
Cathedral. He died in 1631 after having furnished a striking instance of the fantastic morbidness of the period (post
Elizabethan)byhavinghispicturepaintedashestoodwrappedinhisshroudonafuneralurn.
ThedistinguishinggeneralcharacteristicofDonne'spoetryistheremarkablecombinationofanaggressiveintellectuality
with the lyric form and spirit. Whether true poetry or mere intellectual cleverness is the predominant element may
reasonablybequestioned;butonmanyreadersDonne'sverseexercisesauniqueattraction.Itsdefinitepeculiaritiesare
outstanding: 1. By a process of extreme exaggeration and minute elaboration Donne carries the Elizabethan conceits
almost to the farthest possible limit, achieving what Samuel Johnson two centuries later described as 'enormous and
disgusting hyperboles.' 2. In so doing he makes relentless use of the intellect and of verbally precise but actually
preposterouslogic,strikingoutastonishinglybrilliantbututterlyfantasticflashesofwit.3.Hedrawsthematerialofhis
figures of speech from highly unpoetical sourcespartly from the activities of everyday life, but especially from all the
sciences and schoolknowledge of the time. The material is abstract, but Donne gives it full poetic concrete
picturesqueness.Thushespeaksofonespiritovertakinganotheratdeathasonebulletshotoutofagunmayovertake
another which has lesser velocity but was earlier discharged. It was because of these last two characteristics that Dr.
Johnson applied to Donne and his followers the rather clumsy name of 'Metaphysical' (Philosophical) poets. 'Fantastic'
wouldhavebeenabetterword.4.Invigorousreactionagainstthesometimesnervelessmelodyofmostcontemporary
poets Donne often makes his verse as ruggedly condensed (often as obscure) and as harsh as possible. Its wrenched
accentsandslurredsyllablessometimesappearabsolutelyunmetrical,butitseemsthatDonnegenerallyfollowedsubtle
rhythmical ideas of his own. He adds to the appearance of irregularity by experimenting with a large number of lyric
stanzaformsadifferentform,infact,fornearlyeverypoem.5.Inhislovepoems,whilehissentimentisoftenPetrarchan,
heoftenemphasizesalsotheEnglishnoteofindependence,takingasafavoritethemetheincredibleficklenessofwoman.
InspiritDonnebelongsmuchlesstoElizabethanpoetrythantothefollowingperiod,inwhichnearlyhalfhislifefell.Ofhis
greatinfluenceonthepoetryofthatperiodweshallspeakintheproperplace.

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Theinfluenceofclassicalcomedyandtragedy
InChapterIVweleftthedramaatthatpoint,towardthemiddleofthesixteenthcentury,whentheMysteryPlayshad
largely declined and Moralities and InterludeFarces, themselves decadent, were sharing in rather confused rivalry that
degreeofpopularinterestwhichremainedunabsorbedbythereligious,political,andsocialferment.Therewasstilltobe
aperiodofthirtyorfortyyearsbeforethefloweringofthegreatElizabethandrama,buttheyweretobeyearsofnew,if
uncertain,beginnings.
The first new formative force was the influence of the classical drama, for which, with other things classical, the
Renaissance had aroused enthusiasm. This force operated mainly not through writers for popular audiences, like the
authorsofmostMoralitiesandInterludes,butthroughmenoftheschoolsandtheuniversities,writingforperformances
intheirowncirclesorinthatoftheCourt.Ithadnowbecomeanotuncommonthingforboysatthelargeschoolstoactin
regulardramaticfashion,atfirstinLatin,afterwardinEnglishtranslation,someoftheplaysoftheLatincomedianswhich
had long formed a part of the schoolcurriculum.Shortly after the middle of thecentury,probably, the headmaster of
WestministerSchool,NicholasUdall,tookthefurtherstepofwritingforhisboysontheclassicalmodelanoriginalfarce
comedy, the amusing 'Ralph Roister Doister.' This play is so close a copy of Plautus' 'Miles Gloriosus' and Terence's
'Eunuchus'thatthereislittlethatisreallyEnglishaboutit;amuchlargerelementoflocalrealismofthetraditionalEnglish
sort, in a classical framework, was presented in the coarse but really skillful 'Gammer Gurton's Needle,' which was
probablywrittenataboutthesametime,apparentlybytheCambridgestudentWilliamStevenson.
Meanwhile students at the universities, also, had been acting Plautus and Terence, and further, had been writing and
actingLatintragedies,aswellascomedies,oftheirowncomposition.Theirchiefmodelsfortragedyweretheplaysofthe
firstcentury Roman Seneca, who may or may not have been identical with the philosopher who was the tutor of the
EmperorNero.Boththroughtheseuniversityimitationsanddirectly,Seneca'sveryfaultyplayscontinuedformanyyears
toexerciseagreatinfluenceonEnglishtragedy.FallingfarshortofthenoblespiritofGreektragedy,whichtheyinturn
attempttocopy,Seneca'splaysdoobserveitsmechanicalconventions,especiallytheunitiesofActionandTime,theuse
of the chorus to comment on the action, the avoidance of violent action and deaths on the stage, and the use of
messengerstoreportsuchevents.Forproperdramaticactiontheylargelysubstituterantingmoralizingdeclamation,with
crudelyexaggeratedpassion,andtheyexhibitagreatveinofmelodramatichorror,forinstanceinthefrequentuseofthe
motiveofimplacablerevengeformurderandofaghostwhoincitestoit.IntheearlyElizabethanperiod,however,anage
when life itself was dramatically intense and tragic, when everything classic was looked on with reverence, and when
standardsoftastewereunformed,itwasnaturalenoughthatsuchplaysshouldpassformasterpieces.
A direct imitation of Seneca, famous as the first tragedy in English on classical lines, was the 'Gorboduc, or Ferrex and
Porrex,'ofThomasNortonandThomasSackville,actedin1562.Itsstory,likethoseofsomeofShakespeare'splayslater,
goesbackultimatelytotheaccountofoneoftheearlyreignsinGeoffreyofMonmouth's'History.''Gorboduc'outdoesits
Senecanmodelsintediousmoralizing,andispainfullywoodeninallrespects;butithasrealimportancenotonlybecause
it is the first regular English tragedy, but because it was the first play to use the iambic pentameter blank verse which
Surrey had introduced to English poetry and which was destined to be the verseform of really great English tragedy.
When they wrote the play Norton and Sackville were law students at the Inner Temple, and from other law students
during the following years came other plays, which were generally acted at festival seasons, such, as Christmas, at the
lawyers' colleges, or before the Queen, though the common people were also admitted among the audience. Unlike
'Gorboduc,'theseotheruniversityplayswerenotonlyforthemostpartcrudeandcoarseinthesamemannerasearlier
Englishplays,butinaccordancealsowiththenativeEnglishtraditionandinviolentdefianceoftheclassicalprincipleof
Unity, they generally combined tragical classical stories with realistic scenes of English comedy (somewhat later with
Italianstories).Nevertheless,andthisisthemainthing,themorethoughtfulmembersoftheCourtandUniversitycircles,
werenowlearningfromthestudyofclassicalplaysasenseforformandthefundamentaldistinctionbetweentragedyand
comedy.

Thechroniclehistoryplay
Abouttwentyyearsbeforetheendofthecenturytherebegantoappear,atfirstattheCourtandtheUniversities,lateron
the popular stage, a form of play which was to hold, along with tragedy and comedy, an important place in the great
decadesthatweretofollow,namelytheChronicleHistoryPlay.Thisformofplaygenerallypresentedthechiefeventsin
the whole ora part of the reign of someEnglish king. It was largely aproduct of the pride whichwas being awakened
amongthepeopleinthegreatnessofEnglandunderElizabeth,andoftheconsequentdesiretoknowsomethingofthe
pasthistoryofthecountry,anditreceivedagreatimpulsefromtheenthusiasmarousedbythestrugglewithSpainand
the defeat of the Armada. It was not, however, altogether a new creation, for its method was similar to that of the
university plays which dealt with monarchs of classical history. It partly inherited from them the formless mixture of

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farcicalhumorwithhistoricalorsupposedlyhistoricalfactwhichitsharedwithotherplaysofthetime,andsometimes
alsoanunusuallyrecklessdisregardofunityofaction,time,andplace.Sinceitsmainseriouspurpose,whenithadone,
wastoconveyinformation,theotherchiefdramaticprinciples,suchascarefulpresentationofafewmaincharactersand
ofauniversallysignificanthumanstruggle,werealsogenerallydisregarded.ItwasonlyinthehandsofShakespearethat
the species was to be moulded into true dramatic form and to attain real greatness; and after a quarter century of
popularityitwastobereabsorbedintotragedy,ofwhichinfactitwasalwaysonlyaspecialvariety.

JohnLyly
ThefirstElizabethandramatistofpermanentindividualimportanceisthecomedianJohnLyly,ofwhoseearlysuccessat
Courtwiththeartificialromance'Euphues'wehavealreadyspoken.From'Euphues'Lylyturnedtothestillmorepromising
workofwritingcomediesfortheCourtentertainmentswithwhichQueenElizabethwasextremelylavish.Thecharacterof
Lyly'splayswaslargelydeterminedbythelightandspectacularnatureoftheseentertainments,andfurtherbythefact
that on most occasions the players at Court were boys. These were primarily the 'children [choirboys] of the Queen's
Chapel,' who for some generations had been sought out from all parts of England for their good voices and were very
carefullytrainedforsingingandfordramaticperformances.ThechoirboysofSt.Paul'sCathedral,similarlytrained,also
oftenactedbeforetheQueen.Manyoftheplaysgivenbytheseboyswereoftheordinarysorts,butitisevidentthatthey
wouldbemostsuccessfulindaintycomediesespeciallyadaptedtotheirboyishcapacity.SuchcomediesLylyproceededto
write,inprose.ThesubjectsarefromclassicalmythologyorhistoryorEnglishfolklore,intowhichLylysometimesweaves
anallegoricalpresentationofcourtintrigue.Theplotsareveryslight,andthoughthestructureisdecidedlybetterthanin
mostpreviousplays,thehumoroussubactionssometimeshavelittleconnectionwiththemainaction.Characterizationis
stillrudimentary,andaltogethertheplayspresentnotsomuchapictureofrealityas'afaintmoonlightreflectionoflife.'
None the less the best of them, such as 'Alexander and Campaspe,' are delightful in their sparkling delicacy, which is
produced partly by the carefullywrought style, similar to that of 'Euphues,' but less artificial, and is enhanced by the
charming lyrics which are scattered through them. For all this the elaborate scenery and costuming of the Court
entertainmentsprovidedaveryharmoniousbackground.
These plays were to exert a strong influence on Shakespeare's early comedies, probably suggesting to him: the use of
proseforcomedy;thevalueofsnappyandwittydialog;refinement,aswellasaffectation,ofstyle;lyricatmosphere;the
charactersandtoneofhighcomedy,contrastingsofavorablywiththeusualcoarsefarceoftheperiod;andfurthersuch
detailsastheemploymentofimpudentboypagesasasourceofamusement.

Peele,Greene,AndKyd
OfthemostimportantearlycontemporariesofShakespearewehavealreadymentionedtwoasnoteworthyinotherfields
ofliterature.GeorgePeele'smasquelike'ArraignmentofParis'helpstoshowhimasmorealyricpoetthanadramatist.
Robert Greene's plays, especially 'Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay,' reveal, like his novels, some real, though not very
elaborate,power of characterization. They are especially important indeveloping the theme of romantic love with real
finenessoffeelingandthushelpingtopreparethewayforShakespeareinaveryimportantparticular.Inmarkedcontrast
to these men is Thomas Kyd, who about the year 1590 attained a meteoric reputation with crude 'tragedies of blood,'
specializeddescendants of Senecan tragedy, one of which mayhavebeen the earlyplay on Hamlet which Shakespeare
usedasthegroundworkforhismasterpiece.

ChristopherMarlowe,15641593
PeeleandGreenewereUniversitymenwhowrotepartlyforCourtoracademicaudiences,partlyforthepopularstage.
ThedistinctionbetweenthetwosortsofdramawasstillfurtherbrokendownintheworkofChristopherMarlowe,apoet
of real genius, decidedly the chief dramatist among Shakespeare's early contemporaries, and the one from whom
Shakespearelearnedthemost.
Marlowe wasborn in 1564 (the sameyear as Shakespeare), the son of a shoemakerat Canterbury. Takinghis master's
degree after seven years at Cambridge, in 1587, he followed the other 'university wits' to London. There, probably the
sameyearandthenext,heastonishedthepublicwiththetwopartsof'TamburlainetheGreat,'adramatizationofthe
stupendous career of the bloodthirsty Mongol fourteenthcentury conqueror. These plays, in spite of faults now
conspicuousenough,aresplendidlyimaginativeandpoetic,andwerebyfarthemostpowerfulthathadyetbeenwritten
inEngland.Marlowefollowedthemwith'TheTragicalHistoryofDr.Faustus,'atreatmentofthemedievalstorywhichtwo
hundred years later was to serve Goethe for his masterpiece; with 'The Jew of Malta,' which was to give Shakespeare
suggestions for 'The Merchant of Venice'; and with 'Edward the Second,' the first really artistic Chronicle History play.

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Among the literary adventurers ofthe age who led wildlives in the London tavernsMarlowe is said tohave attaineda
conspicuous reputation for violence and irreligion. He was killed in 1593 in a reckless and foolish brawl, before he had
reachedtheageofthirty.
IfMarlowe'slifewasunworthy,thefaultmustbelaidratheratthedoorofcircumstancesthanofhisowngenuinenature.
Hisplaysshowhimtohavebeenanardentidealistandarepresentativeofmanyofthequalitiesthatmadethegreatness
oftheRenaissance.TheRenaissancelearning,theapparentlyboundlessvistaswhichithadopenedtothehumanspirit,
andtheconsciousnessofhisownpower,evidentlyintoxicatedMarlowewithavastambitiontoachieveresultswhichin
hisyouthfulinexperiencehecouldscarcelyevenpicturetohimself.Hisspirit,crampedandoutragedbytheimpassable
limitationsofhumanlifeandbytheconventionsofsociety,beatrecklesslyagainstthemwithanimpatiencefruitlessbut
partly grand. This is the underlying spirit of almost all his plays, struggling in them for expression. The Prolog to
'Tamburlaine' makes pretentious announcement that the author will discard the usual buffoonery of the popular stage
andwillsetanewstandardoftragicmajesty:
Fromjiggingveinsofrhymingmotherwits,
Andsuchconceitsasclownagekeepsinpay,
We'llleadyoutothestatelytentofwar,
WhereyoushallheartheScythianTamburlaine
Threateningtheworldwithhighastoundingterms,
Andscourgingkingdomswithhisconqueringsword.
TamburlainehimselfasMarlowepresentshimisatitanic,almostsuperhuman,figurewhobysheercourageandpitiless
unbending will raises himself from shepherd to general and then emperor of countless peoples, and sweeps like a
whirlwind over the stage of the world, carrying everywhere overwhelming slaughter and desolation. His speeches are
outburstsofincrediblearrogance,equallypowerfulandbombastic.Indeedhisblasphemousboastsofsuperioritytothe
gods seem almost justified by his apparently irresistible success. But at the end he learns that the laws of life are
inexorable even for him; all his indignant rage cannot redeem his son from cowardice, or save his wife from death, or
delayhisownend.Ashasbeensaid,
[Footnote: Professor Barrett Wendell, 'William Shakespeare,' p. 36.] 'Tamburlaine' expresses with 'a profound, lasting,
noble sense and in grandly symbolic terms, the eternal tragedy inherent in the conflict between human aspiration and
humanpower.'
Forseveralotherreasons'Tamburlaine'isofhighimportance.Itgivesrepeatedandsplendidexpressiontothepassionate
hauntingRenaissancezestforthebeautiful.Itisrichwithextravagantsensuousdescriptions,notableamongthosewhich
aboundgorgeouslyinallElizabethanpoetry.ButfinestofallisthedescriptionofbeautybyitseffectswhichMarloweputs
intothemouthofFaustusatthesightofHelenofTroy:
Wasthisthefacethatlaunchedathousandships
AndburntthetoplesstowersofIlium?
MuchofMarlowe'sstrength,again,liesinhispowerfulandbeautifuluseofblankverse.Firstamongthedramatistsofthe
popularstagehediscardedrime,andtakingandvitalizingthestiffpentameterlineof
'Gorboduc,'gaveitanimmediateandlastingvoguefortragedyandhighcomedy.Marlowe,virtuallyabeginner,couldnot
beexpectedtocarryblankversetothatperfectionwhichhissuccessmadepossibleforShakespeare;hedidnotaltogether
escapemonotonyandcommonplaceness;buthegainedahighdegreeofflexibilityandbeautybyavoidingaregularlyend
stopped arrangement, by taking pains to secure variety of pause and accent, and by giving his language poetic
condensation and suggestiveness. His workmanship thoroughly justifies the characterization 'Marlowe's mighty line,'
whichBenJonsoninhistributetoShakespearebestowedonitlongafterMarlowe'sdeath.
Thegreatestsignificanceof'Tamburlaine,'lastly,liesinthefactthatitdefinitelyestablishedtragedyasadistinctformon
theEnglishpopularstage,andinvesteditwithproperdignity.
TheseareMarlowe'sgreatachievementsbothin'Tamburlaine'andinhislatermorerestrainedplays.Hislimitationsmust
alsobesuggested.LikeotherElizabethanshedidnotfullyunderstandthedistinctionbetweendramaandotherliterary
forms; 'Tamburlaine' isnot so much a regularly constructed tragedy, with a struggle betweennearly equalpersons and
forces,artisticallycomplicatedandresolved,asanepicpoem,asuccessionofadventuresinwar(andlove).Again,inspite
oftheprologin'Tamburlaine,'Marlowe,inalmostallhisplays,andfollowingtheElizabethancustom,doesattemptscenes

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ofhumor,butheattainsonlytothecoarseandbrutalhorseplayatwhichtheEnglishaudienceshadlaughedforcenturies
intheMysteryplaysandtheInterludes.Elizabethanalso(andbeforethatmedieval)isthelackofhistoricalperspective
whichgivestoMongolshepherdsthemannersandspeechofGreekclassicalantiquityasMarlowehadlearnedtoknowit
attheuniversity.Moreseriousisthelackofmatureskillincharacterization.Tamburlainethemanisanexaggeratedtype;
mostofthemenabouthimarehisfaintshadows,andthosewhoareintendedtobecomicarepreposterous.Thewomen,
thoughtheyhavesomedifferentiatingtouches,arecertainlynotmoredramaticallyandvitallyimagined.Inhislaterplays
Marlowe makes gains in this respect, but he never arrives at full easy mastery and trenchantly convincing lifelikeness
either in characterization, in presentation of action, or in fine poetic finish. It has often been remarked that at the age
when Marlowe died Shakespeare had produced not one of the great plays on which his reputation rests; but
Shakespeare's genius came to maturity more surely, as well as more slowly, and there is no basis for the inference
sometimes drawn that if Marlowe had lived he would ever have equalled or even approached Shakespere's supreme
achievement.

Theatricalconditionsandthetheaterbuildings
Before we pass to Shakespeare we must briefly consider those external facts which conditioned the form of the
Elizabethanplaysandexplainmanyofthosethingsinthemwhichatthepresenttimeappearperplexing.
TIMONOFATHENS,v,4.OUTERSCENE.
Trumpetssound.EnterAlcibiadeswithhisPowersbeforeAthens.
"Alc.SoundtothisCoward,andlasciviousTowne,Ourterribleapproach."
Soundsaparly.TheSenatorsappearsupontheWals.

AnElizabethanstage
The medieval religious drama had been written and acted in many towns throughout the country, and was a far less
importantfeatureinthelifeofLondonthanofmanyotherplaces.Butasthecapitalbecamemoreandmorethecenterof
nationallife,thedrama,withotherformsofliterature,wasmorelargelyappropriatedbyit;theElizabethandramaofthe
greatperiodwasaltogetherwritteninLondonandbelongeddistinctlytoit.Untilwellintotheseventeenthcentury,tobe
sure,theLondoncompaniesmadefrequenttoursthroughthecountry,butthatwaschieflywhentheprevalenceofthe
plague had necessitated the closing of the London theaters or when for other reasons acting there had become
temporarilyunprofitable. The companies themselves had now assumed a regular organization. They retained a traceof
theirorigininthateachwasundertheprotectionofsomeinfluentialnobleandwascalled,forexample,'LordLeicester's
Servants,' or 'The Lord Admiral's Servants.' But this connection was for the most part nominalthe companies were
virtually very much like the stockcompanies of the nineteenth century. By the beginning of the great period the
membershipofeachtroupewasmadeupofatleastthreeclassesofpersons.Atthebottomofthescaleweretheboy
apprentices who were employed, as Shakespeare is said to have been at first, in miscellaneous menial capacities. Next
camethepaidactors;andlastlytheshareholders,generallyalsoactors,someorallofwhomwerethegeneralmanagers.
The writers of plays were sometimes members of the companies, as in Shakespeare's case; sometimes, however, they
wereindependent.
UntilnearthemiddleofElizabeth'sreigntherewerenospecialtheaterbuildings,buttheplayers,inLondonorelsewhere,
actedwherevertheycouldfindanavailableplaceinopensquares,largehalls,or,especially,inthequadrangularopen
inner yards of inns. As the profession became better organized and as the plays gained in quality, such makeshift
accommodationsbecamemoreandmoreunsatisfactory;buttherewerespecialdifficultiesinthewayofsecuringbetter
ones in London. For the population and magistrates of London were prevailingly Puritan, and the great body of the
Puritans,thenasalways,werestronglyopposedtothetheaterasafrivolousandirreligiousthinganattitudeforwhich
thelivesoftheplayersandthecharacterofmanyplaysafforded,thenasalmostalways,onlytoomuchreason.Thecity
wasveryjealousofitsprerogatives;sothatinspiteofQueenElizabeth'sstrongpatronageofthedrama,throughouther
whole reign no public theater buildings were allowed within the limits of the city corporation. But these limits were
narrow,andin1576JamesBurbageinauguratedanewerabyerecting'TheTheater'justtothenorthofthe'city,'onlya
fewminutes'walkfromthecenterofpopulation.Hisexamplewassoonfollowedbyothermanagers,thoughthefavorite
place for the theaters soon came to be the 'Bankside,' the region in Southwark just across the Thames from the 'city'
whereChaucer'sTabardInnhadstoodandwherepitsforbearbaitingandcockfightinghadlongflourished.
ThestructureoftheElizabethantheaterwasnaturallyimitatedfromitschiefpredecessor,theinnyard.There,underthe
opensky,oppositethestreetentrance,theplayershadbeenaccustomedtosetuptheirstage.Aboutit,onthreesides,
theordinarypartoftheaudiencehadstoodduringtheperformance,whiletheinnguestsandpersonsabletopayafixed

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pricehadsatintheopengallerieswhichlinedthebuildingandranallaroundtheyard.Inthetheaters,therefore,atfirst
generallysquarebuiltoroctagonal,thestageprojectedfromtherearwallwelltowardthecenterofanunroofedpit(the
presentday'orchestra'),where,stillonthreesidesofthestage,thecommonpeople,admittedforsixpenceorless,stood
andjostledeachother,eithergoinghomewhenitrainedorstayingandgettingwetasthedegreeoftheirinterestinthe
play might determine. The enveloping building proper was occupied with tiers of galleries, generally two or three in
number, provided with seats; and here, of course, sat the people of means, the women avoiding embarrassment and
annoyanceonlybybeingalwaysmasked.Behindtheunprotectedfrontpartofthestagethemiddlepartwascoveredbya
leantoroofslopingdownfromtherearwallofthebuildingandsupportedbytwopillarsstandingonthestage.Thisroof
concealedaloft,fromwhichgodsandgoddessesoranyappropriatepropertiescouldbeletdownbymechanicaldevices.
Stillfartherback,underthegalleries,wasthe'rearstage,'whichcouldbeusedtorepresentinnerrooms;andthatpartof
thelowergalleryimmediatelyaboveitwasgenerallyappropriatedasapartofthestage,representingsuchplacesascity
wallsorthesecondstoriesofhouses.Themusicians'placewasalsojustbesideinthegallery.
Thestage,therefore,wasa'platformstage,'seenbytheaudiencefromalmostallsides,not,asinourowntime,a'picture
stage,'withitsscenesviewedthroughasinglelargeframe.Thisarrangementmadeimpossibleanyfrontcurtain,thougha
curtainwasgenerallyhungbeforetherearstage,fromthefloorofthegallery.Hencethechangesbetweenscenesmust
generallybemadeinfullviewoftheaudience,andinsteadofendingthesceneswithstrikingsituationsthedramatists
mustarrangeforawithdrawaloftheactors,onlyavoidingifpossibletheeffectofamereanticlimax.Deadbodiesmust
either get up and walk away in plain sight or be carried off, either by stage hands, or, as part of the action, by other
characters in the play. This latter device was sometimes adopted at considerable violence to probability, as when
Shakespeare makes Falstaff bear away Hotspur, and Hamlet, Polonius. Likewise, while the medieval habit of elaborate
costumingwascontinued,therewaseveryreasonforadheringtothemedievalsimplicityofscenery.Asinglepottedtree
mightsymbolizeaforest,andhousesandcaverns,withagreatdealelse,mightbelefttotheimaginationoftheaudience.
In no respect, indeed, was realism of setting an important concern of either dramatist or audience; in many cases,
evidently, neither of them cared to think of a scene as located in any precise spot; hence the anxious effort of
Shakespeare's editors on this point is beside the mark. This nonchalance made for easy transition from one place to
another, and the whole simplicity of staging had the important advantage of allowing the audience to center their
attention on the play rather than on the accompaniments. On the rearstage, however, behind the curtain, more
elaboratescenerymightbeplaced,andElizabethanplays,likethoseofourownday,seemsometimestohave'alternation
scenes,'intendedtobeactedinfront,whilethenextbackgroundwasbeingpreparedbehindthebalconycurtain.Thelack
ofelaboratesettingsalsofacilitatedrapidityofaction,andtheplays,beginningatthreeintheafternoon,wereordinarily
over by the dinnerhour of five. Less satisfactory was the entire absence of womenactors, who did not appear on the
publicstageuntilaftertheRestorationof1660.Theinadequacyoftheboyswhotookthepartofthewomencharactersis
alludedtobyShakespeareandmusthavebeenasourceoffrequentirritationtoanydramatistwhowasattemptingto
presentasubtleorcomplexheroine.
Lastlymaybementionedthepicturesquebutveryobjectionablecustomoftheyoungdandieswhoinsistedoncarrying
theirchairsontothesidesofthestageitself,wheretheynotonlymadethemselvesconspicuousobjectsofattentionbut
seriouslycrowdedtheactorsandrudelyabusedthemiftheplaywasnottotheirliking.Itshouldbeaddedthatfromthe
latterpartofElizabeth'sreignthereexistedwithinthecityitselfcertain'private'theaters,usedbytheboys'companies
andothers,whosestructurewasmorelikethatofthetheatersofourowntimeandwhereplaysweregivenbyartificial
light.

Shakespeare,15641616
WilliamShakespeare,byuniversalconsentthegreatestauthorofEngland,ifnotoftheworld,occupieschronologicallya
central position in the Elizabethan drama. He was born in 1564 in the goodsized village of StratfordonAvon in
Warwickshire, near the middle of England, where the level but beautiful country furnished full external stimulus for a
poet's eye and heart. His father, John Shakespeare, who was a general dealer in agricultural products and other
commodities, was one of the chief citizens of the village, and during his son's childhood was chosen an alderman and
shortlyaftermayor,asweshouldcallit.Butby1577hisprosperitydeclined,apparentlythroughhisownshiftlessness,and
formanyyearshewasharassedwithlegaldifficulties.Inthevillage'grammar'schoolWilliamShakespearehadacquired
therudimentsofbookknowledge,consistinglargelyofLatin,buthischiefeducationwasfromNatureandexperience.As
hisfather'stroublesthickenedhewasverylikelyremovedfromschool,butattheageofeighteen,undercircumstances
not altogether creditable to himself, he married Anne Hathaway, a woman eight years his senior, who lived in the
neighboring village of Shottery. The suggestion that the marriage proved positively unhappy is supported by no real
evidence,butwhatlittleisknownofShakespeare'slaterlifeimpliesthatitwasnotexceptionallycongenial.Twogirlsand
aboywerebornfromit.

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Inhisearlymanhood,apparentlybetween1586and1588,ShakespeareleftStratfordtoseekhisfortuneinLondon.Asto
thecircumstances,thereisreasonableplausibilityinthelatertraditionthathehadjoinedinpoachingraidsonthedeer
park of Sir Thomas Lucy, a neighboring country gentleman, and found it desirable to get beyond the bounds of that
gentleman's authority. It is also likely enough that Shakespeare had been fascinated by the performances of traveling
dramatic companies at Stratford and by the Earl of Leicester's costly entertainment of Queen Elizabeth in 1575 at the
castleofKenilworth,notmanymilesaway.Atanyrate,inLondonheevidentlysoonsecuredmechanicalemploymentina
theatricalcompany,presumablytheonethenknownasLordLeicester'scompany,withwhich,inthatcase,hewasalways
thereafterconnected.Hisenergyandinterestmustsoonhavewonhimtheopportunitytoshowhisskillasactorandalso
reviserandcollaboratorinplaywriting,thenasindependentauthor;andafterthefirstfewyearsofslowprogresshisrise
was rapid. Hebecame one of the leadingmembers, later one ofthe chief shareholders, of the company,and evidently
enjoyeda substantial reputation as aplaywright and a good, thoughnot a great,actor. This wasboth at Court(where,
however,actorshadnosocialstanding)andintheLondondramaticcircle.Ofhispersonallifeonlythemostfragmentary
recordhasbeenpreserved,throughoccasionalmentionsinmiscellaneousdocuments,butitisevidentthathisrichnature
waspartlyappreciatedandthoroughlylovedbyhisassociates.Hisbusinesstalentwasmarkedandbeforetheendofhis
dramatic career he seems to have been receiving as manager, shareholder, playwright and actor, a yearly income
equivalentto$25,000inmoneyofthepresenttime.Heearlybegantodevoteattentiontopayingthedebtsofhisfather,
wholiveduntil1601,andrestoringthefortunesofhisfamilyinStratford.Thedeathofhisonlyson,Hamnet,in1596,must
have been a severe blow to him, but he obtained from the Heralds' College the grant of a family coat of arms, which
securedthepositionofthefamilyasgentlefolks;in1597hepurchasedNewPlace,thelargesthouseinStratford;andlater
onheacquiredotherlargepropertyrightsthere.HowoftenhemayhavevisitedStratfordinthetwentyfiveyearsofhis
career in London we have no information; but however enjoyable London life and the society of the writers at the
'Mermaid' Tavern may have been to him, he probably always looked forward to ending his life as the chief country
gentlemanofhisnativevillage.Thitherheretiredabout1610or1612,andtherehediedprematurelyin1616,justashe
wascompletinghisfiftysecondyear.
Shakespeare'sdramaticcareerfallsnaturallyintofoursuccessivedivisionsofincreasingmaturity.Tobesure,nodefinite
recordoftheorderofhisplayshascomedowntous,anditcanscarcelybesaidthatwecertainlyknowtheexactdateofa
singleoneofthem;buttheevidenceofthetitlepagedatesofsuchofthemaswerehastilypublishedduringhislifetime,
ofallusionstotheminotherwritingsofthetime,andotherscatteringfactsofonesortoranother,joinedwiththemore
importantinternalevidenceofcomparativematurityofmindandartwhichshows'Macbeth'and'TheWinter'sTale,'for
example, vastly superior to 'Love's Labour's Lost'all this evidence together enables us to arrange the plays in a
chronological order which is certainly approximately correct. The first of the four periods thus disclosed is that of
experimentandpreparation,fromabout1588toabout1593,whenShakespearetriedhishandatvirtuallyeverycurrent
kindofdramaticwork.Itsmostimportantproductis'RichardIII,'amelodramaticchroniclehistoryplay,largelyimitativeof
Marloweandyetshowingstrikingpower.AttheendofthisperiodShakespeareissuedtworatherlongnarrativepoemson
classicalsubjects,'VenusandAdonis,'and'TheRapeofLucrece,'dedicatingthembothtotheyoungEarlofSouthampton,
whothusappearsashispatron.BothdisplaygreatfluencyinthemostluxuriantandsensuousRenaissancemanner,and
thoughtheyappeallittletothetasteofthepresentday'VenusandAdonis,'inparticular,seemstohavebecomeatonce
the most popular poem of its own time. Shakespeare himself regarded them very seriously, publishing them with care,
thoughhe,likemostElizabethandramatists,neverthoughtitworthwhiletoputhisplaysintoprintexcepttosafeguard
thepropertyrightsofhiscompanyinthem.Probablyatabouttheendofhisfirstperiod,also,hebeganthecomposition
ofhissonnets,ofwhichwehavealreadyspoken.
ThesecondperiodofShakespeare'swork,extendingfromabout1594toabout1601,isoccupiedchieflywithchronicle
history plays and happy comedies. The chroniclehistoryplays begin (probably) withthe subtile and fascinating,though
notyetabsolutelymasterfulstudyofcontrastingcharactersin'RichardII';continuethroughthetwopartsof'HenryIV,'
where the realistic comedy action of Falstaff and his group makes history familiarly vivid; and end with the epic
glorificationofatypicalEnglishherokingin'HenryV.'Thecomediesincludethecharminglyfantastic'MidsummerNight's
Dream'; 'The Merchant of Venice,' where a story of tragic sternness is strikingly contrasted with the most poetical
idealizing romance and yet is harmoniously blended into it; 'Much Ado About Nothing,' a magnificent example of high
comedyofcharacterandwit;'AsYouLikeIt,'thesupremedelightfulachievementofElizabethanandallEnglishpastoral
romance;and'TwelfthNight,'whereagaincharmingromanticsentimentismadebelievablebycombinationwithastory
ofcomicrealism.Evenintheone,unique,tragedyoftheperiod,'RomeoandJuliet,'themainimpressionisnotthatofthe
predestined tragedy, but that of ideal youthful love, too gloriously radiant to be viewed with sorrow even in its fatal
outcome.
The third period, extending from about 1601 to about 1609, includes Shakespeare's great tragedies and certain cynical
plays,whichformalclassificationmisnamescomedies.IntheseplaysasagroupShakespearesetshimselftograpplewith
thedeepestanddarkestproblemsofhumancharacterandlife;butitisonlyveryuncertaininferencethathewashimself
passingatthistimethroughaperiodofbitternessanddisillusion.

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'Julius Casar' presents the material failure of an unpractical idealist (Brutus); 'Hamlet' the struggle of a perplexed and
dividedsoul;'Othello'theruinofanoblelifebyanevilonethroughtheterriblepowerofjealousy;'KingLear'unnatural
ingratitudeworkingitshatefulwillandyetthwartedattheendbyitsownexcessandbyfaithfullove;and
'Macbeth'thedestructionofalargenaturebymaterialambition.Withoutdoubtthisisthegreatestcontinuousgroupof
playseverwroughtoutbyahumanmind,andtheyarefollowedby'AntonyandCleopatra,'whichmagnificentlyportrays
theemptinessofasensualpassionagainstthebackgroundofadecayingcivilization.
Shakespearedidnotsolvetheinsolubleproblemsoflife,buthavingpresentedthemaspowerfully,perhaps,asispossible
forhumanintelligence,heturnedinhislastperiod,ofonlytwoorthreeyears,totheexpressionoftheserenephilosophy
of life in which he himself must have now taken refuge. The noble and beautiful romancecomedies, 'Cymbeline,' 'The
Winter's Tale,' and'The Tempest,' suggestthat men do best to forgetwhat is painful andcenter their attentionon the
pleasing and encouraging things in a world where there is at least an inexhaustible store of beauty and goodness and
delight.
Shakespeare may now well have felt, as his retirement to Stratford suggests, that in his nearly forty plays he had fully
expressedhimselfandhadearnedtherighttoalongandpeacefuloldage.Thelatter,aswehaveseen,wasdeniedhim;
but seven years after his death two of his fellowmanagers assured the preservation of the plays whose unique
importancehehimselfdidnotsuspectbycollectingtheminthefirstfolioeditionofhiscompletedramaticworks.
Shakespeare'sgreatnessrestsonsupremeachievementtheresultofthehighestgeniusmaturedbyexperienceandby
carefulexperimentandlaborinallphasesoftheworkofapoeticdramatist.Thesurpassingcharmofhisrenderingofthe
romanticbeautyandjoyoflifeandtheprofundityofhispresentationofitstragicsidewehavealreadysuggested.Equally
sureandcomprehensiveishisportrayalofcharacters.Withthecertaintyofabsolutemasteryhecausesmenandwomen
toliveforus,avastrepresentativegroup,inalltheactualvarietyofageandstation,perfectlyrealizedinallthesubtile
diversities and inconsistencies of protean human nature. Not less notable than his strong men are his delightful young
heroines,romanticElizabethanheroines,tobesure,withanunconventionality,manyofthem,whichdoesnotbelongto
suchwomeninthemorerestrictedworldofreality,butpureembodimentsofthefinestwomanlydelicacy,keenness,and
vivacity.Shakespeare,itistrue,wasapracticaldramatist.Hisbackgroundcharactersareoftenpresentintheplaysnotin
ordertobeentirelyrealbutinordertofurnishamusement;andeveninthecaseofthechiefones,justasinthetreatment
of incidents, he is always perfectly ready to sacrifice literal truth to dramatic effect. But these things are only the
corollariesofallsuccessfulplaywritingandofallart.
To Shakespeare's mastery of poetic expression similarly strong superlatives must be applied. For his form he perfected
Marlowe'sblankverse,developingittothefarthestpossiblelimitsoffluency,variety,andmelody;thoughheretainedthe
rimingcoupletforoccasionaluse(partlyforthesakeofvariety)andfrequentlymadeusealsoofprose,bothforthesame
reasonandinrealisticorcommonplacescenes.Asregardsthespiritofpoetry,itscarcelyneedbesaidthatnowhereelse
in literature is there a like storehouse of the most delightful and the greatest ideas phrased with the utmost power of
condensedexpressionandfigurativebeauty.Indramaticstructurehisgreatnessisonthewholelessconspicuous.Writing
forsuccessontheElizabethanstage,heseldomattemptedtoreduceitsromanticlicensestotheperfectionofanabsolute
standard. 'Romeo and Juliet, 'Hamlet,' and indeed most of his plays, contain unnecessary scenes, interesting to the
Elizabethans,whichSophoclesaswellasRacinewouldhaveprunedaway.YetwhenShakespearechooses,asin'Othello,'
to develop a play with the sternest and most rapid directness, he proves essentially the equal even of the most rigid
technician.
Shakespeare,indeed,althoughasBenJonsonsaid,'hewasnotforanagebutforalltime,'wasineveryrespectathorough
Elizabethan also, and does not escape the superficial Elizabethan faults. Chief of these, perhaps, is his fondness for
'conceits,'withwhichhemakeshisplays,especiallysomeoftheearlierones,sparkle,brilliantly,butofteninappropriately.
In his prose style, again, except in the talk of commonplace persons, he never outgrew, or wished to outgrow, a large
measureofElizabethanselfconsciouselegance.ScarcelyafaultishisotherElizabethanhabitofseldom,perhapsnever,
inventingthewholeofhisstories,butdrawingtheoutlinesofthemfrompreviousworksEnglishchronicles,poems,or
plays, Italian 'novels,' or the biographies of Plutarch. But in the majority ofcases these sources provided him only with
bareorevencrudesketches,andperhapsnothingfurnishesclearerproofofhisgeniusthanthewayinwhichhehasseen
the human significance in stories baldly and wretchedly told, where the figures are merely wooden types, and by the
power of imagination has transformed them into the greatest literary masterpieces, profound revelations of the
underlyingforcesoflife.
Shakespeare, like every other great man,has beenthe object of muchunintelligent,and misdirected adulation, but his
greatness,sofarfromsufferingdiminution,growsmoreapparentwiththepassageoftimeandtheincreaseofstudy.

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[Note:ThetheorypersistentlyadvocatedduringthelasthalfcenturythatShakespeare'sworkswerereallywrittennotby
himselfbutbyFrancisBaconorsomeotherpersoncannevergaincredencewithanycompetentjudge.Ourknowledgeof
Shakespeare'slife,slightasitis,isreallyatleastasgreatasthatwhichhasbeenpreservedofalmostanydramatistofthe
period; for dramatists were not then looked on as persons of permanent importance. There is really much direct
contemporarydocumentaryevidence,aswehavealreadyindicated,ofShakespeare'sauthorshipoftheplaysandpoems.
No theory, further, could be more preposterous, to any one really acquainted with literature, than the idea that the
imaginativepoetryofShakespearewasproducedbytheessentiallyscientificandprosaicmindofFrancisBacon.Astothe
ciphersystemssupposedtorevealhiddenmessagesintheplays:First,nopoetbendinghisenergiestothecompositionof
such masterpieces as Shakespeare's could possibly concern himself at the same time with weaving into them a
complicatedandtriflingcryptogram.Second,theciphersystemsareabsolutelyarbitraryandunscientific,appliedtoany
writingswhatevercanbemadeto'prove'anythingthatonelikes,andindeedhavebeendiscreditedinthehandsoftheir
owninventorsbybeingmadeto'prove'fartoomuch.Third,ithasbeendemonstratedmorethanoncethattheverbal
coincidencesonwhichtheciphersystemsrestarenomorenumerousthanthelawofmathematicalprobabilitiesrequires.
Asidefromactuallyviciouspursuits,therecanbenomoremelancholywasteoftimethantheefforttodemonstratethat
Shakespeareisnottherealauthorofhisreputedworks.]

Nationallifefrom1603to1660
Wehavealreadyobservedthat,asShakespeare'scareersuggests,therewasnoabruptchangeineitherlifeorliteratureat
thedeathofQueenElizabethin1603;andinfacttheElizabethanperiodofliteratureisoftenmadetoincludethereignof
JamesI,16031625(theJacobeanperiod[Footnote:'Jaco'bus'istheLatinformof'James.']),oreven,especiallyinthecase
of the drama, that of Charles I, 16251649 (the Carolean period). Certainly the drama of all three reigns forms a
continuously developing whole, and should be discussed as such. None the less the spirit of the first half of the
seventeenthcenturycamegraduallytobewidelydifferentfromthatoftheprecedingfiftyyears,andbeforegoingonto
Shakespeare'ssuccessorswemuststoptoindicatebrieflywhereinthedifferenceconsistsandforthispurposetospeakof
thedeterminingeventsoftheperiod.BeforetheendofElizabeth'sreign,indeed,therehadbeenaperceptiblechange;as
thequeengrewoldandmorosethenationallifeseemedalsotoloseitsyouthandfreshness.Hersuccessoranddistant
cousin,JamesofScotland(JamesIofEngland),wasabigotedpedant,andunderhisruletheperennialCourtcorruption,
striking in, became foul and noisome. The national Church, instead of protesting, steadily identified itself more closely
withtheCourtparty,anditsrulingofficials,onthewhole,grewmoreandmoreworldlyandintolerant.Littlebylittlethe
nationfounditselfdividedintotwogreatfactions;ontheonehandtheCavaliers,thepartyoftheCourt,thenobles,and
theChurch,whocontinuedtobelargelydominatedbytheRenaissancezestforbeautyand,especially,pleasure;andon
the other hand the Puritans, comprising the bulk of the middle classes, controlled by the religious principles of the
Reformation, often, in their opposition to Cavalier frivolity, stern and narrow, and more and more inclined to separate
themselvesfromtheEnglishChurchindenominationsoftheirown.Thebreachsteadilywideneduntilin1642,underthe
arbitraryruleofCharlesI,theCivilWarbrokeout.InthreeyearsthePuritanParliamentwasvictorious,andin1649the
extrememinorityofthePuritans,supportedbythearmy,tooktheunprecedentedstepofputtingKingCharlestodeath,
anddeclaredEnglandaCommonwealth.ButinfouryearsmoretheParliamentarygovernment,bigotedandinefficient,
made itself impossible, and then for five years, until his death, Oliver Cromwell strongly ruled England as Protector.
Anotheryearandahalfofchaosconfirmedthenationinanaturalreaction,andin1660theunworthyStuartracewas
restored in the person of the base and frivolous Charles II. The general influence of the forces which produced these
events shows clearly in the changing tone of the drama, the work of those dramatists who were Shakespeare's later
contemporariesandsuccessors.

BenJonson
The second place among the Elizabethan and Jacobean dramatists is universally assigned, on the whole justly, to Ben
Jonson, who both in temperament and in artistic theories and practice presents a complete contrast to Shakespeare.
Jonson, the posthumous son of an impoverished gentlemanclergyman, was born in London in 1573. At Westminster
Schoolhereceivedapermanentbenttowardclassicalstudiesfromtheheadmaster,WilliamCamden,whowasoneofthe
greatestscholarsofthetime.Forcedintotheuncongenialtradeofhisstepfather,amasterbricklayer,hesoondesertedit
toenlistamongtheEnglishsoldierswhowerehelpingtheDutchtofighttheirSpanishoppressors.Hereheexhibitedsome
ofhisdominatingtraitsbychallengingachampionfromtheotherarmyandkillinghiminclassicalfashioninsinglecombat
betweenthelines.ByabouttheageoftwentyhewasbackinLondonandmarriedtoawifewhomhelaterdescribedas
being'virtuousbutashrew,'andwhoatonetimefounditmoreagreeabletoliveapartfromhim.Hebecameanactor(at
whichprofessionhefailed)andawriterofplays.About1598hedisplayedhisdistinguishingrealisticstyleinthecomedy
'Every Man in His Humour,' which was acted by Shakespeare's company, it is said through Shakespeare's friendly
influence.At about the same time the burly Jonson killed another actor in aduel and escapedcapital punishment only
through'benefitofclergy'(theexemptionstillallowedtoeducatedmen).

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TheplayswhichJonsonproducedduringthefollowingyearswerechieflysatiricalattacksonotherdramatists,especially
Marston and Dekker, who retorted in kind. Thus there developed a fierce actors' quarrel, referred to in Shakespeare's
'Hamlet,' in which the 'children's' companies had some active but now uncertain part. Before it was over most of the
dramatistshadtakensidesagainstJonson,whosearrogantandviolentselfassertivenessputhimatodds,soonerorlater,
withnearlyeveryonewithwhomhehadmuchtodo.In1603hemadepeace,onlytobecomeinvolvedinother,stillmore,
serious difficulties. Shortly after the accession of King James, Jonson, Chapman, and Marston brought out a comedy,
'Eastward Hoe,' in which they offended the king by satirical flings at the needy Scotsmen to whom James was freely
awardingCourtpositions.Theywereimprisonedandforawhile,accordingtothebarbarousprocedureofthetime,were
indangeroflosingtheirearsandnoses.Atabanquetcelebratingtheirrelease,Jonsonreports,his'oldmother'produced
apaperofpoisonwhich,ifnecessary,shehadintendedtoadministertohimtosavehimfromthisdisgrace,andofwhich,
shesaid,toshowthatshewas'nochurl,'shewouldherselffirsthavedrunk.
Justbeforethisincident,in1603,Jonsonhadturnedtotragedyandwritten'Sejanus,'whichmarksthebeginningofhis
most important decade. He followed up 'Sejanus' after several years with the less excellent 'Catiline,' but his most
significant dramatic works, on the whole, are his four great satirical comedies. 'Volpone, or the Fox,' assails gross vice;
'Epicoene,theSilentWoman,'ridiculesvarioussortsofabsurdpersons;'TheAlchemist'castigatesquackeryanditsfoolish
encouragers;and'BartholomewFair'isacoarsebutoverwhelmingbroadsideatPuritanhypocrisy.Strangeasitseemsin
theauthorofthesemasterpiecesoffrankrealism,Jonsonatthesametimewasshowinghimselfthemostgiftedwriterof
the Court masks, which now, arrived at the last period of their evolution, were reaching the extreme of spectacular
elaborateness.EarlyinJames'reign,therefore,JonsonwasmadeCourtPoet,andduringthenextthirtyyearsheproduced
about forty masks, devoting to them much attention and care, and quarreling violently with Inigo Jones, the Court
architect,whocontrivedthestagesettings.DuringthisperiodJonsonwasunderthepatronageofvariousnobles,andhe
alsoreignedasdictatorattheclubofliterarymenwhichSirWalterRaleighhadfoundedattheMermaidTavern(socalled,
like other inns, from its sign). A wellknown poetical letter of the dramatist Francis Beaumont to Jonson celebrates the
club meetings; and equallywell known isa descriptiongiven in the next generation from hearsayand inferenceby the
antiquary Thomas Fuller: 'Many were the witcombats betwixt Shakespeare and Ben Jonson, which two I behold like a
SpanishgreatgalleonandanEnglishmanofwar:MasterJonson,liketheformer,wasbuiltfarhigherinlearning;solid,but
slowinhisperformances;Shakespere,withtheEnglishmanofwar,lesserinbulk,butlighterinsailing,couldturnwithall
tides,tackaboutandtakeadvantageofallwinds,bythequicknessofhiswitandinvention.'
The last dozen years of Jonson's life were unhappy. Though he had a pension from the Court, he was sometimes in
financialstraits;andforatimehelosthispositionasCourtPoet.Heresumedthewritingofregularplays,buthisstyleno
longerpleasedthepublic;andheoftensufferedmuchfromsickness.NeverthelessattheDevilTavernhecollectedabout
him a circle of younger admirers, some of them among the oncoming poets, who were proud to be known as 'Sons of
Ben,'andwholargelyacceptedasauthoritativehisopinionsonliterarymatters.Thushislife,whichendedin1637,didnot
altogethergooutingloom.Ontheplainstonewhichalone,foralongtime,markedhisgraveinWestminsterAbbeyan
unknownadmirerinscribedthefamousepitaph,'OrareBenJonson.'
AsamanJonson,pugnacious,capricious,illmannered,sometimessurly,intemperateindrinkandinotherrespects,isan
object for only very qualified admiration; and as a writer he cannot properly be said to possess that indefinable thing,
genius,whichisessentialtothetruestgreatness.Butbothasmanandaswriterhemanifestedgreatforce;andinboth
dramaandpoetryhestandsforseveraldistinctliteraryprinciplesandattainmentshighlyimportantbothinthemselves
andfortheirsubsequentinfluence.
1.Mostconspicuousinhisdramasishisrealism,often,aswehavesaid,extremelycoarse,andadirectreflectionofhis
intellect,whichwasasstronglymasculineashisbodyandaltogetherlacking,wheretheregulardramawasconcerned,in
fineness of sentiment or poetic feeling. He early assumed an attitude of pronounced opposition to the Elizabethan
romantic plays, which seemed to him not only lawless in artistic structure but unreal and trifling in atmosphere and
substance. (That he was not, however, as has sometimes been said, personally hostile to Shakespeare is clear, among
otherthings,fromhispoetictributesinthefolioeditionofShakespeareandfromhisdirectstatementelsewherethathe
loved Shakespeare almost to idolatry.) Jonson's purpose was to present life as he believed it to be; he was thoroughly
acquaintedwithitsworserside;andherefusedtoconcealanythingthatappearedtohimsignificant.Hisplays,therefore,
haveverymuchthatisflatlyoffensivetothetastewhichseeksinliterature,prevailingly,foridealismandbeauty;butthey
are,nevertheless,generallyspeaking,powerfulportrayalsofactuallife.
2.Jonson'spurpose,however,wasneverunworthy;rather,itwasdistinctlytoupholdmorality.Hisfrankestplays,aswe
have indicated, are attacks on vice and folly, and sometimes, it is said, had important reformatory influence on
contemporarymanners.Heheld,indeed,thatinthedrama,evenincomedy,thefunctionofteachingwasasimportantas
that ofgivingpleasure. Hisattitude toward his audiences was that ofa learned schoolmaster, whose ideas theyshould
acceptwithdeferentialrespect;andwhentheydidnotapprovehisplayshewasoutspokeninindignantcontempt.

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3. Jonson's selfsatisfaction and his critical sense of intellectual superiority to the generality of mankind produce also a
markedanddisagreeablelackofsympathyinhisportrayalofbothlifeandcharacter.Theworldofhisdramasismostly
madeupofknaves,scoundrels,hypocrites,fools,anddupes;anditincludesamongitsreallyimportantcharactersvery
fewexcellentmenandnotasinglereallygoodwoman.Jonsonviewedhisfellowmen,inthemass,withcompletescorn,
whichitwasoneofhismoralandartisticprinciplesnottodisguise.Hischaracteristiccomediesallbelong,further,tothe
particulartypewhichhehimselforiginated,namely,the'ComedyofHumors.'
[Footnote:Themeaningofthis,termcanbeunderstoodonlybysomeexplanationofthehistoryoftheword'Humor.'In
thefirstplacethiswastheLatinnamefor'liquid.'Accordingtomedievalphysiologytherewerefourchiefliquidsinthe
humanbody,namelyblood,phlegm,bile,andblackbile,andanexcessofanyofthemproducedanunduepredominance
of the corresponding quality; thus, an excess of phlegm made a person phlegmatic, or dull; or an excess of black bile,
melancholy. In the Elizabethan idiom, therefore, 'humor' came to mean a mood, and then any exaggerated quality or
markedpeculiarityinaperson.]
Aimingintheseplaystoflailthefolliesofhistime,hemakeshischiefcharacters,inspiteofhisrealisticpurpose,extreme
anddistorted
'humors,'each,inspiteofindividualtraits,theembodimentofsomeoneabstractvicecowardice,sensualism,hypocrisy,
orwhatnot.Toooften,also,theunrealityisincreasedbecauseJonsontakesthecharactersfromthestockfiguresofLatin
comedyratherthanfromgenuineEnglishlife.
4. In opposition to the free Elizabethan romantic structure, Jonson stood for and deliberately intended to revive the
classical style; though with characteristic good sense he declared that not all the classical practices were applicable to
English plays. He generally observed unity not only of action but also of time (a single day) and place, sometimes with
seriousresultantlossofprobability.Inhistragedies,'Sejanus'and'Catiline,'heexcludedcomicmaterial;forthemostpart
hekeptscenesofdeathandviolenceoffthestage;andheverycarefullyandslowlyconstructedplayswhichhavenothing,
indeed,ofthepoeticgreatnessofSophoclesorEuripides(ratheraJonsonesebroadsolidity)butwhichmovesteadilyto
theirclimaxesandthenontothecatastrophesinthecompactclassicalmanner.Hecarriedhisscholarship,however,to
thepointofpedantry,notonlyintheillustrativeextractsfromLatinauthorswithwhichintheprintededitionhefilledthe
lowerhalfofhispages,butintheplaysthemselvesinthescrupulousexactitudeofhisrenderingofthedetailsofRoman
life.TheplaysreconstructtheancientworldwithmuchmoreminuteaccuracythandoShakespeare's;thestudentshould
considerforhimselfwhethertheysucceedbetterinreproducingitshumanreality,makingitalivingpartofthereader's
mentalandspiritualpossessions.
5. Jonson's style in his plays, especially the blank verse of his tragedies, exhibits the same general characteristics. It is
strong, compact, and sometimes powerful, but it entirely lacks imaginative poetic beautyit is really only rhythmical
prose,thoughsometimessuffusedwithpassion.
6. The surprising skill which Jonson, author of such plays, showed in devising the court masks, daintily unsubstantial
creationsofmoralallegory,classicalmyth,andTeutonicfolklore,isrenderedlesssurprising,perhaps,bythelackinthe
masksofanyverygreatlyricquality.Thereisnolyricqualityatallinthegreaterpartofhisnondramaticverse,though
thereisanoccasionaldelightfulexception,asinthefamous'Drinktomeonlywiththineeyes.'Butofhisnondramatic
verseweshallspeakinthenextchapter.
7. Last, and not least: Jonson's revolt from romanticism to classicism initiated, chiefly in nondramatic verse, the
movement for restraint and regularity, which, making slow headway during the next half century, was to issue in the
triumphantpseudoclassicismofthegenerationsofDrydenandPope.Thus,notableinhimself,hewassignificantalsoas
oneofthemovingforcesofagreatliteraryrevolution.

Theotherdramatists
Fromthemanyotherdramatistsofthishighlydramaticperiod,someofwhomintheirowndayenjoyedareputationfully
equaltothatofShakespeareandJonson,wemaymerelyselectafewforbriefmention.Fornotonlydoestheirlightnow
palehopelesslyinthepresenceofShakespeare,butinmanycasestheirviolationsoftasteandmoralrestraintpassthe
limits of presentday tolerance. Most of them, like Shakespeare, produced both comedies and tragedies, prevailingly
romanticbutwith elements of realism; most of them wrote more often incollaboration thandid Shakespeare;they all
shared the Elizabethan vigorously creative interest in life; but none of them attained either Shakespeare's wisdom, his
power,orhismasteryofpoeticbeauty.OneofthemostlearnedofthegroupwasGeorgeChapman,whoseversehasa
Jonsonian solidity not unaccompanied with Jonsonian ponderousness. He won fame also in nondramatic poetry,

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especiallybyvigorousbutratherclumsyversetranslationsofthe'Iliad'and'Odyssey,'Anotherhighlyindividualfigureis
that of Thomas Dekker, who seems to have been one of the completest embodiments of irrepressible Elizabethan
cheerfulness, though this was joined in him with an irresponsibility which kept him commonly floundering in debt or
confined in debtor's prison. His 'Shoemaker's Holiday' (1600), still occasionally chosen by amateur companies for
reproduction,givesaroughandreadybut(apartfromitscoarseness)charmingromanticizedpictureofthelifeofLondon
apprenticesandwholeheartedcitizens.ThomasHeywood,asortofjournalistbeforethedaysofnewspapers,produced
anenormousamountofworkinvariousliteraryforms;inthedramaheclaimedtohavehad'anentirehand,oratleasta
mainefinger'innolessthantwohundredandtwentyplays.Inevitably,therefore,heiscarelessandslipshod,butsomeof
his portrayals of sturdy English men and women and of romantic adventure (as in 'The Fair Maid of the West') are of
refreshing naturalness and breeziness. Thomas Middleton, also a very prolific writer, often deals, like Jonson and
Heywood,withsordidmaterial.JohnMarston,aswell,hastoolittledelicacyorreserve;healsowrotecatchascatchcan
nondramaticsatires.
The sanity ofShakespeare'splays, continuingand indeed increasing toward the endof hiscareer,disguises formodern
studentsthetendencytodeclineinthedramawhichsetinataboutthetimeofKingJames'accession.Notlaterthanthe
end of the first decade of the century the dramatists as a class exhibit not only a decrease of originality in plot and
characterization,butalsoaloweringofmoraltone,whichresultslargelyfromthecloseridentificationofthedramawith
theCourtparty.Thereisalackofseriousnessofpurpose,anincreasingtendencytoreturn,inmoremorbidspirit,tothe
sensationalism of the 1580's, andan anxious straining to attract andplease the audiences by almost any means.These
tendenciesappearintheplaysofFrancisBeaumontandJohnFletcher,whosereputationsareindissolublylinkedtogether
inoneofthemostfamousliterarypartnershipsofalltime.Beaumont,however,wasshortlived,andmuchthegreater
partofthefiftyandmoreplaysultimatelypublishedundertheirjointnamesreallybelongtoFletcheraloneortoFletcher
and other collaborators. The scholarship of our day agrees with the opinion of their contemporaries in assigning to
Beaumont the greater share of judgment and intellectual power and to Fletcher the greater share of spontaneity and
fancy.Fletcher'sstyleisveryindividual.Itispeculiarlysweet;butitsunmistakablemarkishisconstanttendencytobreak
downtheblankverselinebytheuseofextrasyllables,bothwithinthelineandattheend.Thelyricswhichhescatters
throughhisplaysarebeautifullysmoothandmusical.TheplaysofBeaumontandFletcher,asagroup,aresentimentally
romantic,ofteninanextravagantdegree,thoughtheircharmoftenconcealstheextravaganceaswellasthelackoftrue
characterization.Theyarenotableoftenfortheirportrayaloftheloyaldevotionofbothmenandwomentoking,lover,or
friend. One of the best of them is 'Philaster, or Love Lies Bleeding,' while Fletcher's 'Faithful Shepherdess' is the most
pleasingexampleinEnglishoftheartificialpastoraldramaintheItalianandSpanishstyle.
The Elizabethan tendency to sensational horror finds its greatest artistic expression in two plays of John Webster, 'The
WhiteDevil,orVittoriaCorombona,'and'TheDuchessofMalfi.'HerethecorruptandbrutallifeoftheItaliannobilityof
theRenaissanceispresentedwithterriblefrankness,butwithanoverwhelmingsenseforpassion,tragedy,andpathos.
ThemostmovingpathospermeatessomeoftheplaysofJohnFord(ofthetimeofCharlesI),forexample,'TheBroken
Heart'; but they are abnormal and unhealthy. Philip Massinger, a pupil and collaborator of Fletcher, was of thoughtful
spirit,andapparentlyasinceremoralistatheart,inspiteofmuchconcessioninhisplaystothecontrarydemandsofthe
time. His famous comedy, 'A New Way to Pay Old Debts,' a satire on greed and cruelty, is one of the few plays of the
period,asidefromShakespeare's,whicharestilloccasionallyacted.ThelastdramatistofthewholegreatlinewasJames
Shirley,whosurvivedtheCommonwealthandtheRestorationanddiedofexposureattheFireofLondonin1666.Inhis
romanticcomediesandcomediesofmannersShirleyvividlyreflectsthethoughtlesslifeoftheCourtofCharlesIandofthe
welltodo contemporary London citizens and shows how surprisingly far that life had progressed toward the reckless
frivolityandabandonmentwhichaftertheintervalofPuritanruleweretorunriotintheRestorationperiod.
ThegreatElizabethandramaticimpulsehadthusbecomedeeplydegenerate,andnothingcouldbemorefittingthanthat
itshouldbebroughttoadefiniteend.Whenthewarbrokeoutin1642oneofthefirstactsofParliament,nowatlastfree
to work its will on the enemies of Puritanism, was to decree that 'whereas public sports do not well agree with public
calamities,norpublicstageplayswiththeseasonsofhumiliation,'alldramaticperformancesshouldcease.Thislaw,fatal,
of course, to the writing as well as the acting of plays, was enforced with only slightly relaxing rigor until very shortly
beforetheRestorationofCharlesIIin1660.DoubtlesstothePuritansitseemedthattheirlongfightagainstthetheater
hadendedinpermanenttriumph;butthiswasonlyoneofmanyrespectsinwhichthePuritansweretolearnthathuman
naturecannotbeforcedintopermanentconformitywithanyrigidlyoverseverestandard,onhoweverhighidealsitmay
bebased.
SUMMARY.
Thechiefdramatistsofthewholesixtyyearsofthegreatperiodmaybeconvenientlygroupedasfollows:I.Shakespeare's
early contemporaries, about 1580 to about 1593: Lyly, Peele, Greene, Kyd, Marlowe. II. Shakespeare. III. Shakespeare's

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latercontemporaries,underElizabethandJamesI:Jonson,Chapman,Dekker,Heywood,Middleton,Marston,Beaumont
andFletcher,Webster.IV.Thelastgroup,underJamesIandCharlesI,to1642:Ford,Massinger,andShirley.

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TheSeventeenthCentury,16031660.ProseAndPoetry
Thefirsthalfoftheseventeenthcenturyasawhole,comparedwiththeElizabethanage,wasaperiodofrelaxingvigor.
TheRenaissanceenthusiasmhadspentitself,andinplaceofthedangerandglorywhichhadlongunitedthenationthere
followedincreasingdissensioninreligionandpoliticsanduncertaintyastothefutureofEnglandand,indeed,astothe
wholepurposeoflife.Throughincreasedexperiencemenwerecertainlywiserandmoresophisticatedthanbefore,but
theywerealsomoreselfconsciousandsadderormorepensive.Theoutputofliteraturedidnotdiminish,butitspread
itself over wider fields, in general fields of somewhat recondite scholarship rather than of creation. Nevertheless this
period includes in prose one writer greater than any prose writer of the previous century, namely Francis Bacon, and,
further,thebookwhichunquestionablyoccupiesthehighestplaceinEnglishliterature,thatistheKingJamesversionof
the Bible; and in poetry it includes one of the very greatest figures, John Milton, together with a varied and highly
interestingassemblageoflesserlyrists.

FrancisBacon,ViscountSt.Albans,15611626.3
Francis Bacon, intellectually one of the most eminent Englishmen of all times, and chief formulator of the methods of
modern science, was born in 1561 (three years before Shakespeare), the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon,Lord Keeper of the
GreatSealunderQueenElizabethandoneofhermosttrustedearlieradvisers.Theboy'sprecocityledthequeentocall
himher'littleLordKeeper.'Attheageoftwelvehe,likeWyatt,wassenttoCambridge,wherehischiefimpressionwasof
disgust at the unfruitful scholastic application of Aristotle's ideas, still supreme in spite of a century of Renaissance
enlightenment. A very much more satisfactory three years' residence in France in the household of the English
ambassadorwasterminatedin1579(theyearofSpenser's'Shepherd'sCalendar')bythedeathofSirNicholas.Baconwas
nowreadytoenteronthegreatcareerforwhichhistalentsfittedhim,buthisunclebymarriage,LordBurghley,though
allpowerfulwiththequeen,systematicallythwartedhisprogress,fromjealousconsciousnessofhissuperioritytohisown
son.Baconthereforestudiedlaw,andwassoonchosenamemberofParliament,wherehequicklybecamealeader.He
continued,however,throughouthislifetodevotemuchofhistimetostudyandscholarlyscientificwriting.
On the interpretation of Bacon's public actions depends the answer to the complex and muchdebated question of his
character.Themostreasonableconclusionsseemtobe:thatBaconwassincerelydevotedtothepublicgoodandinhis
earlierlifewassometimesreadytoriskhisowninterestsinitsbehalf;thathehadaperfectlycleartheoreticalinsightinto
theprinciplesofmoralconduct;thathelackedthemoralforceofcharactertoliveonthelevelofhisconvictions,sothat
afterthefirst,atleast,hispersonalambitionwasoftenstrongerthanhisconscience;thathebelievedthatpublicsuccess
couldbegainedonlybyconformitytothelowstandardsoftheage;thathefellintothefatalerrorofsupposingthathis
own preeminent endowments and the services which they might enable him to render justified him in the use of
unworthymeans;thathissenseofrealasdistinguishedfromapparentpersonaldignitywasdistressinglyinadequate;and
that, in general, like many men of great intellect, he was deficient in greatness of character, emotion, fine feeling,
sympathy, and even in comprehension of the highest spiritual principles. He certainly shared to the full in the usual
courtier'sambitionforgreatplaceandwealth,andintheworldling'sinclinationtoostentatiousdisplay.
HavingoffendedQueenElizabethbyhisboldnessinsuccessfullyopposinganencroachmentontherightsoftheHouseof
Commons,BaconconnectedhimselfwiththeEarlofEssexandreceivedfromhimmanyfavors;butwhenEssexattempted
atreasonableinsurrectionin1601,Bacon,asoneoftheQueen'slawyers,displayedagainsthimasubservientzealwhich
ontheoreticalgroundsofpatriotismmightappearpraiseworthy,butwhichinviewofhispersonalobligationswasgrossly
indecent. For the worldly prosperity which he sought, however, Bacon was obliged to wait until the accession of King
James,afterwhichhisrisewasrapid.TheKingappreciatedhisabilityandoftenconsultedhim,andhefrequentlygavethe
wisest advice, whose acceptance might perhaps have averted the worst national disasters of the next fifty years. The
advicewasabovethecourageofboththeKingandtheage;butBaconwasadvancedthroughvariouslegaloffices,untilin
1613hewasmadeAttorneyGeneralandin1618(twoyearsafterShakespeare'sdeath)LordHighChancellorofEngland,
atthesametimebeingraisedtothepeerageasBaronVerulam.Duringallthisperiod,inspiteofhisbetterknowledge,he
truckledwithsorryservilitytotheKingandhisunworthyfavoritesandlenthimselfasanagentintheirmostarbitraryacts.
Retributionovertookhimin1621,withinafewdaysafterhiselevationtothedignityofViscountSt.Albans.TheHouseof
Commons,balkedinanattackontheKingandtheDukeofBuckingham,suddenlyturnedonBaconandimpeachedhimfor
having received bribes in connection with his legal decisions as Lord Chancellor. Bacon admitted the taking of presents
(against which in one of his essays he had directly cautioned judges), and threw himself on the mercy of the House of
Lords, with whom the sentence lay. He appears to have been sincere in protesting later that the presents had not
influencedhisdecisionsandthathewasthejustestjudgewhomEnglandhadhadforfiftyyears;itseemsthatthegivingof

3:Macaulay'swellknownessayonBaconismarredbyMacaulay'sbesettingfaultsofsuperficialityanddogmatismandisbestleftunread.

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presents by the parties to a suit was a customary abuse. But he had technically laid himself open to the malice of his
enemiesandwascondemnedtoveryheavypenalties,ofwhichtwowereenforced,namely,perpetualincapacitationfrom
holdingpublicoffice,andbanishmentfromCourt.Evenafterthishecontinued,withanastonishinglackofgoodtaste,to
liveextravagantlyandbeyondhismeans(againindisregardofhisownprecepts),sothatPrinceCharlesobservedthathe
'scornedtogooutinasnuff.'Hediedin1626fromacoldcaughtintheprosecutionofhisscientificresearches,namelyin
anexperimentonthepowerofsnowtopreservemeat.
Bacon's splendid mind and unique intellectual vision produced, perhaps inevitably, considering his public activity, only
fragmentaryconcreteachievements.Theonlyoneofhisbooksstillcommonlyreadistheseriesof'Essays,'whichconsist
of brief and comparatively informal jottings on various subjects. In their earliest form, in 1597, the essays were ten in
number,butbyadditionsfromtimetotimetheyhadincreasedatlastin1625tofiftyeight.Theydealwithagreatvariety
of topics, whatever Bacon happened to be interested in, from friendship to the arrangement of a house, and in their
condensationtheyaremorelikebaresynopsesthancompletediscussions.Buttheircomprehensivenessofview,sureness
of ideas and phrasing, suggestiveness, and apt illustrations reveal the pregnancy and practical force of Bacon's thought
(though, on the other hand, he is not altogether free from the superstitions of his time and after the lapse of three
hundredyears sometimes seems commonplace). The whole general tone oftheessays, also, shows the man,keen and
worldly,notatallapoetoridealist.Howtosucceedandmakethemostofprosperitymightbecalledthepervadingtheme
oftheessays,andsubjectswhichinthemselvessuggestspiritualtreatmentareactuallyconsideredinaccordancewitha
coldlyintellectualcalculationofworldlyadvantage.
Theessaysarescarcelylessnotableforstylethanforideas.WithcharacteristicintellectualindependenceBaconstrikes
outforhimselfanextremelyterseandclearmannerofexpression,doubtlessinfluencedbysuchLatinauthorsasTacitus,
whichstandsinmarkedcontrasttotheformlessdiffusenessorartificialelaboratenessofmostElizabethanandJacobean
prose.Hisunitofstructureisalwaysashortclause.Thesentencesaresometimesshort,sometimesconsistofanumberof
connectedclauses;buttheyarealwaysessentiallylooseratherthanperiodic;sothatthethoughtisperfectlysimpleand
its movement clear and systematic. The very numerous allusions to classical history and life are not the result of
affectation,butmerelyindicatethenaturalfurnishingofthemindoftheeducatedRenaissancegentleman.Theessays,it
shouldbeadded,wereevidentlysuggestedandmoreorlessinfluencedbythoseofthegreatFrenchthinker,Montaigne,
an earlier contemporary ofBacon. The hold of medievalscholarly tradition, it is further interestingto note, was still so
strongthatinordertoinsuretheirpermanentpreservationBacontranslatedthemintoLatinhetookforgrantedthatthe
Englishinwhichhefirstcomposedthemandinwhichtheywillalwaysbeknownwasonlyatemporaryvulgartongue.
ButBacon'smostimportantwork,aswehavealreadyimplied,wasnotinthefieldofpureliteraturebutinthegeneral
advancementofknowledge,particularlyknowledgeofnaturalscience;andofthisgreatservicewemustspeakbriefly.His
avowaltoBurghley,madeasearlyas1592,isfamous:'Ihavetakenallknowledgetobemyprovince.'Brieflystated,his
purposes,constitutinganabsorbingandnobleambition,weretosurveyallthelearningofhistime,inalllinesofthought,
naturalscience,morals,politics,andtherest,tooverthrowthecurrentmethodofapriorideduction,deductionresting,
moreover, on very insufficient and longantiquated bases of observation, and to substitute for it as the method of the
future,unlimitedfreshobservationandexperimentandinductivereasoning.Thisenormoustaskwastobemappedout
anditsresultssummarizedinaLatinworkcalled'MagnaInstauratioScientiarum'(TheGreatRenewalofKnowledge);but
partsofthissurveywerenecessarilytobeleftforposteritytoformulate,andoftherestBaconactuallycomposedonlya
fraction.WhatmaybecalledthefirstpartappearedoriginallyinEnglishin1605andisknownbytheabbreviatedtitle,
'The Advancement of Learning'; the expanded Latin form has the title, 'De Augmentis Scientiarum.' Its exhaustive
enumerationofthebranchesofthoughtandknowledge,whathasbeenaccomplishedineachandwhatmaybehopedfor
itinthefuture,isthoroughlyfascinating,thoughevenhereBaconwasnotcapableofpassionateenthusiasm.However,
thesecondpartofthework,'NovumOrganum'(TheNewMethod),writteninLatinandpublishedin1620,isthemost
important. Most interesting here, perhaps, is the classification (contrasting with Plato's doctrine of divinely perfect
controllingideas)ofthe'idols'(phantoms)whichmisleadthehumanmind.OftheseBaconfindsfoursorts:idolsofthe
tribe,whichareinherentinhumannature;idolsofthecave,theerrorsoftheindividual;idolsofthemarketplace,dueto
mistakenrelianceonwords;andidolsofthetheater(thatis,oftheschools),resultingfromfalsereasoning.
In the details of all his scholarly work Bacon's knowledge and point of view were inevitably imperfect. Even in natural
sciencehewasnotaltogetherabreastofhistimeherefusedtoacceptHarvey'sdiscoveryofthemannerofthecirculation
of the blood and the Copernican system of astronomy. Neither was he, as is sometimes supposed, the inventor of the
inductivemethodofobservationandreasoning,whichinsomedegreeisfundamentalinallstudy.Buthedid,muchmore
fully and clearly than any one before him, demonstrate the importance and possibilities of that method; modern
experimentalscienceandthoughthaveproceededdirectlyinthepathwhichhepointedout;andheisfullyentitledtothe
greathonorofbeingcalledtheirfather,whichcertainlyplaceshimhighamongthegreatfiguresinthehistoryofhuman
thought.

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TheKingJamesBible,1611
ItwasduringthereignofJamesIthatthelongseriesofsixteenthcenturytranslationsoftheBiblereacheditsculmination
in what we have already called the greatest of all English books (or rather, collections of books), the King James
('Authorized')version.In1604anecclesiasticalconferenceacceptedasuggestion,approvedbytheking,thatanewand
more accurate rendering of the Bible should be made. The work was entrusted to a body of about fifty scholars, who
divided themselves into six groups, among which the various books of the Bible were apportioned. The resulting
translation,proceedingwiththeinevitableslowness,wascompletedin1611,andthenratherrapidlysupersededallother
Englishversionsforbothpublicandprivateuse.ThisKingJamesBibleisuniversallyacceptedasthechiefmasterpieceof
Englishprosestyle.Thetranslatorsfollowedpreviousversionssofaraspossible,checkingthembycomparisonwiththe
original Hebrew and Greek, so that while attaining the greater correctness at which they aimed they preserved the
accumulated stylistic excellences of three generations of their predecessors; and their language, properly varying
according to the nature of the different books, possesses an imaginative grandeur and rhythm not unworthyand no
higherpraisecouldbeawardedofthethemeswhichitexpresses.Thestillmoreaccuratescholarshipofalatercentury
demandedtheRevisedVersionof1881,butthesuperiorliteraryqualityoftheKingJamesversionremainsundisputed.Its
style,bythenatureofthecase,wassomewhatarchaicfromtheoutset,andofcoursehasbecomemuchmoresowiththe
passageoftime.ThisentailsthepracticaldisadvantageofmakingtheBibleevents,characters,andideasseemlessreal
andliving;butontheotherhandithelpsinestimablytocreatethefinerimaginativeatmospherewhichissoessentialfor
thegenuinereligiousspirit.

Minorprosewriters
AmongtheproseauthorsoftheperiodwhoholdanassuredsecondarypositioninthehistoryofEnglishliteraturethreeor
fourmaybementioned:RobertBurton,Oxfordscholar,minister,andrecluse,whose'AnatomyofMelancholy'(1621),a
vast and quaint compendium of information both scientific and literary, has largely influenced numerous later writers;
JeremyTaylor,royalistclergymanandbishop,oneofthemosteloquentandspiritualofEnglishpreachers,authorof'Holy
Living'(1650)and'HolyDying'(1651);IzaakWalton,Londontradesmanandstudent,bestknownforhis'CompleatAngler'
(1653), but author also of charming brief lives of Donne, George Herbert, and others of his contemporaries; and Sir
Thomas Browne, a scholarly physician of Norwich, who elaborated a fastidiously poetic Latinized prose style for his
pensivelydelightful'ReligioMedici'(APhysician'sReligion1643)andotherworks.

Lyricpoetry
Apart from the drama and the King James Bible, the most enduring literary achievement of the period was in poetry.
Miltondistinctly, after Shakespeare, thegreatest writer of thecenturymust receive separateconsideration;themore
purelylyricpoetsmaybegroupedtogether.
TheabsenceofanysharplineofseparationbetweentheliteratureofthereignofElizabethandofthoseofJamesIand
CharlesIisnolessmarkedinthecaseofthelyricpoetrythanofthedrama.Someofthepoetswhomwehavealready
discussedinChapterVcontinuedwritinguntiltheseconddecadeoftheseventeenthcentury,orlater,andsomeofthose
whomweshallherenamehadcommencedtheircareerwellbefore1600.Justasinthedrama,therefore,somethingof
the Elizabethan spirit remains in the lyric poetry; yet here also before many years there is a perceptible change; the
Elizabethanspontaneousjoyousnesslargelyvanishesandisreplacedbymoreselfconsciousartistryorthought.
TheElizabethannoteisperhapsmostunmodifiedincertainanonymoussongsandotherpoemsoftheearlyyearsofJames
I,suchastheexquisite'Weepyounomore,sadfountains.'ItisclearalsointhecharmingsongsofThomasCampion,a
physicianwhocomposedbothwordsandmusicforseveralsongbooks,andinMichaelDrayton,avoluminouspoetand
dramatistwhoisknowntomostreadersonlyforhisfinelyruggedpatrioticballadonthebattleofAgincourt.SirHenry
Wotton, [Footnote: The first o is pronounced as in note. ] statesman and Provost (head) of Eton School, displays the
Elizabethanidealismin'TheCharacterofaHappyLife'andinhisstanzasinpraiseofElizabeth,daughterofKingJames,
wife of the illstarred ElectorPalatine and King of Bohemia, and ancestress of the present English royal family. The
Elizabethan spirit is present but mingled with seventeenth century melancholy in the sonnets and other poems of the
Scotch gentleman William Drummond of Hawthornden (the name of his estate near Edinburgh), who in quiet lifelong
retirementlamentedtheuntimelydeathoftheladytowhomhehadbeenbetrothedormeditatedonheavenlythings.
InDrummondappearstheinfluenceofSpenser,whichwasstrongonmanypoetsoftheperiod,especiallyonsome,like
WilliamBrowne,whocontinuedthepastoralform.Anotherofthemainforces,inlyricpoetryasinthedrama,wasthe
beginning of the revival of the classical spirit, and in lyric poetry also this was largely due to Ben Jonson. As we have

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alreadysaid,thegreaterpartofJonson'snondramaticpoetry,likehisdramas,expresseschieflythedownrightstrengthof
hismindandcharacter.Itisterseandunadorned,dealingoftenwithcommonplacethingsinthemanneroftheEpistles
andSatiresofHorace,anditgenerallyhasmoreofthequalityofintellectualprosethanofrealemotionalpoetry.Avery
favorablerepresentativeofitistheadmirable,eulogyonShakespeareincludedinthefirstfolioeditionofShakespeare's
works. In a few instances, however, Jonson strikes the true lyric note delightfully. Every one knows and sings his two
stanzas 'To Celia''Drink to me only with thine eyes,' which would still be famous without the exquisitely appropriate
musicthathascomedowntousfromJonson'sowntime,andwhicharenolessbeautifulbecausetheyconsistlargelyof
ideasculledfromtheGreekphilosopherTheophrastus.Inallhispoems,however,Jonsonaimsconsistentlyattheclassical
virtuesofclearness,brevity,proportion,finish,andeliminationofallexcess.
TheselatterqualitiesappearalsointhelyricswhichaboundintheplaysofJohnFletcher,andyetitcannotbesaidthat
Fletcher'ssweetmelodyismoreclassicalthanElizabethan.Hisotherdistinctivequalityisthetoneofsomewhatartificial
courtlinesswhichwassoontomarkthelyricsoftheotherpoetsoftheCavalierparty.AnavoweddiscipleofJonsonand
hisclassicismandagreaterpoetthanFletcherisRobertHerrick,who,indeed,afterShakespeareandMilton,isthefinest
lyricpoetofthesetwocenturies.
Herrick, the nephewof a wealthy goldsmith, seems, after a lategraduation from Cambridge, tohave spent some years
abouttheCourtandinthebandofJonson's'sons.'EnteringtheChurchwhenhewasnearlyforty,hereceivedthesmall
countryparishofDeanPriorinthesouthwest(Devonshire),whichheheldfornearlytwentyyears,until1647,whenhe
wasdispossessedbythevictoriousPuritans.AftertheRestorationhewasreinstated,andhecontinuedtoholdtheplace
untilhisdeathinoldagein1674.Hepublishedhispoems(alllyrics)in1648inacollectionwhichhecalled
'Hesperides and Noble Numbers.' The 'Hesperides' (named from the golden apples of the classical Garden of the
Daughters of the Sun) are twelve hundred little secular pieces, the 'Noble Numbers' a much less extensive series of
religiouslyrics.Bothsortsarewritteninagreatvarietyofstanzaforms,allequallyskilfulandmusical.Fewofthepoems
extendbeyondfifteenortwentylinesinlength,andmanyaremereepigramsoffourlinesoreventwo.Thechiefsecular
subjects are: Herrick's devotion to various ladies, Julia, Anthea, Perilla, and sundry more, all presumably more or less
imaginary;thejoyanduncertaintyoflife;thecharmingbeautyofNature;countrylife,folklore,andfestivals;andsimilar
lightorfamiliarthemes.Herrick'scharacteristicquality,sofarasitcanbedescribed,isablendofElizabethanjoyousness
withclassicalperfectionoffinish.Thefinish,however,reallytheresultofpainstakinglabor,suchasHerrickhadobserved
inhisuncle'sshopandasJonsonhadenjoined,isperfectlyunobtrusive;soapparentlynaturalarethepoemsthatthey
seemtheirrepressibleunmeditatedoutpouringsofhappyandidlemoments.IncarefreelyriccharmHerrickcancertainly
neverbesurpassed;heiscertainlyoneofthemostcaptivatingofallthepoetsoftheworld.Someofthe'NobleNumbers'
arealmostaspleasingasthe'Hesperides,'butnotbecauseofrealreligioussignificance.Forofanythingthatcanbecalled
spiritualreligionHerrickwasabsolutelyincapable;hisnaturewasfartoodeficientindepth.Hehimselfandhisphilosophy
of life were purely Epicurean, Hedonistic, or pagan, in the sense in which we use those terms today. His forever
controllingsentimentisthattowhichhegivesperfectexpressioninhisbestknownsong,'Gatheryerosebuds,'namely
theHoratian'Carpediem''Snatchallpossiblepleasurefromtherapidlyfleetinghoursandfromthisgloriouslydelightful
world.'Heissaidtohaveperformedhisreligiousdutieswithregularity;thoughsometimesinanoutburstofdisgustatthe
stupidityofhisrusticparishionershewouldthrowhissermonintheirfacesandrushoutofthechurch.Puthisreligionis
altogether conventional. He thanks God for material blessings, prays for their continuance, and as the conclusion of
everything,incompensationforaformallyorthodoxlife,orrathercreed,expectswhenhediestobeadmittedtoHeaven.
Thesimplenaivetewithwhichheexpressesthisskindeepandprimitivefaithis,indeed,oneofthechiefsourcesofcharm
inthe'NobleNumbers.'
Herrickbelongsinparttoagroupofpoetswho,beingattachedtotheCourt,anddevotingsome,atleast,oftheirverses
to conventional lovemaking, are called the Cavalier Poets. Among the others Thomas Carew follows the classical
principles of Jonson in lyrics which are facile, smooth, and sometimes a little frigid. Sir John Suckling, a handsome and
capriciousrepresentativeofalltheextravagancesoftheCourtset,withwhomhewasenormouslypopular,tossedoffwith
affectedcarelessnessamassofslovenlylyricsofwhichafewaudaciouslyimpudentonesareworthytosurvive.Fromthe
equally chaotic product of Colonel Richard Lovelace stand out the two wellknown bits of noble idealism, 'To Lucasta,
Going to the Wars,' and 'To Althea, from Prison.' George Wither (15881667), a much older man than Suckling and
Lovelace,maybementionedwiththemasthewriterinhisyouthoflightheartedlovepoems.ButintheCivilWarhetook
thesideofParliamentandunderCromwellherosetotherankofmajorgeneral.Inhislaterlifehewroteagreatquantity
ofPuritanreligiousverse,largelyprosyinspiteofhisfluency.
The last important group among these lyrists is that of the more distinctly religious poets. The chief of these, George
Herbert (15931633), the subject of one of the most delightful of the short biographies of Izaak Walton, belonged to a
distinguished family of the Welsh Border, one branch of which held the earldom of Pembroke, so that the poet was
related to the young noble who may have been Shakespeare's patron. He was also younger brother of Lord Edward

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HerbertofCherbury,aninveterateduellistandthefatherofEnglishDeism.[Footnote:Seebelow,p.212.]Destinedbyhis
mothertopeacefulpursuits,hewaveredfromtheoutsetbetweentwoforces,religiousdevotionandapassionforworldly
comfortanddistinction.Foralongperiodthelatterhadtheupperhand,andhislifehasbeendescribedbyhisbesteditor,
ProfessorGeorgeHerbertPalmer,astwentysevenyearsofvacillationandthreeofconsecratedservice.AppointedPublic
Orator,orshowman,ofhisuniversity,Cambridge,hespentsomeyearsinenjoyingthesomewhattriflingeleganciesoflife
andintrucklingtothegreat.Then,onthedeathofhispatrons,hepassedthroughaperiodofintensecrisisfromwhichhe
emergedwhollyspiritualized.ThethreeremainingyearsofhislifehespentinthelittlecountryparishofBemerton,just
outsideofSalisbury,asaferventHighChurchminister,orashepreferredtonamehimself,priest,inthestrictestdevotion
to his professional duties and to the practices of an ascetic piety which to the usual American mind must seem about
equallyadmirableandconventional.Hisreligiouspoems,publishedafterhisdeathinavolumecalled'TheTemple,'show
mainly two things, first his intense and beautiful consecration to his personal God and Saviour, which, in its earnest
sincerity, renders him distinctly the most representative poet of the Church of England, and second the influence of
Donne, who was a close friend of his mother. The titles of most of the poems, often consisting of a single word, are
commonly fantastic and symbolicalfor example, 'The Collar,' meaning the yoke of submission to God; and his use of
conceits,thoughnotsopervasiveaswithDonne,isequallycontorted.Toapresentdayreadertheapparentaffectations
mayseematfirsttothrowdoubtonHerbert'sgenuineness;butinrealityhewasaimingtodedicatetoreligiouspurposes
whatappearedtohimthehigheststyleofpoetry.Withoutquestionheis,inatrueifspecialsense,areallygreatpoet.
The second of these religious poets, Richard Crashaw, [Footnote: The first vowel is pronounced as in the noun crash.]
whose life (16121649) was not quite so short as Herbert's, combined an ascetic devotion with a glowingly sensuous
esthetic nature that seems rather Spanish than English. Born into an extreme Protestant family, but outraged by the
wanton iconoclasm of the triumphant Puritans, and deprived by them of his fellowship, at Cambridge, he became a
Catholic and died a canon in the church of the miracleworking Lady (Virgin Mary) of Loretto in Italy. His most
characteristicpoetryismarkedbyextravagantconceitsandbyecstaticoutburstsofemotionthathavebeencalledmore
ardentthananythingelseinEnglish;thoughhesometimeswritesalsoinaveinofcalmandlimpidbeauty.Hewasapoetic
discipleofHerbert,asheavowedbyhumblyentitlinghisvolume'StepstotheTemple.'
The life of Henry Vaughan [Footnote: The second a is not now sounded.] (16211695) stands in contrast to those of
HerbertandCrashawbothbyitslengthandbyitsquietness.VaughanhimselfemphasizedhisWelshracebydesignating
himself'TheSilurist'(nativeofSouthWales).AfteranincompleteuniversitycourseatJesusCollege(theWelshcollege),
Oxford,andsomeapparentlyidleyearsinLondonamongJonson'sdisciples,perhapsalsoafterservingthekinginthewar,
hesettleddowninhisnativemountainstotheselfdenyinglifeofacountryphysician.Hisimportantpoemsweremostly
published at this time, in 1650 and 1655, in the collection which he named 'Silex Scintillans' (The Flaming Flint), a title
explainedbythefrontispiece,whichrepresentsaflintyheartglowingunderthelightningstrokeofGod'scall.Vaughan's
chieftraitsareaveryfineandcalmphilosophicreligiousspiritandacarefullyobservantloveofexternalNature,inwhich
heseesmysticrevelationsofGod.InbothrespectsheiscloselyakintothelaterandgreaterWordsworth,andhis'Retreat'
hasthesamethemeasWordsworth'sfamous'OdeonIntimationsofImmortality,'theideanamelythatchildrenhavea
greaterspiritualsensitivenessthanolderpersons,becausetheyhavecometoearthdirectlyfromaformerlifeinHeaven.
The contrast between the chief Anglican and Catholic religious poets of this period has been thus expressed by a
discerningcritic:'Herrick'sreligiousemotionsareonlyasripplesonashallowlakewhencomparedtothecrestedwavesof
Crashaw,thestormtidesofHerbert,andthedeepseastirringsofVaughan.'
WemaygiveafurtherwordofmentiontothevoluminousFrancisQuarles,whoinhisowndayandlongafterenjoyed
enormouspopularity,especiallyamongmembersoftheChurchofEnglandandespeciallyforhis'Emblems,'abookofa
sortcommoninEuropeforacenturybeforehistime,inwhichfantasticwoodcuts,likeVaughan's'SilexScintillans,'were
illustratedwithshortpoemsofreligiousemotion,chieflydominatedbyfear.ButQuarlessurvivesonlyasaninteresting
curiosity.
Threeotherpoetswhoselivesbelongtothemiddleofthecenturymaybesaidtocompletethisentirelyricgroup.Andrew
Marvell,averymoderatePuritan,joinedwithMiltoninhisofficeofLatinSecretaryunderCromwell,wrotemuchpoetryof
varioussorts,someofitintheElizabethanoctosyllabiccouplet.HevoicesagenuineloveofNature,likeWitheroftenin
thepastoral form; buthis bestknown poem is the 'HoratianOde upon Cromwell'sReturn from Ireland,'containing the
famouseulogyofKingCharles'bearingathisexecution.AbrahamCowley,ayouthfulprodigyandalwaysconspicuousfor
intellectual power, was secretary to Queen Henrietta Maria after her flight to France and later was a royalist spy in
England.Hismostconspicuouspoemsarehissocalled'PindaricOdes,'inwhichhesupposedthathewasimitatingthe
structure of the Greek Pindar but really originated the pseudoPindaric Ode, a poem in irregular, noncorrespondent
stanzas. He is the last important representative of the 'Metaphysical' style. In his own day he was acclaimed as the
greatestpoetofalltime,butasisusualinsuchcaseshisreputationveryrapidlywaned.EdmundWaller(16061687),a
verywealthygentlemaninpubliclifewhoplayedaflatlydiscreditablepartintheCivilWar,ismostimportantforhisshare

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inshapingtherimingpentametercoupletintothesmoothpseudoclassicalformrenderedfamousbyDrydenandPope;
buthisonlynotablesinglepoemsaretwoCavalierlovelyricsinstanzas,'OnaGirdle'and'Go,LovelyRose.'

JohnMilton,16081674
Conspicuous above all his contemporaries as the representative poet of Puritanism, and, by almost equally general
consent,distinctlythegreatestofEnglishpoetsexceptShakespeare,standsJohnMilton.Hislifefallsnaturallyintothree
periods:1.Youthandpreparation,16081639,whenhewrotehisshorterpoems.2.Publiclife,16391660,whenhewrote,
or at least published, in poetry, only a few sonnets. 3. Later years, 16601674, of outer defeat, but of chief poetic
achievement,theperiodof'ParadiseLost,''ParadiseRegained,'and'SamsonAgonistes.'
MiltonwasborninLondoninDecember,1608.Hisfatherwasaprosperousscrivener,orlawyerofthehumblersort,anda
Puritan, but broadminded, and his children were brought up in the love of music, beauty, and learning. At the age of
twelvethefuturepoetwassenttoSt.Paul'sSchool,andhetellsusthatfromthistimeonhisdevotiontostudyseldom
allowed him to leave his books earlier than midnight. At sixteen, in 1625, he entered Cambridge, where he remained
duringthesevenyearsrequiredfortheM.A.degree,andwherehewasknownas'theladyofChrist's'[College],perhaps
forhisbeauty,ofwhichallhislifehecontinuedproud,perhapsforhismoralscrupulousness.Miltonwasnever,however,
a conventional prig, and a quarrel with a selfimportant tutor led at one time to his informal suspension from the
University.Hisnature,indeed,hadmanyelementsquiteinconsistentwiththeusualvaguepopularconceptionofhim.He
was always not only inflexible in his devotion to principle, butpartly, no doubt, from consciousness of his intellectual
superiorityhaughtyaswellasreserved,selfconfident,andlittlerespectfulofopinionsandfeelingsthatclashedwithhis
own.Neverthelessinhisyouthhehadplentyofanimalspiritsandalwaysforhisfriendswarmhumansympathies.
To his college years belong two important poems. His Christmas hymn, the 'Ode on the Morning of Christ's Nativity,'
shows the influence of his early poetical master, Spenser, and of contemporary pastoral poets, though it also contains
someconceitstrulypoeticconceits,however,notexercisesinintellectualclevernesslikemanyofthoseofDonneandhis
followers. With whatever qualifications, it is certainly one of the great English lyrics, and its union of Renaissance
sensuousness with grandeur of conception and sureness of expression foretell clearly enough at twenty the poet of
'Paradise Lost.' The sonnet onhis twentythirdbirthday,further, is known to almostevery readerof poetry as the best
shortexpressioninliteratureofthededicationofone'slifeandpowerstoGod.
Miltonhadplannedtoentertheministry,butthegrowingpredominanceoftheHighChurchpartymadethisimpossible
forhim,andonleavingtheUniversityin1632heretiredtothecountryestatewhichhisparentsnowoccupiedatHorton,
twentymileswestofLondon.Here,fornearlysixyears,amidsurroundingswhichnourishedhispoet'sloveforNature,he
devotedhistimechieflytofurthermasteryofthewholerangeofapprovedliterature,Greek,Latin,French,Italian,and
English.Hispoemsoftheseyearsalsoarefew,buttheytooareoftheveryhighestquality.
'L'Allegro' and 'Il Penseroso' are idealized visions, in the tripping Elizabethan octosyllabic couplet, of the pleasures of
suburbanlifeviewedinmoodsrespectivelyoflightheartedhappinessandofreflection.
'Comus,'thelastoftheElizabethanandJacobeanmasks,combinesanexquisitepoeticbeautyandarealdramaticaction
moresubstantialthanthatofanyothermaskwithaseriousmoraltheme(thesecurityofVirtue)inafashionthatrenders
itunique.'Lycidas'isoneofthesupremeEnglishelegies;thoughthegriefwhichhelpstocreateitspowersprangmore
fromtherecentdeathofthepoet'smotherthanfromthatofthenominalsubject,hiscollegeacquaintance,EdwardKing,
andthoughinthehandsofalesserartistthesolemndenunciationofthefalseleadersoftheEnglishChurchmightnot
havebeenwroughtintosofineaharmonywiththepastoralform.
Milton'sfirstperiodendswithanexperiencedesignedtocompletehispreparationforhiscareer,afifteenmonths'tourin
FranceandItaly,wherethehighestliterarycirclesreceivedhimcordially.Fromthistriphereturnedin1639,soonerthan
hehadplanned,because,hesaid,thepublictroublesathome,foreshadowingtheapproachingwar,seemedtohimacall
toservice;thoughinfactsometimeintervenedbeforehisentranceonpubliclife.
Thetwentyyearswhichfollow,thesecondperiodofMilton'scareer,developedandmodifiedhisnatureandideasinan
unusualdegreeandfashion.Outwardlytheoccupationswhichtheybroughthimappearchieflyasanunfortunatewasteof
hisgreatpoeticpowers.Thesixteensonnetswhichbelonghereshowhownoblythisformcouldbeadaptedtothevaried
expressionofthemostseriousthought,butotherwiseMiltonabandonedpoetry,atleastthepublicationofit,forprose,
andforprosewhichwasmostlyephemeral.TakinguphisresidenceinLondon,forsometimehecarriedonasmallprivate
schoolinhisownhouse,wherehemuchoverworkedhisboysinthemistakenefforttoraisetheirintellectualambitionsto
thelevelofhisown.Naturallyunwillingtoconfinehimselftoaprivatesphere,hesoonengagedinaprosecontroversy

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supportingthePuritanviewagainsttheEpiscopalformofchurchgovernment,thatisagainsttheofficeofbishops.There
shortlyfollowedthemostregrettableincidentinhiswholecareer,whichpatheticallyillustratesalsothelackofasenseof
humorwhichwasperhapshisgreatestdefect.Attheageofthirtyfour,andapparentlyatfirstsight,hesuddenlymarried
MaryPowell,theseventeenyearolddaughterofaroyalistcountrygentlemanwithwhomhisfamilyhadlongmaintained
somebusinessandsocialrelations.EvidentlythisdaughteroftheCavaliersmetarudedisillusionmentinMilton'sPuritan
householdandinhisOldTestamenttheoryofwoman'sinferiorityandofawife'sdutyofstrictsubjectiontoherhusband;
afewweeksafterthemarriageshefledtoherfamilyandrefusedtoreturn.Thereupon,withcharacteristicegoism,Milton
putforthaseriesofpamphletsondivorce,arguing,contrarytoEnglishlaw,andwithgreatscandaltothepublic,thatmere
incompatibility of temper was adequate ground for separation. He even proceeded so far as to make proposals of
marriage to another woman. But after two years and the ruin of the royalist cause his wife made unconditional
submission, which Milton accepted, and he also received and supported her whole family in his house. Meanwhile his
divorce pamphlets had led to the best of his prose writings. He had published the pamphlets without the license of
Parliament,thenrequiredforallbooks,andasuitwasbegunagainsthim.Herepliedwith'Areopagitica,'an,eloquentand
nobleargumentagainstthelicensingsystemandinfavoroffreedomofpublicationwithinthewidestpossiblelimits.(The
nameisanallusiontothecondemnationoftheworksofProtagorasbytheAthenianAreopagus.)Inthestressofpublic
affairstheattackonhimwasdropped,butthebookremains,adeathlesspleaforindividualliberty.
NowatlastMiltonwasdrawnintoactivepubliclife.TheexecutionoftheKingbytheextremePuritanminorityexcitedan
outburstofindignationnotonlyinEnglandbutthroughoutEurope.Milton,risingtotheoccasion,defendedtheactina
pamphlet,therebybeginningapapercontroversy,chieflywiththeDutchscholarSalmasius,whichlastedforseveralyears.
By 1652 it had resulted in the loss of Milton's eyesight, previously overstrained by his studiesa sacrifice in which he
gloriedbutwhichloversofpoetrymustalwaysregret,especiallysincethecontroversylargelyconsisted,accordingtothe
customofthetime,inadisgustingexchangeofpersonalscurrilities.Milton'schampionshipoftheexistinggovernment,
however,togetherwithhisscholarship,hadatoncesecuredforhimthepositionofLatinsecretary,orconductorofthe
diplomatic correspondence of the State with foreign countries. He held this office, after the loss of his eyesight, with
Marvellasacolleague,underbothParliamentandCromwell,butitisanerrortosupposethatheexertedanyinfluencein
themanagementofaffairsorthathewasonfamiliartermswiththeProtector.AttheRestorationhenecessarilylostboth
thepositionandaconsiderablepartofhisproperty,andforawhilehewentintohiding;butthroughtheeffortsofMarvell
andothershewasfinallyincludedinthegeneralamnesty.
IntheremainingfourteenyearswhichmakethethirdperiodofhislifeMiltonstandsoutforsubsequentagesasanoble
figure.Hisveryobstinacyandegoismnowenabledhim,blind,comparativelypoor,andtherepresentativeofalostcause,
to maintain his proud and patient dignity in the midst of the triumph of all that was most hateful to him, and, as he
believed, to God. His isolation, indeed, was in many respects extreme, though now as always he found the few
sympatheticfriendsonwhomhisnaturewasquitedependent.Hisreligiousbeliefshadbecomewhatwouldatpresentbe
calledUnitarian,andhedidnotassociatewithanyoftheexistingdenominations;inprivatetheoryhehadevencometo
believe in polygamy. At home he is said to have suffered from the coldness or more active antipathy of his three
daughters,whichisnogreatcauseforwonderifwemustcreditthereportthathecompelledthemtoreadaloudtohimin
foreignlanguagesofwhichhehadtaughtthemthepronunciationbutnotthemeaning.Theirmotherhaddiedsomeyears
before,andhehadsoonlostthesecondwifewhoisthesubjectofoneofhisfinestsonnets.In1663,attheageoffifty
four,hewasunitedinathirdmarriagetoElizabethMinshull,awomanoftwentyfour,whowastosurvivehimformore
thanfiftyyears.
Theimportantfactofthislastperiod,however,isthatMiltonnowhadtheleisuretowrite,ortocomplete,'ParadiseLost.'
For a quarter of a century he had avowedly cherished the ambition to produce 'such a work as the world would not
willinglyletdie'andhadhadinmind,amongothers,thestoryofMan'sFall.Outlinesforatreatmentofitnotinepicbutin
dramaticformarepreservedinalistofahundredpossiblesubjectsforagreatworkwhichhedrewupasearlyas1640,
andduringtheCommonwealthperiodheseemsnotonlytohavebeenslowlymaturingtheplanbuttohavecomposed
partsoftheexistingpoem;neverthelesstheactualworkofcompositionbelongschieflytotheyearsfollowing1660.The
story as told in Genesis had received much elaboration in Christian tradition from a very early period and Milton drew
largelyfromthisgeneraltraditionandnodoubttosomeextentfromvariousprevioustreatmentsoftheBiblenarrativein
several languages which he might naturally have read and kept in mind. But beyond the simple outline the poem, like
everygreatwork,isessentiallytheproductofhisowngenius.Heaimed,specifically,toproduceaChristianepicwhich
shouldrankwiththegreatepicsofantiquityandwiththoseoftheItalianRenaissance.
Inthispurposehewasentirelysuccessful.Asawhole,bytheconsentofallcompetentjudges,'ParadiseLost'isworthyof
itstheme,perhapsthegreatestthatthemindofmancanconceive,namely'tojustifythewaysofGod.'Ofcoursethere
aredefects.Theseventeenthcenturytheology,likeeverysuccessivetheological,philosophical,andscientificsystem,has
lostitsholdonlatergenerations,anditbecomesdullindeedinthelongexpositorypassagesofthepoem.Theattemptto
expressspiritualideasthroughthemediumofthesecularepic,withitsbattlesandcouncilsandalltheformsofphysical

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life, is ofcourse rationallyparadoxical. Itwas early pointedout that in spite ofhimself Miltonhas in some sense made
Satan the hero of the poema reader can scarcely fail to sympathize with the fallen archangel in his unconquerable
PuritanlikeresistancetothearbitrarydecreesofMilton'sdespoticDeity.Further,Milton'spersonal,English,andPuritan
prejudicessometimesintrudeinvariousways.Butallthesethingsareonthesurface.Insustainedimaginativegrandeurof
conception,expression,andimagery'ParadiseLost'yieldstonohumanwork,andthemajesticandvariedmovementof
the blank verse, here first employed in a really great nondramatic English poem, is as magnificent as anything else in
literature.Itcannotbesaidthatthelaterbooksalwayssustainthegreatnessofthefirsttwo;buttheprofuselyscattered
passagesofsensuousdescription,atleast,suchasthoseoftheGardenofEdenandofthebeautyofEve,areintheirown
wayequallyfine.Statelyandmorefamiliarpassagesalikeshowthathowevermuchhisexperiencehaddonetoharden
Milton's Puritanism, his youthful Renaissance love of beauty for beauty's sake had lost none of its strength, though of
courseitcouldnolongerbeexpressedwithyouthfullightnessoffancyandmelody.Thepoemisamagnificentexampleof
classicalart,inthebestGreekspirit,unitedwithglowingromanticfeeling.Lastly,thevalueofMilton'sscholarshipshould
bynomeansbeoverlooked.Allhispoetry,fromthe'NativityOde'onward,islikearichmosaicofgemsborrowedfroma
greatrangeofclassicalandmodernauthors,andin'ParadiseLost'theallusionstoliteratureandhistorygivehalfofthe
romanticcharmandverymuchofthedignity.Thepoemcouldhavebeenwrittenonlybyonewhocombinedinaveryhigh
degree intellectual power, poetic feeling, religious idealism, profound scholarship and knowledge of literature,and also
experiencedknowledgeoftheactualworldofmen.
'ParadiseLost'waspublishedin1677.Itwasfollowedin1671by'ParadiseRegained,'onlyonethirdaslongandmuchless
important; and by 'Samson Agonistes' (Samson in his Death Struggle). In the latter Milton puts the story of the fallen
hero'slastdaysintothemajesticformofaGreekdrama,impartingtoitthepassionatebutloftyfeelingevokedbythe
close similarity of Samson's situation to his own. This was his last work, and he died in 1674. Whatever his faults, the
moral,intellectualandpoeticgreatnessofhisnaturesetshimapartasinasensethegrandestfigureinEnglishliterature.

JohnBunyan
SeventeenthcenturyPuritanismwastofindasupremespokesmaninprosefictionaswellasinpoetry;JohnMiltonand
JohnBunyan,standingatwidelydifferentanglesofexperience,makeoneofthemostinterestingcomplementarypairsin
allliterature.Bythemerechronologyofhisworks,Bunyanbelongsinournextperiod,butinhiscasemerechronology
mustbedisregarded.
Bunyanwasbornin1628atthevillageofElstow,justoutsideofBedford,incentralEngland.Afterveryslightschooling
andsomepracticeathisfather'stradeoftinker,hewasin1644draftedfortwoyearsandahalfintogarrisonservicein
theParliamentaryarmy.Releasedfromthisoccupation,hemarriedapoorbutexcellentwifeandworkedathistrade;but
theimportantexperiencesofhislifewerethereligiousones.Endowedbynaturewithgreatmoralsensitiveness,hewas
nevertheless a person of violent impulses and had early fallen into profanity and laxity of conduct, which he later
described with great exaggeration as a condition of abandoned wickedness. But from childhood his abnormally active
dramaticimaginationhadtormentedhimwithdreamsandfearsofdevilsandhellfire,andnowheenteredonalongand
agonizing struggle between his religious instinct and his obstinate selfwill. He has told the whole story in his spiritual
autobiography, 'Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners,' which is one of the notable religious books of the world. A
readerofitmustbefilledaboutequallywithadmirationfortheforceofwillandperseverancethatenabledBunyanatlast
towinhisbattle,andpityforthefantasticmorbidnessthatcreatedoutofnexttonothingmostofhiswellnighintolerable
tortures.OneSunday,forexample,freshfromasermononSabbathobservance,hewasengagedinagameof'cat,'when
hesuddenlyheardwithinhimselfthequestion,'Wiltthouleavethysinsandgotoheaven,orhavethysinsandgotohell?'
Stupefied,helookeduptotheskyandseemedtheretoseetheLordJesusgazingathim'hotlydispleased'andthreatening
punishment. Again, one of his favorite diversions was to watch bellmen ringing the chimes in the church steeples, and
thoughhisPuritanconscienceinsistedthatthepleasurewas'vain,'stillhewouldnotforegoit.Suddenlyonedayashe
wasindulginginitthethoughtoccurredtohimthatGodmightcauseoneofthebellstofallandkillhim,andhehastened
toshieldhimselfbystandingunderabeam.But,hereflected,thebellmighteasilyreboundfromthewallandstrikehim;
soheshiftedhispositiontothesteepledoor.Then'itcameintohishead,"Howifthesteepleitselfshouldfall?"'andwith
thathefledalikefromthecontroversyandthedanger.
Relief came when at the age of twentyfour he joined a nonsectarian church in Bedford (his own point of view being
Baptist). A man of so energetic spirit could not long remain inactive, and within two years he was preaching in the
surroundingvillages.AdisputewiththeFriendshadalreadyledtothebeginningofhiscontroversialwritingwhenin1660
the Restoration rendered preaching by persons outside the communion of the Church of England illegal, and he was
arrested and imprisoned in Bedford jail. Consistently refusing to give the promise of submission and abstention from
preaching which at any time would have secured his release, he continued in prison for twelve years, not suffering
particulardiscomfortandworkingforthesupportofhisfamilybyfasteningtheendsontoshoestrings.Duringthistimehe

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wrote and published several of the most important of his sixty books and pamphlets. At last, in 1672, the authorities
abandonedtheineffectiverequirementofconformity,andhewasreleasedandbecamepastorofhischurch.Threeyears
later he was again imprisoned for six months, and it was at that time that he composed the first part of 'The Pilgrim's
Progress,'whichwaspublishedin1678.Duringtheremainingtenyearsofhislifehisreputationandauthorityamongthe
Dissentersalmostequalledhisearnestdevotionandkindness,andwonforhimfromhisopponentsthegoodnaturedly
jocosetitleof'theBaptistbishop.'Hediedin1688.
SeveralofBunyan'sbooksarestrong,butnoneoftheothersistobenamedtogetherwith'ThePilgrim'sProgress.'This
hasbeentranslatedintonearlyorquiteahundredlanguagesanddialectsarecordneverapproachedbyanyotherbook
of English authorship. The sources of its power are obvious. It is the intensely sincere presentation by a man of
tremendous moral energy of what he believed to be the one subject of eternal and incalculable importance to every
human being, the subject namely of personal salvation. Its language and style, further, are founded on the noble and
simplemodeloftheEnglishBible,whichwasalmosttheonlybookthatBunyanknew,andwithwhichhiswholebeingwas
saturated.Histriumphantandlovingjoyinhisreligionenableshimoftentoattainthepoeticbeautyandeloquenceofhis
original;butbothbyinstinctandofsetpurposeherenderedhisownstyleevenmoresimpleanddirect,partlybytheuse
ofhomelyvernacularexpressions.Whathehadsaidin'GraceAbounding'isequallytruehere:'Icouldhavesteppedintoa
stylemuchhigher...butIdarenot.Goddidnotplayinconvincingofme...whereforeImaynotplayinmyrelatingof
these experiences.' 'Pilgrim's Progress' is perfectly intelligible to any child, and further, it is highly dramatic and
picturesque.Itis,tobesure,anallegory,butoneofthoseallegorieswhichseeminherentinthehumanmindandhence
more natural than the mostdirectnarrative. For all men life is indeeda journey,and the Slough of Despond,Doubting
Castle,VanityFair,andtheValleyofHumiliationareplaceswhereinonesenseoranothereveryhumansoulhasoften
struggled and suffered; so that every reader goes hand in hand with Christian and his friends, fears for them in their
dangersandrejoicesintheirescapes.Theincidents,however,haveallthefurtherfascinationofsupernaturalromance;
andtheunionofthiselementwiththehomelysincerityofthestyleaccountsformuchofthepeculiarqualityofthebook.
Universalinitsappeal,absolutelydirectandvividinmannersuchaworkmightwellbecome,asitspeedilydid,oneofthe
mostfamousofworldclassics.Itisinterestingtolearn,therefore,thatBunyanhadexpecteditscirculationtobeconfined
tothecommonpeople;theearlyeditionsareascheapaspossibleinpaper,printing,andillustrations.
Criticism,nodoubt,easilydiscoversin'Pilgrim'sProgress'technicalfaults.Thestoryoftenlacksthefulldevelopmentand
balance of incidents and narration which a trained literary artist would have given it; the allegory is inconsistent in a
hundredwaysandplaces;thecharactersareonlytypes;andBunyan,alwaysmorepreacherthanartist,isdistinctlyunfair
to the bad ones among them. But these things are unimportant. Every allegory is inconsistent, and Bunyan repeatedly
takespainstoemphasizethatthisisadream;whilethesimplicityofcharactertreatmentincreasesthedirectnessofthe
maineffect.Whenallissaid,thebookremainsthegreatestexampleinliteratureofwhatabsoluteearnestnessmaymake
possible for a plain and untrained man. Nothing, of course, can alter the fundamental distinctions. 'Paradise Lost' is
certainlygreaterthan'Pilgrim'sProgress,'becauseitistheworkofapoetandascholaraswellasareligiousenthusiast.
But'Pilgrim'sProgress,'letitbesaidfrankly,willalwaysfindadozenreaderswhereMiltonhasonebychoice,andnoman
can afford to think otherwise than respectfully of achievements which speak powerfully and nobly to the underlying
instinctsandneedsofallmankind.
The naturalness of the allegory, it may be added, renders the resemblance of 'Pilgrim's Progress' to many previous
treatments of the same theme and to less closely parallel works like 'The Faerie Queene' probably accidental; in any
significantsenseBunyanprobablyhadnoothersourcethantheBibleandhisownimagination.

TheTudorsandtheElizabethanAge
ThebeginningoftheTudordynastycoincidedwiththefirstdisseminationofprintedmatter.WilliamCaxton'spresswas
establishedin1476,onlynineyearsbeforethebeginningofHenryVII'sreign.Caxton'sachievementencouragedwritingof
allkindsandalsoinfluencedthestandardizationoftheEnglishlanguage.TheearlyTudorperiod,particularlythereignof
HenryVIII,wasmarkedbyabreakwiththeRomanCatholicChurchandaweakeningoffeudalties,whichbroughtabouta
vastincreaseinthepowerofthemonarchy.
StrongerpoliticalrelationshipswiththeContinentwerealsodeveloped,increasingEngland'sexposuretoRenaissance
culture.HumanismbecamethemostimportantforceinEnglishliteraryandintellectuallife,bothinitsnarrowsensethe
studyandimitationoftheLatinclassicsandinitsbroadsensetheaffirmationofthesecular,inadditiontothe
otherworldly,concernsofpeople.Theseforcesproducedduringthereign(15581603)ofElizabethIoneofthemost
fruitfulerasinliteraryhistory.

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TheenergyofEngland'swritersmatchedthatofitsmarinersandmerchants.AccountsbymensuchasRichardHakluyt,
SamuelPurchas,andSirWalterRaleighwereeagerlyread.TheactivitiesandliteratureoftheElizabethansreflectedanew
nationalism,whichexpresseditselfalsointheworksofchroniclers(JohnStow,RaphaelHolinshed,andothers),historians,
andtranslatorsandeveninpoliticalandreligioustracts.Amyriadofnewgenres,themes,andideaswereincorporated
intoEnglishliterature.Italianpoeticforms,especiallythesonnet,becamemodelsforEnglishpoets.
Sir Thomas Wyatt was the most successful sonneteer among early Tudor poets, and was, with Henry Howard, earl of
Surrey,aseminalinfluence.Tottel'sMiscellany(1557)wasthefirstandmostpopularofmanycollectionsofexperimental
poetry by different, often anonymous, hands. A common goal of these poets was to make English as flexible a poetic
instrumentasItalian.AmongthemoreprominentofthisgroupwereThomasChurchyard,GeorgeGascoigne,andEdward
deVere,earlofOxford.AnambitiousandinfluentialworkwasAMirrorforMagistrates(1559),ahistoricalversenarrative
byseveralpoetsthatupdatedthemedievalviewofhistoryandthemoralstobedrawnfromit.
ThepoetwhobestsynthesizedtheideasandtendenciesoftheEnglishRenaissancewasEdmundSpencer.Hisunfinished
epic poem The FaerieQueen (1596) is a treasure house of romance,allegory, adventure, Neoplatonic ideas, patriotism,
and Protestant morality, all presented in a variety of literary styles. The ideal English Renaissance man was Sir Philip
Sidneyscholar, poet, critic, courtier, diplomat, and soldierwho died in battle at the age of 32. His best poetry is
contained in the sonnet sequence Astrophel and Stella (1591) and his Defence of Poesie is among the most important
worksofliterarycriticisminthetradition.
Many others in a historical era when poetic talents were highly valued, were skilled poets. Important late Tudor
sonneteers include Spenser and Shakespeare, Michael Drayton, Samuel Daniel, and Fulke Greville. More versatile even
thanSidneywasSirWalterRaleighpoet,historian,courtier,explorer,andsoldierwhowrotestrong,sparepoetry.
Early Tudor drama owed much to both medieval morality plays and classical models. Ralph Roister Doister (c.1545) by
Nicholas Udall and Gammer Gurton's Needle (c.1552) are considered the first English comedies, combining elements of
classicalRomancomedywithnativeburlesque.Duringthelate16thandearly17thcent.,dramaflourishedinEnglandas
neverbeforeorsince.ItcameofagewiththeworkoftheUniversityWits,whosesophisticatedplayssetthecourseof
RenaissancedramaandpavedthewayforShakespeare.
TheWitsincludedJohnLyly,famedforthehighlyartificialandmuchimitatedproseworkEuphues(1578);RobertGreene,
thefirsttowriteromanticcomedy;theversatileThomasLodgeandThomasNashe;ThomasKyd,whopopularizedneo
Senecantragedy;andChristopherMarlowe,thegreatestdramatistofthegroup.Focusingonheroeswhoseverygreatness
leads to their downfall, Marlowe wrote in blank verse with a rhetorical brilliance and eloquence superbly equal to the
demands of high drama. William Shakespeare, of course, fulfilled the promise of the Elizabethan age. His history plays,
comedies,andtragediessetastandardneveragainequaled,andheisuniversallyregardedasthegreatestdramatistand
oneofthegreatestpoetsofalltime.

TheJacobeanEra,Cromwell,andtheRestoration
Elizabethan literature generally reflects the exuberant selfconfidence of a nation expanding its powers, increasing its
wealth, and thus keeping at bay its serious social and religious problems. Disillusion and pessimism followed, however,
during the unstable reign of James I (160325). The 17th century was to be a time of great upheavalrevolution and
regicide, restoration of the monarchy, and, finally, the victory of Parliament, landed Protestantism, and the moneyed
interests.
Jacobean literaturebeginswith the drama, including some of Shakespeare's greatest, anddarkest,plays. The dominant
literary figure of James's reign was Ben Jonson, whose varied and dramatic works followed classical models and were
enrichedbyhisworldly,peculiarlyEnglishwit.Hissatiricdramas,notablythegreatVolpone(1606),alltakeacynicalview
ofhumannature.AlsocynicalwerethehorrificrevengetragediesofJohnFord,ThomasMiddleton,CyrilTourneur,and
JohnWebster(thebestpoetofthisgrimgenre).Noveltywasingreatdemand,andthepossibilitiesofplotandgenrewere
exploitedalmosttoexhaustion.Still,manyexcellentplayswerewrittenbymensuchasGeorgeChapman,themastersof
comedyThomasDekkerandPhilipMassinger,andtheteamofFrancisBeaumontandJohnFletcher.Dramacontinuedto
flourishuntiltheclosingofthetheatersattheonsetoftheEnglishRevolutionin1642.
TheforemostpoetsoftheJacobeanera,BenJonsonandJohnDonne,areregardedastheoriginatorsoftwodiversepoetic
traditionsthe Cavalier and the metaphysical poets. Jonson and Donne shared not only a common fund of literary
resources,butalsoadrynessofwitandprecisionofexpression.Donne'spoetryisdistinctiveforitspassionateintellection,
Jonson'sforitsclassicismandurbaneguidanceofpassion.

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AlthoughGeorgeHerbertandDonneweretheprincipalmetaphysicalpoets,themeditativereligiouspoetsHenryVaughan
andThomasTrahernewerealsoinfluencedbyDonne,aswereAbrahamCowleyandRichardCrashaw.Thegreatestofthe
Cavalier poets was the sensuously lyrical Robert Herrick. Such other Cavaliers as Thomas Carew, Sir John Suckling, and
RichardLovelacewerelyricistsintheelegantJonsoniantradition,thoughtheirlyricismturnedpoliticalduringtheEnglish
Revolution.Althoughrankedwiththemetaphysicalpoets,thehighlyindividualAndrewMarvellpartookofthetraditions
ofbothDonneandJonson.
AmongtheleadingprosewritersoftheJacobeanperiodwerethetranslatorswhoproducedtheclassicKingJamesVersion
oftheBible(1611)andthedivinesLancelotAndrewes,JeremyTaylor,andJohnDonne.TheworkofFrancisBaconhelped
shape philosophical and scientific method. Robert Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy (1621) offers a varied, virtually
encyclopedicviewofthemoralandintellectualpreoccupationsofthe17thcent.LikeBurton,SirThomasBrownesought
toreconcilethemysteriesofreligionwiththenewermysteriesofscience.IzaakWalton,authorofTheCompleatAngler
(1653), produced a number of graceful biographies of prominent writers. Thomas Hobbes wrote the most influential
politicaltreatiseoftheage,Leviathan(1651).
TheJacobeanera'smostfieryandeloquentauthorofpoliticaltracts(manyindefenseofCromwell'sgovernment,ofwhich
hewasamember)wasalsooneofthegreatestofallEnglishpoets,JohnMilton.HisParadiseLost(1667)isaChristianepic
of encompassing scope. In Milton the literary and philosophical heritage of the Renaissance merged with Protestant
politicalandmoralconviction.
With the restoration of the English monarchy in the person of Charles II, literary tastes widened. The lifting of Puritan
restrictionsandthereassemblingofthecourtledtoarelaxationofrestraints,bothmoralandstylistic,embodiedinsuch
figuresastheEarlofRochester.RestorationcomedyrevealsboththeinfluenceofFrenchfarce(theEnglishcourtspentits
exile in France) and of Jacobean comedy. It generously fed the public's appetite for broad satire, high style, and a
licentiousnessthatjustifiedtheworstPuritanimaginings.SuchdramatistsasSirGeorgeEtherege,WilliamWycherley,and
William Congreve created superbly polished high comedy. Sparkling but not quite so brilliant were the plays of George
Farquhar,ThomasShadwell,andSirJohnVanbrugh.
JohnDrudenbeganasaplaywrightbutbecametheforemostpoetandcriticofhistime.Hisgreatestworksaresatirical
narrativepoems,notablyAbsalomandAchitophel(1681),inwhichprominentcontemporaryfiguresareunmistakablyand
devastatinglyportrayed.AnothersatiricpoetoftheperiodwasSamuelButler,whoseHudibras(1663)satirizesPuritanism
together with all the intellectual pretensions of the time. During the Restoration Puritanism or, more generally, the
Dissenting tradition, remained vital. The most important Dissenting literary work was John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress
(1675), an allegorical prose narrative that is considered a forerunner of the novel. Lively and illuminating glimpses of
RestorationmannersandmoresareprovidedbythediariesofSamuelPepysandJohnEvelyn.

Thesixteenthcentury
LiteraryworksinsixteenthcenturyEnglandwererarelyifevercreatedinisolationfromothercurrentsinthesocialand
cultural world. The boundaries that divided the texts we now regard as aesthetic from other texts were porous and
constantly shifting. It is perfectly acceptable, of course, for the purposes of reading to redraw these boundaries more
decisively,treatingRenaissancetextsasiftheywereislandsoftheautonomousliteraryimagination.Oneofthegreatest
writers of the period, Sir Philip Sidney, defended poetry in just such terms; the poet, Sidney writes in The Defence of
Poetry(NAEL8,1.95374),isnotconstrainedbynatureorhistorybutfreelyranges"onlywithinthezodiacofhisownwit."
ButSidneyknewwell,andfrompainfulpersonalexperience,howmuchthisvisionofgoldenautonomywascontractedby
thepressures,perils,andlongingsofthebrazenworld.Andonlyafewpagesafterheimaginesthepoetorbitingentirely
withintheconstellationsofhisownintellect,headvancesaverydifferentvision,oneinwhichthepoet'swordsnotonly
imitaterealitybutalsoactivelychangeit.

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Wehavenowayofknowingtowhatextent,ifatall,thisdreamofliterarypowerwaseverrealizedintheworld.Wedo
know that many sixteenthcentury artists, such as Christopher Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, and William Shakespeare,
brooded on the magical, transforming power of art. This power could be associated with civility and virtue, as Sidney
claims,butitcouldalsohavethedemonicqualitiesmanifestedbythe"pleasingwords"ofSpenser'senchanter,Archimago
(NAEL 8, 1.714902), or by the incantations of Marlowe's Doctor Faustus (NAEL 8, 1.10221057). It is significant that
Marlowe'sgreatplaywaswrittenatatimeinwhichthepossibilityofsorcerywasnotmerelyatheatricalfantasybuta
widelysharedfear,afearuponwhichthestatecouldactasthecaseofDoctorFianvividlyshowswithhorrendous
ferocity. Marlowe was himself the object of suspicion and hostility, as indicated by the strange report filed by a secret
agent,RichardBaines,professingtolistMarlowe'swildlyhereticalopinions,andbythegleeful(andfactuallyinaccurate)
reportbythePuritanThomasBeardofMarlowe'sdeath.
Marlowe'stragedyemergesnotonlyfromacultureinwhichbargainswiththedevilareimaginable
asrealeventsbutalsofromaworldinwhichmanyofthemostfundamentalassumptionsabout
spirituallifewerebeingcalledintoquestionbythemovementknownastheReformation.Catholic
and Protestant voices struggled to articulate the precise beliefs and practices thought necessary
for the soul's salvation. One key site of conflict was the Bible, with Catholic authorities trying
unsuccessfully to stop the circulation of the unauthorized Protestant translation of Scripture by
WilliamTyndale,atranslationinwhichdoctrinesandinstitutionalstructurescentraltotheRoman
Catholic church were directly challenged. Those doctrines and structures, above all the
interpretation of the central ritual of the eucharist, or Lord's Supper, were contested with
murderous ferocity, as the fates of the Protestant martyr Anne Askew and the Catholic martyr
RobertAskemakepainfullyclear.TheReformationiscloselylinkedtomanyofthetextsprintedin
thesixteenthcenturysectionoftheNortonAnthology:Book1ofSpenser'sFaerieQueene(NAEL8,
1.719856),forexample,inwhichastaunchlyProtestantknightofHolinessstrugglesagainstthe
satanicforcesofRomanCatholicism,ortheProtestantpropagandistFoxe'saccountofLadyJaneGrey'sexecution(NAEL8,
1.67475),ortheCatholicRobertSouthwell'smovingreligiouslyric,"ThewindowsontheReformationofferarevealing
glimpseoftheinnerlivesofmenandwomeninBurningBabe"(NAEL8,1.64041).
IftheseTudorEngland,thesubsectionentitled"TheWiderWorld"providesaglimpseofthehugeworldthatlaybeyond
the boundaries of the kingdom, a world that the English were feverishly attempting to explore and exploit. Ruthless
military expeditions and English settlers (including the poet Edmund Spenser) struggled to subdue and colonize nearby
Ireland,butwithverylimitedsuccess.Fartherafield,merchantsfromcitiessuchasLondonandBristol
establishedprofitabletradinglinkstomarketsinNorthAfrica,Turkey,andRussia.Anddaringseamen
suchasDrakeandCavendishcommandedvoyagestostillmoredistantlands.Thetextscollectedhere,
which supplement the selections from Ralegh's Discoverie of Guiana (NAEL 8, 1.92326) and Hariot's
BriefandTrueReport(NAEL1.93843)intheNortonAnthology,arefascinating,disturbingrecordsof
intense human curiosity, greed, fear, wonder, and intelligence. And lest we imagine that the English
wereonlytheobserversoftheworldandnevertheobserved,"TheWiderWorld"includesasampleofaforeigntourist's
description of London. The tourist, Thomas Platter, had the good sense to go to the theater and to see, as so many
thousandsofvisitorstoEnglandhavedonesince,aplaybyShakespeare.

Theearlyseventeenthcentury
The earlier seventeenth century, and especially the period of the English Revolution
(164060), was a time of intense ferment in all areas of life
religion, science, politics, domestic relations, culture. That
ferment was reflected in the literature of the era, which also
registeredaheightenedfocusonandanalysisoftheselfandthe
personal life. However, little of this seems in evidence in the
elaborate frontispiece to Michael Drayton's long
"chorographical" poem on the landscape, regions, and local
historyofGreatBritain(1612),whichappearedinthefirstyears
of the reign of the Stuart king James I (16031625). The
frontispiece appears to represent a peaceful, prosperous, triumphant Britain, with England,
Scotland,andWalesunited,patriarchyandmonarchyfirmlyestablished,andthenationservingas
thegreatthemeforloftyliterarycelebration.Albion(theRomannameforBritain)isayoungandbeautifulvirginwearing
ascloakamapfeaturingrivers,trees,mountains,churches,towns;shecarriesascepterandholdsacornucopia,symbolof
plenty.Shipsonthehorizonsignifyexploration,trade,andgarneringtherichesofthesea.Inthefourcornersstandfour
conquerorswhosedescendantsruledoverBritain:thelegendaryBrutus,JuliusCaesar,HengisttheSaxon,andtheNorman
WilliamtheConqueror,"whoselineyetrules,"asDrayton'sintroductorypoemstates.

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Yetthisfrontispiecealsoregisterssomeofthetensions,conflicts,andredefinitionsevidentintheliteratureoftheperiod
andexploredmoredirectlyinthetopicsandtextsinthisportionoftheNTOWebsite.ItisAlbionherself,notKingJames,
whoisseatedinthecenterholdingtheemblemsofsovereignty;hermaleconquerorsstandtotheside,andtheirsmaller
size and their number suggest something unstable in monarchy and patriarchy. Albion's robe with its multiplicity of
regionalfeatures,aswellasthe"Poly"ofthetitle,suggestsforcespullingagainstnationalunity.Also,PolyOlbionhadno
successors: instead ofacelebration of thenation in thevein of Spenser's FaerieQueene or PolyOlbion itself, the great
seventeenthcenturyheroicpoem,ParadiseLost,treatstheFallofMananditstragicconsequences,"allourwoe."
The first topic here, "Gender, Family, Household: SeventeenthCentury Norms and Controversies," provides important
religious, legal, and domestic advice texts through which to explore cultural assumptions about gender roles and the
patriarchalfamily.Italsoinvitesattentiontohowthoseassumptionsaremodifiedorchallengedinthepracticesofactual
families and households; in tracts on transgressive subjects (crossdressing, women speaking in church, divorce); in
women'stextsassertingwomen'sworth,talents,andrights;andespeciallyintheupheavalsoftheEnglishRevolution.
"ParadiseLostinContext,"thesecondtopicforthisperiod,surroundsthatradicallyrevisionistepic
with texts that invite readers to examine how it engages with the interpretative traditions
surrounding the Genesis story, how it uses classical myth, how it challenges orthodox notions of
Edenicinnocence,andhowitispositionedwithinbutalsoagainsttheepictraditionfromHomerto
VirgiltoDuBartas.Theprotagonistsherearenotmartialheroesbutadomesticcouplewhomust,
bothbeforeandaftertheirFall,dealwithquestionshotlycontestedintheseventeenthcenturybut
alsoperennial:howtobuildagoodmaritalrelationship;howtothinkaboutscience,astronomy,and
thenatureofthings;whatconstitutestyranny,servitude,andliberty;whathistoryteaches;howto
meetthedailychallengesoflove,work,education,change,temptation,anddeceptiverhetoric;how
toreconcilefreewillanddivineprovidence;andhowtounderstandandrespondtoGod'sways.
The third topic, "Civil Wars of Ideas: SeventeenthCentury Politics, Religion, and Culture," provides an opportunity to
explore,throughpoliticalandpolemicaltreatisesandstrikingimages,someoftheissuesandconflictsthatledtocivilwar
and the overthrow of monarchical government (164260). These include royal absolutism vs. parliamentary or popular
sovereignty, monarchy vs. republicanism, Puritanism vs. Anglicanism, church ritual and ornament vs. iconoclasm,
tolerationvs.religiousuniformity,andcontroversiesovercourtmasquesandSundaysports.Theclimaxtoallthiswasthe
highlydramatic trial and execution of KingCharles I (January1649), a cataclysmic event that sent shock wavesthrough
courts, hierarchical institutions, and traditionalists everywhere; this event is presented here through contemporary
accountsandgraphicimages.

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ElisabethI

TheEnglishElizabethanEraisoneofthemostfascinatingperiodsintheHistoryofEngland.TheElizabethanEraisnamed
afterthegreatestQueensofEnglandQueenElizabethI.TheElizabethanEraisnotonlyfamousfortheVirginQueenbut
alsofortheeraitselfGreatExplorers,suchasSirFrancisDrakeandWalterRaleigh.TheeraoftheveryfirstTheatresin
EnglandWilliamShakespeare,theglobeTheatreandChristopherMarlowe!ThepeopleoftheeratheFamousFigures
whofeaturedinthehistoryofthiserasuchastheQueen'sloveRobertDudley,thesinisterDr.JohnDee,theintriguesof
thespymasterSirFrancisWalsinghamandtheQueen'schiefadvisorSirWilliamCecil(LordBurghley).ReligionPolitics
ExecutionsCrimeandPunishmentallplayedtheirpartintheElizabethanera,andsodidthecommoners.
TheCrimeandPunishmentathertimeisnotahappysubjectitwasaviolenttime.Crimesweremetwithviolent,cruel
punishments.Manypunishmentsandexecutionswerewitnessedbymanyhundredsofpeople.TheLowerClassestreated
sucheventsasexcitingdaysout.Evenroyaltyweresubjectedtothismostpublicformofpunishmentfortheircrimes.The
execution of the tragic Anne Boleyn was restricted to the Upper Classes and Nobility and was witnessed by several
hundredspectators!
ThiserawassplitintotwoclassestheUpperClass,thenobilityandcourtiers,andeveryoneelse!Punishmentwouldvary
according to class. The Upper class was well educated, wealthy and associated with Royalty and high members of the
clergy. They would often become involved in Political intrigue and matters of Religion. The nobility could therefore
becomeinvolvedincrimewhichwasnotsharedbyotherpeople.Justbeingaccusedofoneoftheseriouscrimescould
wellresultintorture.ADefendant'schancesinreceivinganyacquittalincourtextremelyslim.Trialsweredesignedinthe
favouroftheprosecutorsanddefendantsaccusedanyofthefollowingcrimeswerenotevenallowedlegalcounsel.
The most common crimes of the Nobility included: High Treason; Blasphemy; Sedition; Spying; Rebellion; Murder;
Witchcraft;Alchemy.
Manycrimescommittedbycommonerswerethroughsheerdesperationandabjectpoverty.Themostcommoncrimes
were:Theft;Cutpurses;Begging;Poaching;Adultery;Debtors;Forgers;Fraud;Dicecoggers.
Theftforstealinganythingover5penceresultedinhangingaterriblepricetopayforpoorpeoplewhowerestarving.
Even such small crimes such as stealing bird eggs could result in the death sentence. Punishment for poaching crimes
differedaccordingtowhenthecrimewascommittedPoachingatnightresultedinthepunishmentbydeath,whereas
poaching during the day time did not. Begging was a serious crime during the Elizabethan era. The Elizabethan
governmentmadebeggingacrimeandthereforeillegaland'poorbeggars'Astheirpunishment'poorbeggars'wouldbe
beaten until they reached the stones that marked the town parish boundary. The beatings given as punishment were
bloodyandmercilessandthosewhowerecaughtcontinuallybeggingcouldbesenttoprisonandevenhangedastheir
punishment.
LifeinElizabethanEnglandwaschronicledbyanElizabethancalledWilliamHarrisonthisincludeddetailsofElizabethan
crime and punishment. The most dreadful punishment of being Hung, Drawn and Quartered was described by William
Harrisonas:
"The greatest and most grievous punishment used in England for such as offend against the State is drawing from the
prisontotheplaceofexecutionuponanhurdleorsled,wheretheyarehangedtilltheybehalfdead,andthentakendown,
andquarteredalive;afterthat,theirmembersandbowelsarecutfromtheirbodies,andthrownintoafire,providednear
handandwithintheirownsight,evenforthesamepurpose."

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Other punishment included execution by burning and beheading. Being burnt at the stake was a terrible death.
Executionerssometimesshowedmercytotheirvictimsbyplacinggunpowderatthebaseofthestakewhichhelpedthe
victimstoaswifter,andlesspainful,death.Theonlyotherrespitefromtheexcruciatingpainofbeingburnttodeathwas
ifthevictimsdiedofsuffocationthroughsmokeinhalationandlackofoxygen.
The punishment of Death by the axe was a terrifying prospect. The Elizabethan executioners often took several blows
beforetheheadwasfinallysevered.ThepunishmentofdeathbyExecutionwereheldinpublicandwitnessedbymany
people.Followingtheexecutiontheseveredheadwasheldupbythehairbytheexecutioner,notasmanypeoplethinkto
showthecrowdthehead,butinfacttoshowtheheadthecrowdandtoit'sownbody!Consciousnessremainsforatleast
eight seconds after beheading, until lack of oxygen causes unconsciousness, and eventually death. The punishment by
beheadingthereforeevencontinuedafter'death'.TheHeadsofElizabethantraitorswereplacedonstakesanddisplayed
inpublicplacessuchasLondonBridge.
Punishmentforcommoners,thelowerclass,duringtheElizabethanperiodincludedthefollowing:Hanging;Burning;The
Pillory and the Stocks; Whipping;Branding;Pressing; Ducking stools; The Wheel; Boiling in oil water or lead (usually
reserved for poisoners); Starvation in a public place; Cutting off various items of the anatomy hands, ears etc; The
Gossip'sBridleortheBrank;TheDrunkardsCloak
MinorcrimeandpunishmentinsmallElizabethantownsweredealtwithbytheJusticeofthePeace.Manycrimesduring
theElizabethanerawereduetoacrimecommittedandthelawbrokenduetothedesperateactsofthepoor.Everytown
parishwasresponsibleforthepoorandunemployedwithinthatparish.TheJusticeofthePeaceforeachtownparishwas
allowedtocollectataxfromthosewhoownedlandinthetown.ThiswascalledthePoorRatewhichwasusedtohelpthe
poorduringtheElizabethanperiod.
EVEN TRAVEL AND ACTING IN ELIZABETHAN ENGLAND WAS A CRIME WITHOUT A LICENCE!
PeopledidnottravelaroundalotduringtheTudorandElizabethanera.TravellingduringtheElizabethaneracouldbe
dangerous,moneywasnecessaryandalicense,obtainedfromtheBailiffintheGuildHall,wasrequiredbyanyonewho
neededtotravelaroundEnglanditwasacrimetotravelwithoutalicence.Thislawensuredthatthespreadofdisease,
especially the plague, was contained as much as possible and that the poor and the homeless did not travel from one
village to another village an Elizabethan ploy to lower the crime and punishment levels in England. Strangers were
treatedwithsuspicionandriskedbeingaccusedofcrimesandsufferedtheappropriatepunishment.

ThegreatElizabethanAgeofExploration
ItwasatfirstdominatedbythePortugueseandtheSpanish.TheGoldenAgeofExplorationalsosawtheemergenceof
EnglishexplorerssuchasSirFrancisDrake(15421596),SirWalterRaleigh(15541618),SirHumphreyGilbert(15391583),
Sir John Hawkins (15321595), Sir Richard Grenville (15411591) and Sir Martin Frobisher (15351594). A biography,
timeline,facts,picturesandinformationhasbeenincludedaboutthemostfamousExplorersandtheirexplorationsthat
madesuchmomentousvoyagesduringtheAgeofExploration,manyincludingScientificcuriosity,bredoftheRenaissance
spirit of free inquiry, the crusading spirit in which Europeans thrilled at the thought of spreading Christianity among
heathenpeoples.Andtheopportunitiestoacquirewealth,fameandpower.Sowehavethescientificimprovementsin
NavigationduringthisAgeofExploration.
TheElizabethanTimessawtheemergenceofthebravestandskilfulEnglishseamenwhorevelledintheRenaissanceAge
ofExploration!NewdiscoveriescouldbringuntoldrichesintermsofgoldandsilverandspicestheElizabethanexplorers
weresearchingforadventure,gloryandwealth.TheGreatestEnglishExplorerswereSirFrancisDrake,SirWalterRaleigh
,SirHumphreyGilbert,SirJohnHawkins,SirRichardGrenvilleandSirMartinFrobisher.Thisfacthappensbetween1000
1500 (this early Explorers Timeline provides a 'backdrop' to the achievements and voyages of discovery by the
RenaissanceandElizabethanExplorersuntiltheTimelinecovering15001600.
TheRenaissancesawthesuccessoftheSpanishexplorersinacquiringmonopoliesonmuchoftheEasternspicetradeand
theirexpeditionstotheNewWorldbroughtgreatwealthandpowertoSpainduringtheAgeofExploration.Rodrigode
Bastidas, Vasco Nunez de Balboa, Juan Diaz de Solis, Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba, Hernan Cortes and Francisco
PizarrowerethegreatestSpanishExplorersinthegreatAgeofExploration.
TheemergenceofsomeFamousPiratesandtheGoldenAgeofPirates,thelucrativeslavetrade,spicetradeandthespoils
ofgoldandsilverencouragedtheactivitiesofPirates.ManyexplorerssuchasSirFrancisDrakeandSirMartinFrobisher
werereferredtoaspirates,therealPiratesoftheCaribbean!

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Inthisperiod,theageoftheRenaissance,ofnewideasandnewthinking,wehavetheintroductionoftheprintingpress,
oneofthegreatesttoolsinincreasingknowledgeandlearning,wasresponsiblefortheinterestinthedifferentsciences
and inventions and the supernatural! The new ideas, information and increased knowledge aboutscience, technology
andastrologyledtoarenewedinterestinthesupernaturalincludingwitches,witchcraftandghostswhichledtobeliefin
superstitionsandthesupernatural.Factsaboutallofthesesubjectsareincludedintheplayswrittenatthattime.

TheElizabethanTheatre
Thehistoryofthetheaterisfascinating.HowplayswerefirstproducedintheyardsofinnstheInnyards.Theveryfirst
theater and the development of the amphitheatre! The Elizabethan Entrepreneurs (the men with the ideas and the
money!).Thebuilding,designandconstructionofaLondonElizabethanTheatre.Theplays,theplaywrights,thepolitics
andthepropagandaallplayanimportantpartinthehistoryoftheElizabethanTheatre.Itwasaboomingbusiness.People
loved the Theatre! The plays and theatres were as popular as the movies and cinemas of the early 20th century. Vast
amountsofmoneycouldbemade!Theinnkeepersincreasedtheirprofitsbyallowingplaystobeshownontemporary
stageserectedintheyardsoftheirinns(innyards).Soonpurposebuiltplayhousesandgreatopentheatreswerebeing
constructed.Thegreatsuccessofthetheatreandwhatledtoitsdownfall.TheHistoryoftheElizabethantheatretheInn
Yards,theAmphitheatresandthePlayhouses
ItpresentsalloftheimporteddatesandeventsinthehistoryoftheElizabethanTheatreinalogicalorder.Thetheatrewas
anexpandingindustryduringthisera.ManytheatressprangupinandaroundtheCityofLondon.Theexcitement,money
andfameluredElizabethantheatreentrepreneursandactorsintoworkinginthefamousTheatre.Wecanmentionthe
Globe Theatre, Newington Butts, the Curtain Elizabethan Theatre, the Rose Theatre, the Swan Theatre, the Fortune
ElizabethanTheatre,theBoarsHead,theBearGarden,theBullRingandtheHopeElizabethanTheatre.
DuringElizabetahnerawesawagreatflourishingofliterature,especiallyinthefieldofdrama.TheItalianRenaissancehad
rediscovered the ancient Greek and Roman theatre, and this was instrumental in the development of the new drama,
whichwasthenbeginningtoevolveapartfromtheoldmysteryandmiracleplaysoftheMiddleAges.
ElizabethanActorsweretreatedwithasmuchsuspicionasbeggars.Anyonewhoneededtotraveltoearntheirliving,such
as actors, were treated with suspicion and could therefore be expected to be accused of crimes. An actors standing in
Elizabethan England was only slightly higher than a beggar, vagabond or a thief. When plays started to become more
popularrichnobles,orhighrankingcourtiersoftheland,actedastheirsponsors.Itwassoondecreedthatlicensesshould
begrantedtolegitimisecertainActingTroupes.Thisraisedtheactorsstatussomewhatandleadtofeweraccusationsof
crimes.AlicensealsohadtobegrantedbyTownCouncillorswhenatroupeofactorscametotown.Manyactorsreceived
punishmentsforrealandsometimesimaginarycrimeswhichincludedthepunishmentofbrandingwithredhotirons.The
roleofwomenwereplayedbymen,asitwasnotproperforawomantoact.

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WilliamShakespearelifeandwork

WilliamShakespearewasapoet,dramatist,andactorandisconsideredbymanytobe
thegreatestdramatistofalltime.HeistheforemostfigureinEnglishliteratureandhad
aprimaryinfluenceonthedevelopmentoftheEnglishliterarylanguage.
He was born in April, 1564 in StratforduponAvon, Warwickshire, about 100 miles
northwest of London. According to the records of Stratford's Holy Trinity Church, he
wasbaptizedonApril26.Sinceitwascustomarytobaptizeinfantswithindaysofbirth,
and since Shakespeare died 52 years later on April 23, andmost significantlysince
April 23 is St. George's day, the patron saint of England, it has become traditional to
assignthebirthdayofEngland'smostfamouspoettoApril23.Aswithmostsixteenth
centurybirths,theactualdayisnotrecorded.Andaswithmostremarkablemen,the
powerofmythandsymmetryhasprovenirresistible.SoApril23ithasbecome.
HisparentswereJohnandMaryShakespeare,wholivedinHenleyStreet,Stratford.John,thesonofRichardShakespeare,
wasawhittawer(amaker,workerandsellerofleathergoodssuchaspurses,beltsandgloves)andadealerinagricultural
commodities. He was a solid, middle class citizen at the time of William's birth, and a man on the rise. He served in
Stratford government successively as a member of the Council (1557), constable (1558), chamberlain (1561), alderman
(1565) and finally high bailiff (1568)the equivalent of town mayor. About 1577 John Shakespeare's fortunes began to
declineforunknownreasons.Therearerecordsofdebts.In1586hewasreplacedasaldermanforshirkingresponsibilities,
andin1592wasreprimandedfornotcomingtochurchforfearofprocessofdebt.
Mary,thedaughterofRobertArden,hadinalleightchildrenwithJohnShakespeare.Williamwasthethirdchildandthe
first son. The eldest child of John Shakespeare, a tradesman and public servant, and Mary Arden Shakespeare, the
daughterofagentlemanfarmer,WilliamwasbaptizedonApril26,1564.Basedonthisfact,itishypothesizedthathewas
bornonoraboutApril23,1564.
Littleisknownabouthisearlylifeandtheonlydocumentedfactscomefromchristeningandmarriagerecordsandother
legal documents. Though no records exist, it is possible young William may have attended the King's New School and
receivedwhatwouldhavebeenconsideredaclassicaleducation.HeprobablywouldhavebeentaughtthebasicsofLatin,
Greek, Italian,and French and read such authors as Aesop, Caesar, Virgil, andOvid.He probably also would have been
taughtlogic,rhetoric,grammar,speech,anddrama.
OnNovember28,1582theBishopofWorcesterissuedthemarriagebondfor"WilliamShagspere",hewaseighteenyears
oldand"AnnHathweyofStratford."Thiswas,almostbeyonddoubt,AnneHathaway,daughterofRichardHathawayof
Shotterya gathering of farm houses near Stratford on May 26, 1583 their first daughter Susanna was baptised. Six
monthslater,onMay26,1583,WilliamandAnne'sfirstdaughter,Susanna,wasborn.Twoyearslater,twinswerebornto
them, Hamnet and Judith, named after Hamnet and Judith Sadler, apparently lifetime friends to Shakespeare. Hamnet
SadlerwasrememberedinShakespeare'swill.ItwasalsoduringthistimeperiodthatShakespearebecameofpartofLord
ChamberlainsMen.
AsamemberofLordChamberlainsMen,Shakespeareenjoyedfameandprosperityandin1594,hebegantoholdstockin
thecompany.ShakespeareandhiscompanyopenedtheGlobeTheatrein1599.Thatsameyear,LordChamberlainsMen
performedJuliusCaesarforthefirsttime,probablyattheGlobe.In1603,QueenElizabethdiedandhersuccessor,JamesI,
pronouncedShakespearestroupehisservantsunderthenametheKingsMen.
Around1610,ShakespearereturnedtoStratfordUponAvontoretireandliveasacountrygentleman,thoughhisplays
continuedtobeperformedattheGlobeuntilitsburningin1613.OnApril23,1616,Shakespearediedandsevenyears
later,in1623,theFirstFolioofhisworkswaspublished.
NOTESABOUTSHAKESPEARESWORKS:
Shakespeares dramatic works do not survive in manuscript and the exact order in which his plays were written and
producedisnotknownwithcertainty.However,comediessuchasTheComedyofErrors,TheTamingoftheShrew,Loves
LaboursLost,andAMidsummerNightsDreamandhisearlytragedyRomeoandJulietwereperformedintheearly1590s.

168

Theseearlyworksareinfluencedbyprevailingcontemporaryconventions,butarealsomarkedbyvividcharacterization
andrichandinventiveuseoftheEnglishLanguagethatarestrictlyShakespearean.Intheearly17thcentury,Shakespeare
produced his four great tragedies; Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth, which mark one of the high points in the
historyofWesternLiterature.Hislastplays,TheWintersTaleandTheTempestcombineelementsofromancecomedy,
andtragedy.
In addition tohis dramatic works, Shakespeare wrote over 150 sonnets, which werepublished in 1609, and twoheroic
narrativepoems,VenusandAdonis(1593)and(TheRapeof)Lucrece(1594).
TheinformationforWilliamShakespearesbiographywasadaptedfromTheDictionaryofLiteraryBiography(DLB),vol.62,ElizabethanDramatists,pp.
267353,TheOxfordCompaniontotheEnglishLanguage,editedbyTomMcArthur,andMerriamWebstersEncyclopediaofLiterature.

ShakespeareChronologicallistingofplays

Title
TheComedyofErrors
TitusAndronicus
TheTamingoftheShrew
2HenryVI
3HenryVI
1HenryVI
RichardIII
Love'sLabor'sLost
TwoGentlemenofVerona
AMidsummerNight'sDream
RomeoandJuliet
RichardII
KingJohn
TheMerchantofVenice
HenryIVPart1
TheMerryWivesofWindsor
HenryIVPart2
AsYouLikeIt
HenryV
MuchAdoAboutNothing
JuliusCaesar
TwelfthNight
Hamlet
TroilusandCressida
All'sWellThatEndsWell
MeasureForMeasure
Othello
KingLear
Macbeth
AntonyandCleopatra
TimonofAthens
PericlesPrinceofTyre
Coriolanus
Cymbeline
AWinter'sTale
TheTempest
HenryVIII

DateWritten
1590
1590
1591
1591
1591
1592
1592
1593
1593
1594
1595
1595
1596
1596
1597
1597
1598
1598
1599
1599
1599
1600
1601
1602
1603
1604
1604
1605
1605
1606
1606
1607
1608
1609
1610
1611
1613

DateRange
?1594
?1594
?1594
?1592
?1592
?1592
15921597
?1597
?1598
15941598
?1597
15951597
?1598
15941598
15951598
15971602
15961598
15981600
1599
15981600
15981599
16001602
15991601
16011603
1598?
15981604
15981604
15981606
16031611
15981608
1598?
15981608
1598?
15981611
15981611
16101611
16121613

ShakespeareanTheater
169

FirstPublished
1623
1594
1623
1594
1595
1623
1597
1598
1623
1600
1597
1597
1623
1600
1598
1602
1600
1623
1600
1600
1623
1623
1603
1609
1623
1623
1622
1608
1623
1623
1623
1609
1623
1623
1623
1623
1623

Before Shakespeares time and during his boyhood, troupes of actors performed wherever they could in halls, courts,
courtyards,andanyotheropenspacesavailable.However,in1574,whenShakespearewastenyearsold,theCommon
CouncilpassedalawrequiringplaysandtheatersinLondontobelicensed.In1576,actorandfutureLordChamberlain's
Man,JamesBurbage,builtthefirstpermanenttheater,called"TheTheatre",outsideLondoncitywalls.Afterthismany
moretheaterswereestablished,includingtheGlobeTheatre,whichwaswheremostofShakespeare'splayspremiered.
ElizabethantheatersweregenerallybuiltafterthedesignoftheoriginalTheatre.Builtofwood,thesetheaterscomprised
threetiersofseatsinacircularshape,withastageareaononesideofthecircle.Theaudience'sseatsandpartofthe
stagewereroofed,butmuchofthemainstageandtheareainfrontofthestageinthecenterofthecirclewereopento
theelements.About1,500audiencememberscouldpayextramoneytositinthecoveredseatingareas,whileabout800
"groundlings"paidlessmoneytostandinthisopenareabeforethestage.Thestageitselfwasdividedintothreelevels:a
mainstageareawithdoorsattherearandacurtainedareainthebackfor"discoveryscenes";anupper,canopiedarea
called"heaven"forbalconyscenes;andanareaunderthestagecalled"hell,"accessedbyatrapdoorinthestage.There
weredressingroomslocatedbehindthestage,butnocurtaininthefrontofthestage,whichmeantthatsceneshadto
flowintoeachother,and"deadbodies"hadtobedraggedoff.
Performancestookplaceduringtheday,usingnaturallightfromtheopencenterofthetheater.Sincetherecouldbeno
dramaticlightingandtherewasverylittlesceneryorprops,audiencesreliedontheactors'linesandstagedirectionsto
supplythetimeofdayandyear,theweather,location,andmoodofthescenes.Shakespeare'splaysmasterfullysupply
this information . For example, in Hamlet the audience learns within the firsttwentylines of dialogue wherethescene
takesplace("Haveyouhadquietguard?"),whattimeofdayitis("'Tisnowstrooktwelf"),whattheweatherislike("'Tis
bittercold"),andwhatmoodthecharactersarein("andIamsickatheart").
OneimportantdifferencebetweenplayswritteninShakespeare'stimeandthosewrittentodayisthatElizabethanplays
werepublishedaftertheirperformances,sometimesevenaftertheirauthors'deaths,andwereinmanywaysarecordof
whathappenedonstageduringtheseperformancesratherthandirectionsforwhatshouldhappen.Actorswereallowed
tosuggestchangestoscenesanddialogueandhadmuchmorefreedomwiththeirpartsthanactorstoday.Shakespeare's
plays are no exception. In Hamlet, for instance, much of the plot revolves around the fact that Hamlet writes his own
scenetobeaddedtoaplayinordertoensnarehismurderousfather.
Shakespeare'splayswerepublishedinvariousformsandwithawidevarietyofaccuracyduringhistime.Thediscrepancies
betweenversionsofhisplaysfromonepublicationtothenextmakeitdifficultforeditorstoputtogetherauthoritative
editions of his works. Plays could be published in large anthologies called Folios (the First Folio of Shakespeare's plays
contains36plays)orsmallerQuartos.Foliosweresonamedbecauseofthewaytheirpaperwasfoldedinhalftomake
chunks of two pages each which were sewn together to make a large volume. Quartos were smaller, cheaper books
containingonlyoneplay.Theirpaperwasfoldedtwice,makingfourpages.Ingeneral,theFirstFolioisofbetterquality
thanthequartos.Therefore,playsthatareprintedintheFirstFolioaremucheasierforeditorstocompile.
AlthoughShakespeare'slanguageandclassicalreferencesseemarchaictosomemodernreaders,theywerecommonplace
tohisaudiences.Hisviewerscamefromallclasses,andhisplaysappealedtoallkindsofsensibilities,from"highbrow"
accounts of kings and queens of old to the "lowbrow" blunderings of clowns and servants. Even his most tragic plays
includeclowncharactersforcomicreliefandtocommentontheeventsoftheplay.Audienceswouldhavebeenfamiliar
with his numerous references to classical mythology and literature, since these stories were staples of the Elizabethan
knowledgebase.WhileShakespearesplaysappealedtoalllevelsofsocietyandincludedfamiliarstorylinesandthemes,
they also expanded his audiences' vocabularies. Many phrases and words that we usetoday, like"amazement," "in my
mind's eye," and "the milk of human kindness" were coined by Shakespeare. His plays contain a greater variety and
numberofwordsthanalmostanyotherworkintheEnglishlanguage,showingthathewasquicktoinnovate,hadahuge
vocabulary,andwasinterestedinusingnewphrasesandwords.
Asitisverydifficulttoselectonlyoneplayofthisgreatplaywrighter,wedecidetoreadandanalyseOthello,becauseof
thewayhepresentssoperfectlytheinnerfeelingsofhumanbeingsduringtheacts.

LiteraryTermstohelpreadingShakespeare
AgentofchangeApersonorspiritthatproducesasignificantchangeinasituation.Iagoisthemainagentofchangein
Othello.Withouthimtheplotwouldnotproceedtoitstragicconclusion.

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AlliterationApoetictechniqueoftenusedbyShakespearewheretwoormorewordsbeginningwiththesameconsonant
soundappearclosetoeachotherwithinalineorseriesoflines.Itisusedtomakethepoetrysoundmoreimpressiveor
beautiful,ortoemphasiseaparticularfeelingoridea.
AntiheroAcharacterwhodominatestheplaybecauseofhisevilactionsratherthanthenoblequalitieswhichareusually
associatedwithahero.Shakespearecreatedsomewonderfulantiheroes;inOthello,Iagocouldbeseenasone.Heisgiven
manyoftheplaysmostimpressivesoliloquiesandthequestionofwhyhebehavesashedoesisoftenseenasthemost
interestingaspectoftheplay.
AssonanceAliterarytechniqueinwhichwordscontainingthesameorverysimilarvowelsoundsareplacedclose
together.Thiscanproduceastrong,musicaleffectandisoneofthewaysinwhichthesoundofShakespearespoetry
helpstoconveyparticularideasorfeelings.
CatastropheAtermforthefinalsceneinaclassictragedyinwhich,eitherasaresultoftheworkingsoffateorasa
consequenceofaflawintheherosorheroinespersonality,terribledisastersoccur.Usually,thisinvolvesthedeathsofall
ornearlyallthemaincharacters.InOthello,CassioandIagoaretheonlysurvivorsoutofthemajorcharacters.
ClimaxAkeymomentintheplot,whenthetensionswhichhavebeensetupanddevelopedthroughoutthemiddlepart
oftheplayareresolved.Inatragedy,theclimaxisalsoknownastheCatastrophe.
ComedyAlight,amusingstyleofdramathatusuallyhasahappyending.Shakespeareusuallyaddedsomecomicscenes
andcharacterstohistragediesinordertoprovidesomelightreliefandtovarythetone.Othelloisunusualbecausethere
areveryfewcomicmoments.ThemostfamouscomicsceneintheplayoccursatthebeginningofAct3,Scene1,where
theClownmakesfunofabandofmusicianswhoareplayingoutsidetragedyOthelloslodgings.
ContrastShakespeareoftenusedcontraststodrawtheaudiencesattentiontoparticularideasorqualitieswithinhis
characters.Forexample,intragedy,therearemanycontrastingimagesofblackandwhite,heavenandhell,lightand
darkness,andsoon.Charactersarealsocontrastedwitheachother;asanexample,DesdemonaandIagorepresent
opposinggoodandevilinfluencesonOthello.
DramaticironyAdramatictechniquewheretheaudiencepossessesimportantinformationwhichisnotknownbythe
charactersonstage.Thisoftencreateshumourorpowerfultension,asweseethecharactersactinginawaywhichwe
knowisunwise,orsayingthingswhichweknowtobemistaken.Othelloisfullofdramaticirony,oftencausedbyIagos
abilitytodeceivetheothercharacters.
DramatictensionAimportantfeatureofadramaticplot.Inthefirstact,problemsorquestionsareintroduced,settingup
suspense.Thisisthendevelopedduringthecentralactsoftheplay,andeventuallyresolvedattheplaysclimax.Theplot
tensionkeepstheaudienceinterestedandintriguedastheywonderwhatwillhappennextandhowexactlythevarious
tensionswillberesolved.
IambicpentameterThisisthetypeofunrhymedversethatShakespearegenerallywrotein.Itwasanextremelypopular
formofverseinElizabethanEngland.Itconsistsoffivemetrical'feet'.Thesearearrangedinthefollowingpatternof
syllables:either,short/long/short/long/short;orunstressed/stressed/unstressed/stressed/unstressed.
IronyAkindofhumourresultingfromthefactthatthereaderoraudienceknowsthattherealmeaningofastatement
maynotbethesameasitsliteralmeaning.InOthello,itisironicthatalmostalltheothercharacterscallIagohonest
Iago,whentheaudienceknowsfromtheveryfirstscenethatheisdishonestandproudofit!
MachiavelliAnItalianstatesmanandpoliticaltheoristwhowroteaboutstatecraftduringShakespeareslifetime.His
ideaswerewidelydiscussedthroughoutEurope,andoftenappearinElizabethanandJacobeandrama.Hewasinterested
intheideathattheendjustifiesthemeans.Inotherwords,theeffectiveuseofpowermayhavetoinvolveunethical
behaviourinordertoachieveadesiredresult.InOthello,IagoisanexampleofaMachiavellianantihero.Hewilldo
anythinginordertoachievehisends.
MetaphorAcomparisonwhichisimplicitorindirectratherthanexplicit.Twoideasorimagesarecomparedbyusing
languageappropriatetobothofthemwithinthesamestatementorline(s)ofpoetry.Theeffectisoftencomplexand
thoughtprovoking.

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OxymoronAfigureofspeechinwhichcontradictorytermsarebroughttogetherinwhatisatfirstsightanimpossible
combinationsuchaslivingdeath.
PlotTheorderinwhichaplaysstorylineunfolds.Shakespeareoftenusedexistingstoriesforhisplays,buthemadehis
owndecisionsabouttheorderinwhichthestorywouldberevealedandsometimeschangedtheeventsinthestory,too.
Forinstance,inOthello,heusedabasicstorylinewrittenbyanItalianwriter,Cinthio,buthemademanyalterationstothe
plotandcompletelychangedboththebeginningandtheending,makingthestorymuchmorepowerfulanddramatic.
ProtagonistAcharacter(usuallytheheroorheroine)whoisimportantasanagentofchange,influencingtheevents
throughwhichtheplotunfolds.
PunAkindofjokewhichreliesonadoublemeaning.Awordorphrasehasoneobviousmeaning,butthereaderor
audienceisalsoawareofasecondmeaning,whichisoftenrudeorfunny.Weseeexampleswhenreadingextractfrom
theTameofTheShrew.
ReliableandunreliablewitnessesAplaywrightoftenpresentsacharacterthroughthewordsandopinionsofothers.This
ismademorecomplexandinterestingbecauseofthefactthattheaudiencewillalsohavetoworkoutwhetherthese
witnessesarereliableorunreliableinotherwords,canwetrustwhattheyhavetosay,orshouldweimmediately
suspectthattheoppositeistrue?Shakespeareoftenusedthistechniquetointroducemajorcharacters.InOthello,both
OthellohimselfandDesdemonaareintroducedinthisway.Thiscreatesintensecuriosityastotheirrealcharacteristics
andencouragestheaudiencetofocuscarefullyontheirfirstappearancesonthestage.
RepresentationThewayinwhichanideaoraparticulargroupofpeoplearepresented.Forinstance,inOthello
Shakespeareoffersinterestingrepresentationsofwomenthroughtherangeoffemalecharacters.Attitudestowardsrace
inShakespearestimearealsoexploredthroughtherepresentationofablackheroandthewaysinwhichheisperceived
andtreatedbytheVenetians.
RhymingcoupletTwoconsecutivelineswhichrhyme.Theseareoftenusedattheendofaspeechtosumupanideaor
seriesofideas.Rhymingcoupletscanalsosuggestwittyhumouroratrivialattitude.
SimileAcomparisonbetweentwoideasorimageswhichismadeexplicit,oftenbyusingthewordslikeoras.
SoliloquyAspeechinwhichacharactershareshisorherinnerthoughtswiththeaudience,asifthinkingaloud.Evenif
thereareothercharactersonthestage,theaudienceisencouragedtobelievethattheycannothearwhatisbeingsaidin
thesoliloquy.
TragedyAdramainwhichtheprotagonistisinconflictwithfateorasuperiorforce,leadingtoanunhappyordisastrous
conclusion.Often,aflawintheprotagonistscharacterbringsabouthisorherdownfall.InOthello,histendencyto
experiencejealousymakestheherovulnerabletotheforcesofdisorderrepresentedbyIago.
TragicflawAweaknesswithinthecharacteroftheheroorheroineofatragedy,whicheventuallyleadstohisorher
downfall.InGreektragedy,fateplayedthebiggestpartinbringingtragedyuponthecharacters.Shakespearedevelopeda
morepsychologicalversion,inwhichthecharactersactionsandpersonalitiesinteractedwithaspectsofearthlyreality.
Othellostragicflawcouldbesaidtobehisjealousy.
TragicheroThemainprotagonistinatragedy.OthelloisoneofShakespearesgreatesttragicheroes.
UnitiesInGreektragedy,theintensityofthedramawasheightenedthroughobservingtheunitiesoftimeandplace.
Thismeantthattheactionhadtooccurwithinonelocationorsetting,andwithinashortspaceoftime,oftenoneday.
AlthoughShakespearedidnotobservetheunitiesstrictly,heoftenconfinedtheactionofhistragediestoquitea
considerableextentinordertocreateafeelingofclaustrophobiaandinevitability.InOthello,mostoftheactiontakes
placeinCyprusandthefinalscenesarefocusedaroundOthelloslodgingsinthecitadel.Thishelpstocreatea
claustrophobicatmosphereinwhichtragedyseemsmoreandmoreinevitable.Shakespearealsocontractstimeduringthe
playsmiddlesection,makingtheriseofOthellosjealousyseemtooccurataterrifyingpace.
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AMERICANLITERATURE

ThepaintingofWilliamBrewsterispartofathematicrepresentationinthePresident'sroomoftheSenateWing,signifyingReligion.
Theotherthemesare:Discovery(ChristopherColumbus);History(BenjaminFranklin);Exploration(AmericusVespucius).

ThestatuesofRogerWilliamsandJohnWinthropwerechosenby
the respective states that theywere commissioned to represent
Rhode Island and Massachusetts. The statue of Williams was
sculptedbyFranklinSimmonsin1870;thatofWinthropbyRichard
S.Greenoughin1875.

AmericanLiteraryTimePeriods

compiledfromTheAmericanTradition,PrenticeHallTheAmericanExperience,byCindyAdams

Years

PuritanTimes
to1750

Rationalism/AgeofEnlightenment
17501850

173

HistoricalContext

Genre/Style

Content

Effect

PuritansmovetoAmericafor
religiousfreedom
OthersmovedtoAmericatocolonize
itandenduredhardshipswiththe
landandtheNativeAmericans
sermons
diaries
personalnarratives
captivitynarratives
plainstyle
Christianutopia
relationshipwithGod
histories
Puritanbeliefs:community,original
sin,andhardwork
instructive
reinforcesauthorityofBibleand
church

growingdissatisfactionwithEnglandandtaxation
withoutrepresentation
rebellionagainstEngland
RevolutionaryWar

politicalpamphlets
travelwriting
highlyornatewriting

nationalmissionandAmericancharacter
democraticutopia
useofreason

prideandpatriotismgrow
printculturebecomesavehicleforthenew
nationsdemocraticidentityandprinciples(144
EMC)
proliferanceofnewspapersandmagazines

Romanticism

Years
HistoricalContext

18001855
expansionto25statesby1836
technologicaldevelopmentsmake
expansionseemeasier(telegraphandthe
steamengine)
manystatesextendedvotingrightstoall
freemenashiftinemphasistocommon
people
poetry
shortstories
novels
slavenarratives
politicalwritings
essays
subgenres:Transcendentalism
Gothic

Genre/Style

Content

Effect

Years
HistoricalContext

Genre/Style

Realism

18551900

spirituals
slavenarratives
politicalwriting
poetry
shortstories
novels
subgenres:NaturalismRegionalism

imaginationoverreason
reverencefornature
supernatural/mysteriouswritingthatcanbe
interpretedontwolevels
focusonindividualsfeelings

fueledabolitionistmovement
detectivefiction,inventedbyPoe,still
populartoday
Modernism

abolitionofslavery
commoncharactersnotidealized
localcolor(Regionalism)
manslackofcontroloverhisfate
moreliteraturecenteredaroundtheMidwest
andtheFarWest
socialrealismchangingsocialproblems
realisticfictionremainspopulartoday
Contemporary/Postmodernism

19001946
WWIandWWII
technologicalchanges
JazzAgeconflictsdevelopedbetween
older,conservativegenerationandyoung,
alienatedgeneration
GreatDepression
expandedroleofwomeninsociety

continuationofthesamegenresasinthe
past
subgenre:HarlemRenaissance
highlyexperimental(rejectionoftheartistic

174

Slavery
CivilWar
westwardexpansioncontinues

1946present
CivilRightsMovement
JFKsassassination
spaceexploration
VietnamWar
growingmediainfluence
technologicaladvances
rethinkingofourpastatthebeginningof21st
century
continuationofthesamegenresasinthepast
newstyles:foundpoems,concretepoems
confessionalpoetry
performancepoetry

Content

Effect

conventionofthepast)
freeverse,streamofconsciousnessprose
newstyles;useofallusions
ironybecameasignaturetechnique
realitynotabsolutebutdependsuponthe
pointofviewoftheobserver
impersonal,alienating
peoplenotabletocommunicateeffectively
griefoverlossofthepast(preworldwars)

Americanliteratureontheleadingedgeof
worldsartisticachievement(648PH)

blurringoflinesbetweenfactandfiction
muchofwhatisbeingwrittenrightnow
defiesclassificationuntilcriticshavethe
advantageoftimetoplaceitinperspective
peopleobservelifeasthemediapresentsit
popularculturehasseepedintotheliterature
peoplesidentityshapedbyculturaland
genderattitudes
peoplelearningtocopewithproblems
throughcommunication
emergenceofethnicandwomenwriters
poetryslamshavebecomeinexpensive,
popularentertainment
moremulticulturalliteratureincludedin
anthologies

OverviewofAmericanHistoryandLiterature

Thisintroductionismeanttohelpthestudentstoenterthesoulofliterature,kowingitshistoryandimportantfiguresof
theAmericanpeople.
ThefoundationofAmericanpeopleareduetothepilgrimsandpuritans.BothveryimportantinproducingtheAmerican
behaviorandcharacter.

ThePilgrims
TheimmigrationofthePilgrimstoNewEnglandoccurredinstages.Butthattheyhadtogosomewherebecameapparent
soon enough. Theirs was the position of the Separatist: they believed that the reforms of the Anglican church had not
gonefarenough,that,althoughthebreakwithCatholicismin1535hadmovedsomewaytowardthePuritanbeliefinand
ideaofreligiousauthoritygroundedsolelyinScripture,bysubstitutingkingforpopeastheheadofthechurch,England
wasonlyrecapitulatinganunnecessary,corrupt,andevenidolatrousorder(Gill,1921).Inonebasicrespect,thePilgrims
arealogicaloutcomeoftheReformation.InitsincreasingdisseminationoftheBible,theincreasingemphasisonitasthe
basis of spiritual meaning, the subsequently increasing importance of literacy as a mode of religious authority and
awareness, a growing individualism was implicit. This individualism may then have easily led to an atomization or
dispersion of authority that the monarchy duly feared, and that later generations of Americans could easily label
democratization.Asawriterin1921putit,"TheyacceptedCalvin'srule,thatthosewhoaretoexerciseanypublicfunction
inthechurchshouldbechosenbycommonvoice"(Wheelwright,vii).Howevermuchthismightemphasizethedemocratic
qualitiesofthePilgrims,asdissenterstheydosuggestatsomeleveltheoriginsofdemocraticsociety,initsrelianceupon
contendingandevenconflictingpointsofview,andinitstendencytowardamorefluidsocialstructure.
But theirs was a religious, not a political agenda; moral and theological principles were involved, and from their
perspective,therecouldbenocompromise.Forthem2Corinthiansmadeitclear:"Comeoutfromamongthemandbeye
separate,saiththeLord."Toachieveandpreserveasimplicityand'purity'thattheyfelthadbeenlostamidthesomeof
thesurvivingfeaturesofCatholicismtheritualswhichcontinuedthroughintotheAnglicanChurchandwereepitomized
initsstatement,"'Ibelievein...theholyCatholickChurch'"(Gill,19).Toestablishthemselvesasrightfulinterpretersofthe
Bible independent of an inherited social and cultural order, they removed from the Anglican Church in order to re
establishitastheybelievedittrulyshouldbe.Thisofcoursemeantleavingthecountry,andtheyleftforHollandin1608.

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After12years,theydecidedtomoveagain.HavinggonebacktoEnglandtoobtainthebackingoftheVirginiaCompany,
102PilgrimssetoutforAmerica.ThereasonsaresuggestedbyWilliamBradford,whenhenotesthe"discouragements"of
thehardlifetheyhadinHolland,andthehopeofattractingothersbyfinding"abetter,andeasierplaceofliving";the
"children"ofthegroupbeing"drawneawaybyevillexamplesintoextravagenceanddangerouscourses";the"greathope,
forthepropagatingandadvancingthegospellofthekingdomofChristinthoseremotepartsoftheworld"(Wheelwright,
78).Inthesereasons,thesecondsoundsmostlikethePilgrimsmanyAmericansarefamiliarwiththegroupthatwantsto
be left alone and live in its own pure and righteous way. Behind it seems to lie not only the fear of the breakdown of
individualfamilies,butevenaconcernoverthedissolutionofthelargercommunity.Theconcernseemstobethattheir
split with England was now only effecting their own disolution into Dutch culture. But it is also interesting to note the
underlyingtracesofevangelismin,ifnotthefirst,certainlythelastofthereasons.Ontheonehand,thisstrainwouldfind
itslaterexpression(andperversion)insuchportrayalsofthePilgrimsastheRotundafresco,wheretheideaofconversion
isbaldlyfashionedwithintheimageofconquest;here,theIndianisshownassubduedbeforethewordofthe"kingdom"
evenasthePilgrimsarelanding,andthePilgrimisseenasanagentofdomination,asuperiormoralforcecommandingby
its sheer presence. On the other hand, such a portrayal suggests an uneasy tension with the common (and seemingly
accurate) conception of the Pilgrims as a model of tolerance. Indeed, the first of their reasons for sailing to America is
fairly passivethey want to "draw" others by the example of their prosperity, not necessarily go conquer and actively
convert.SuchanideareflectstheonethatwouldbeexpressedexplicitlybythePuritanJohnWinthrop,wheretheNew
Worldwouldbecomeabeaconofreligiouslight,amodelofspiritualpromise,a"cittyuponahill."
Inanycase,fromtheirownpointofview,theyare'agents'onlyinsofarastheyareagentsofProvidence,andasBradford
strivestomakeclearthroughout,thenarrativeoftheiractionsisonlyaninterpretationoftheworksofGod.Thus,ina
remarkable instance when a "proud and very profane yonge man" who "would curse and swear most bitterly" falls
overboardfromtheMayfloweranddrowns,itisseenas"thejusthandofGoduponhim"(Wheelwright,14).Sotoowhen
amemberoftheirpartyissavedfromdrowning,orwhentheinitiallandingpartyfindsthecornandbeansforseed,or
withtheirsafearrivalatPlymouthBayingeneral,isthe"spetiallprovidenceofGod"evinced.AndBradfordseemstoself
consciouslymaintainthisversionoftheChristianperspectiveasanhistoricalone,neverallowingthereaderorstudentof
thePilgrimstoforgetthattheirstoryisonewithatrajectorycomingfromitsbeginningsEngland,andmovingthroughthe
beginningsofthe'NewWorld'.Thisisanemphasisthatwillservehistoriesandmemoriesalike,especiallyinviewingthe
RevolutionandtheincreaseddemocratizationoftheUnitedStatesassomenecessaryfulfillmentofthePilgrimpromise.

Themayflowercompact
Naturally, the primary text for later interpreters would be the Mayflower Compact, which Bradford gives:

InthenameofGod,Amen.Wewhosenamesareunderwriten,bytheloyallsubjectsofourdreadsoveraigneLord,King
James,bythegraceofGod,ofGreatBritaine,Franc,andIrelandking,defenderofthefaith,etc.
Haveingundertaken,fortheglorieofGod,andadvancementeoftheChristianfaith,andhonourofourkingandcountrie,
avoyagetoplantthefirstcolonieintheNorthernepartsofVirginia,doebythesepresentssolemnlyandmutuallyinthe
presenceofGod,andoneanother,covenantandcombineourselvestogeatherintoacivillbodypolitick,forourbetter
orderingandpreservationandfurtheranceoftheendsaforesaid;andbyvertuehereoftoenacte,constituteandframe
shuchjustandequalllawes,ordinances,acts,constitutions,andoffices,fromtimetotime,asshallbethoughtmostmeete
andconvenientforthegenerallgoodoftheColonie,untowhichwepromiseallduesubmissionandobedience.Inwitnes
whereof we have hereunder subscribed our names at CapCodd the .11. of November, in the year of the raigne of our
soveraignelord,KingJames,ofEngland,France,andIreland,theeighteenth,andofScotlandthefiftiefourth.AnnoDom.
1620(Wheelwright,3233)
Bradford writes of the Compact, that it developed partly in response to "the discontented and mutinous speeches" of
someofthe"strangers"colonistswhohadtravelledwiththembutwho"wereuncommittedtochurchfellowship"and
thatitassertedandfirmedthePilgrims'"ownelibertie;fornonehadthepowertocommandthem,thepatentetheyhad
being for Virginia, and not for New england...." The Compact thus arose out of a need to maintain social and civic
coherence,toensurethattheofficialselectedandthegroupasawholewouldhavesomelegitimationagainstchallenges
toits"legalauthority"(McQuade,140;Wheelwright,32).MichaelKammen,however,notesa"tradition"intheearly19th
century"inwhichtheCompactwasviewedaspartoftherepudiationofEnglishdomination"(Kammen,64).Surelythere
areevidentdemocratictendenciesinthetext,whereinacodeestablishedfromtheconsentofthepeoplebecomesthe
underpinning of a society of "just and equall lawes," where the officials and figures of authority are all elected. But as
"loyallsubjects"tothe"dreadsoveraigneLord,KingJames,"theirtaskistwofold:tomaintainadegreeofindependence
thatwouldallowthemtoliveinaccordancewiththeirSeparatistviews,butalsotokeepthetiestoEnglandstrongenough

176

sothatthosewhodidnotsharetheirreligionneverthelesswouldbeboundbyanorderultimatelytraceabletotheCrown.
ThemisreadingsthatKammennoteswillbediscussedfurtherinfollowingsections.

Thanksgivingandtheindians

"TheFirstThanksgiving,"apaintingbyJ.L.G.Ferris,depictsAmericasearlysettlersandNativeAmericanscelebratingabountifulharvest.

ThefirstfewmonthsweregruelingforthePilgrims.Halfoftheir102membersperished:"ofthe17maleheadsoffamilies,
ten died during the first infection"; of the17 wives, only three were left after threemonths.When such devastation is
seenagainstthefollowingsummer,whenconditionsimprovedsothatBradfordwouldwriteof"allthingsingoodplenty,"
thesincerityof'Thanksgiving'becomesapparent.Regardlessofhowfarremovedonemaybenoworevenmayhavebeen
whenitwasestablishedasanationalholidayin1863,thesenseofProvidencehadundoubtedlybeenheightenedtoan
extreme pitch for the Pilgrims. After such devastating sickness, everyday survival itself was probably seen as cause for
gratitude, but when given a full and prosperous harvest (with the help and instruction of Native Americans such as
Squanto),thepreviousordealcouldbeunderstoodasatrialbyGod,atestoffaith,theheavenlyrewardprefiguredbyan
earthlyone.
TheinstitutionalbywhichismeantprimarilytheCapitol'sportrayalofNativeAmericansthroughouttheestablishment
ofPlymouthPlantationstandsincuriousrelationtoBraford'snarrative.Firstofall,thereistheinitiallandingparty,withits
descriptionofthemenledbyCaptainMilesStandish,firingshotsintothedarknessat"ahideousandgreatcrie."Thisthey
mistookfora"companieofwolves,orsuchlikewildbeasts,"untilthenextmorning'sskirmishwhenthe"arrowescame
flying"andone"lustieman,andnolessvaliente"who"wasseenshoot.3.arrowes"and"stood.3.shotofamusket..."
(Wheelwright,2526).ThisishardlythehumbleservantofferingupthecornatthemeresightofthePilgrim'sarrival.And
whenSamoset,thefirstrepresentativeoftheIndians,comestospeak(in"brokenEnglish")withthePilgrims,"hecame
bouldlyamongstthem"(emphasisadded);andhavinghadpreviouscontactwithEuropeans,hepresumablyknewasmuch
ormoreaboutthePilgrimsthantheyabouthim.Squanto,whohadbeentoEnglandandcouldcommunicatewellwiththe
colonists, and who taught them "how to set their corne, wher to take fish, and to procure other commodities," is
understoodbythePilgrimsas"aspetiallinstrumentsentofGodfortheirgoodbeyondtheirexpectation"(Wheelwright,
41).Regardlessofthesenseofutilityinsuchanexpression(allthingsbeingforthemtheeffectorinstrumentofGod),
thereisanundeniablegratitude,andeventhesenseofdependencethatthosemusthavebeforeonewhowouldprovide
aid and instruction. The treaty with Massasoit was initiated not by the Pilgrims but by the sachem himself, who had
alreadymadeanequivalentpactwithearlierexplorers.ThesuccessofthetreatyduringMassasoit'slifetimesuggestsan
equality,fairness,andtolerancethatwouldbeidealizedandwistfullyrepresentedinvariousremembrancesoftheoverall
colonialexperience.Itallowsboththepositiveexemplarofthe'Indian'inMassasoit,andreassuranceofEuropeangood
faithindealingwithhim.

ThePuritans
ThemostobviousdifferencebetweenthePilgrimsandthePuritansisthatthePuritanshadnointentionofbreakingwith
theAnglicanchurch.ThePuritanswerenonconformistsaswerethePilgrims,bothofwhichrefusingtoacceptanauthority
beyondthatoftherevealedword.ButwherewiththePilgrimsthishadtranslatedintosomethingclosertoanegalitarian
mode,the"Puritansconsideredreligionaverycomplex,subtle,andhighlyintellectualaffair,"anditsleadersthuswere
highly trained scholars, whose education tended to translate into positions that were often authoritarian. There was a
builtin hierarchism in this sense, but one which mostly reflected the age: "Very few Englishmen had yet broached the
notionthatalackeywasasgoodasalord,orthatanyTom,Dick,orHarry...couldunderstandtheSermonontheMountas
wellasaMasterofArtsfromOxford,Cambridge,orHarvard"(Miller,I:4,14).Ofcourse,whilethePuritanemphasison

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scholarshipdidfostersuchclassdistinction,itneverthelessencouragededucationamongthewholeofitsgroup,andin
factdemandedaleveloflearningandunderstandingintermsofsalvation.ThomasHookerstatedinTheApplicationof
Redemption,"ItswithanignorantsinnerinthemidstofallmeansaswithasickmanremainingintheApothecariesshop,
fulofchoycestMedicinesinthedarkestnight:...becausehecannotseewhathetakes,andhowtousethem,hemaykill
himselforencreasehisdistempers,butnevercureanydisease"(qtd.inMiller,I:13).
Knowledge of Scripture and divinity, for the Puritans, was essential. This was an uncompromising attitude that
characterized the Puritans' entry into New England, according to Perry Miller and Thomas H. Johnson, whose thematic
anthology, The Puritans (1932, 1963), became a key text of revisionist historicism, standing as an influential corrective
againsttheextremeantiPuritanismoftheearlytwentiethcentury.FollowingSamuelEliotMorison,theynotedthatthe
emphasisoneducationsawtheestablishment,survival,andflourishingofHarvardCollegewhichsurvivedonlybecause
theentirecommunitywaswillingtosupportit,sothateventhepooryeomanfarmers"contributedtheirpecksofwheat"
forthecontinuedpromiseofa"literateministry"(Miller,I:14).Andagain,totheircredit,Puritanleadersdidnotbolster
theknowledgeofitsministrysimplytoperpetuatethelevelofpoweroftherulingelite.Acontinuinggoalwastofurther
educationamongthelaity,andsoensurethatnotonlyweretherightandrighteousideasandunderstandingsbeingheld
andexpressed,butthattheexpressionswereinfactmessagesreceivedbyacomprehendingaudience.AnActpassedin
Massachusetts in 1647 required "that every town of one hundred families or more should provide free common and
grammarschoolinstruction."Indeed,thefirst"FreeGrammarSchool"wasestablishedinBostonin1635,onlyfiveyears
aftertheMassachusettsBayColonywasfounded(Miller,II:69597).Foralltheaccusationsofsuperstitionandnarrow
mindedness,thePuritanscouldatleastbesaidtohaveprovidedtheirownantidoteintheirsystemofschools.AsJohn
CottonwroteinChristtheFountaineofLife,"zealeisbutawildefirewithoutknowledge"(qtd.inMiller,I:22).
ThePuritanswho,inthe1560s,firstbegantobe(contemptuously)referredtoassuch,wereardentreformers,seekingto
bringtheChurchtoastateofpuritythatwouldmatchChristianityasithadbeeninthetimeofChrist.Thisreformwasto
involve,dependinguponwhichPuritanoneasked,varyingdegreesofstrippingawaypracticesseenasresidual"popery"
vestments,ceremony,andthelike.ButmanyoftheideaslaterassociatedstrictlywiththePuritanswerenotheldonlyby
them. The Calvinist doctrine of predestination, with which Puritanism agreed, was held by the Pilgrims as well: both
believed that the human state was one of sin and depravity; that after the Fall all but an elect group were irrevocably
boundforhell;that,becauseGod'sknowledgeandpowerwasnotlimitedbyspaceortime,thisgrouphadalwaysbeen
elect.Inotherwords,therewasnothingonecoulddoabouttheconditionofone'ssoulbuttrytoactasonewouldexpect
aheavenboundsoultoact.
AsPerryMillerpointsout,theyinheritedRenaissancehumanismjustastheyinheritedtheReformation,andsoheldan
interestingplaceforreasonintheiroverallbeliefs.ThePuritanideaof"CovenantTheology"describeshow"afterthefall
ofman,Godvoluntarilycondescended...todrawupacovenantorcontractwithHiscreatureinwhichHelaiddownthe
termsandconditionsofsalvation,andpledgedHimselftoabidebythem"(Miller,I:58).Thedoctrinewasnotsomuchone
of prescription as it was of explanation: it reasoned why certain people were saved and others were not, it gave the
conditionsagainstwhichonemightmeasureupone'ssoul,anditensuredthatGodwouldabideby"humanconceptions
ofrightandjustice""notinallaspects,butinthemain"(Miller,I:58).ThereligiousagencyfortheindividualPuritanwas
thenlocatedinintenseintrospection,intheattempttocometoanawarenessofone'sownspiritualstate.Aswiththe
Pilgrims,theworld,history,everythingforthePuritanbecameatexttobeinterpreted.OnecouldnotexpectallofGod's
actionstobelimitedbyone'sideasofreasonandjustice,butoneatleasthadageneralsense,JohnCotton's"essentiall
wisdome,"asguidance.Andofcourse,onehadthekey,thebasisofspiritualunderstanding,thefoundationaltextandall
encompassingcode,theBible.

Salemwitchcraft
ItwasbecausethePuritanmodeofinterpretivitywithitsreadingsofprovidenceandsecondarycausescouldreachsuch
extremes that the Salem witchtrials broke out. Of course, as Thomas H. Johnson writes, the belief in witches was
generallyquestionedbynoonePuritanorotherwise"andevenaslateasthecloseoftheseventeenthcenturyhardlya
scientistofreputeinEnglandbutacceptedcertainphenomenaasduetowitchcraft."ButthePuritancosmologyhelda
relentlessimaginativepower,especiallydemonstratedinnarrativeswhereinProvidencewasshowntobeatworkthrough
nature and among human beings. The laity read and took in such readings or demonstrations of Providence, and the
ministryfeltcompelledbyasenseofofficialresponsibilitytooffertheirinterpretationsandexplaintheworkofGodinthe
world(Miller,II:73435).
Johnson notes the "lurid details" of Cotton Mather's Memorable Providences, Relating to Witchcrafts and Possessions
(1689),whichhelpedgenerateanunbalancedfascinationwithwitchcraft.ThiswouldprovebothfireandtinderforSalem
Village, so that "by September, twenty people and two dogs had been executed as witches" and hundreds more were

178

either in jail or were accused (Miller, II: 735). Yet to envision the Puritan community at this point simply as a mob of
hystericalzealotsistolosesightofthoseprominentfigureswhostoodagainsttheproceedings.Grantedthattheydidnot
speakouttooloudlyattheheightofthefervor,butthentodosowouldbetoriskexposuretoaconfusionofplaguelike
properties,wherethetestimonyofanallegedvictimalonewasenoughtocondemnaperson.Butitwastheinjusticeof
this very condition against which men such as Thomas Brattle and Increase Mather wrote. Brattle's "A Full and Candid
Account of the Delusion calledWitchcraft...." (1692) arguedthat the evidence was no true evidence atall, because the
formsoftheaccusedweretakentobetheaccused,andtheaccusers,indeclaringthattheywereinformedbythedevilas
towhoafflictedthem,wereonlyofferingthedevil'stestimony.Hiswasanargumentwhichseemedwhollyreasonableto
many,butitledBrattletothefear"thatageswillnotwearoffthatreproachandthosestainswhichthesethingswillleave
behindthemuponourland"(InMiller,II:762).Matherwrotein1693,inCasesofConscienceconcerningEvilSpirits,that
"itwerebetterthatTenSuspectedWitchesshouldescape,thanthatoneInnocentPersonbeCondemned"(Qtd.inMiller,
II:736).
BeyondthisisaswellisthejournalofSamuelSewall,whichrecordshisfascinatingapproachtowhathadhappened.This
complicates the idea of the 'Puritan' on another level because while Brattle and (Increase) Mather may have offered
challenges to any conception of the homogeneity of Puritan belief, Sewall reminds one of the variability within an
individual.Itintroducesanaxisoftimebywhichthemeasureofthe'Puritanmind'mustbeadjusted.OnChristmasDay,
1696,onereadstheterseopening,"Weburyourlittledaughter."AndthreeweekslaterisatranscriptofthenoticeSewall
had posted publicly. It relates that "Samuel Sewall, sensible of the reiterated strokes of God upon himself and
family...DesirestotaketheBlameandShameof[theSalemproceedings],AskingpardonofMen..."(InMiller,513).Thisis
onceagainaninterpretationofthe"reiteratedstrokesofGod"whichhasbroughtthesenseofshametohisconsciousness,
and it suggests that, at least for Puritans such as Sewall, these readings of nature and events are not merely those of
convenienceorselfjustification.ThereisatleasttheindicationherethatifsomePuritansstoodreadytoseetheguiltin
others,someofthosesamepeopleatleastmadetheirjudgmentsingoodfaithandwithhonesty,givingcredencetotheir
understandingofthewaysofGod,evenwhentheythemselvesweretheobjectofjudgment.Sewall'sexamplesuggestsa
kindofPuritanwhosePuritanismnotonlycarrieshimtoalmostinhumanextremes,butalsorelentlesslybringshimback,
fullcircle,tohumility.

Therevealedword,antinomianism,individualism
WhatalsomustbeemphasizedistheabsolutegroundofreligiousunderstandingthattheBiblicaltextrepresentedforthe
Puritans. The Bible was the Lord's revealed word, and only through it does He directly communicate to human beings.
WhilethenaturalworldmaybestudiedandinterpretedinordertogainasenseofHiswill,Heisnottheworlditself,and
doesnotinstillHimselfdirectlyintohumanbeingsbymeansofvisitationsorrevelationsordivineinspirationsofanysort
(Miller, I: 10). The antinomian crisis involving Anne Hutchinson focused on this issue. John Winthrop records it in his
journal:
[October21,1636]OneMrs.Hutchinson,amemberofthechurchofBoston,awomanofreadywitandboldspirit,broughtoverwithher
twodangerouserrors:1.ThatthepersonoftheHolyGhostdwellsinajustifiedperson.2.Thatnosanctificationcanhelptoevidenceto
usourjustification...(InMillerI:129)

WhatthePuritansfacedinHutchinson,orintheQuakerideaof"innerlight"whichallowedeverypersondirectaccessto
God,wasanoutbreakof"dangerous"individualism,onewhichthreatenedthefoundationoftheirsocialorder.Itwasnot
simplyamatteroflettingHutchinsonspreadherideasfreelynotwhenthoseideascouldcarrythePuritanconceptionof
grace to such an extreme that it translated into an overall abandonment of any structured church, which is to say, the
basis of a Puritan society. Miller states how the followers of Hutchinson became caught up in a "fanatical anti
intellectualism" fed by the original Puritan "contention that regenerate men were illuminated with divine truth," which
was in turn taken indicate the irrelevance of scholarship and study of the Bible. Both possibilities were potentially
destructivetotheMassachusettsBaycolony,andbothonlycarriedoutPuritanideasfurtherthantheyweremeanttogo
(Miller, I: 1415); the individualistic tendencies that was embedded in the Pilgrim community, exists as well with the
Puritans.InreferencetoTocqueville'suseoftheterminvolumeIIofDemocracyinAmerica,EllwoodJohnsongoessofar
astosay,"TheantitraditionalismandderitualizationofsocietythathenamedIndividualismehadtheirsourcesinPuritan
culture.ThisPuritanindividualismhadsurvivedespeciallyinthehabitofjudgingothersbytheircharactersofmindand
will,ratherthanrank,sex,orrace..."(Johnson,119).Ofcourse,asJohnsonnotes,Tocqueville'sexperienceinAmericawas
limited both in time and geographic location. But Hutchinson and her followers were banished, after all, and while
PuritanismdidsubstitutethemoresimplifiedapproachofRameanlogictoreplacetheoverlyreconditeandcomplicated
mediaevalscholasticism,andwhileitfosteredamorepersonalmodeofreligionwithitsemphasisonindividualfaithand
access to Scripture instead of the structured ritualism and mediation of the Catholic church, it nevertheless took for
grantedasocietyandstatewhichrelieduponwhatwasonlyatranslatedformofclassdivision,andwhichdependedupon
a hierarchy where the word of God would not become dispersed (and so, altered) into a kind of religious precursor to

179

democracy.ThePuritanshadthemselvessufferedrepeatedlyunderasocietywhichhadseemedtoevincethepotentially
ominoussideoftherelationofchurchandstate.Thekingwastheleaderofthechurch,andthestatedecidedhowthe
churchwastofunction,andin1629whenCharlesIdissolvedparliament,thepeoplefoundthattheynolongerhadany
politicalrepresentation,anymeanstoactlegislatively.Theirsecularagencyhadthenbecomeameasureoftheirreligious
agency; the removal to Massachusetts in turn was a way to gain a political voice, to create a state that would develop
accordingtotheirownbeliefsandfashionitselfharmoniouslywiththechurch.
Itwasnotanefforttoestablishasocietywhereinonemightunreservedlyexpresswhatonewishedtoexpressandstill
hopetohaveasayincommunalaffairs.Ifreligionwastocometobearonthegovernanceofthesociety,towhatgood
wouldamoreegalitarian,democraticformcome?Theintegrityofthecommunityasreligiousentity(Winthrop's"cittyon
ahill"),whichhadbeenthepurposeoftheircomingtoAmerica,couldonlybe,atbest,weakenedanddispersed,andat
worst, be challenged to such a degree and in so many ways that there would be no agreement, no action or political
effectiveness.Theirreligionitselfwouldseemtobefacedwithaprospectofwhichkinddoesnoteasily(ifatall)admita
prefiguration of what is now called 'gridlock.' Despite what some later commentators would say, Puritanism and
Democracy were not coproductive ideas, no matter how much one might have anticipated, and even allowed the
eventualityof,theother.
OnewhostatedtheproblemswhichwouldultimatelyunravelPuritanismasadominantpoliticalforcewasRogerWilliams.
For one thing, Williams's critique of the institutions being developed in Massachusetts directly illuminates the difficulty
indicatedabovethatofperpetuatingareligionwhichbothheldtheseedofanincreasinglyliberatingindividualismandat
thesametimemaintainedtheneedofalimitedmeritocracy.TheprimarypointofcontentionforWilliamsbeganin1631
whenhedeclaredthatthechurchinNewEnglandwas,initsfailuretofullyseparatefromtheEnglishchurch,inadequate,
andtainted.HeremovedtoPlymouth,whereheremainedforayear.Buteventhere"Williamsworeouthiswelcome"
(Heimert,196).PartofthereasonlayinanotherofWilliams'scritiqueofNewEnglandasitwasdeveloping,thatthelands
grantedtothecolonistshadbeenunjustlygivenbythecrown,becausetheyhadnotbeenfirstpurchasedfromtheIndians.
Forhisefforts,Williamswasbanished.Hisprimaryresponsetothiswasoneofhismorethreateningideas,"thatthecivil
magistrateshadnopowertopunishpersonsfortheirreligiousopinions"(Miller,I:215).Thiswasnotnecessarilyanover
archingargumentforfulltoleration,butratherimpliedastatementspecifictoChristiansalvation,that"nopoweronearth
wasentitledtopreventanyindividualfromseekingChristinhisownway"(Heimert,198).ForthePuritanministry,this
was far enough, because it targeted the strongest tie between it and civil government, and thus implied a potential
disconnectionbetweenthetwo.AsJohnCottonwrote,thequestionof"mensgoodsorlands,livesorliberties,tributes,
customes, worldly honors and inheritances" was already the jurisdiction of "the civill state" (qtd. in Hall, 117), but the
establishment of laws which fostered Christian principles and punished threats to them that was only part of the
continuedandincreasingrealizationofdivinewillonearth.
ThatdissenterssuchasHutchinsonandWilliamswerebanished,suggestswhathasrecurringlybeendescribedasamajor
factorintheevolutionnotonlyofthePuritantheocracy,butofsupposednationalidentityingeneralthefrontier.Both
CrevecoeurandTocquevilleportraythepioneertype,theindividualwho,beingawayfromtheinfluenceofreligionand
mannered, social customs, becomes increasingly rough, and even nearbarabaric. This same figure is also seen as a
necessary precursor to more and more 'civilized' waves of society. Another view of the frontier effect comes with the
increasing democratization of the United States, where populist movements occur such as the Jacksonian Revolution,
suggestingakindofevolutionarymodethroughwhichtheAmericansociopolitical'self'ismoreandmorefullyrealized.
ForPuritansociety,Millersuggestsamoresocioeconomiceffect,wherethefrontierincreasinglydispersescommunities
andsodispersestheeffectandcontroloftheclergy,andwherethedriveformaterialprofitbeginstopredominateover
the concern with "religion and salvation" (Miller, I: 17). And if the frontier demands more a strippeddown material
efficacy than the finer attributes of 'culture' and class distinction, then so too does frontierinfluenced religion lose its
taste for the nicer distinctions of theological scholarship, and move instead toward a greater simplicity, toward the
eventualevangelismoftheGreatAwakeninginthe1740s,furtherouttoward"fundamentalism"andotherformsofbelief
thathadlongsinceceasedtobePuritan.

Caveatanoteonthejeremiad
Atthispointonemuststepbackwithabitofcaution,andonceagaintakenoteofanimportantprovisionunderlyingthe
terminology.Thatis,inusingtheterm"puritan"aboveandassigningtoitasetofcharacteristicsandpreponderances,I
must qualify the grounds of the (non)definition. Specifically, an argument such as that belonging to Darrett Rutman
becomes useful, even if one does not take it as far as does he (in using specifically against the likes of Perry Miller).
Primarily, he takes issue with an approach to history that employs only the selected writings of a selected few, in
determining some "notion of Puritan quintessence"one which is supposed to represent all of Puritan New England,
ministry and laity alike. As he puts it, this "view of New England Puritanism...rests upon two major implicit

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assumptions....thatthereissuchathingas'Puritanism'...andthattheacmeofPuritanidealsistobefoundinNewEngland
duringtheyears16301650"(InHall,110).HisargumentiscorrelativetoonewhichSacvanBercovitchwilltakeupinThe
AmericanJeremiad,wherehepointsoutthathistorians,inassumingthissocalleddecline,aresimplyfollowingtheleadof
"CottonMatherandotherNewEnglandJeremiahs."TakingstatementssuchasMather's,historians,insteadofseeingitas
partofatraditionof"politicalsermon"(touseBercovitch'sphrase)thatcouldbeevincedallthewayfromthesailingof
the Arbella, have instead interpreted them as even more historically specific, reactions against an increasing lack of
coherencebetweenreligiousandsecularauthority,anddeclarationsofafailingmission.Rutmanindicatesthe"pragmatic
value"ofseeingthejeremiadthisway,inthatithelpsisolateamodelofPuritanism,andnarrowsthehistorian'staskto
oneofdescribingthethoughtofaspecifictwentyyearperiod.
Rutman's basic argument rests on the recognition that, to gain a clearer picture, one must study not only published
sermons and theological treatises, but also more wide ranging anthropologic datarecords of social, political, and
economicrelationswithinandamongindividualsandcommunities.Intothespecificsofthis,oneneednotgo;astudyin
this vein of Sudbury, Massachusetts, reveals underlying instabilities that challenge assumptions of a dominant Puritan
'theocracy,'butthenthisisnotsofarfromMiller'sownconclusion,thatPuritanideologyheldwithinitthebasisofitsown
lossofcontrol.ThepointhereisratherthepointfromwhichRutmanbeginsandwithwhichheconcludes,thatonemust
becarefulnotassumeanessenceofidentitytobedescribedbeforeattemptingtodescribesimplywhatonefinds,that
such an assumption may lead to dangerous equivocations between the ideology of Puritanism and the history of New
England(andextrapolatingfromthat,muchoftheUnitedStatesasawhole).
ItistheoldinstabilitythatbetweenthereligiousandthesecularwhichtheideaofPuritanismcontains.Theconfusion
thenbecomestranslatedintothehistoricalperspectiveintermsthat,asBercovitchstates,comefromthejeremiaditself:
"the New England Puritan jeremiad evokes the mythic past not merely to elicit imitation but above all to demand
progress"(Bercovitch,24).ForBercovitch,whoreadsthosekeytextsofthe'GreatMigration'JohnWinthrop's"AModel
of Christian Charity" and John Cotton's "God's Promise to His Plantations"as important transitions into distinctly
Americanformsofthejeremiad,thisentailsan"efforttofusethesacredandprofane,"tohistoricizetranscendentvalues
and goals into what he calls a "ritual of errand" (Bercovitch, 26,29). Defined then not so much by preexisting social
distinctions but rather by a continual and purposefullyheld sense of mission to which the modern idea of 'progress' is
intrinsicandoutofwhichthenotionof"civilreligion"(asKammenwouldsay,"memoryinplaceofreligion")develops,
Puritanism,asanideologicalmodeandnot(Rutman's)historical"actuality,"suggestsAmericaasamodernregionfrom
theverybeginningsofitscolonization.
Less so with historians thanpopularizers of a Puritan mythos, the evocation of a "golden age" existing less as past fact
thanfuturepromise,comestodominatethesenseof'Puritantradition'.This,asBercovitchindicates,isattheheartof
'explaining' America, with all its promise as a New World, with its idea of Manifest Destiny, with the kind of self
idealizationofNationalPurposethatHenryNashSmithdescribesinVirginLand.Themodernperspectiveanditsblurred
secularandreligious(ormoral)understandings,thusiswhatwillbeexploredinthesequel.
ThefirstEuropeansinAmericadidnotencounterasilentworld.Achorusofvoiceshadbeenaliveandmovingthroughthe
air for approximately 25,000 years before. Weaving tales of tricksters, warriors and gods; spinning prayers, creation
stories,andspiritualprophesies,theFirstNationscarvedouttheiroraltraditionslongbeforecolonialmindswerefired
andflummoxedbyaworldloudwithlanguagewhenLeifEricssonfirstsightedNewfoundlandinA.D.1000.Graduallythe
storiesthatthesefirstcommunitiestoldaboutthemselvesbecamemuffledastheeminencesoftheEuropeanRenaissance
begantocontemplatetheNewWorld.Oneofthem,theFrenchthinkerandfatheroftheessay,MicheldeMontaigne,was
notloathtotransformtheanecdotesofaservantwhohadvisitedAntarcticFrance(modernBrazil)intoareportonthe
livesofvirtuouscannibals.Accordingtohis"OnCannibals"(1588),despitetheirpredilectionforwhitemeat,thesenoble
individualsledlivesofgoodnessanddignity,inshamingcontrasttocorruptEurope.Littlewonderthatonanimaginary
NewWorldislandinShakespeare'sTheTempest(firstperformedin1611),therudesavageCalibanawaitsaconquering
Prosperointhemidstofnaturalbounty.

PioneerstoPuritans
Whetherpartiallyorentirelyfanciful,thesevisionsofparadiseonEarthwerenotmuchdifferentfromSirThomasMore's
Utopia(1516),itselfpartlyinspiredbytheItalianAmerigoVespucci'svoyagestotheNewWorld.WondersofanewEden,
untainted by European decadence, beckoned to those who would venture to America, even as others spared no ink to
paintaccountsofthesavageryofthishostile,unknownworld.Betweentheseextremeslaysomethingapproachingthe
truth:Americaasequalpartsheavenandhell,itsaboriginalinhabitantsashumanbeingscapableofbothvirtueandvice.
While wealth, albeit cloaked in Christian missionary zeal, may have been the primary motive for transatlantic journeys,
many explorers quickly understood that survival had to be secured before pagan souls or gold. John Smith, himself an

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escapedslavefromtheBalkanswholedthe1606expeditiontoVirginia,wroteofhisplunderswitharaconteur'sflairfor
embellisnment,impatientwiththosewhobemoanedtherigorsofearningtheircolonialdailybread.Histwinchronicles,A
TrueRelationofVirginia(1608)andTheGeneralHistoryofVirginia,NewEngland,andtheSummerIsles(1624),differinat
leastonesuggestivedetail:theIndianmaidenPocahontasappearsonlyinthelatter,betrayingthefreedomwithwhich
Europeanimaginationworkedonsome"facts"ofthisencounter.
Competing accounts of the American experiment multiplied with Thomas Morton, whose Maypole paganism and free
trade in arms with the natives raised the ire of his Puritan neighbors, Governor William Bradford, who led Mayflower
PilgrimsfromreligiouspersecutioninEnglandtoPlymouthRockin1620,andRogerWilliams,whosoughttounderstand
thelanguageofthenatives,earninghimexpulsionfromthe"sanctuary"ofMassachusetts.Moreoftenthannot,feverish
religiositycastaspotentaspellontheseearlyAmericanauthorsastheirEnglishliteraryheritage.TheterrorsofJudgment
DayinspiredMichaelWigglesworth'sTheDayofDoom(1662),apoemsosensationalthatoneintwentyhomesendedup
harboringacopy.Equallyelectrifyingwerenarrativesofcaptivityandrestoration,likethatofMaryRowlandson(1682),
often cast as allegories of the soul's journey from a world of torment to heaven. Beset by fragile health and religious
doubt, Anne Bradstreet captured in her Several Poems (1678) a moving picture of a Pilgrim mind grappling with the
redemptivetrialsoflifewithacouragethatwouldlaterbestirEmilyDickinson.
ItseemsunlikelythattwocollegeroommatesatHarvard,EdwardTaylorandSamuelSewall,wouldbothcometodefine
Puritanliterarycultureyettheydid.InfluencedbytheEnglishverseofJohnDonneandGeorgeHerbert,Taylor,aNew
England minister, became as great a poet as the Puritans managed to produce. Sewall's Diary (begun 12 August 1674)
madehimasmucharivalofhisBritishcounterpartSamuelPepysasofthemoreribaldchroniclerofVirginia,WilliamByrd.
While it is easy tocaricturethe Puritansas models of virtue or else viciouspersecutors of real or imagined heresy, the
simplicityofmythbeggarsthecomplexityofreality.AjuristwhopresidedovertheSalemWitchTrials,Sewallwasalsothe
authorofTheSellingofJoseph(1700),thefirstantislaverytractinanAmericathathadacceptedthepracticesince1619.
TheGreatAwakening,aperiodinwhichthePuritanmindsetenjoyedabriefrevival,isnotablefortheprolifichistorianand
hagiographerCottonMather. TheWonders of the Invisible World (1693) afforded aglimpse of hisskepticism about the
prosecutors of the witch trials, while his Magnalia Christi Americana (1702) provided a narrative of settlers' history of
America, regularly illuminated with the exemplary "lives of the saints." Moved equally by dogmatic piety and the
imperativesofreasonandscience,JonathanEdwardsdeliveredarrestingsermonsthatswayednotonlyhispeers,butalso
centurieslater,WilliamJames'sVarietiesofReligiousExperience(1902).Truetoform,Edwards'sAFaithfulNarrativeof
theSurprisingWorkofGod(1737)isacelebrationnotonlyofspiritualreawakening,butoftheempiricismofJohnLockeas
well.

EnlightenmenttoAutonomy
If anyone embodied the recoil from seventeenthcentury Puritan orthodoxy toward the Enlightenment, it was the
architect of an independent, modern United States, Benjamin Franklin (17061790). Printer, statesman, scientist, and
journalist,hefirstdelightedhisreaderswiththeannualwitandwisdomofPoorRichardsAlmanac(launchedin1733).In
1741, in parallel with Andrew Bradford's The American Magazine, Franklin's General Magazine and Historical Chronicle
markedthebeginningofNewEnglandmagazinepublishing.ButitwashisbestsellingAutobiography(1791)thatrevealed
theextenttowhichhispersonaldestinytwinedwiththeturbulentcourseofthenewstate.Ostensiblyalessoninlifefor
hisson,thebookbecameacompassforgenerationsofAmericansasittrackedCitizenFranklin'sprogressfromahumble
printer'sapprentice,throughhisgloryasadiplomatintheRevolutionaryWar(17751783),totheexclusiveclubofthe
foundingfatherswhodraftedtheDeclarationofIndependenceandratifiedtheConstitution.
The Revolution that stamped Franklin's life with the destiny of the nation found its most brazen exponent in Thomas
Paine. Author of Common Sense (1776) and The American Crisis (pamphlet series, 17761783), Paine was a British
expatriate who came to Philadelphia sponsored by Franklin and galvanized the battle for independence. His fervid
opposition to the British social order, slavery, and the inferior status of women made him a lightning rod of the
Revolution, helping to create an American identity in its wake. America's emergence as a sovereign power became
enshrinedintheDeclarationofIndependence,draftedbyThomasJefferson.HarkingbacktoMontaigneinNotesonthe
StateofVirginia(17841785),thispatricianstatesmanidolizedthepurityofagrariansocietyinthefearthatthecloserthe
NewWorldedgedtowardthesatanicmillsofindustrialEurope,themorecorruptitwouldbecome.Thefounderofthe
UniversityofVirginia,whoselibrarywouldseedtheLibraryofCongress,Jeffersonwaselectedpresidentin1800andagain
in1804.

LiteratureAftertheRevolution
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AftertheRevolution,AmericanliteraryculturegrewlessdependentonBritishmodels,andthepopularsuccessofpoets
like the ConnecticutWits, including TimothyDwight,composer of anAmerican would be epic, The ConquestofCanaan
(1785),onlyconfirmedthispoint.ThebroadappealofnovelslikeThePowerofSympathy(1789)byWilliamHillBrownand
CharlotteTemple(1791)bySusannaHaswellRowson,bothtalesofseductionthatspoketowhatfuturecriticswouldcalla
pulpfictionsensibility,signaledthegrowingsuccessofdomesticauthors(Rowson'snovel,thebestselleroftheeighteenth
century, would do equally well in the nineteenth). Modeled on Don Quixote, the comic writings of Hugh Henry
BrackenridgeandthegothicsensibilitiesofCharlesBrockdenBrownalsowonadegreeofpopularandcriticallaurels,the
latterpresagingthedarkstrainsofPoeandHawthorne.

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HistoryofAmericanLiterature/ColonialPeriod
EarlyColonialLiterature.16071700

I.TheEnglishinVirginia.
II.PilgrimsandPuritansinNewEngland.
III.TheNewEnglandClergy.
IV.PuritanPoetryinNewEngland.

I.TheEnglishinVirginia:CaptainJohnSmith,WilliamStrachey,GeorgeSandys.
Thestoryofanation'sliteratureordinarilyhasitsbeginningfarbackintheremoterhistoryofthatnation,obscuredbythe
uncertaintiesofanageofwhichnotrustworthyrecordshavebeenpreserved.Theearliestwritingsofapeopleareusually
the first efforts at literary production of a race in its childhood; and as these compositions develop they record the
intellectual and artistic growth of the race. The conditions which attended the development of literature in America,
therefore,arepeculiar.AttheverytimewhenSirWalterRaleighatypeofthegreatandsplendidmenofactionwho
madesuchglorioushistoryforEnglandinthedaysofElizabethwasorganizingthefirstfutileeffortstocolonizethenew
world, English Literature, which is the joint possession of the whole Englishspeaking race, was rapidly developing. Sir
Philip Sidney had written his Arcadia, first of the great prose romances, and enriched English poetry with his sonnets;
EdmundSpenserhadcomposedTheShepherd'sCalendar;ChristopherMarlowehadestablishedthedramauponheroic
lines;andShakespearehadjustenteredonthefirstflightsofhisfancy.When,in1606,KingJamesgrantedtoacompany
ofLondonmerchantsthefirstcharterofVirginia,SidneyandSpenserandMarloweweredead,Shakespearehadproduced
someofhisgreatestplays,thenameofBenJonson,alongwithothernotablenames,hadbeenaddedtothelistofour
greatdramatists,andthephilosopher,FrancisBacon,hadpublishedthefirstofhisessays.Thesearethefamiliarnames
which represent the climax of literary achievement in the Elizabethan age; and this brilliant epoch had reached its full
heightwhenthefirstpermanentEnglishsettlementinAmericawasmadeatJamestownin1607.OnNewYear'sday,the
littlefleetcommandedbyCaptainNewportsailedforthonitsventuresomeandromanticenterprise,thesignificanceof
whichwasnotaltogetherunsuspectedbythosewhosawitdepart.MichaelDrayton,oneofthemostpopularpoetsofhis
day,laterpoetlaureateofthekingdom,sanginquaint,propheticversesacheeryfarewell:
"Youbraveheroicminds,
Worthyyourcountry'sname,
Thathonorstillpursue,
Goandsubdue,
Whilstloiteringhinds
Lurkhereathomewithshame.

"Andinregionsfarre,
Suchheroesbringyeforth
Asthosefromwhomwecame;
Andplantourname
Underthatstar
Notknownuntoournorth.

"Andasthereplentygrows
Oflaureleverywhere,
Apollo'ssacredtree,
Youitmaysee,
Apoet'sbrows
thatmaysingthere."

TheVirginiaColony.

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OriginalmapoftheNewEnglandseacoastmadebyCaptainJohnSmith.

Thislittlebandofadventurers"inregionsfarre"disembarkedfromtheshipsDiscovery,GoodSpeed,andSusanConstant
uponthesiteofatownyettobebuilt,fiftymilesinland,ontheshoreofastreamasyetunexplored,intheheartofavast
greenwildernessthehomeofsavagetribeswhowerenonetoofriendly.Itwashardlytobeexpectedthattheripeseeds
of literary culture should be found in such a company, or should germinate under such conditions in any notable
luxuriance. The surprising fact, however, is that in this group of gentlemen adventurers there was one man of some
literarycraft,who,whileleadingthemoststrenuouslifeofall,efficientlyprotectingandhearteninghislesscourageous
comradesinallmannerofperilousexperiences,compiledandwrotewithmuchliteraryskillthepicturesquechroniclesof
thesettlement.

JohnSmith,15801631

CaptainJohnSmith,themainstayoftheJamestowncolonyinthecriticalperiodofitsearlyexistence,wasatruesoldierof
fortune, venturesome, resolute, selfreliant, resourceful; withal a man of great good sense, and with the grasp on
circumstanceswhichbelongstothemanofpower.HislifesinceleavinghishomeonaLincolnshirefarmatsixteenyearsof
age had been replete with romantic adventure. He had been a soldier in the French army and had served in that of
Holland. He had wandered through Italy and Greece into the countries of eastern Europe, and had lived for a year in
TurkeyandTartary.
HehadbeeninRussia,inGermany,inSpain,andinAfrica,andwasfamiliarwiththeislandsoftheMediterraneanand
those of the eastern Atlantic. Smith afterward wrote a narrative of his singularly full and adventurous life, not sparing,
apparently, the embellishment which in his time seems to have been reckoned a natural feature of narrative art. The
honestyofhisstatementshasbeendoubted,perhapstothepointofinjustice;andatthepresenttimeareactionistobe
seenwhichpresentsthewritingsofthesturdyoldadventurerinamorefavorablelight.
It was natural enough that such a daring rover should catch the spirit of enthusiasm with which the exploration and
settlementoftheNewWorldhadinflamedEnglishmenofhistimeandtype.Anditwasarecognitionofhisexperienceand
practicalsagacitywhichledtohisappointmentasamemberoftheCouncilattheheadofaffairsintheJamestowncolony.
TheTrueRelation.
InsofarastheliteraryaccomplishmentsofCaptainJohnSmithhaveanyimmediateconnectionwithAmericanhistory,our
interestcentresuponhisTrueRelationofsuchoccurrencesandaccidentsofnoateashathhapnedinVirginiasincethefirst

185

plantingofthatCollony,whichisnowresidentintheSouthpartthereof,tillthelastreturnefromthence(London,1608).
Smith's writings are plain, blunt narratives, which please by their rough vigor and the breezy picturesqueness of his
rugged, unaffected style. Hardly to be accounted literature except by way of compliment, the True Relation is not
unworthyofitsplaceinourliteraryrecordasthefirstEnglishbookproducedinAmerica.Itsuppliesourearliestchronicle
of the perils and hardships of our American pioneers. The romantic story of Pocahontas is found in its pages, briefly
recountedbythewriterintermswhichhardlywarrantitsdismissalasamyth;andmanyanotherthrillingincidentofthat
distressing struggle with the wilderness which makes agenuineappeal tothe reader now, as it undoubtedlydidto the
kinsmenofthecolonistsinEnglandforwhomthebookwasoriginallyprepared.
Otherwritings.
Smithwastheauthorofseveralothernarrativeanddescriptivepamphletsinwhichherecountedtheearlyhistoryofthe
coloniesatPlymouthandonMassachusettsBay.Indeed,itwastheredoubtableCaptainwhofirstgavetothatpartofthe
country the name New England; and to the little harbor on Cape Cod, before the coming of the Puritans, Smith had
alreadygiventhenameofPlymouth.In1624,hepublishedAGeneralHistoryofVirginia,acompilationeditedinEngland
fromthereportsofvariouswriters.

WilliamStrachey,fl.16091618.
Anotherinterestingchronicleofthisperiloustimewaswritteninthesummerof1610byagentlemanrecentlyarrivedat
Jamestownafterastormyandeventfulvoyage.Thisvividnarrative,calledAtrueReportoryofthewrackeandredemption
of Sir Thomas Gates, knight, upon and from the ilands of the Bermudas, his coming to Virginia, and the estate of that
colony,waswrittenbyWilliamStrachey,ofwhosepersonalitylittleisknown.Thetremendouspictureofshipwreckand
disasterispresentedinamasterlystyle.
"Thecloudsgatheringthickuponus,andthewindssingingandwhistlingmostunusually,...adreadfulstormandhideousbeganto
blowfromouttheNortheast,whichswellingandroaringasitwerebyfits,somehourswithmoreviolencethanothers,atlengthdidbeat
alllightfromheaven,whichlikeanhellofdarkness,turnedblackuponus....
"Prayersmightwellbeintheheartandlips,butdrownedintheoutcriesoftheOfficers,nothingheardthatcouldgivecomfort,nothing
seenthatmightencouragehope..."
"TheseaswelledabovetheCloudsandgavebattleuntoheaven."

Sir George Summers being upon the watch, had an apparition of a little round light, like a faint star, trembling and
streaming along with a sparkling blaze, half the height from the mainmast, and shooting sometimes from shroud to
shroud,temptingtosettleasitwereuponanyofthefourshrouds,andforthreeorfourhourstogether,orrathermore,
halfthenightitkeptwithus,runningsometimesalongthemainyardtotheveryend,andthenreturning....
"ItbeingnowFriday,thefourthmorning,itwantedlittlebutthattherehadbeenageneraldeterminationtohaveshutup
hatchesandcommendingoursinfulsoulstoGod,committedtheshiptothemercyofthesea."
NowonderthatwhenStrachey'slittlebook,printedinLondon,fellintothehandsofWilliamShakespeare,thisdramatic
recitalofthefuriousstormwhichdrovetheVirginiafleetonthereefsof"thestillvexedBermoothes"shouldhaveinspired
thepoetinhisdescriptionofthetempestevokedbyProsperoonhisenchantedisland.
So other narratives were written and other chronicles compiled by these industrious Jamestown settlers; but their
chroniclesandreportswerelargelyofficialdocumentspreparedfortheguidanceofthecompany'sofficersinLondon,and
forthegeneralenlightenmentofEnglishmenathome.Nowhereamongthemdowefindtheringofthatresoundingstyle
whichmakesliteratureofStrachey'sprose.

GeorgeSandys,15781644.
ItdidnotseemlikelythatthusearlyinVirginiahistoryanylaurelswouldbegatheredfromApollo'ssacredtreetocrowna
poet's brow as Drayton had pleasantly predicted in his lines of farewell. Yet, after all, among these gentlemen
adventurers who continued to come from England in increasing numbers, there arrived in 1621, as treasurer of the
Virginia company, one who was recognized as a poet of considerable rank George Sandys, author of an excellent
metrical translation of the first five books of Ovid. To Sandys also, Drayton, now laureate, had imparted a professional
benediction,exhortinghisfriendwithappreciativewords:

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"LetseewhatlinesVirginiawillproduce.
GoonwithOvid....
Enticethemusesthithertorepair;
Entreatthemgently;trainthemtothatair."

Andamidtheexactingdutiesofhispositioninamostdiscouragingtime,inexperiencesofprivationanddistress,amidthe
terrorsofIndianuprisingandmassacre,he"wenton"withOvid.AfterfouryearsofstrenuouslifeinthenewAmerica,
SandyswenthometoEnglandwithhistranslationoftheMetamorphosescompleted,andin1626presentedhisfinished
work to the king. It was anotable poem,was so accepted bycontemporaries, andafterward elicited the admiration of
Dryden and of Pope. Thus came the first expression of the poetic art in the New World "the first utterance of the
consciousliteraryspirit,articulatedinAmerica."
Werecordwithinterestthesefewliteraryappearancesintheannalsofourearlyhistory,butwecaninnosenseclaim
these writers as representatives of our native American literature. Smith, Strachey, and Sandys were Englishmen
temporarilyinterestedinagreatschemeofcolonization.Afterbriefsojourninthecolony,theyreturnedtoEngland.They
were not colonists; they were travelers; and while their compositions have a peculiar interest, and are not without
significanceforus,theycannotbeaccountedAmericanworks.

DevelopmentoftheColony.
TherecordofVirginia'searlystruggles,itsdifficultieswiththeIndians,itsdepletionbyillnessandfamine,itslossesdueto
theincapacityofleadersandpoliciesilladaptedtotheconditionsofatruecoloniallife,itsreinforcements,itsacquisition
ofcolonists,itsadvancementinwealthandimportance,thisisfamiliarhistory.Theremarkablefactistherapiditywith
whichthecolonydeveloped.In1619,twelvehundredsettlersarrived;alongwiththemweresentonehundredconvictsto
become servants. Boys and girls, picked up in the London streets, were shipped to Virginia to be bound during their
minoritytotheplanters.InthesameyearaDutchmanofwarlandedtwentynegroesatJamestown,whowere
sold as slaves the first in America. The cultivation of tobacco became profitable, the plantations were extended, and
new colonists were brought over in large numbers. Following the execution of Charles I, and the establishment of the
PuritanProtectorate,hundredsoftheexiledCavaliersmigratedtoVirginiawiththeirfamiliesandtraditions.Thesenew
colonistsstampedthecharacterofthedominionthatwastobe.ThebestbloodofEnglandwasthusinfusedintothenew
enterprise,andthespiritoftheSouthwasdetermined.In1650,thepopulationofVirginiawas15,000;twentyyearslater,
itwas40,000.
Yetthesouthernsoildidnotprovefavorabletoliterarygrowth.Englishbookswere,ofcourse,broughtintothecolony,
andprivatelibrariesweretobefoundhereandthereinthehomesofthewealthy.TherewerenofreeschoolsinVirginia,
andbutfewprivateschools.Thechildrenoftheplantersreceivedinstructionundertutorsintheirownhomes,ofwere
senttoEnglandfortheireducation.Forfearofseditiousliterature,printingpresseswereforbiddenbytheking.In1671,
GovernorBerkeleydeclared:
LiteraryConditions.
"IthankGodtherearenofreeschools,norprinting,andIhopeweshallnothavethesehundredyears;forlearninghas
broughtdisobedienceintotheworld,andprintinghasdivulgedthemandlibelsagainstthebestofgovernments.Godkeep
usfromboth."

"LeahandRachel."
Oforiginalliteraryaccomplishment,therewaslittleornothoughtuntilwellonintheeighteenthcentury.Twoorthree
vigorouspamphlets,publishedinEnglandnotlongafter1650,areinterestingasvoicingthefirstdecidedutterancesofa
genuineAmericanspiritinthesouthernsettlements.JohnHammond,aresidentinthenewercolonyofMaryland,visiting
hisoldhomein1656,becamehomesickfortheonehehadleftinAmerica."ItisnotlongsinceIcamefromthence,"he
said,"nordoIintend,byGod'sassistance,tobelongoutofitagain....ItisthatcountryinwhichIdesiretospendthe
remnant of my days, in which I covet to make my grave," His little work, entitled Leach and Rachel ("the two fruitful
sisters,VirginiaandMaryland"),waswrittenwithapurposetoshowwhatboundlessopportunitywasaffordedinthese
twocoloniestothosewhoinEnglandhadnoopportunityatall.

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IndianandEarlyAmericanLiterature
Americanchildren'sliteratureoriginatedwiththeoraltraditionofitsNativepeoples.Whenstoriesandlegendsweretold
byNativeAmericans,childrenwereincludedintheaudienceasameansofpassingonthesociety'scultureandvaluesto
succeeding generations. This oral literature included creation stories and stories of chiefs, battles, intertribal treaties,
spirits, and events of long ago. They entertained as they instructed, and were often the most important part of sacred
ceremonies.
The Puritans and other British settlers in New England brought with them printed matter for children to be used for
advancing literacy, teaching religion, and other didactic purposes. British works were imported and reprinted in the
Americancolonies,beginningatrendofEuropeanimportsthatwouldcontinueforsometime.Anumberoftheearliest
knownchildren'sworkswritteninthecoloniesborrowedheavilyfromtheseimportsinthemeandpurpose.Theseinclude
JohnCotton'sSpiritualMilkforBostonBabes(1646).ProbablythebestknownPuritanbookthatchildrenreadatthetime
wastheNewEnglandPrimer,originallypublishedsometimebetween1686and1690.Itcontainedlessonsinliteracyand
religiousdoctrineinverseformwithpictures,notforthepurposeofentertainingchildrenbutbecausePuritansbelieved
childrenlearnedbestthatway.OthercommonbooksinearlyAmericaincludedJohnBunyan'sPilgrim'sProgress(1678)
and American schoolbooks such as Noah Webster's Webster's American Spelling Book (1783) and George Wilson's
AmericanClassReader(c.1810).

AmericanLiteraryaspects:

EarlyAmericanandColonialPeriodto1776

Americanliteraturebeginswiththeorallytransmittedmyths,legends,tales,andlyrics(alwayssongs)ofIndiancultures.
There was nowritten literature among the more than500different Indian languages andtribal cultures that existed in
NorthAmericabeforethefirstEuropeansarrived.Asaresult,NativeAmericanoralliteratureisquitediverse.Narratives
from quasinomadic hunting cultures like the Navajo are different from stories of settled agricultural tribes such as the
pueblodwellingAcoma;thestoriesofnorthernlakesidedwellerssuchastheOjibwaoftendifferradicallyfromstoriesof
deserttribesliketheHopi.
Tribes maintained their own religions worshipping gods, animals, plants, or sacred persons. Systems of government
rangedfromdemocraciestocouncilsofelderstotheocracies.Thesetribalvariationsenterintotheoralliteratureaswell.
Still,itispossibletomakeafewgeneralizations.Indianstories,forexample,glowwithreverencefornatureasaspiritual
aswellasphysicalmother.Natureisaliveandendowedwithspiritualforces;maincharactersmaybeanimalsorplants,
often totems associated with a tribe, group, or individual. The closest to the Indian sense of holiness in later American
literatureisRalphWaldoEmerson'stranscendental"OverSoul,"whichpervadesalloflife.
The Mexican tribes revered the divine Quetzalcoatl, a god of the Toltecs and Aztecs, and some tales of a high god or
cultureweretoldelsewhere.However,therearenolong,standardizedreligiouscyclesaboutonesupremedivinity.The
closest equivalents to Old World spiritual narratives are often accounts of shamans initiations and voyages. Apart from
these,therearestoriesaboutcultureheroessuchastheOjibwatribe'sManabozhoortheNavajotribe'sCoyote.These
tricksters are treated with varying degrees of respect. In one tale they may act like heroes, while in another they may
seemselfishorfoolish.Althoughpastauthorities,suchastheSwisspsychologistCarlJung,havedeprecatedtrickstertales
asexpressingtheinferior,amoralsideofthepsyche,contemporaryscholarssomeofthemNativeAmericanspointout
thatOdysseusandPrometheus,thereveredGreekheroes,areessentiallytrickstersaswell.

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Examples of almost every oral genre can be found in American Indian literature: lyrics, chants, myths, fairy tales,
humorousanecdotes,incantations,riddles,proverbs,epics,andlegendaryhistories.Accountsofmigrationsandancestors
abound,asdovisionorhealingsongsandtricksters'tales.Certaincreationstoriesareparticularlypopular.Inonewell
known creation story, told with variations among many tribes, a turtle holds up the world. In a Cheyenne version, the
creator,Maheo,hasfourchancestofashiontheworldfromawateryuniverse.Hesendsfourwaterbirdsdivingtotryto
bringupearthfromthebottom.Thesnowgoose,loon,andmallardsoarhighintotheskyandsweepdowninadive,but
cannotreachbottom;butthelittlecoot,whocannotfly,succeedsinbringingupsomemudinhisbill.Onlyonecreature,
humbleGrandmotherTurtle,istherightshapetosupportthemudworldMaheoshapesonhershellhencetheIndian
nameforAmerica,"TurtleIsland."
Thesongsorpoetry,likethenarratives,rangefromthesacredtothelightandhumorous:Therearelullabies,warchants,
lovesongs,andspecialsongsforchildren'sgames,gambling,variouschores,magic,ordanceceremonials.Generallythe
songsare repetitive. Shortpoemsongs given in dreams sometimes have the clear imagery and subtle mood associated
withJapanesehaikuorEasterninfluencedimagisticpoetry.AChippewasongruns:
AloonIthoughtitwas
Butitwas
Mylove's
splashingoar.

Visionsongs,oftenveryshort,areanotherdistinctiveform.Appearingindreamsorvisions,sometimeswithnowarning,
theymaybehealing,hunting,orlovesongs.Oftentheyarepersonal,asinthisModocsong:
I
thesong
Iwalkhere.

IndianoraltraditionanditsrelationtoAmericanliteratureasawholeisoneoftherichestandleastexploredtopicsin
Americanstudies.TheIndiancontributiontoAmericaisgreaterthanisoftenbelieved.ThehundredsofIndianwordsin
everyday American English include "canoe," "tobacco," "potato," "moccasin," "moose," "persimmon," "raccoon,"
"tomahawk,"and"totem."ContemporaryNativeAmericanwritingalsocontainsworksofgreatbeauty.
After 1680 large numbers of immigrants came from Germany, Ireland, Scotland, Switzerland and France; and England
ceased to be the chief source of immigration. Again, the new settlers came for various reasons. Thousands fled from
Germany to escape the path of war. Many left Ireland to avoid the poverty induced by government oppression and
absenteelandlordism,andfromScotlandandSwitzerland,too,peoplecamefleeingthespecterofpoverty.By1690,the
American population had risen to a quarter of a million. From then on, it doubled every 25 years until, in 1775, it
numberedmorethantwoandahalfmillion.
For the the most part, nonEnglish colonists adapted themselves to the culture of the original settlers. But this did not
mean that all settlers transformed themselves into Englishmen. True, they adopted the English language and law and
manyEnglishcustoms,butonlyasthesehadbeenmodifiedbyconditionsinAmerica.Theresultwasauniqueculturea
blendofEnglishandcontinentalEuropeanconditionedbytheenvironmentoftheNewWorld.
AlthoughamanandhisfamilycouldmovefromMassachusettstoVirginiaorfromSouthCarolinatoPennsylvania,without
makingmanybasicreadjustments,distinctionsbetweenindividualcoloniesweremarked.Theywereevenmoremarked
betweenregionalgroupsofcolonies.
The settlements fell into fairly welldefined sections determined by geography. In the south, with its warm climate and
fertile soil, a predominately agrarian society developed. New England in the northeast, a glaciated area strewn with
boulders, was inferior farm country, with generally thin, stony soil, relatively little level land, short summers, and long
winters. Turning to other pursuits, the New Englandersharnessed water power andestablishedgristmills and sawmills.
Goodstandsoftimberencouragedshipbuilding.Excellentharborspromotedtrade,andtheseabecameasourceofgreat
wealth.InMassachusetts,thecodindustryalonequicklyfurnishedabasisforprosperity.
Settling in villages and towns around the harbors, New Englanders quickly adopted an urban existence, many of them
carryingonsometradeorbusiness.Commonpasturelandandcommonwoodlotsservedtheneedsoftownspeople,who
workedsmallfarmsnearby.Compactnessmadepossiblethevillageschool,thevillagechurch,andthevillageortownhall,
where citizens met to discuss matters of common interest. Sharing hardships, cultivating the same rocky soil, pursuing

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simpletradesandcrafts,NewEnglandersrapidlyacquiredcharacteristicsthatmarkedthemasaselfreliant,independent
people.
Thesequalitieshadmanifestedthemselvesinthe102seawearyPilgrimswhofirstlandedonthepeninsulaofCapeCod,
projecting into the Atlantic from southeastern Massachusetts. They had sailed to America under the auspices of the
London (Virginia) Company and were thus intended for settlement in Virginia, but their ship, the Mayflower* made its
landfall far to the north. After some weeks of exploring, the colonists decided not to make the trip to Virginia but to
remainwheretheywere.TheychosetheareanearPlymouthharborasasitefortheircolony,andthoughtherigorsofthe
firstwinterweresevere,thesettlementsurvived.
*INTheNameofGod,Amen.We,whosenamesareunderwritten,the LoyalSubjectsof
ourdreadSovereignLordKingJames,bytheGraceofGod,ofGreatBritain,France,and
Ireland, King, Defender of the Faith, &c. Having undertaken for the Glory of God, and
AdvancementoftheChristianFaith,andtheHonorofourKingandCountry,aVoyageto
plantthefirstcolonyinthenorthernPartsofVirginia;DobythesePresents,solemnlyand
mutually in the Presence of God and one another, covenant and combine ourselves
together into a civil Body Politick, for our better Ordering and Preservation, and
FurtheranceoftheEndsaforesaid;AndbyVirtuehereofdoenact,constitute,andframe,
suchjustandequalLaws,Ordinances,Acts,Constitutions,andOffices,fromtimetotime,
asshallbethoughtmostmeetandconvenientforthegeneralGoodoftheColony;unto
which we promise all due Submission and Obedience. In WITNESS whereof we have
hereunto subscribed our names at Cape Cod the eleventh of November, in the Reign of
our Sovereign Lord King James of England, France, and Ireland, the eighteenth and of
Scotland,thefiftyfourth.AnnoDomini,1620
JohnCarver

EdwardTilley DegoryPriest

WilliamBradford JohnTilley

ThomasWilliams

EdwardWinslow FrancisCooke GilbertWinslow

WilliamBrewster ThomasRogersEdmundMargeson
IssacAllerton

ThomasTinker PeterBrowne

MylesStandish

JohnRigdale RichardBritteridge

JohnAlden

EdwardFuller GeoroeSoule

SamuelFuller

JohnTurner

RichardClarke

ChristopherMartinFrancisEaton RichardGardiner
WilliamMullins

JamesChilton JohnAllerton

WilliamWhite

JohnCrackston ThomasEnglish

RichardWarren

JohnBillington EdwardDotey

JohnHowland

MosesFletcherEdwardLeister

StephenHopkins JohnGoodman

Theliteratureofexploration
Hadhistorytakenadifferentturn,theUnitedStateseasilycouldhavebeenapartofthegreatSpanishorFrenchoverseas
empires. Its present inhabitants might speak Spanish and form one nation with Mexico, or speak French and be joined
withCanadianFrancophoneQuebecandMontreal.
Yet the earliest explorers of America were not English, Spanish, or French. The first European record of exploration in
AmericaisinaScandinavianlanguage.TheOldNorseVinlandSagarecountshowtheadventurousLeifErikssonandaband
ofwanderingNorsemensettledbrieflysomewhereonthenortheastcoastofAmericaprobablyNovaScotia,inCanada
inthefirstdecadeofthe11thcentury,almost400yearsbeforethenextrecordedEuropeandiscoveryoftheNewWorld.
ThefirstknownandsustainedcontactbetweentheAmericasandtherestoftheworld,however,beganwiththefamous
voyage of an Italian explorer, Christopher Columbus, funded by the Spanish rulers Ferdinand and Isabella. Columbus's
journal in his "Epistola," printed in 1493, recounts the trip's drama the terror of the men, who feared monsters and
thoughttheymightfallofftheedgeoftheworld;thenearmutiny;howColumbusfakedtheships'logssothemenwould

190

notknowhowmuchfarthertheyhadtravelledthananyonehadgonebefore;andthefirstsightingoflandastheyneared
America.
Bartolom de las Casas is the richest source of information about the early contact between American Indians and
Europeans.AsayoungpriesthehelpedconquerCuba.HetranscribedColumbus'sjournal,andlateinlifewrotealong,
vividHistoryoftheIndianscriticizingtheirenslavementbytheSpanish.
Initial English attempts at colonization were disasters. The first colony was set up in 1585 at Roanoke, off the coast of
NorthCarolina;allitscolonistsdisappeared,andtothisdaylegendsaretoldaboutblueeyedCroatanIndiansofthearea.
Thesecondcolonywasmorepermanent:Jamestown,establishedin1607.Itenduredstarvation,brutality,andmisrule.
However,theliteratureoftheperiodpaintsAmericainglowingcolorsasthelandofrichesandopportunity.Accountsof
the colonizations became worldrenowned. The exploration of Roanoke was carefully recorded by Thomas Hariot in A
BriefeandTrueReportoftheNewFoundLandofVirginia(1588).Hariot'sbookwasquicklytranslatedintoLatin,French,
andGerman;thetextandpicturesweremadeintoengravingsandwidelyrepublishedforover200years.
The Jamestown colony's main record, the writings of Captain John Smith, one of its leaders, is the exact opposite of
Hariot'saccurate,scientificaccount.Smithwasanincurableromantic,andheseemstohaveembroideredhisadventures.
TohimweowethefamousstoryoftheIndianmaiden,Pocahontas.Whetherfactorfiction,thetaleisingrainedinthe
Americanhistoricalimagination.ThestoryrecountshowPocahontas,favoritedaughterofChiefPowhatan,savedCaptain
Smith'slifewhenhewasaprisonerofthechief.Later,whentheEnglishpersuadedPowhatantogivePocahontastothem
as a hostage, her gentleness, intelligence, and beauty impressed the English, and, in 1614, she married John Rolfe, an
Englishgentleman.ThemarriageinitiatedaneightyearpeacebetweenthecolonistsandtheIndians,ensuringthesurvival
ofthestrugglingnewcolony.
In the 17th century, pirates, adventurers, and explorers opened the way to a second wave of permanent colonists,
bringing their wives, children, farm implements, and craftsmen's tools. The early literature of exploration, made up of
diaries, letters, travel journals, ships' logs, and reports to the explorers' financial backers European rulers or, in
mercantile England and Holland, joint stock companies gradually was supplanted by records of the settled colonies.
Because England eventually took possession of the North American colonies, the bestknown and mostanthologized
colonial literature is English. As American minority literature continues to flower in the 20th century and American life
becomes increasingly multicultural, scholars are rediscovering the importance of the continent's mixed ethnic heritage.
Although the story of literature now turns to the English accounts, it is important to recognize its richly cosmopolitan
beginnings.

TheColonialPeriodinNewEngland
ItislikelythatnoothercolonistsinthehistoryoftheworldwereasintellectualasthePuritans.Between1630and1690,
therewereasmanyuniversitygraduatesinthenortheasternsectionoftheUnitedStates,knownasNewEngland,asin
themothercountryanastoundingfactwhenoneconsidersthatmosteducatedpeopleofthetimewerearistocratswho
were unwilling to risk their lives in wilderness conditions. The selfmade and often selfeducated Puritans were notable
exceptions. They wanted education tounderstand andexecute God'swill as they established their colonies throughout
NewEngland.
ThePuritandefinitionofgoodwritingwasthatwhichbroughthomeafullawarenessoftheimportanceofworshipping
God and of the spiritual dangers that the soul faced on Earth. Puritan style varied enormously from complex
metaphysical poetry to homely journals and crushingly pedantic religious history. Whatever the style or genre, certain
themesremainedconstant.Lifewasseenasatest;failureledtoeternaldamnationandhellfire,andsuccesstoheavenly
bliss.ThisworldwasanarenaofconstantbattlebetweentheforcesofGodandtheforcesofSatan,aformidableenemy
with many disguises.ManyPuritans excitedly awaited the "millennium," when Jesuswould return toEarth, endhuman
misery,andinaugurate1,000yearsofpeaceandprosperity.
Scholars have long pointed out the link between Puritanism and capitalism: Both rest on ambition, hard work, and an
intensestrivingforsuccess.AlthoughindividualPuritanscouldnotknow,instricttheologicalterms,whethertheywere
"saved"andamongtheelectwhowouldgotoheaven,Puritanstendedtofeelthatearthlysuccesswasasignofelection.
Wealthandstatusweresoughtnotonlyforthemselves,butaswelcomereassurancesofspiritualhealthandpromisesof
eternallife.
Moreover,theconceptofstewardshipencouragedsuccess.ThePuritansinterpretedallthingsandeventsassymbolswith
deeperspiritualmeanings,andfeltthatinadvancingtheirownprofitandtheircommunity'swellbeing,theywerealso

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furtheringGod'splans.Theydidnotdrawlinesofdistinctionbetweenthesecularandreligiousspheres:Alloflifewasan
expressionofthedivinewillabeliefthatlaterresurfacesinTranscendentalism.
In recording ordinary events to reveal their spiritual meaning, Puritan authors commonly cited the Bible, chapter and
verse. History was a symbolic religious panorama leading to the Puritan triumph over the New World and to God's
kingdomonEarth.
ThefirstPuritancolonistswhosettledNewEnglandexemplifiedtheseriousnessofReformationChristianity.Knownasthe
"Pilgrims," they were a small group of believers who had migrated from England to Holland even then known for its
religioustolerancein1608,duringatimeofpersecutions.
LikemostPuritans,theyinterpretedtheBibleliterally.TheyreadandactedonthetextoftheSecondBookofCorinthians
"Comeoutfromamongthemandbeyeseparate,saiththeLord."DespairingofpurifyingtheChurchofEnglandfrom
within,"Separatists"formedunderground"covenanted"churchesthatsworeloyaltytothegroupinsteadoftheking.Seen
as traitors to the king as well as heretics damned to hell, they were often persecuted. Their separation took them
ultimatelytotheNewWorld.
The Dutch possessed New Netherland, later to be called New York, for 40
years.Butthevwerenotamigratingpeople.Colonizingofferedthemneither
politicalnorreligiousadvantagesthattheydidnotalreadyenjoyinHolland.
In addition, the Dutch West India Company found it difficult to retain
competentofficialstoadministerthecolony.in1664,witharevivalofBritish
interest in colonial activity, the Dutch settlement was taken by conquest.
Longafterthis,however,theDutchcontinuedtoexerciseanimportantsocial
and economic influence. Their sharpstepped, gable roofs became a
permanent part of the scene, andtheir merchantsgavethecity its bustling
commercialatmosphere.
The Dutch also gave New York a style of life quite different from that in Puritan Boston. In New York, holidays were
markedbyfeastingandmerrymaking.AndmanyDutchtraditionssuchascallingonone'sneighborsonNewYear'sDay
andcelebratingthevisitofSaintNicholasatChristmastimesurvivedformanyyears.
WiththetransferfromDutchauthority,anEnglishadministrator,RichardNicolls,setaboutremodelingthelegalstructure
ofNewYork.HedidthissograduallyandwithsuchwisdomthathewontherespectofDutchaswellasEnglish.Town
governmentshadtheautonomouscharacteristicsofNewEnglandtowns,andinafewyearstherewasaworkablefusion
betweenresidualDutchlawandcustomsandEnglishpractices.
By1696 nearly 30,000people lived in theprovince of New York. In the rich valleysof theHudson, Mohawk, and other
rivers, great estates flourished. Tenant farmers and small independent farmers contributed to the agricultural
development of the region. Rolling grasslands supplied feed for cattle, sheep, horses, and pigs; tobacco and flax were
planted;andfruits,especiallyapples,grewinabundance.Thefurtradealsocontributedtothegrowthofthecolony.From
Albany,232kilometersnorthofNewYorkCity,theHudsonRiverwasaconvenientwaterwayforshippingfurstothebusy
port.
In contrast to New England and the middle colonies were the predominantly rural southern settlements, Virginia,
Maryland, the Carolinas, and Georgia. Jamestown, inVirginia, was the first Englishcolony to survive in theNew World.
Late in December 1606, a group of about a hundred men, sponsored by a London colonizing company, had set out in
search of great adventure. They dreamed of finding gold; homes in the wilderness were not their goal. Among them,
CaptainJohnSmithemergedasthedominantfigure,anddespitequarrels,starvation,andIndianattacks,hiswillheldthe
littlecolonytogetherthroughthefirstyears.
Intheearliestdays,thepromotingcompany,eagerforquickreturns,requiredthecoloniststoconcentrateonproducing
lumber and other products for sale in the London market, instead of permitting them to plant crops for their own
subsistence.Afterfewdisastrousyearsthecompanyeaseditsrequirementsanddistributedlandtothecoionists.
In 1612, a development occurred that revolutionized the economy of Virginia. This was the discovery of a method of
curingVirginiatobaccotomakeitpalatabletotheEuropeantaste.ThefirstshipmentofthistobaccoreachedLondonin
1614,andwithinadecadeithadbecomeVirginia'schiefsourceofrevenue.

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Thecultivationoftobaccoexhaustedthesoilafterseveralcrops.Breakingnewground,plantersscatteredupanddown
thenumerouswaterways.Notownsdottedtheregion,andevenJamestown,thecapital,hadonlyafewhouses.
Though most settlers had come to Virginia to improve their economic position, in Maryland the neighboring colony,
religiousaswellaseconomicmotivesledtosettlement.WhileseekingtoestablisharefugeforCatholicsthere,theCalvert
familywasalsointerestedincreatingestatesthatwouldbringprofits.Tothatend,andtoavoidtroublewiththeBritish
government,theCalvertsencouragedProtestantaswellasCathoiicimmigration.
In social structure and in government the Calverts tried to make Maryland an aristocratic land in the ancient tradition,
which they aspired to rule with all the prerogatives of kings. But the spiritof independence ran strong in this frontier
society.InMaryland,asintheothercolonies,theauthoritiescouldnotcircumventthesettlers'stubborninsistenceonthe
guarantees of personal liberty established by English common law and the natural rights of subjects to participate in
governmentthroughrepresentativeassemblies.
MarylanddevelopedaneconomyverysimilartothatofVirginia.Devotedtoagriculturewithadominanttidewaterclassof
greatplanters,bothcolonieshadabackcountryintowhichyeomenfarmerssteadilyfiltered.Bothsufferedthehandicaps
ofaonecropsystem.Andbeforethemidpointofthe18thcentury,bothwereprofoundlyaffectedbyblackslavery.
In these two colonies the wealthy planters took their social responsibilities seriously, serving as justices of the peace,
colonelsofthemilitia,andmembersofthelegislativeassemblies.Butyeomenfarmersalsosatinpopularassembliesand
foundtheirwayintopoliticaloffice.Theiroutspokenindependencewasaconstantwarningtotheoligarchyofplanters
nottoencroachtoofarupontherightsoffreemen.
Bythelate17thandearly18thcenturies,thesocialstructureinMarylandandVirginiahadtakenonthequalitiesitwould
retainuntiltheCivilWar.Supportedbyslavelabor,theplantersheldmostofthepoliticalpowerandthebestland,built
great houses, adopted an aristocratic way of life, and kept in touch with the world of culture overseas. Next in the
socioeconomic scale were the farmers, placing their hope for prosperity in the fresh soil of the back country. Least
prosperouswerethesmallfarmers,strugglingforexistenceincompetitionwithslaveowningplanters.inneitherVirginia
norMarylanddidalargetradingclassdevelop,fortheplantersthemselvestradeddirectlywithLondon.
It was reserved for the Carolinas, with Charleston as the leading port, to develop into the trading center of the south.
Therethesettlersquicklylearnedtocombineagricultureandcommerce,andthemarketplacebecameamajorsourceof
prosperity.Denseforestsalsobroughtrevenue;lumber,tar,andresinfromthelongleafpineprovidedsomeofthebest
shipbuildingmaterialsintheworld.NotboundtoasinglecropaswasVirginia,theCarolinasalsoproducedandexported
riceandindigo.By1750,morethan100,000peoplelivedinthetwocoloniesofNorthandSouthCarolina.
In the south, as everywhere else in the colonies, the growth of the back country had special significance. Men seeking
greater freedom than could be found in the original tidewater settlements pushed inland. Those who could not secure
fertile land along the coast, or who had exhausted the lands they held, found the hills farther west a bountiful refuge.
Soon the interior was dotted with thriving farms. Humble farmers were not the only ones who found the hinterland
attractive.PeterJefferson,forexample,anenterprisingsurveyorfatherofThomasJefferson,thirdPresidentoftheUnited
Statessettledinthehillcountrybyacquiring160hectaresoflandforabowlofpunch.
Living on the edge of the Indian country, making their cabins their fortresses, and relying on their own sharp eyes and
trusty muskets, frontiersmen became, of necessity, a sturdy, selfreliant people. They cleared tracts in the wilderness,
burnedthebrush,andcultivatedmaizeandwheatamongthestumps.Themenworebuckskin,thewomengarmentsof
cloth they had spun at home. Their food was venison, wild turkey, and fish. They had their own amusementsgreat
barbecues, housewarmings for newly married couples, shooting matches, and contests where quilted blankets were
made.
Already linesof cleavage were discernible between thesettled regions of theAtlantic seaboardand the inland regions.
Menfromthebackcountrymadetheirvoicesheardinpoliticaldebate,combattingtheinertiaofcustomandconvention.
Apowerfulforcedeterringauthoritiesintheoldercommunitiesfromobstructingprogressandchangewasthefactthat
anyoneinanestablishedcolonycouldeasilyfindanewhomeonthefrontier.Thus,timeaftertime,dominanttidewater
figureswereobliged,bythethreatofamassexodustothefrontier,toliberalizepoliticalpolicies,landgrantrequirements,
andreligiouspractices.Complacencycouldhavesmallplaceinthevigoroussocietygeneratedbyanexpandingcountry.
ThemovementintothefoothillswasoftremendousimportforthefutureofAmerica.

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OfequalsignificanceforthefuturewerethefoundationsofAmericaneducationandcultureestablishedinthecolonial
period.HarvardCollegewasfoundedin1636inMassachusetts.Neartheendofthecentury,theCollegeofWilliamand
MarywasestablishedinVirginia.Afewvearslater,theCollegiateSchoolofConnecticut(latertobecomeYaleCollege)was
chartered.Butevenmorenoteworthywasthegrowthofaschoolsystemmaintainedbygovernmentalauthority.In1647
theMassachusettsBayColony,followedshortlybyalltheotherNewEnglandcoloniesexceptRhodeIslandprovidedfor
compulsoryelementaryeducation.
Inthesouth,thefarmsandplantationsweresowidelyseparatedthatcommunityschoolslikethoseinthemorecompact
northern settlements were impossible. Some planters joined with their nearest neighbors and hired tutors for their
children;otherchildrenweresenttoEnglandforschooling.
In the middle colonies, the situation varied. Too busy with mater1al progress to pay much attention to educational
matters,NewYorklaggedfarbehind.Schoolswerepoor,andonlysporadiceffortsweremadebytheroyalgovernmentto
providepublicfacilities.TheCollegeofNewJerseyatPrinceton,King'sCollege(nowColumbiaUniversity)inNewYorkCity,
and Queen's College (now Rutgers) in New Brunswick, New Jersey, were not established until the middle of the 18th
century.
OneofthemostenterprisingofthecolonieseducationallywasPennsylvania.Thefirstschoolthere,begunin1683,taught
reading, writing, and keeping of accounts. Thereafter, in some fashion, every Quaker community provided for the
elementaryteachingofitschildren.Moreadvancedtraininginclassicallanguages,history,literaturewasofferedatthe
FriendsPublicSchool,whichstilloperatesinPhiladelphiaastheWilliamPennCharterSchool.Theschoolwasfreetothe
poor,butparentswhocouldwererequiredtopaytuition.
InPhiladelphia,numerousprivateschoolswithnoreligiousaffiliationtaughtlanguages,mathematics,andnaturalscience,
and there were night schools for adults. Women were not entirely overlooked, for private teachers instructed the
daughters of prosperous Philadelphians in French, music, dancing, painting, singing, grammar, and sometimes even
bookkeeping.
TheintellectualandculturaldevelopmentofPennsylvaniareflected,inlargemeasure,thevigorouspersonalitiesoftwo
men: James Logan and Benjamin Franklin. Logan was secretary of the colony, and it was in his fine library that young
Franklinfoundthelatestscientificworks.In1745,Loganerectedabuildingforhiscollectionandbequeathedbothbuilding
andbookstothecity.FranklincontributedevenmoretotheintellectualactivityofPhiladelphia.Heformedaclubknown
astheJunto,whichwastheembryooftheAmericanPhilosophicalSociety.Hisendeavorsled,too,tothefoundingofa
publicacademythatlaterdevelopedintotheUniversityofPennsylvania.Hewasalsoaprimemoverintheestablishment
ofasubscriptionlibrarywhichhecalled"themotherofallNorthAmericansubscriptionlibraries."
In the south, volumes of history, Greek and Latin classics, science, and law were widely exchanged from plantation to
plantation. Charleston, South Carolina, already a center for music, painting, and the theater, set up a provincial library
before1700. In New England,thefirst immigrantshadbrought theirown little libraries and continued to import books
fromLondon.Andasearlyasthe1680s,Bostonbooksellersweredoingathrivingbusinessinworksofclassicalliterature,
history, politics, philosophy, science, theology, and belleslettres. The desire for learning did not stop at the borders of
establishedcommunities.Onthefrontier,thehardyScotchIrish,thoughlivinginprimitivecabins,werefirmdevoteesof
scholarship,andtheymadegreateffortstoattractlearnedministerstotheirsettlements.
Literary production in the colonies was largely confined to New England. Here attention was concentrated on religious
subjects.Sermonswerethemostcommonproductsofthepress.Afamous"hellandbrimstone"minister,theReverend
CottonMather,authoredsome400works,andhismasterpiece,MagnaliaChristiAmericana,wassoprodigiousthatithad
tobeprintedinLondon.Inthisfolio,thepageantofNewEngland'shistoryisdisplayedbytheregion'smostprolificwriter.
But the most popular single work was the Reverend Michael Wigglesworth's long poem, The Day of Doom, which
describedtheLastJudgmentinterrifyingterms.
Cambridge, Massachusetts, boasted a printing press, and in 1704 Boston's first successful newspaper was launched.
Several others soon entered the field, not only in New England but also in other regions. In New York, freedom of the
press had its first important test in the case of Peter Zenger, whose New York Weekly Journal, begun in 1733, was
spokesman for opposition to she government. After two years of publication, the colonial governor could no longer
tolerateZenger'ssatiricalbarbsandhadhimthrownintoprisononachargeoflibel.Zengercontinuedtoedithispaper
from jail during his ninemonth trial, which excited intense interest throughout the colonies. Andrew Hamilton, a
prominentlawyerdefendinghim,arguedthatthechargesprintedbyZengerweretrueandhencenotlibelous.Thejury

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returnedaverdictofnotguilty,andZengerwentfree.ThislandmarkdecisionhelpedestablishinAmericatheprincipleof
freedomofthepress.
Inallphasesofcolonialdevelopment,astrikingfeaturewasthelackofcontrollinginfluencebytheEnglishgovernment.
Duringtheirformativeperiod,thecolonieswere,toalargedegree,freetodevelopascircumstancesdictated.TheEnglish
governmenthadtakennodirectpartinfoundinganyofthecoloniesexceptGeorgia,andonlygraduallydiditassumeany
partintheirpoliticaldirection.
ThefactthattheKinghadtransferredhisimmediatesovereigntyovertheNewWorldsettlementstostockcompaniesand
proprietorsdidnot,ofcourse,meanthatthecolonistsinAmericawouldnecessarilybefreeofoutsidecontrol.Underthe
terms of the Virginia Company and Massachusetts Bay charters, complete governmental authority was vested in the
companies involved, and it was expected that these companies would be resident in England. Inhabitants of America,
then,wouldhavenomorevoiceintheirgovernmentthaniftheKinghimselfhadretainedabsoluterule.
Inonewayoranother,however,exclusiverulefromtheoutsidewasbrokendown.Thefirststepwasadecisionbythe
London (Virginia) Company to grant Virginia Colonists representation in the government In 1618 the Company issued
instructions to its appointed governor providing that free inhabitants of the plantations should elect representatives to
joinwiththegovernorandanappointivecouncilinpassingordinancesforthewelfareofthecolony.
This proved to be one of the most farreaching events in the entire colonial period. From then on, it was generally
accepted that the colonists had a right to participate in their own government. In most instances, the King, in making
future grants, provided in the charter that freemen of the colony involved should have a voice in legislation affecting
them.Thus,chartersawardedtoCecilCalvertofMaryland,WilliamPennofPennsylvania,theproprietorsoftheCarolinas,
andtheproprietorsofNewJerseyspecifiedthatlegislationshouldbewith"theconsentofthefreemen."
In only two cases was the selfgovernment provision omitted. These were New York, which was granted to Charles II's
brother,theDukeofYork,latertobecomeKingJamesII;andGeorgia,whichwasgrantedtoagroupof"trustees."Inboth
instances the provisions for governance were shortlived, for the colonists demanded legislative representation so
insistentlythattheauthoritiessoonyielded.
At first, the right of colonists to representation in the legislative branch of the government was of limited importance.
Ultimately, however, it served as a stepping stone to almost complete domination by the settlers through elective
assemblies,whichfirstseizedandthenutilizedcontroloverfinancialmatters.Inonecolonyafteranother,theprinciple
wasestablishedthattaxescouldnotbelevied,orcollectedrevenuespenteventopaythesalaryofthegovernororother
appointiveofficerswithouttheconsentoftheelectedrepresentatives.Unlessthegovernorandothercolonialofficials
agreedtoactinaccordancewiththewillofthepopularassembly,theassemblyrefusedtoappropriatemoneyforvital
functions.Thustherewereinstancesofrecalcitrantgovernorswhowerevotedeithernosalaryatallorasalaryofone
penny. In the face of this threat, governors and other appointive officials tended to become pliable to the will of the
colonists.
InNewEngland,formanyyears,therewasevenmorecompleteselfgovernmentthanintheothercolonies.IfthePilgrims
had settled in Virginia, they would have been under the authority of the London (Virginia) Company. However, in their
own colony of Plymouth, they were beyond any governmental jurisdiction. They decided to set up their own political
organization. Aboard the Mayflower, they adopted an instrument for government called the Mayflower Compact to
"combineourselvestogetherintoacivilbodypoliticforourbetterorderingandpreservation...andbyvirtuehereof(to)
enact,constitute,andframemuchjustandequallaws,ordinances,acts,constitutions,andoffices...asshallbethought
most meet and convenient for the general good of the colony...." Although there was no legal basis for the Pilgrims to
establishasystemofselfgovernment,theactionwasnotcontestedand,underthecompact,thePlymouthsettlerswere
ableformanyyearstoconducttheirownaffairswithoutoutsideinterference.
AsimilarsituationdevelopedwhentheMassachusettsBayCompany,whichhadbeengiventherighttogovern,moved
bodilytoAmericawithitscharter,andthusfullauthorityrestedinthehandsofpersonsresidinginthecolony.Thedozen
orsooriginalmembersofthecompanywhohadcometoAmericaatfirstattemptedtoruleautocratically.Buttheother
colonistssoondemandedavoiceinpublicaffairsandindicatedthatrefusalwouldleadtoamassmigration.
Facedwiththisthreat,thecompanymembersyielded,andcontrolofthegovernmentpassedtoelectedrepresentatives.
Subsequent New England colonies New Haven, Rhode Island, and Connecticut also succeeded in becoming self
governingsimplybyassertingthattheywerebeyondanygovernmentalauthorityandthensettinguptheirownpolitical
systemmodeledafterthatofthePilgrimsofPlymouth.

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Theassumptionofselfgovernmentinthecoloniesdidnotgoentirelyunchallenged.Britishauthoritiestookcourtaction
against the Massachusettscharter and in1684 it was annulled. Thenall the NewEnglandcolonies were brought under
royalcontrolwithcompleteauthorityvestedinanappointivegovernor.Thecolonistsstrenuouslyobjectedand,afterthe
Revolutionof1688inEngland,whichresultedintheoverthrowofJamesII,theydroveouttheroyalgovernor.
Rhode Island and Connecticut, which now included the colony of New Haven, were able to reestablish their virtually
independentpositiononapermanentbasis.Massachusetts,however,wassoonbroughtagainunderroyalauthority,but
thistimethepeopleweregivenashareinthegovernment.Asinthecaseofothercolonies,this"share"wasgradually
extended until it became virtual dominance, effective use being made here as elsewhere of control over finances. Still,
governorswerecontinuallyinstructedtoforceadherencetopoliciesthatconformedtooverallEnglishinterests,andthe
English Privy Council continued to exercise a right of review of colonial legislation. But the colonists proved adept at
circumventingtheserestraints.
Beginningin1651,theEnglishgovernment,fromtimetotime,passedlawsregulatingcertainaspectsofcolonialeconomic
life,somebeneficialtoAmerica,butmostfavoringEngland.Generally,thecolonistsignoredthosethattheydeemedmost
detrimental.AlthoughtheBritishoccasionallytriedtosecurebetterenforcement,theireffortswereinvariablyshortlived,
andtheauthoritiesreturnedtoapolicyof"salutaryneglect."
ThelargemeasureofpoliticalindependenceenjoyedbythecoloniesnaturallyresultedintheirgrowingawayfromBritain,
becomingincreasingly"American"ratherthan"English."Thistendencywasstronglyreinforcedbytheblendingofother
nationalgroupsandculturesthatwassimultaneouslytakingplace.
Howthisprocessoperatedandthemannerinwhichitlaidthefoundationsofanewnationwerevividlydescribedin1782
by Frenchborn agriculturist J. Hector St John Crvecoeur: "What then is the American, this new man?" he asked in his
LettersfromanAmericanFarmer
"HeiseitheraEuropean,orthedescendantofaEuropean,hencethatstrangemixtureofblood,whichyoufidinnoother
country.........IcouldpointouttoyouafamilywhosegrandfatherwasanEnglishman,whosewifewasDutch,whoseson
marriedaFrenchwoman,andwhosepresentfoursonshavenowfourwivesofdifferentnations.HeisanAmerican,who,
leavingbehindhimallhisancientprejudicesandmannersreceivesnewonesfromthenewmodeoflifehehasembraced,
thenewgovernmentheobeys,andthenewrankheholds..."

WilliamBradford(15901657)

WilliamBradfordwaselectedgovernorofPlymouthintheMassachusettsBayColonyshortlyaftertheSeparatistslanded.
Hewasadeeplypious,selfeducatedmanwhohadlearnedseverallanguages,includingHebrew,inorderto"seewithhis
own eyes the ancient oracles of God in their native beauty." His participation in the migration to Holland and the
MayflowervoyagetoPlymouth,andhisdutiesasgovernor,madehimideallysuitedtobethefirsthistorianofhiscolony.
Hishistory,OfPlymouthPlantation(1651),isaclearandcompellingaccountofthecolony'sbeginning.Hisdescriptionof
thefirstviewofAmericaisjustlyfamous:
Beingthuspassedthevastocean,andaseaoftroubles...theyhadnownofriendstowelcomethemnorinnstoentertain
or refresh their weatherbeaten bodies; no houses or much less towns to repair to, to seek for succor...savage
barbarians...were readier tofill their sideswith arrows than otherwise.And for the reason it was winter, andthey that
know the winters of thatcountry know them to be sharp and violent,and subject to cruel and fierce storms...all stand
uponthemwithaweatherbeatenface,andthewholecountry,fullofwoodsandthickets,representedawildandsavage
hue.

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Bradford also recorded the first document of colonial selfgovernance in the English New World, the "Mayflower
Compact," drawn up while the Pilgrims were still on board ship. The compact was a harbinger of the Declaration of
Independencetocomeacenturyandahalflater.
Puritans disapproved of such secular amusements as dancing and cardplaying, which were associated with ungodly
aristocrats and immoral living. Reading or writing "light" books also fell into this category. Puritan minds poured their
tremendousenergiesintononfictionandpiousgenres:poetry,sermons,theologicaltracts,andhistories.Theirintimate
diariesandmeditationsrecordtherichinnerlivesofthisintrospectiveandintensepeople.
AnneBradstreet(c.16121672)ThefirstpublishedbookofpoemsbyanAmericanwasalsothefirstAmericanbooktobe
publishedbyawomanAnneBradstreet.ItisnotsurprisingthatthebookwaspublishedinEngland,giventhelackof
printingpressesintheearlyyearsofthefirstAmericancolonies.BornandeducatedinEngland,AnneBradstreetwasthe
daughterofanearl'sestatemanager.Sheemigratedwithherfamilywhenshewas18.Herhusbandeventuallybecame
governoroftheMassachusettsBayColony,whichlatergrewintothegreatcityofBoston.Shepreferredherlong,religious
poemsonconventionalsubjectssuchastheseasons,butcontemporaryreadersmostenjoythewittypoemsonsubjects
from daily life and her warm and loving poems to her husband and children. She was inspired by English metaphysical
poetry,andherbookTheTenthMuseLatelySprungUpinAmerica(1650)showstheinfluenceofEdmundSpenser,Philip
Sidney,andotherEnglishpoetsaswell.Sheoftenuseselaborateconceitsorextendedmetaphors."ToMyDearandLoving
Husband"(1678)usestheorientalimagery,lovetheme,andideaofcomparisonpopularinEuropeatthetime,butgives
theseapiousmeaningatthepoem'sconclusion:
Ifevertwowereone,thensurelywe.
Ifevermanwerelovedbywife,thenthee;
Ifeverwifewashappyinaman,
Comparewithme,yewomen,ifyoucan.
Iprizethylovemorethanwholeminesofgold
OralltherichesthattheEastdothhold.
Myloveissuchthatriverscannotquench,
Noroughtbutlovefromthee,giverecompense.
ThyloveissuchIcannowayrepay,
Theheavensrewardtheemanifold,Ipray.
Thenwhilewelive,inloveletssopersevere
Thatwhenwelivenomore,wemayliveever.

Edward Taylor (c. 16441729)LikeAnneBradstreet,and,infact,allofNewEngland'sfirstwriters,theintense,brilliant

poetandministerEdwardTaylorwasborninEngland.Thesonofayeomanfarmeranindependentfarmerwhoowned
hisownlandTaylorwasateacherwhosailedtoNewEnglandin1668ratherthantakeanoathofloyaltytotheChurch
ofEngland.HestudiedatHarvardCollege,and,likemostHarvardtrainedministers,heknewGreek,Latin,andHebrew.A
selflessandpiousman,Tayloractedasamissionarytothesettlerswhenheacceptedhislifelongjobasaministerinthe
frontier town of Westfield, Massachusetts, 160 kilometers into the thickly forested, wild interior. Taylor was the best
educatedmaninthearea,andheputhisknowledgetouse,workingasthetownminister,doctor,andcivicleader.
Modest,pious,andhardworking,Taylorneverpublishedhispoetry,whichwasdiscoveredonlyinthe1930s.Hewould,
nodoubt,haveseenhiswork'sdiscoveryasdivineprovidence;today'sreadersshouldbegratefultohavehispoemsthe
finestexamplesof17thcenturypoetryinNorthAmerica.
Taylorwroteavarietyofverse:funeralelegies,lyrics,amedieval"debate,"anda500pageMetricalHistoryofChristianity
(mainlyahistoryofmartyrs).Hisbestworks,accordingtomoderncritics,aretheseriesofshortPreparatoryMeditations.

MichaelWigglesworth(16311705)
MichaelWigglesworth,likeTayloranEnglishborn,HarvardeducatedPuritanministerwhopracticedmedicine,isthethird
NewEnglandcolonialpoetofnote.HecontinuesthePuritanthemesinhisbestknownwork,TheDayofDoom(1662).A
long narrative that often falls into doggerel, this terrifying popularization of Calvinistic doctrine was the most popular
poemofthecolonialperiod.ThisfirstAmericanbestsellerisanappallingportraitofdamnationtohellinballadmeter.

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Itisterriblepoetrybuteverybodylovedit.ItfusedthefascinationofahorrorstorywiththeauthorityofJohnCalvin.For
morethantwocenturies,peoplememorizedthislong,dreadfulmonumenttoreligiousterror;childrenproudlyrecitedit,
andeldersquoteditineverydayspeech.Itisnotsuchaleapfromtheterriblepunishmentsofthispoemtotheghastly
selfinflictedwoundofNathanielHawthorne'sguiltyPuritanminister,ArthurDimmesdale,inTheScarletLetter(1850)or
Herman Melville s crippled Captain Ahab, a New England Faust whose quest for forbidden knowledge sinks the ship of
American humanity in MobyDick (1851). (MobyDick was the favorite novel of 20thcentury American novelist William
Faulkner,whoseprofoundanddisturbingworkssuggestthatthedark,metaphysicalvisionofProtestantAmericahasnot
yetbeenexhausted.)
Like most colonial literature, the poems of early New England imitate the form and technique of the mother country,
though the religious passion and frequent biblical references, as well as the new setting, give New England writing a
special identity. Isolated New World writers also lived before the advent of rapid transportation and electronic
communications.Asaresult,colonialwriterswereimitatingwritingthatwasalreadyoutofdateinEngland.Thus,Edward
Taylor,thebestAmericanpoetofhisday,wrotemetaphysicalpoetryafterithadbecomeunfashionableinEngland.At
times,asinTaylor'spoetry,richworksofstrikingoriginalitygrewoutofcolonialisolation.
ColonialwritersoftenseemedignorantofsuchgreatEnglishauthorsasBenJonson.SomecolonialwritersrejectedEnglish
poetswhobelongedtoadifferentsectaswell,therebycuttingthemselvesofffromthefinestlyricanddramaticmodels
theEnglishlanguagehadproduced.Inaddition,manycolonialsremainedignorantduetothelackofbooks.
The great model of writing, belief, and conduct was the Bible, in an authorized English translation that was already
outdatedwhenitcameout.TheageoftheBible,somucholderthantheRomanchurch,madeitauthoritativetoPuritan
eyes.
New England Puritans clung to the tales of the Jews in the Old Testament, believing that they, like the Jews, were
persecutedfortheirfaith,thattheyknewtheonetrueGod,andthattheywerethechosenelectwhowouldestablishthe
New Jerusalem a heaven on Earth. The Puritans were aware of the parallels between the ancient Jews of the Old
Testament and themselves. Moses led the Israelites out of captivity from Egypt, parted the Red Sea through God's
miraculousassistancesothathispeoplecouldescape,andreceivedthedivinelawintheformoftheTenCommandments.
LikeMoses,PuritanleadersfelttheywererescuingtheirpeoplefromspiritualcorruptioninEngland,passingmiraculously
overawildseawithGod'said,andfashioningnewlawsandnewformsofgovernmentafterGod'swishes.
Colonialworldstendtobearchaic,andNewEnglandcertainlywasnoexception.NewEnglandPuritanswerearchaicby
choice,conviction,andcircumstance.

SamuelSewall(16521730)

EasiertoreadthanthehighlyreligiouspoetryfullofBiblicalreferencesarethehistoricalandsecularaccountsthatrecount
real events using lively details. Governor John Winthrop's Journal (1790) provides the best information on the early
MassachusettsBayColonyandPuritanpoliticaltheory.
SamuelSewall'sDiary,whichrecordstheyears1674to1729,islivelyandengaging.SewallfitsthepatternofearlyNew
EnglandwriterswehaveseeninBradfordandTaylor.BorninEngland,Sewallwasbroughttothecoloniesatanearlyage.
HemadehishomeintheBostonarea,wherehegraduatedfromHarvard,andmadeacareeroflegal,administrative,and
religiouswork.

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Sewallwasbornlateenoughtoseethechangefromtheearly,strictreligiouslifeofthePuritanstothelater,moreworldly
YankeeperiodofmercantilewealthintheNewEnglandcolonies;hisDiary,whichisoftencomparedtoSamuelPepys's
Englishdiaryofthesameperiod,inadvertentlyrecordsthetransition.
LikePepys'sdiary,Sewall'sisaminuterecordofhisdailylife,reflectinghisinterestinlivingpiouslyandwell.Henoteslittle
purchasesofsweetsforawomanhewascourting,andtheirdisagreementsoverwhetherheshouldaffectaristocraticand
expensivewayssuchaswearingawigandusingacoach.

MaryRowlandson(c.1635c.1678)
TheearliestwomanprosewriterofnoteisMaryRowlandson,aminister'swifewhogivesaclear,movingaccountofher
11weekcaptivitybyIndiansduringanIndianmassacrein1676.Thebookundoubtedlyfanned the flame of antiIndian
sentiment,asdidJohnWilliams'sTheRedeemedCaptive(1707),describinghistwoyearsincaptivitybyFrenchandIndians
afteramassacre.Suchwritingsaswomenproducedareusuallydomesticaccountsrequiringnospecialeducation.Itmay
be argued that women's literature benefits from its homey realism and commonsense wit; certainly works like Sarah
KembleKnight'slivelyJournal(publishedposthumouslyin1825)ofadaringsolotripin1704fromBostontoNewYorkand
backescapesthebaroquecomplexityofmuchPuritanwriting.

CottonMather*(16631728)
NoaccountofNewEnglandcolonialliteraturewouldbecompletewithoutmentioningCottonMather,themasterpedant.
The third in the fourgeneration Mather dynasty of MassachusettsBay, he wroteat length ofNewEngland in over 500
books and pamphlets. Mather's 1702 Magnalia Christi Americana (Ecclesiastical History of New England), his most
ambitiouswork,exhaustivelychroniclesthesettlementofNewEnglandthroughaseriesofbiographies.Thehugebook
presentstheholyPuritanerrandintothewildernesstoestablishGodskingdom;itsstructureisanarrativeprogressionof
representative American "Saints' Lives." His zeal somewhat redeems his pompousness: "I write the wonders of the
Christianreligion,flyingfromthedeprivationsofEuropetotheAmericanstrand."

RogerWilliams(c.16031683)
Asthe1600sworeonintothe1700s,religiousdogmatismgraduallydwindled,despitesporadic,harshPuritaneffortsto
stemthetideoftolerance.TheministerRogerWilliamssufferedforhisownviewsonreligion.AnEnglishbornsonofa
tailor,hewasbanishedfromMassachusettsinthemiddleofNewEngland'sferociouswinterin1635.Secretlywarnedby
GovernorJohnWinthropofMassachusetts,hesurvivedonlybylivingwithIndians;in1636,heestablishedanewcolonyat
RhodeIslandthatwouldwelcomepersonsofdifferentreligions.
AgraduateofCambridgeUniversity(England),heretainedsympathyforworkingpeopleanddiverseviews.Hisideaswere
aheadofhistime.Hewasanearlycriticofimperialism,insistingthatEuropeankingshadnorighttograntlandcharters
becauseAmericanlandbelongedtotheIndians.Williamsalsobelievedintheseparationbetweenchurchandstatestill
afundamentalprincipleinAmericatoday.Heheldthatthelawcourtsshouldnothavethepowertopunishpeoplefor
religiousreasonsastandthatunderminedthestrictNewEnglandtheocracies.Abelieverinequalityanddemocracy,he
wasalifelongfriendoftheIndians.Williams'snumerousbooksincludeoneofthefirstphrasebooksofIndianlanguages,A
KeyIntotheLanguagesofAmerica(1643).Thebookalsoisanembryonicethnography,givingbolddescriptionsofIndian
life based on the time he had lived among the tribes. Each chapter is devoted to one topic for example, eating and
mealtime.Indianwordsandphrasespertainingtothistopicaremixedwithcomments,anecdotes,andaconcludingpoem.
Theendofthefirstchapterreads:
Ifnature'ssons,bothwildandtame,
Humaneandcourteousbe,

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HowillbecomesitsonsofGod
Towanthumanity.

Inthechapteronwordsaboutentertainment,hecommentsthat"itisastrangetruththatamanshallgenerallyfindmore
freeentertainmentandrefreshingamongthesebarbarians,thanamongstthousandsthatcallthemselvesChristians."
Williams'slifeisuniquelyinspiring.OnavisittoEnglandduringthebloodyCivilWarthere,hedrewuponhissurvivalin
frigidNewEnglandtoorganizefirewooddeliveriestothepoorofLondonduringthewinter,aftertheirsupplyofcoalhad
been cut off. He wrote lively defenses of religious toleration not only for different Christian sects, but also for non
Christians."ItisthewillandcommandofGod,that...apermissionofthemostPaganish,Jewish,Turkish,orAntichristian
consciencesandworships,begrantedtoallmen,inallnations...,"hewroteinTheBloodyTenetofPersecutionforCause
ofConscience(1644).TheinterculturalexperienceoflivingamonggraciousandhumaneIndiansundoubtedlyaccountsfor
muchofhiswisdom.
Influence was twoway in the colonies. For example, John Eliot translated the Bible into Narragansett. Some Indians
convertedtoChristianity.Eventoday,theNativeAmericanchurchisamixtureofChristianityandIndiantraditionalbelief.
ThespiritoftolerationandreligiousfreedomthatgraduallygrewintheAmericancolonieswasfirstestablishedinRhode
Island and Pennsylvania, home of the Quakers. The humane and tolerant Quakers, or "Friends," as they were known,
believedinthesacrednessoftheindividualconscienceasthefountainheadofsocialorderandmorality.Thefundamental
Quaker belief in universal love and brotherhood made them deeply democratic and opposed to dogmatic religious
authority. Driven out of strict Massachusetts, which feared their influence, they established a very successful colony,
Pennsylvania,underWilliamPennin1681.

AmericanTexts
IndigenousPeople'sLiterature

Tsalagi(Cherokee)Stories
TheBearMan
One springtime morning a Cherokee named Whirlwind told his wife goodbye and left his village to go up in the Smoky
Mountainstohuntforwildgame.Intheforesthesawablackbearandwoundeditwithanarrow.Thebearturnedand
startedtorunaway,butthehunterfollowed,shootingonearrowafteranotherintotheanimalwithoutbringingitdown.
Whirlwinddidnotknowthatthisbearpossessedsecretpowers,andcouldtalkandreadthethoughtsofpeople.
AtlasttheblackbearstoppedandpulledthearrowsoutofhisbodyandgavethemtoWhirlwind."Itisofnouseforyouto
shootatme,"hesaid."Youcan'tkillme.ComewithmeandIwillshowyouhowbearslive."
"Thisbearmaykillme,"Whirlwindsaidtohimself,butthebearreadhisthoughtsandsaid:"No,Iwillnothurtyou.
"HowcanIgetanythingtoeatifIgowiththisbear?"Whirlwindthought,andagainthebearknewwhatthehunterwas
thinking,andsaid:"Ihaveplentyoffood."
Whirlwinddecidedtogowiththebear.Theywalkeduntiltheycametoacaveinthesideofamountain,andthebearsaid:
"ThisisnotwhereIlive,butweareholdingacouncilhereandyoucanseewhatwedo."Theyenteredthecave,which
widenedastheywentfartherinuntilitwasaslargeasaCherokeetownhouse.Itwasfilledwithbears,oldandyoung,
brownandblack,andonelargewhitebearwhowasthechief.Whirlwindsatdowninacornerbesidetheblackbearwho
hadbroughthiminside,butsoontheotherbearsscentedhispresence.

200

"Whatisthatbadsmellofaman?"oneasked,butthebearchiefanswered:"Don'ttalkso.Itisonlyastrangercometosee
us.Lethimalone."
The bears began to talk among themselves, and Whirlwind was astonished that he could understand what they were
saying.Theywerediscussingthescarcityoffoodofallkindsinthemountains,andweretryingtodecidewhattodoabout
it.Theyhadsentmessengersinalldirections,andtwoofthemhadreturnedtoreportonwhattheyhadfound.Inavalley
tothesouth,theysaid,wasalargestandofchestnutsandoaks,andthegroundbeneaththemwascoveredwithmast.
Pleasedatthisnews,ahugeblackbearnamedLongHamsannouncedthathewouldleadtheminadance.
Whiletheyweredancing,thebearsnoticedWhirlwind'sbowandarrows,andLongHamsstoppedandsaid:"Thisiswhat
menusetokillus.Letusseeifwecanusethem.Maybewecanfightthemwiththeirownweapons."
LongHamstookthebowandarrowsfromWhirlwind.Hefittedanarrowanddrewbackthesinewstring,butwhenhelet
go,thestringcaughtinhislongclawsandthearrowfelltotheground.Hesawthathecouldnotusethebowandarrows
andgavethembacktoWhirlwind.Bythistime,thebearshadfinishedtheirdance,andwereleavingthecavetogoto
theirseparatehomes.
Whirlwindwentoutwiththeblackbearwhohadbroughthimthere,andafteralongwalktheycametoasmallercavein
the side of the mountain. "This is where I live," the bear said, and led the way inside. Whirlwind could see no food
anywhereinthecave,andwonderedhowhewasgoingtogetsomethingtosatisfyhishunger.Readinghisthoughts,the
bearsatuponhishindlegsandmadeamovementwithhisforepaws.WhenheheldhispawsouttoWhirlwindtheywere
filledwithchestnuts.HerepeatedthismagicandhispawswerefilledwithhuckleberrieswhichhegavetoWhirlwind.He
thenpresentedhimwithblackberries,andfinallysomeacorns.
"Icannoteatacorns,"Whirlwindsaid."Besidesyouhavegivenmeenoughtoeatalready."
Formanymoons,throughthesummerandwinter,Whirlwindlivedinthecavewiththebear.Afterawhilehenoticedthat
hishairwasgrowingalloverhisbodylikethatofabear.Helearnedtoeatacornsandactlikeabear,buthestillwalked
uprightlikeaman.
OnthefirstwarmdayofspringthebeartoldWhirlwindthathehaddreamedoftheCherokeevillagedowninthevalley.In
thedreamheheardtheCherokeestalkingofabighuntinthemountains.
"Ismywifestilltherewaitingforme?"Whirlwindasked.
"Sheawaitsyourreturn,"thebearreplied."Butyouhavebecomeabearman.Ifyoureturnyoumustshutyourselfoutof
sightofyourpeopleforsevendayswithoutfoodordrink.Attheendofthattimeyouwillbecomelikeamanagain."
AfewdayslaterapartyofCherokeehunterscameupintothemountains.TheblackbearandWhirlwindhidthemselvesin
thecave,butthehunters'dogsfoundtheentranceandbegantobarkfuriously.
"Ihavelostmypoweragainstarrows,"thebearsaid."Yourpeoplewillkillmeandtakemyskinfromme,buttheywillnot
harm you. They will take you home with them. Remember what I told you, if you wish to lose your bear nature and
becomeamanagain.
TheCherokeehuntersbeganthrowinglightedpineknotsinsidethecave.
"Theywillkillmeanddragmeoutsideandcutmeinpieces,"thebearsaid."Afterwardsyoumustcovermybloodwith
leaves.Whentheyaretakingyouaway,ifyoulookbackyouwillseesomething."
Asthebearhadforetold,thehunterskilledhimwitharrowsanddraggedhisbodyoutsideandtooktheskinfromitand
cutthemeatintoquarterstocarrybacktotheirvillage.Fearingthattheymightmistakehimforanotherbear,Whirlwind
remained in the cave, but the dogs continued barking at him. When the hunters looked inside they saw a hairy man
standingupright,andoneofthemrecognizedWhirlwind.
Believingthathehadbeenaprisonerofthebear,theyaskedhimifhewouldliketogohomewiththemandtrytorid
himselfofhisbearnature.Whirlwindrepliedthathewouldgowiththem,butexplainedthathewouldhavetostayalone
inahouseforsevendayswithoutfoodorwaterinordertobecomeasamanagain.

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Whilethehunterswereloadingthemeatontheirbacks,Whirlwindpiledleavesovertheplacewheretheyhadkilledthe
bear,carefullycoveringthedropsofblood.Aftertheyhadwalkedashortdistancedownthemountain,Whirlwindlooked
behindhim.Hesawabearriseupoutoftheleaves,shakehimself,andgobackintothecave.
When the hunters reached their village, they took Whirlwind to an empty house, and obeying his wishes barred the
entrancedoor.Althoughheaskedthemtosaynothingtoanyoneofhishairinessandhisbearnature,oneofthehunters
musthavetoldofhispresenceinthevillagebecausetheverynextmorningWhirlwind'swifeheardthathewasthere.
Shehurriedtoseethehuntersandbeggedthemtoletherseeherlongmissinghusband.
"Youmustwaitforsevendays,"thehunterstoldher."Comebackaftersevendays,andWhirlwindwillreturntoyouashe
waswhenheleftthevillagetwelvemoonsago."
Bitterlydisappointed,thewomanwentaway,butshereturnedtothehunterseachday,pleadingwiththemtolethersee
her husband. She begged so hard that on the fifth day they took her to the house, unfastened the door, and told
Whirlwindtocomeoutsideandlethiswifeseehim.
Althoughhewasstillhairyandwalkedlikeabearonhindlegs,Whirlwind'swifewassopleasedtoseehimagainthatshe
insistedhecomehomewithher.Whirlwindwentwithher,butafewdayslaterhedied,andtheCherokeesknewthatthe
bearshadclaimedhimbecausehestillhadabear'snatureandcouldnotlivelikeaman.Iftheyhadkepthimshutupin
thehousewithoutfooduntiltheendofthesevendayshewouldhavebecomelikeamanagain.Andthatiswhyinthat
village on the first warm and misty nights of springtime, the ghosts of two bearsone walking on all fours, the other
walkinguprightarestillseentothisday.

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CottonMatherWhatMustIDoToBeSaved?
TheGreatestConcernintheWorld[Thejailer]"broughtthemout,andsaid,Sirs,whatmustIdotobesaved?Andthey
said,BelieveontheLordJesusChrist,andthoushaltbesaved,andthyhouse"(Acts16:3031)
WhatMustIDotoBeSaved?
ItisimpossibletoaskamoreweightyQuestion!ItisdeplorablethatwehearitaskedwithnomoreFrequency,withnor
more Agony. The Spirit of Slumber which the Poison of the old Serpent has brought uponthe children of Men is to be
deploredexceedingly.Awakenusoutofthis[terrible]stupidity,OGodofallGrace,lestweperish[eternally].
My Design is to bring in a Good and full Answer to this Weighty Question, Oh! how Thankful ought we to be, for the
GloriousGospeloftheBlessedGod,thatmakesusabletoAnswerit!TheGospelwhichwehaveinourhands,thisaGospel
ofsuchastonishingMystery,ofsuchHeavenlyMajesty,andofsuchConsummatePurity,thatitcanbenootherthanthe
WordofGod;ItmustbeofaDivineOriginal.Oh!highlyFavouredPeople,whoknowthisJoyfulSound!Oh!Unavoidably
andInexcusablyWretched,ifwedisregardit.
TheDevilsknew,ThatthoseExcellentMinistersoftheLordPaulandSilas,werecometoPhilippi,withadesigntoanswer
thisWeightyQuestion.Theycouldnotbearit;theyfeareditwouldissueinaDestructionupontheirKingdomthere.They
stirredupthemindsofsomeWickedPeople,toabuseandReviletheseMinisters,andrunthemintoPrison.SomeWicked
People were afraid lest they should lose a little Money, by the coming of such Ministers among them; and the Devils
inspiredtheseMuckwormstouseincessantEndeavoursuntiltheyhadmadetheseMinistersuncapableofPreachingany
moreuntothem.
OurGloriousLordappearedforhisFaithfulServants.TheyGlorifiedHiminthemidstoftheirTrials.TheySangHisPraises
under the Stripes and the Stocks which the Satanic Party inflicted on them. Oh, Patient Servants of the Lord! What a
symptomhaveyouthatyoushalloneDayReigninGlorywithHim?ThesepoormenSanguntotheLord;theLordheard
them,andsav'dthem!AterribleEarthquakeatMidnightshookopentheDoorsoftheirPrison.TheKeeperthathadthe
nowsupersededkeysofthePrison,wasterrified.Inhisconsternation,hefallsdownatthefeetofhisPrisoners,hetreats
themnolongerasPrisoners,butratherasAngels.HeferventlyputstothemtheQuestion,which,Oh!Thatitwereoften
heardwithanequalfervencyamongus!WhatmustIdotobeSaved?
SomeLearnedmenthinkthattheGaolerhadfromtheTraditionsoftheirPhilosophers,conceivedsomeHopeofabetter
Life;andseeinghisLifehereindanger,hedoes,asdistressedWretchesintheLastminutesoftheirLifeusetodo,Cryout
for some help to make sure of a Better Life, Or, more probably, the late words of the possessed Young Woman in the
TownabouttheseMinisters;ThesemenaretheServantsofthemostHighGod,whoshowuntousthewayofSalvation;
mightruninhismind,andmindhimofthatSalvation,andmakehimthink,whetherthesemenwerenotappointedofGod,
fortheInstructionofothersinthewaytothatSalvation.
There is a most important matter which must now be undertaken to be demonstrated. That whereas there must be
somethingdone,byeverymanthatwouldbesaved,itshouldbetheSollicitiousInquiryofeverymanWhatmustbedone
byhim,thathemaybeSaved.
WewillproceedupontheawakeningDemonstrationsofthisthing;DemonstrationsmorepowerfulthananyThunderbolts.
Oh!thattheissuemightbe,thattheHearersmaybeAwakened,withamightyImpressionupontheirSoulstomakethe
EnquiryWhatmustIdotobeSaved?

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I.Youmustknow,thatThereisaGreatSalvationproposeduntothesinfulChildrenofmen;AndyoumustKnow,andThink,
ThatthereisNothingofSoGreatConcernmentforanyman,astoobtainapartinthatGreatSalvation.
IndeedKnowledgeisthefirstThing,thatisnecessaryinordertoSalvation;Anditisabsolutelynecessary,Unspeakable
Necessary.[Prov.1]WereadHosea4:6.ofPeopleDestroyedforthelackofKnowledge.
Ah!destructiveIgnorance,whatshallbedonetochasetheeoutoftheWorld!Aworldwhichbytheeisrenderedadark
World,theKingdomofDarkness!TheOraclesofWisdomhaveassuredusTheSoulwithoutknowledgeisnotgood;They
assuredus,TheywhoknownotGodshallhaveaVengeanceinflamingFire,takenofthem;Theyhaveassuredus;'TisLife
Eternal,toknowtheonlytrueGod,andJesusChristwhomHehathsent.AnIgnoranceofthe[true]Gospel,isattended
withalongTrainofUnknown,butveryEvilConsequences.TistheGospelofSalvation;TheythatareIgnorantofitmust
needsmissofSalvation.

'TisanErroneousandPerniciousPrinciple,ThataManmaybeSavedinanyReligion,ifhedobutLiveaccordingtoit.The
unerringandinfallibleGospelhasexpresslytaughtusotherwise[in]2Cor.4:3"Ifourgospelbehid,itishiduntothemthat
belost."
Itisnotunseasonablehere,andasEarlyasmaybe,tobringinthatAdmonition.
Knowledge,Knowledge;TogetgoodKnowledge,letthatbetheFirstCareofthemthatwouldbeSaved.Knowledge,'Tisa
Principal thing; My Child, Get Knowledge; with all thy might, Get understanding. Oh! That this Resolution might
immediatelybemadeinthemindsofallourpeople;IwillgetasmuchKnowledgeaseverIcan!
TheWordofGodmustbeReadandHeardwithDiligencethatsoyoumayarrivetotheKnowledgethatisneedfulforyou.
The Catechisms in which you have the Word of God fitted for your more early Apprehension of it must be diligently
Studied.
UntoalltheotherMeansofKnowledge,theremustbeadded,HumbleandEarnestSupplicationsbeforetheGloriousLord,
YoumustcrytoGodforKnowledge,andliftupyourVoicetoHimforUnderstanding;PreferitbeforeSilver,Beforeany
EarthyTreasures.
There may be some so very Ignorant, that they know not how to Pray. I would advise them to take the Hundred and
NineteenthPsalm.TheywillfindinitmanyaPrayersuiteduntotheircircumstances,Takeit,Useit,andparticularlythose
Petitionsinit:Teachme,OLord,thewayofthyStatutes;andLord,TeachmeGoodJudgmentandKnowledge;andLord,
GivemeUnderstanding,thatImayknowthyTestimonies:GivemeunderstandingandIshallLive.TakeEncouragement
fromthatword;andPleaditbeforetheLord:James1:5.IfanyofyoulackofWisdom,lethimaskofGodthatgivethtoall
menLiberally,andupbraidethnot;anditshallbegivenhim.
AndnowtopursuediverseEndsatonce,IamtotellyouThattheMainThingswhich'tisnecessaryforyoutoknow,are
thethingswhichconcernSalvation.MoreParticularly;Youmustknow,first;FromWhatyoudoneedSalvation.Andhere,
First;Youaretoknow,ThattheOneEternalandInfiniteGodwhoSubsistethinThreePersonswhichHisWordcall,The
FatherandtheSon,andtheHolySpiritCreatedourFirstParents,inanHolyandHappyState,attheEndoftheSixDays,in
whichHeCreatedallthings.
But,ourFirstParentshearkeningtotheTemptationsofWickedSpirits,didEataForbiddenFruit;andbythatsin,theyfell
fromGod,andfromtheirHolyandHappyState;AndtheirFallhasbro'ttheirChildrenwiththem,intoaStateofSinand
Misery,theirSinwasourSin,fromtheircorruptnaturewearebornintotheworldenvenom'dwithsuchaNature[heart].
TheDeath[eternal]whichtheBrokenLawofGodthreateneduntothem;isduetousall:ADeathwhichintendsallMisery,
notonlyinthisWorld,butinAnother,whereourSoulscontinueImmortal[liveforever],aftertheyhaveleftthisworld.
Thenyouaretoknow;ThatthereisaLawgiventous,which,istheEverlastingRule,accordingtowhichGodrequiresusto
glorifyHim;aLawofLovetoGodandMan,containedinourTenCommandments.
But,thatyoudailybreakthisLaw;andthateveryBreachofitIncurstheWrathofGodwhoisofPurerEyesthantobehold
EvilandcannotlookuponIniquity.

204

Lastly,youaretoknow,ThatwhileyoulieundertheGuiltofSin,youarealsoundertheReignofSin,andundertheReign
ofSatantoo;AmostwoefulOppressionfromtheWorstEnemiesThatCanBe.GodisinIllTermswithyou.Hevisitsyou
notwithHisgreatconsolationsAllThingsareagainstyou;ThethingsthatappearforyourWelfare,dobutEnsnareyou,do
butPoisonyou,dobutproduceyourfurtherDistancefromGod.
Yourveryprosperityhurtsyou;YourAdversarylaystheChainsofDeathuponyou.Youareeverymomentindanger,of
being seized by the formidable Justice of God for Eternal Burnings. If you Die Unpardoned, you are sent among Devils.
Damn'duntotorments;mustundergoastrangePunishment,andalongonewhichisReservedinaFutureState,forthe
workersofiniquity[unrepententsinners].
Oh! Sinner; this, is thy Lamentable Case And Knowing this how canst thou do any other than make that Sollicitious
Enquiry;WhatmustIdotobeSaved?KnowingthisTerroroftheLord.Oh!
BePerswaded!
YoumustknowsecondlybyWhomyoumayhaveSalvation.Andhere;YouaretoknowthegreatmysteryofgodlinessGod
manifestsinflesh.YourSalvationdependsonyourknowingofsuchaSaviour.
WehavenottheleastIntimationintheBookofGod,ThataunknownSaviourwillbeours.Butitisdreadfullyintimated,
ThatifPeoplehavenoUnderstandingofHim,HethatmadethemwillnothavemercyonthemandHethatformedthem
willshewthemnoFavour.
You are then to know; That the Son of God assumed the Blessed Jesus, the Sinless and Holy Son of a Virgin, into one
personwithHimself.
AndthisAdmirablePerson,whoisGodandManinonePerson,hasasourSurety,fulfilledtheLawofGodforus;answered
thepreceptofit,inhisRighteousLife;answeredthePenaltyofit,inHisgrieviousdeath;sufferedtheCross,andEndured
theCurseinourstead.
Youaretoknowherewithal;thatthismightyandmatchlessandOnlySaviouroftheworld,whoisalsotheGovenorofthe
World,isRisenfromtheDead,andisEnthronedintheHeavens,andwillreturntoruleandJudgetheWorld;butHewill
SaveuntotheutermostAllthatcomeuntoGodbyHim.
Oh!UndoneSinner;canstthouhearofsuchaSaviourandnotmakethatSollicitiousenquiry,WhatmustIdo,thatImay
haveanInterestintheOnlySaviour?
YoumustKnow,Thirdly;WhatshallbedoneforyouifyoufindSalvation.
And here; You are to know that no good thing shall be withheld from the Saved of the Lord. Wonder wonder. Be
swallowedupwithwonderment,atthisGrace,Oselfdestroyedones!
There is Proposed unto You A deliverance from all the undesirable Circumstances, into which you have Run, by your
DeparturefromGod.
Itisproposeduntoyou,ThatyoushallNolongerbethechildrenofDeath,butbemadetheChildrenofGod.Thatyoushall
beForgivenandAcceptedwithaReconciledGodandbefollowedwithperpetualTestimoniesofhisFatherlyLove:ThatNo
IniquityshallhaveDominionoveryou,butyoushallbecometheamiableTemples,whereinHewilldwell,withthesweet
InfluencesofHisGoodSpiritforeverirradiatingofyou.
Itispropos'duntoyou;ThatyourSpirits,atyourDissolution[death]shallputontheGarmentsofLight,andEnterintothe
PeaceaRestofanHeavenlyParadise:ThatyourBodieserelongbyaResurrectionshallbeRestoreduntoyourSpirits:but
betheLively,theLovely,themostAgreeableandEverlastingMansionsforthem:ThatyoushallhaveaJoyfulPortionin
thecityofGod,andhaveHismarvelouskindnessForeverdoingunutterablethingsforyou,inthatstrongcity:Thereyou
shallatlengthbefilledwithalltheFulnessofGodandhaveGodbecomeAllinAlluntoyouforeverandever.
All this is contained in the Salvation whereof You have a Tender. Salvation, 'Tis a comprehensive Word as
IncomprehensibleGood!Eyehasnotseen,Earhasnotheard,noHeartcanconceive,whatislaidupintheSalvationof
God.

205

Oh!Ruin'dSinner;whydoesitnotnowbecomethySollicitousEnquiry;WhatmustIdothatImaynotlosethevastthings
whereuntoIaminvitedbymySaviour?Thesearethethingsthatmustbeknown.AndiftheseThingsBeknown,andOwn'd,
theplainInferencefromthemwillbethis;ThattheManisforsakenofReason,UnworthytobecalledaReasonableMan,
whoisnotverysolicitouslyInquisitive;WhatmustIdotobesaved?Butnow,'tistimetoanswerthatgreatEnquiry,we
willdoitbycallinginaSecondProposition.
II.Somethingmustbedonebyeverymanthatwouldnotforfeitallclaim,RejectallHopeoftheGreatSalvation.
Andthisalsomustbeknown.YoumustKnowWhatmustbedone.Andthereuponitshallbesaiduntoyou;Job13:17.
"WhenyouknowthesethingshappyareyouIfyoudothem."ItisNotEnoughtoKnow;TheremustbePracticeJoyn'd
Withyourknowledge.
Somethingmustbedone;Elseithadneverbeensaid,Hebrews5:6"ChrististheAuthorofeternalSalvation,untoallthem
that Obey him", Something must be done; Else we had never been told; Hebrews 6:9 "There are the things that
accompanySalvation."
We are often instructed in the Sacred Writings, That there Is a Way, wherein alone Salvation is to be Expected, A way
calledThewayofLife;and,Thewayoftruth;ThewayoftheLord;andthewayofPeace;andThewayofGoodmen;and,
ThewayoftheRighteous.Inthisway,Somethingmustbedone,ThereareStepstobetakenthatwemayFndthisway,
andKeepthisway.TistheEverlastingway;ThereisnoAlteringofit.
Somethingmustbedone;Forwearesure,Allmenarenotsaved.Therearesome,whoareChildrenofPerdition,There
aresome,whoareVesselsofwrath;therearesomewhogoawayintoeverlastingpunishment,Somethingmustbedone,
todistinguishyoufromthatcrookedGeneration.Weread,Matthew7:14"Narrowisthewaywhichleadethuntolifeand
FewtherebethatFindit".
IndeedthereisNothingtobedonebyus,tomeritourSalvation,ButsomethingmustbedonetosecureourSalvation.
Indeed there is Nothing to be done by us, in our own strength. But something Must be done by us, thro' Christ who
strengthensus.
Moreplainly,OurBlessednessnowcomenotuntous,ontheTermsofaCovenantofworks,'Tisnotproperlyourdoings,
thatistheconditionofourBlessedness.WearetobeSaved,byTakingratherthanbyDoing.Theconditionisreceiveand
besaved.Itis,approve,andbeSaved.Or,BewillingtobeSaved.WespeakofDoing,intheLargestsenseoftheword;and
westillsay,somethingmustbedone,thatwemaybeSaved.
LettheQuestionthencomein.And,Oh!BringitinwithalltheSolicitude,whichwereproperfor,theGreatestConcernin
theWorld.
WHATMUSTIDOTOBESAVED?

IhaveseenthisQuestionScandalouslyanswered,inPamphletsthathavebeendispersedaboutourNation.TheOne
Thingthat isneedfulhasbeen left unregarded, unmention'd. PerhapstheObservation of certainSuperstitiousHolidays
hasbeenrecommendedinsteadofthatonething.Alashowhavethesoulsofmenbeenbetrayed,bymenunskilfulinthe
word of righteousness! How unskilfully, and unfaithfully have the methods of Salvation been declared by many who
perverttheGospelofChrist!NotsonowIhope!Apuregospel,asounddoctrine,mustbepursu'd,Youarenowtobe
treatedwithnothingbutwholesomeWords;nothingbutthefaithfulsayingsofGod.
I.
AndwhatBetter,whatotherAnswercanbegiven,(OtherFoundationcannomanLay!)tothisQuestion,butwhat
theApostlesofGodgavetoitofold?WhenthepoormansaidwhatmustIdotobeSaved,wereadtheysaidBelieveon
theLordJesusChrist,andthoushaltbesaved.
ThisistheSumoftheGospel;ThisistheChargegiventotheMinistersoftheGospel;Mark16:15,16"PreachtheGospel
toeveryCreature.Hethatbelieveth...shallbesaved."FaithintheLordJesusChrist,whoistheOnlySaviour;This,This
mustbefoundinallthatwillbesaved.
Thefaith,whichis,AsatisfactionofthemindinthewayofSalvationbyaGloriousChristRevealedintheGospel.

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TheFaithbywhichwedenyourselves,andRelyonaGloriousChrist,forallSalvation.TheFaithbywhichweReceivea
GloriousChrist,andRestonHimforSalvationasHeisoffereduntous.
ButHowmustthisfaithoperateinallthatwouldbesaved?OhSet!YourHeartstothesethings;theyarenotvainthings;
YourLives,theveryLivesofyourSoulsareconcernedinthem.
IfyourHeartsmaynowfallinwiththesethings,andform'dandshap'daccordingtotheEvangelicalMoldofthemlo,
ThisDaySalvationiscomeuntoyoursouls.GloriousLord,inclinetheheartsofourPeople,todowhatmustbedonethat
sothySalvationmaybebestow'duponthem.Firstthismustbedone;YoumustcometobebitterlySensible,thatyou
want[lack]aGloriousChristforyourSaviour.Weread,John7:37."IfanyManThirstlethimcomeuntome."Truly,no
manwillcometoaChrist,untilaThirstorapungentandPainfulSenseoftheWantofaChristberaisedinhim.You
mustfeeltheBurdenofyoursin,lyingonyou;andcryout,Oh'TisaheavyBurdentooheavyforme!YoumustseeGod
Angrywithyou,SinBindingofyou,Hellgapingforyou;andutterlyDespairofhelpingyourselvesoutoftheconfusion
thatiscomeuponyou.
You must be filled with sorrow, for what you have done; with horror at what you are Expos'd unto. The Cry of your
Uneasy Souls must be that; of Romans 7:24. "O wretched man that I am who shall deliver me!" You must be no
strangerstosuchsoliloquiesasthese;Ihavesinned;Ihavesinned,and,woeisuntome,thatIhavesinned,Ihavelost
the knowledge of God and lost the Image of God, and lost the Favour of God. My Sin renders me obnoxious to the
Vengeance of God. Lust enchants me, enslaves me; Satan Tyrannizes over me. I am in hourly Hazzard of an Eternal
BanishmentfromGod,intoOuterDarkness,intothePlaceofDragons.Oh!wretchedmanthatIam:Icandonothingto
delivermyself.Iperish,Iperish,exceptaGloriousChristbemydeliverer.
TheDegreeofthisDistressonthemindsofthemthatshallbesavedisVarious.ThereisaVarietyinthatPrepatoryWork,
which does distress the Elect of God, in their coming to a Saviour. Converts do sometimes needlessly Distress
themselves,andEvendeceivethemselves,byinsistingtoomuchontheMeasureofthisPreparation.Butsomuchofthis
Work, as will render us restless without a Christ; so much of this Work, as will render a whole Christ precious to us
beforetheremustbesomuchinourExperience,ifwewouldbesaved.
Secondly;ThismustbeDone;Youmustconfessyourselves,UnableToDoAnythingEffectuallyofyourselves,incoming
toagloriousChrist,asyourSaviour.WithafearfultremblingofSoul,youmustmakethisProfession;Lordthouworketh
inustoWillandtoDo,ofthyowngoodPleasure!YourProfessionmustbethatofEph2:8"ByGraceareyesaved,thro'
FaithandthatnotofyourselvesitistheGiftofGod."
YourProfessionmustbethatofJohn6:65."Nomancancome,exceptitbegiventohim."Oh!LieattheFootofSoverign
GraceconfessingandImploringLord,Iamjustlydestroyed.IfIdonotsincerelyrenouncemysin,sincerelyembracemy
Saviour.ButIcannot,Oh!Icannot!IhavedeadlyfettersuponmySoul;IshallneveranswerthygraciousCalls,except
thySoverignGraceenableme.Oh!Quickenme:Oh!Strengthenme:Oh!Enableme;TurnthoumeandIShallbeTurned.
YourImpotencymustnotnowbemadeanExcuseforyourImpenitency.YourInabilitymustAffrightyouexceedingly.
AffectyouExceedingly;ItmaynotExcuseyouinaslothfulNegligence.YoumustNotRemainCarelessofdoinganything,
Becauseyoucanthoroughlydonothing.HavingfirstCry'duntoGod,thatHewouldhelpyoutodowhatyouhavetodo,
youmustnowtrytodoit;nowtry,whetherHedonothelpyoutodoit.
Thirdly;Thismustbedone;YoumustAdmire,YoumustAdore,YoumustAddressaGloriousChrist,inallHisofficesfor
allHisBenefits.Oh!HearaCompassionateRedeemerCallingyou;Isai.45:22"LookuntomeallyeEndsoftheEarth,and
beyeSaved."Comply,Reply;Lord,Ilookuntothee,Iwillbethine,Saveme.
Andhere,youaretoRememberthattheFirstThingyouwantisAttonementandAcceptancewithGod.ForthisPurpose
youmustbeholdaGloriousChrist,asaPriestbringingaSacrificeandmakingaRighteousnessforyouAccordingly.Your
first Address to Heaven must be this; Lord let my many and horrid sins be Forgiven me for the sake of that great
Sacrifice,whichthouhasthadintheBloodofJesusChristthySon,whichCleansethfromallsin.AndLordLetmewho
amapoorSinnerutterlyhopelessofworkingoutformyselfaRighteousnessnowstandbeforeTheeinthewondrous
RighteousnessofthatLord,whoistheHeadofHischurch,andwhohaswroughtoutaSpotlessRighteousnessforus.
ButRemembertoDependonthismostsufficientSacrificeandRighteousness,notasQualifiedforitbyanygoodThing
to be observed in yourselves. Do not stay from it on a Prospect anon to come recommended unto it by some
commendable goodness in yourselves first attained. No Depend, and Venture upon it, as Encouraged by no other
Qualificationbutthis;AmostmiserableSinner;yetinvited,yetCompelleduntothisMercyoftheLord.

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Well;IftheFaithwhichhasgotthusfar,benotacounterfeit,itwontstophere.YoumustbeholdagloriousChrist,asa
Prophet,andaKing.FaithhasothererrandsuntotheSaviourbesidesthat,ofadesiretobeJustified.AtrueBelieverwill
notcounthimselfsaved,ifhebenotSanctified,aswellasjustified.TheSaviourputsthisdemanduntoyou;Matthew
20:32WhatwillyethatIshalldountoyou?Youanswer;O,mygreatSaviourIcomeuntotheethatbythybeingmy
Sacrifice and my Righteousness and my Advocate, Everliving to make Intercession for me, I may be Saved unto the
Uttermost.Butthismustnotbeall.TheremustbethisintheAnswer,OmySaviourIcomeuntotheeforInstruction:Let
thySpiritwiththyWordcausemetoKnowtheThingsofmyPeace,andkeepmefromallDelusions.
AndtheremustbethisintheAnswer,OmySaviourIcomeuntotheeforGovernment:LetthySpiritofGrace,conquer
the Enmity of my Heart against the things that are pleasing to God and make me a conquerer over all my Spiritual
Adversaries.
ThisisthatFaith,whereoftheEndistheSalvationoftheSoul.Believeafterthismanner,andyoubelievetotheSaving
oftheSoul.
II.
ButwemaycarryontheAnswer,withoutbeingreprovedforaddinganythinguntothewordsofGod.AtrueFaith,
willalwayshaveRepentanceaccompanyingofit.
Repentance unto life; Tis a Dead Faith which cannot show it; A Dead Soul that has it not,
AgenuineFaithisalwaysaRepentingFaith.Weseethetwosistershandinhand;Acts20:21RepentancetowardsGod
andFaithtowardourLordJesusChrist.WeconstantlyseeitintheExperienceofalltheFaithful.'TistheDenomination
ofRepentance;2Cor7:10.RepentancetoSalvation.ItmustbefoundinalltheCandidatesofSalvation.
Well then; First; This must be done; You must heartily and bitterly Bewail all your Sins.
YourOriginalSin,yourActualSin;themonstrousAggravationofyourSin;Youmustbeconvincedofit.Acontritionmust
followthisconviction;WithaBrokenheartyoumustcryout,Psalm38:18"Iwilldeclaremyiniquity,Iwillbesorryfor
mySin."
YoumustmournforyourSin,andmournfortheOffencegiventoGodbyyourSin,aswellasfortheMischiefdoneto
yourselves:Mourn,Mourn,andnevercountthatyouhavemournedenough.
Secondly;ThismustbedoneYoumustmakeaPenitentConfessionofyourSins;aRemorsefulconfessionofthem,All
yourknowncrimes,youmustasparticularlyasyoucan,EnumeratewithshameandgriefbeforetheLord.
You must be able to say; Psalm 51:3, "I acknowledge my Transgressions and my Sin is ever before me. Your
AcknowledgementofyoursecretSinsmustbeonlytotheLord:butwhereyourSinsareKnown,whereyourNeighbors
havebeeneitherSufferersby,orWitnessesofyourMiscarriages,theyalsoshouldKnowthatyouacknowledgethem.
Thirdly; This must be done; Every way of Sin must be Abhorr'd, must be Avoided, must be Forsaken. Amendment is
Essential to Repentance: Except you reform you don't repent. So you are warn'd of God; Prov. 28:13. "He that
confessethandforsakethshallfindmercy."IfyougooninanyEvidentwayofSinyouwillfinditaWayofDeath,aPath
oftheDestroyer;itwillbringtoaDamnationthatslumberethnot.
VerytremendousThingswillbedonetothoseEnemiesofGod,whogoonstillintheirtrespasses.HaveyoudoneAmiss?
YoumustsayIwilldosonomoreyoumustnotpersistinwhatyouhavedone.
And hence, if you have wrong'd another man in what you have done, you must Vigorously Endeavour all possible
restitution,restitution,aThingtoolittleunderstood,toolittleexhorted,toolittlepractised;restitutionwithoutwhich
therecanbenorightrepentance.ThisistheRepentancewhichisfoundineverytruebeliever;Itmustbefoundinevery
onethatwouldbesaved.
III.And,Holiness,Holiness;Apatientcontinuanceinwilldoing.ThereisNoLifeintheFaith,whichisnotProductivetoan
HolyLife;'TisnotaFaithwhichwillbringtoeverlastingLife.IftheGracetoBelieveontheLordJesusChrist,beinfusedinto
theSoul,theHabitofeveryotherGraceisatthesameInstantinfused.

IwillshowyoutheMottoontheGoldenGatesoftheHolyCity;Hebrews12:14."WithoutHolinessnomanshallseethe
Lord."AnHolyLife,ALifepressingafterUniversalandPerpetualconformitytotheRulesofHoliness;This,ThisistheRoyal
Pathleadingtosalvation;Yea,tisnolittlepartofourSalvation.

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Thismustbedone;YoumustResignyourselvesupuntotheHolySpiritoftheLord;Consent,Request,Entreat,ThatHe
wouldEternallytakePosessionofyou.FromtheDust,cryuntoHim;Psalm141:10."ThouartmyGodthySpiritisgood;
leadmeuntothelandofRectitude."CryuntoHim;OSpiritofHoliness,RaisemeoutoftheRuinsthatmySinhasbrought
uponme.Possessmeforever.CausemetofearGod,andLoveChrist,andhateSin,andslightthisWorldandknowmyself,
andmakememeetfortheInheritanceoftheSaintsinLight;Bringmetobeoneofthem,Ipraythee,Ipraythee!Thereis
agoodFoundationofHolinesslaidinthisresignation.
Butthen,Thismustbedone;YoumustLivelilyPursuetheDeathofEverySin.YoumustflytotheDeathofyourSaviour,as
thepurchaseandthePatternofsogreataBlessing;butyoumustcountnoTroubletoomuchtobeundergone,thatyou
maycomeatsuchaBlessing.ThisisthatHolinesswithoutwhichnomanshallseetheLord.Thismustbedone:Youmust
setbeforeyourselvestheExampleofyourSaviour:StudyhowHewasintheWorld;StudytowalkasHewalked;mightily
DelightineverystrokeofResemblanceuntoHim;Yea,tho'itbeinSufferingsthatyouresemblehim.ThisisthatHoliness,
withoutwhichnomanshallseetheLord.
Thismustbedone;YoumustbyasolemnDedicationofyourselves,andyourAlluntotheLord,becometheLord's.
ItmustthereforebeyourDesiretohaveallyourTalents,allyourPosessions,andEnjoymentsandInterestsemploy'dfor
theHonouroftheLord:andowningtheLord,asthegreatGiver,andOwner,theLordProprietorofallthatyouhave,you
mustbereadytosubmituntothewillofGodwhenhepleaseswithafflictiveDispensationstotakeanyofitfromyou.This
istheHolinesswithoutwhichnomanshallseetheLord.
Thismustbedone;Youmustremember,ThattheEyeoftheomnipotentGodisuponyou,Youmustoftenbringthisto
remembrance,Godseesme,hearsme,knowsme,isacquaintedwithallmyways,AsenseofyourbeingundertheNotice
ofGod,andoftheAccountuntowhichyouwillbecalledbyGodmustmakeyouafraidofincurringHisDispleasure;Afraid
evenofSecretMiscarriages.ThisisthatHolinesswithoutwhichnomanshallseetheLord.
Thismustbedone:YoumustmakeityourExercisetokeepaconscienceclearofOffencetowardsGodandtowardsMan.
YoumustlabourtobeAcquaintedwithyourWholeDuty;andyourAcquaintancewiththeWillofGodmustbefollowed
withproportionableDesiresandLaboursafterObediencetoit.
YoumustPrayalwayswithallPrayer,withsecretPrayer,withHouseholdPrayer,withPublicPrayer.Youmusthavean
HighValueforthosetwoSacramentsoftheNewTestament,theBaptismandtheSupperoftheLord.
YoumustreligiouslyObservetheLord'sDay.
YoumustPreserveyourownPlaceandLifeandBedandWealthandName:Youmust,withthesameSincerity,befriend
yourNeighboursalsointheirs.LoveyourNeighboursasyourselves,andDoasyouwouldbeDoneunto.
You must be especially and mightily conscientious of Relative Christianity. Carry it well in all the Relations wherein the
Lordhasplacedyou,whetherSuperiors,orInferiors,orEquals;withsuchaCarriageasmayadorntheDoctrineofGod
yourSaviour;suchaCarriageasmayrenderyourcorelativesthebetterforyou.
Briefly,YoumustDenyallUngodlinessandWorldlyLustsandLivegodilyandsoberlyandrighteouslyintheWorld.Thisis
that Holiness without which no man shall see the Lord. Methinks a most Obvious Inference may be drawn from these
Things,ThattheMinistryoftheGospelmustbeattended,andnotneglected,bythemwhowouldnotneglectthegreat
Salvation;AmostawfulInference,ThatitisadangerousThingtolivewithoutthemeansofSalvation,whichareinthe
ministryofthe[True]Gospelordinarilytobemetwithal.TheWellsofSalvationarekeptopeninsuchaministry.Oh!Do
not undervalue the Blessings of those Upper Springs! There are men, who by the command of a glorious Christ, give
themselvesupuntotheserviceoftheEvangelicalMinistry,andarethePreachersoftheGospeluntotherestoftheworld:
AnorderofmenconcerningwhomourgloriousLordhaspromisedMatthew28:20,"Lo,Iamwithyoualwaystotheendof
the world."Ifan Angel should comefromHeaven untoyou asunto Cornelius, onceto Speakuntothis Question,What
mustIdotobesaved?Hewouldunquestionablysay,Repairtosuchaministrydon'tthinktolivewithoutit.
We have settled the Point; Without Faith we can have no Salvation. But I assume: Romans 10:14, 17 "How shall they
believeinHimofwhomtheyhavenotheard?Andhowshalltheyhearwithoutapreacher?Faithcomethbyhearingand
hearingbytheWordofGod.Oh!ThattheUngospelizedPlantationswhichlive,Ishouldrathersay,whichdie,withoutthe
meansofsalvation,wouldconsiderofit.

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YourQuestionisanswered.OsoulsinPeril,Imaynowsayuntoyou;ICor.15:2"Youaresavedifyoukeepinmemory
whatIhavepreacheduntoyou."AndyetImustsayuntoyou,Thatifafterall,youtrampleuponthesethings,itwillbe
good for you that you had never been born; the very mention of them will dreadfully increase and inflame your
condemnation.ButthesuccessofallmustbeleftwiththeGloriousOne.
AndOFatherofmercies,DothoumercifullylookdownupontheSoulthathasheardtheseThings.Disposeandassistthat
soul,todothoseGoodThings,uponwhichthouhastpromisedthesalvationofthesoul.IPraythee,IPraythee!
Awakeupmysoul!theawfulday,
Iscomingswiftlyon,
WhenthoumustleavethisHouseofClay,
AndflytoWorldsunknown.
Oh!donotpassthyLifeinDreams,
Tobesurpriz'dbyDeath:
AnddropunthinkingdowntoFlames,
WhenIresignmyBreath.
No:everydaythyCoursereview,
ThyrealStatetolearn:
AndwithanardentZealpursue
ThyGreatandChiefconcern.
Rouzealltheman:thyWorkisgreat,
Andallthemandemands;
ThineHead,thineHeart,thyBreath,thySweat,
ThyStrengthandboththineHands.
Oh!lettheimportantWorkbedone,
Donewhilst'tiscall'dtoDay.
LestthouthetimeofHopeoutrun,
AndruethemadDelay.
Repent(mysoul)BelieveandPray:
Bideverylustfarewell.
TothyRedeemerhasteaway,
AndscapefromDeathandHell.
TowhomDearJesus,shouldIlive
TowhombutTheealone.
Thoudidstatfirstmybeinggive,
AndIamallThineown.
ToTheeI'llthenmyselfdevote,
MyLifeandallmyPow'rs.
Eachwarmaffection,busythought,
AndallmypassingHours.
OLetthosegloriousHopesrefine,
AndelevatemySoul.
ToheavenlyThingsmyHeartincline,
AndmeanerJoyscontrol.
MayFaithandHopestretchalltheirwings,
Andbearmeuponhigh;
AndasImountmayEarthlyThings,
Belowunheededlie.
JESUSmySaviourandmyGod,
MyLifeandSacrifice,
MyHopesdeepfoundedinthyBlood,
Raisefarabovetheskies.
Prepareme,Lord,forthyRightHand,
ThencomethejoyfulDay:
ComeDeath,andcomeCelestialband,
TobearmySoulaway.
FINIS
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