Peterson's Master AP Calculus

PETERSONS
M ASTER
AP C ALCULUS
AB & BC
2nd Edition
W. Michael Kelley
Mark Wilding,
Contributing Author
An ARCO Book
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OTHER RECOMMENDED TITLES

M aster AP E n glish L an gu age & Com position
M aster AP E n glish L iteratu re & Com position
M aster AP Ch em istry
M aster AP U.S . Govern m en t & Politics
M aster AP U.S . H istory
Contents
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Ackn owledgm en t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Before You Begin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
H ow Th is Book Is Or ga n ized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Specia l St u dy F ea t u r es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Appen dix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi
You r e Well on You r Wa y t o Su ccess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi
Give Us You r F eedba ck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi
Mike Kelleys H ow t o Use Th is Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
Qu ick Refer en ce Gu ide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xx
Top 10 St r a t egies t o Ra ise You r Scor e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiv
PART I: AP CALCULUS AB & BC BASICS

1
All About the AP Calculus AB & BC Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

F r equ en t ly Asked Qu est ion s Abou t t h e AP Ca lcu lu s Test s . . 3
Su m m in g It Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
PART II: AP CALCULUS AB & BC REVIEW

2
Calculus Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F u n ct ion s a n d Rela t ion s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
An swer s a n d E xpla n a t ion s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F u n ct ion P r oper t ies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
In ver se F u n ct ion s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H a n ds-On Act ivit y 2.1: Tr a n sfor m in g F u n ct ion s . . . . . . . . . .
Select ed Solu t ion s t o H a n ds-on Act ivit y 2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tr igon om et r y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
v
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P a r a m et r ic E qu a t ion s (BC Topic On ly) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

E xer cise 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P ola r E qu a t ion s (BC Topic On ly) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vect or s a n d Vect or E qu a t ion s (BC Topic On ly) . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tech n ology: Solvin g E qu a t ion s wit h a Gr a ph in g
Ca lcu la t or . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Su m m in g It Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
51
51
53
56
57
59
63
63
63
66
67
70
Limits and Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

H a n ds-On Act ivit y 3.1: Wh a t Is a Lim it ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Select ed Solu t ion s t o H a n ds-On Act ivit y 3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
E xer cise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
An swer s a n d E xpla n a t ion s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
E va lu a t in g Lim it s An a lyt ica lly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
E xer cise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Con t in u it y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
E xer cise 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
H a n ds-On Act ivit y 3.2: Th e E xt r em e Va lu e Th eor em . . . . . 88
Select ed Solu t ion s t o H a n ds-On Act ivit y 3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
E xer cise 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
H a n ds-On Act ivit y 3.3: Th e In t er m edia t e Va lu e Th eor em . 93
Solu t ion s t o H a n ds-On Act ivit y 3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
E xer cise 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Lim it s In volvin g In fin it y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
E xer cise 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
An swer s a n d E xpla n a t ion s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Specia l Lim it s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
E xer cise 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Tech n ology: E va lu a t in g Lim it s wit h a Gr a ph in g
Ca lcu la t or . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
E xer cise 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Su m m in g It Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
w w w .p etersons.c om
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Differentiating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Der iva t ive a s a Ra t e of Ch a n ge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
An swer s a n d E xpla n a t ion s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Th e P ower Ru le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Der iva t ives t o Mem or ize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Th e Ch a in Ru le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Th e P r odu ct Ru le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Th e Qu ot ien t Ru le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Wor d Abou t Respect in g Va r ia bles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Im plicit Differ en t ia t ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H a n ds-On Act ivit y 4.1: Appr oxim a t in g Der iva t ives . . . . . .
Select ed Solu t ion s t o H a n ds-On Act ivit y 4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tech n ology: F in din g Nu m er ica l Der iva t ives wit h t h e
Gr a ph in g Ca lcu la t or . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Su m m in g It Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
119
119
123
124
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131
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149
149
152
153
154
154
Advanced Topics in Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Th e Der iva t ive of a n In ver se F u n ct ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H a n ds-On Act ivit y 5.1: Lin ea r Appr oxim a t ion s . . . . . . . . . .
Solu t ion s t o H a n ds-On Act ivit y 5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LH pit a ls Ru le (BC Topic On ly) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P a r a m et r ic Der iva t ives (BC Topic On ly) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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168
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E xer cise 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P ola r Der iva t ives (BC Topic On ly) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tech n ology: F in din g P ola r a n d P a r a m et r ic Der iva t ives
wit h You r Ca lcu la t or (BC Topic On ly) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Su m m in g It Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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180
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187
189
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Applications of the Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Rela t ed Ra t es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H a n ds-On Act ivit y 6.1: Rolles a n d Mea n Va lu e
Th eor em s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H a n ds-On Act ivit y 6.2: Th e F ir st Der iva t ive Test . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Con ca vit y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mot ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mot ion in t h e P la n e (BC Topic On ly) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Opt im iza t ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tech n ology: Modelin g a P a r t icles Movem en t wit h a
E xer cise 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Su m m in g It Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
195
195
200
200
Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ba sic An t ider iva t ives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
251
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256
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Advanced Methods of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Miscella n eou s Met h ods of In t egr a t ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P a r t s (BC Topic On ly) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P ower s of Tr igon om et r ic F u n ct ion s (BC Topic On ly) . . . . .
E xer cise 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P a r t ia l F r a ct ion s (BC Topic On ly) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Im pr oper In t egr a ls (BC Topic On ly) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
258
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263
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H a n ds-On Act ivit y 7.1: Appr oxim a t in g Ar ea wit h

Riem a n n Su m s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Th e Tr a pezoida l Ru le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Th e F u n da m en t a l Th eor em of Ca lcu lu s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H a n ds-On Act ivit y 7.2: Accu m u la t ion F u n ct ion s . . . . . . . . .
Solu t ion s t o H a n ds-On Act ivit y 7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Th e Mea n Va lu e Th eor em for In t egr a t ion , Aver a ge
Va lu e of a F u n ct ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
U-Su bst it u t ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
In t egr a t in g In ver se Tr igon om et r ic F u n ct ion s . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tech n ology: E va lu a t in g Defin it e In t egr a ls wit h You r
E xer cise 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Su m m in g It Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Contents
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10
Tech n ology: Dr a win g Der iva t ive a n d In t egr a l Gr a ph s

wit h You r Ca lcu la t or . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Su m m in g It Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
343
346
346
352
Applications of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H a n ds-On Act ivit y 9.1: Ar ea Bet ween Cu r ves . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Th e Disk a n d Wa sh er Met h ods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Th e Sh ell Met h od . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F in din g t h e Volu m e of Region s wit h Kn own Cr oss
Sect ion s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ar c Len gt h (BC Topic On ly) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P ola r Ar ea (BC Topic On ly) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tech n ology: Usin g You r Ca lcu la t or E fficien t ly . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Su m m in g It Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
353
353
355
358
358
362
368
369
372
375
375
Differential Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H a n ds-On Act ivit y 10.1: Sepa r a t ion of Va r ia bles . . . . . . . .
Solu t ion s t o H a n ds-On Act ivit y 10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H a n ds-On Act ivit y 10.2: Slope F ields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Select ed Solu t ion s t o H a n ds-On Act ivit y 10.2 . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E u ler s Met h od (BC Topic On ly) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xpon en t ia l Gr owt h a n d Deca y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
407
407
409
411
411
413
415
417
418
420
425
425
428
431
431
378
382
382
385
387
387
389
392
392
396
398
398
406
Contents
xi
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433
435
435
Sequences and Series (BC Topics Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . .

In t r odu ct ion t o Sequ en ces a n d Ser ies, N t h Ter m
Diver gen ce Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Con ver gen ce Test s for In fin it e Ser ies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P ower Ser ies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ta ylor a n d Ma cla u r in Ser ies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tech n ology: Viewin g a n d Ca lcu la t in g Sequ en ces a n d
Ser ies wit h a Gr a ph in g Ca lcu la t or . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Su m m in g It Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
449
438
442
443
447
449
453
453
455
467
468
472
478
478
480
486
486
489
492
493
497
PART III: FOUR PRACTICE TESTS

Practice Test 1: AP Calculus AB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sect ion I, P a r t A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sect ion I, P a r t B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sect ion II, P a r t A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sect ion II, P a r t B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
An swer Key a n d E xpla n a t ion s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
505
505
512
516
518
519
Practice Test 2: AP Calculus AB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sect ion I, P a r t A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sect ion I, P a r t B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sect ion II, P a r t A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sect ion II, P a r t B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
537
537
543
547
549
550
Practice Test 3: AP Calculus BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569

Sect ion I, P a r t A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
..............................................................................................
11
Logist ic Gr owt h (BC Topic On ly) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

E xer cise 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tech n ology: A Differ en t ia l E qu a t ion s Ca lcu la t or
P r ogr a m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E xer cise 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Su m m in g It Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xii
Contents
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Sect ion
Sect ion
Sect ion
An swer
I, P a r t B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
II, P a r t A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
II, P a r t B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Key a n d E xpla n a t ion s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
575
579
580
581
Practice Test 4: AP Calculus BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sect ion I, P a r t A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sect ion I, P a r t B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sect ion II, P a r t A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sect ion II, P a r t B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
595
595
601
605
606
607
APPENDIX
College-by-College Guide to AP Credit and Placement . . . 621
Ac know led g m ents
....................................................................................
So m a n y people h a ve in spir ed a n d su ppor t ed m e t h a t I ba lk t o t h in k of h ow
lu cky a n d blessed m y life h a s been . Th e wisdom , love, a n d su ppor t of t h ese
people h a ve sh a ped a n d m a de m e, a n d wit h ou t t h em , I a m n ot h in g. Specia l
t h a n ks t o:
My bea u t ifu l br ide Lisa , wh o t ea ch es m e ever y da y t h a t bein g m a r r ied t o

you r best fr ien d is ju st t h e gr ea t est t h in g in t h e wor ld.
Mom , wh o t a u gh t m e t o r ise a bove t h e cir cu m st a n ce.
Da d, wh o t a u gh t m e a lwa ys t o t ip t h e ba r ber.
My br ot h er Da ve (Th e Da wg), wh o t a u gh t m e t h a t life is pr et t y fu n n y

bu t n ever a s fu n n y a s a joke t h a t r efer en ces t h e h u m a n bu t t .
My best fr ien ds Rob H a lst ea d, Ch r is Sa r a m pot e, a n d Ma t t H a ln on , wh o

t a u gh t m e wh a t t r u e fr ien dsh ip m ea n s (a n d wh y h ou seclea n in g is for t h e
wea k).
My pr in cipa ls, Geor ge Miller a n d Tom m y Tu cker, wh o h a ve given m e

ever y oppor t u n it y a n d t h en seven m or e.
My st u den t s, wh o m a ke m y job a n d m y life h a ppier t h a n t h ey cou ld ever

im a gin e. My E n glish t ea ch er s Ron Gibson , J a ck Keosseia n , Ma r y Dou gla s, a n d Da n iel Br own , wh o sh owed m e h ow m u ch fu n wr it in g ca n be.
Su e St r ickla n d, wh o in spir ed in m e a love of t ea ch in g a n d wh o t a u gh t m y

m et h ods cla ss over din n er a t h er h ou se.
Ma r k Wildin g, for n ot sa yin g, Ar e you cr a zy?
Th e F in ley boys: J a m es, for h is gr ea t qu est ion s, wr it t en specifica lly t o

ch a llen ge, deceive, n a u sea t e, a n d en sm a r t en st u den t s, a n d Tim , for h is
com pu t er pr owess a n d a bilit y t o pr odu ce cr a zy, t h r ee-dim en sion a l dia gr a m s in t h e blin k of a n eye.
Th e Big Ma t h em a t icia n in t h e Sky, wh o (m er cifu lly) m a kes st r a igh t t h e

pa t h s of u s m a t h em a t icia n s h er e on E a r t h .
F in a lly, wr est lin g legen d Koko B. Wa r e, beca u se Ch r is t h ou gh t t h a t wou ld

be pr et t y fu n n y.
xiii
Before You Beg in
....................................................................................
HOW THIS BOOK IS ORGANIZED
Wh et h er you h a ve five m on t h s, n in e weeks, or ju st fou r sh or t weeks t o pr epa r e
for t h e exa m , Peterson s M aster AP Calcu lu s AB & B C will h elp you develop a
st u dy pla n t h a t ca t er s t o you r in dividu a l n eeds a n d t im et a bles. Th ese st ep-byst ep pla n s a r e ea sy t o follow a n d a r e r em a r ka bly effect ive.
To p 10 S tra te g ie s to Ra is e Yo u r S c o re offer s you t r ied a n d t r u e

t est -t a kin g st r a t egies.
P a rt I in clu des t h e ba sic in for m a t ion a bou t t h e AP Ca lcu lu s t est t h a t you

n eed t o kn ow.
P a rt II pr ovides r eviews a n d st r a t egies for a n swer in g t h e differ en t kin ds

of m u lt iple-ch oice a n d fr ee-r espon se qu est ion s you will en cou n t er on t h e
exa m . You will h a ve n u m er ou s oppor t u n it ies t o pr a ct ice wh a t you a r e
lea r n in g in t h e exer cises t h a t a ppea r t h r ou gh ou t t h e r eviews. It is a good
idea t o r ea d t h e a n swer expla n a t ion s t o a ll of t h e qu est ion s, beca u se you
m a y fin d idea s or t ips t h a t will h elp you bet t er a n a lyze t h e a n swer s in t h e
n ext P r a ct ice Test .
P a rt III in clu des fou r a ddit ion a l pr a ct ice t est s, t wo for AB a n d t wo for
BC. Rem em ber t o a pply t h e t est -t a kin g syst em ca r efu lly, wor k t h e syst em
t o get m or e cor r ect r espon ses, be ca r efu l of you r t im e, a n d st r ive t o
a n swer m or e qu est ion s in t h e t im e per iod.
Th e Ap p e n d ix is design ed t o pr ovide you wit h a n ea sy r efer en ce t o t h e

AP Cr edit P olicy Gu idelin es in st it u t ed for a ll colleges a n d u n iver sit ies.
SPECIAL STUDY FEATURES

Peterson s M aster AP Calcu lu s AB & B C wa s design ed t o be a s u ser-fr ien dly a s
it is com plet e. It in clu des sever a l fea t u r es t o m a ke you r pr epa r a t ion ea sier.
Overview
E a ch ch a pt er begin s wit h a bu llet ed over view list in g t h e t opics t h a t will be
cover ed in t h e ch a pt er. You kn ow im m edia t ely wh er e t o look for a t opic t h a t you
n eed t o wor k on .
Summing It Up
E a ch st r a t egy ch a pt er en ds wit h a poin t -by-poin t su m m a r y t h a t ca pt u r es t h e
m ost im por t a n t poin t s. Th e su m m a r ies a r e a con ven ien t wa y t o r eview t h e
xv
xvi
Before You Begin
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
con t en t of t h ese st r a t egy ch a pt er s. In a ddit ion , be su r e t o look in t h e pa ge m a r gin s of

you r book for t h e followin g t est -pr ep t ools:
Bonus Informa tion

NOTE
N otes pr ovide in t er est in g ca lcu lu s fa ct s, con n ect ion s, a n d n ot a t ion s t o im pr ove you r
u n der st a n din g of t h e m a t er ia l. Don t over look t h ese lit t le gem st h ey a r e a n im por t a n t
pa r t of t h e t ext , h igh ligh t in g im por t a n t in for m a t ion a n d pu t t in g t h in gs in t o t h e pr oper
con t ext .
TIP
Tips a r e t h e a u t h or sper son a l poin t er s t o you , so t h a t you ca n st a y on t r a ck a n d in focu s
a s you st u dy t h e m a t er ia l. Typica lly, t h ey con t a in pieces of in for m a t ion t o h elp you wit h
t h e m a n y t a sks you ll be r equ ir ed t o per for m on t h e AP ca lcu lu s Test .
ALERT!
St eer clea r of t h ese com m on er r or s of ju dgm en t in m a t h em a t ics.
APPENDIX
P et er son s College-by-College Gu ide t o AP Cr edit a n d P la cem en t gives you t h e equ iva len t cla sses, scor es, a n d cr edit a wa r ded a t m or e t h a n 400 colleges a n d u n iver sit ies. Use
t h is gu ide t o fin d you r pla cem en t st a t u s, cr edit , a n d/or exem pt ion ba sed on you r AP
Ca lcu lu s AB or BC scor e.
YOURE WELL ON YOUR WAY TO SUCCESS

Rem em ber t h a t kn owledge is power. You will be st u dyin g t h e m ost com pr eh en sive gu ide
a va ila ble, a n d you will becom e ext r em ely kn owledgea ble a bou t t h e exa m . We look
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www.pet er son s.com .
We welcom e a n y com m en t s or su ggest ion s you m a y h a ve a bou t t h is pu blica t ion a n d
in vit e you t o com plet e ou r on lin e su r vey a t www.pet er son s.com /booksu r vey. Or you
ca n fill ou t t h e su r vey a t t h e ba ck of t h is book, t ea r it ou t , a n d m a il it t o u s a t :
P u blish in g Depa r t m en t
P et er son s
2000 Len ox Dr ive
La wr en ceville, NJ 08648
Before You Begin
xvii
.................................................................
MIKE KELLEYS HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

The Chess Dilemma
I like ch ess. It s a fa scin a t in g ga m e t h a t , a lt h ou gh ea sy t o gr a sp, is n on et h eless ver y
difficu lt . On ce you lea r n h ow t o m ove t h e pieces a r ou n d t h e boa r d, you a r e st ill ligh t
yea r s a wa y fr om a ct u a lly bein g a n y good (ch ess gen iu ses except ed). I h a ve kn own h ow
t o m ove ch ess pieces sin ce I wa s a bou t n in e, bu t I h a ve st ill yet t o win a sin gle ch ess
ga m e a ga in st a livin g per son . I a m ju st t er r ible a t ch ess, even t h ou gh I h a ve a lwa ys
wa n t ed t o be good. In m y h oly gr a il-like qu est t o ou t sm a r t som eon e a t t h is da st a r dly
ga m e, I h a ve sou gh t wisdom fr om books. I ca n st ill r em em ber m y la st t r ip t o t h e
bookst or e, st a n din g wit h m y m ou t h a ga pe befor e t h e sh elf a llot t ed t o ch ess in st r u ct ion
books. I wa s h opin g t o fin d som et h in g t o for t ify (r esu scit a t e) m y ch ess ga m e, on ly t o fin d
books wit h t it les su ch a s 200 Paw n an d B ish op E n d in gs, 50 of th e Greatest Ch ess Gam es
E ver, a n d 35 Tactics to Captu re th e Qu een s R ook in S ix M oves or L ess. Non e of t h ese
books wer e of a n y u se t o m e a t a ll! Non e of t h em even cla im ed t o t r y t o t ea ch m e wh a t I
n eeded t o kn ow.
I wa n t ed a book t o t ea ch m e h ow t o pla y. I kn ew t h a t a h or sey m oves in a n L sh a pe,
bu t I didn t kn ow wh er e h e (or sh e) sh ou ld go. Oft en , fr ien ds ga ve m e su ch a dvice a s
con t r ol t h e m iddle of t h e boa r d. I st ill a m n ot su r e wh a t t h a t m ea n s or h ow t o go
a bou t doin g it . In m y fr u st r a t ion , I bou gh t ch ildr en s ch ess ga m es for m y com pu t er,
h opin g t o ben efit fr om t h e t u t or ia ls t h a t , su r ely, I h a d a bet t er sh ot a t u n der st a n din g.
On ce I h a d com plet ed t h e t u t or ia ls, I wa s con fiden t , r ea dy t o a t t a ck t h e t oy m en a n d
fin a lly t a ke m y fir st st ep t owa r d Ch ess Gr a n d Ma st er or wh a t ever t h ey ca ll t h ose
sm a r t gu ys. I wa s dest r oyed by t h e sm ilin g t oy ch ess piecesbea t en in u n der t en
m oves, on t h e ea siest level. I don t t h in k I blin ked for fift een m in u t es. I h a ve seen t h a t
look on m y st u den t s fa ces befor e. It s a look t h a t sa ys, I h a ve n o idea wh a t Im doin g
wr on g, a n d I t h in k Im m or e likely t o spr ou t win gs t h a n t o ever u n der st a n d. P er h a ps
you , t oo, h a ve felt t h a t expr ession cr eep a cr oss you r fa ce, sh a dowed by a n oily, sick
feelin g in t h e pit of you r st om a ch . P er h a ps you h a ve a kn a ck for m a t h a n d a r e n ot
in spir ed t o fea r a n d cold swea t by ca lcu lu s bu t a r e ju st lookin g for pr a ct ice or t o t ie u p
a few loose en ds befor e t h e AP Ca lcu lu s t est . E it h er wa y, t h is book will h elp you
m a st er ca lcu lu s a n d pr epa r e you for t h e in fa m ou s t est da y.
Understa nding Versus Ma stering: Ca lculus Reform

Ca lcu lu s is a su bject , like ch ess, t h a t r equ ir es m or e t h a n a sim ple u n der st a n din g of it s
com pon en t pa r t s. Befor e you ca n t r u ly m a st er ca lcu lu s, you n eed t o u n der st a n d h ow
ea ch of it s ba sic t en et s wor k, wh a t t h ey m ea n , a n d h ow t h ey in t er r ela t e. Su ch wa s n ot
a lwa ys t h e ca se, h owever. In fa ct , you m a y h a ve even h ea r d t h e u r ba n legen d a bou t t h e
AP Ca lcu lu s st u den t wh o sim ply t ook t h e der iva t ive of ea ch equ a t ion a n d set it equ a l t o
zer o a n d st ill got a t h r ee r a t in g on t h e AP t est ! Su ch r u m or s a r e n ot t r u e, bu t t h ey
u n der scor e t h e fu n da m en t a l ch a n ge gr ippin g t h e m a t h em a t ics wor lda ch a n ge ca lled
r efor m . In fa ct , for m a n y yea r s, ca lcu lu s wa s t r ea t ed a s m er ely a dva n ced a r it h m et ic,
..............................................................................................
You r feedba ck will h elp u s t o pr ovide per son a lized solu t ion s for you r edu ca t ion a l
a dva n cem en t .
xviii
Before You Begin
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
r a t h er t h a n a com plex a n d even bea u t ifu l logica l syst em . Ca lcu lu s is so m u ch m or e t h a n

for m u la s a n d m em or izin g, a n d wh en you see t h is, you begin t o a ct u a lly u n der st a n d t h e
r a t ion a le beh in d t h e m a t h em a t ics in volved. H a vin g t h ese con n ect ion s m a kes u n derst a n din g flou r ish a n d, befor e ver y lon g, ba n ish es m a t h ph obia s t o t h e da r k pla ces,
in h a bit ed h er et ofor e on ly by you r ca r keys wh en you wer e in a h u r r y.
Wha t Ma kes This Book Different

Th is book is u n like m ost m a t h t ext books pu blish ed t oda y. It n ot on ly pr esen t s for m u la s
a n d pr a ct ice pr oblem s, bu t it a lso a ct u a lly h elps you u n der st a n d t h r ou gh h a n ds-on
a ct ivit ies a n d det a iled expla n a t ion s. It a lso pu t s difficu lt for m u la s in t o ever yda y
E n glish , t o sh ed som e ligh t on t h eir m ea n in gs. In r ela t ion t o m y ch ess m et a ph or, m y
book in t en ds n ot on ly t o t ell you t h a t bish ops m ove dia gon a lly, bu t a lso t o offer you
a dvice on wh er e t o m ove t h em , h ow soon , a n d in wh a t cir cu m st a n ces t h ey a r e m ost
effect ive. (Alt h ou gh I ca n n ot a ct u a lly give you t h e cor r espon din g ch ess a dvice, sin ce m y
deep u n der st a n din g of bish ops en ds wit h t h e kn owledge t h a t t h ey wea r poin t y h a t s.)
Tr a dit ion a l m a t h t est -pr epa r a t or y books st a t e for m u la s, pr ove t h em , a n d pr esen t
exer cises t o pr a ct ice u sin g t h em . Th er e is r a r ely a n y expla n a t ion of h ow t o u se t h e
for m u la s, wh a t t h ey m ea n , a n d h ow t o r em em ber t h em . In sh or t , t r a dit ion a l books do
n ot offer t o t ea ch , wh en t h a t is wh a t you t r u ly n eed. I h a ve com piled in t h is t ext a ll of
t h e st r a t egies, in sigh t s, a n d a dvice t h a t I h a ve a m a ssed a s a n in st r u ct or. Most of a ll,
I h a ve u sed com m on sen se. F or exa m ple, I do n ot t h in k t h a t pr ovin g a t h eor em a lwa ys
h elps st u den t s u n der st a n d t h a t t h eor em . In fa ct , I t h in k t h a t t h e pr oof ca n som et im es
clou d t h e m a t t er a t h a n d! Th u s, n ot ever y t h eor em in t h e book is a ccom pa n ied by a
pr oof; in st ea d, I h a ve in clu ded it on ly wh en I t h in k it wou ld be ben eficia l. Also, t h er e
a r e n u m er ou s a ct ivit ies in t h is book t o com plet e t h a t will t ea ch you , a s you pr ogr ess,
ba sic defin it ion s, pr oper t ies, a n d t h eor em s. In fa ct , you m a y be a ble t o devise t h em
you r self! I n ot on ly wa n t you t o su cceedI wa n t you t o u n d erstan d .
In or der t o pr om ot e u n der st a n din g, it is m y belief t h a t a book t h a t in t en ds t o t ea ch
m u st offer a n swer s a s well a s qu est ion s. H ow u sefu l a r e 100 pr a ct ice pr oblem s if on ly
n u m er ica l a n swer s a n d m a ybe a t oken expla n a t ion a r e given ? Som e ca lcu lu s r eview
books even con fu se ca lcu lu s t ea ch er s wit h t h eir la ck of expla n a t ion (a lt h ou gh I bet
n on e of you r t ea ch er s wou ld ever a dm it it !). E very sin gle qu estion in th is book h as a
good explan ation an d in clu d es all of th e im portan t steps; t h is is ju st on e of t h e
ch a r a ct er ist ics t h a t m a kes t h is book u n iqu e. No lon ger will you h a ve t o spen d fift een
m in u t es decidin g h ow t h e a u t h or got fr om on e st ep t o t h e n ext in h is or h er com pu t a t ion s. I kn ow I a m n ot t h e on ly on e wh o, gn a sh in g h is t eet h , h a s excla im ed, Wh er e
did t h e 4 go in t h e t h ir d st ep!? H ow ca n t h ey ju st dr op t h e 4? Did t h e 4 ju st st ep ou t
for a bit e t o ea t a n d will be ba ck la t er ? Am I so st u pid t h a t it s obviou s t o ever yon e bu t
m e?
You sh ou ld a lso fin d t h a t t h e pr oblem s difficu lt ies in cr ea se a s you pr ogr ess. Wh en
t opics a r e fir st in t r odu ced, t h ey a r e u su a lly of ea sy or m ediu m difficu lt y. H owever, t h e
pr oblem s a t t h e en d of ea ch sect ion a r e h a r der a n d will h elp you bin d you r u n derst a n din g t o pr eviou s t opics in t h e book. F in a lly, t h e pr oblem s a t t h e en d of t h e ch a pt er
a r e t h e m ost ch a llen gin g of a ll, r equ ir in g you t o piece t oget h er a ll t h e im por t a n t t opics
a n d in volve a ppr opr ia t e t ech n ology a lon g t h e wa y.
Before You Begin
xix
.................................................................
The Ga me Pieces
Th e followin g a r e in clu ded t o h elp you in you r st u dy of ca lcu lu s:
H a n ds-on a ct ivit ies or gu ided pr a ct ice t o in t r odu ce a n d t ea ch a ll of t h e m a jor

elem en t s of ca lcu lu s, in clu din g ca lcu lu s r efor m t opics
Ta r get P r a ct ice exa m ples wit h det a iled solu t ion s t o cem en t you r u n der st a n din g
of t h e t opics (ea ch t a r get pr a ct ice pr oblem is a ccom pa n ied by a n icon den ot in g it s
difficu lt ysee belowso t h a t you ca n con st a n t ly m on it or you r pr ogr ess)
Com m on E r r or s den ot ed du r in g pr a ct ice pr oblem s a n d n ot es so t h a t you ca n

a void t h em
E xer cises a t t h e en d of ea ch sect ion t o pr a ct ice t h e skills you ju st lea r n ed
A t ech n ology sect ion in ea ch ch a pt er wit h st ep-by-st ep dir ect ion s for t h e TI-83
ser ies ca lcu la t or t o en su r e t h a t you a r e u sin g it cor r ect ly a n d in a ccor da n ce wit h
College Boa r d gu idelin es. (Th e TI-83, TI-83 P lu s, a n d TI-83 P lu s Silver E dit ion
ca lcu la t or s con st it u t e t h e va st m a jor it y of ca lcu la t or s u sed on t h e AP t est , so
t h a t s wh y we ch ose t h em .)
Addit ion a l pr oblem s a t t h e en d of ea ch ch a pt er t o r eview you r skills a n d ch a llen ge you
J a m es Dia bolica l Dilem m a P r oblem s a t t h e en d of ea ch ch a pt er a r e wr it t en by a

for m er AP Ca lcu lu s st u den t of m in e, J a m es F in ley; a s a for m er 5-er on t h e AP
t est , h e h a s cr ea t ed t h ese pr oblem s t o pu sh you r u n der st a n din g t o t h e ver y
lim it scon sider t h ese pr oblem s con cen t r a t ed, wit h a ll t h e pu lp left in for fla vor.
Conclusion
Th is book ca n be u t ilized for n u m er ou s r ea son s a n d t owa r d m a n y en ds. It is best u sed a s
a st u dy gu ide t o su pplem en t you r ca lcu lu s t ext book. As a t ea ch in g t ool, it ca n h elp you
t o lea r n ca lcu lu s or fill in ga ps in you r u n der st a n din g. As a r esou r ce, it ca n pr ovide
n u m er ou s pr a ct ice pr oblem s wit h fu ll solu t ion s. H owever you ch oose t o u se t h e book, it
is m y h ope t h a t it ca n h elp u n lock som e of t h e m yst er ies of ca lcu lu s for you , a lt h ou gh it s
a lm ost cer t a in ly goin g t o do n ot h in g for you r ch ess ga m e.
..............................................................................................
H er ein lies t h e en t ir e pr em ise a n d m ot iva t ion of t h e book: You can prepare for th e AP
Calcu lu s test by u n d erstan d in g w h ats in volved rath er th an sim ply practicin g sk ills
ou t of con text. Th is is n ot t o sa y t h a t you won t h a ve t o m em or ize a n y for m u la s or t h a t
t h e con cept s t h em selves will be pr esen t ed a n y less r igor ou sly t h a n in a t ext book. Th is
is n ot , a s som e m igh t cla im , soft m a t h em a t ics. In st ea d, it is m a t h em a t ics pr esen t ed
in a wa y t h a t en su r es a n d pr om ot es u n der st a n din g.
xx
Before You Begin
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
QUICK REFERENCE GUIDE

Th ese pa ges con t a in ju st a bou t a ll t h e for m u la s you n eed t o kn ow by h ea r t befor e you
ca n t a ke t h e AP Test . It does n ot con t a in a ll t h e t h eor em s a n d t ech n iqu es you n eed t o
kn ow. An a st er isk (*) in dica t es a Ca lcu lu s BC-on ly for m u la .
Limits
lim
xn
=0
sin x
=1
x0 x
lim
lim
x0
cos x 1
=0
x
x
1
lim 1 + = e
x
Deriva tives
P ower Ru le:
( )
d n
x = nx n 1
dx
P r odu ct Ru le:
( ( ) ( )) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
d
f x g x = f x g x + g x f x
dx
()
d f x
Qu ot ien t Ru le: dx g x =
( )
Ch a in Ru le:
( ( ( ))) = f ( g ( x )) g ( x )
d
f g x
dx
d
sin x = cos x
dx
d
cos x = sin x
dx
d
tan x = sec2 x
dx
d
cot x = csc2 x
dx
() () () ()
2
( g ( x ))
g x f x f x g x
d
(sec x ) = sec x tan x
dx
d
(csc x ) = csc x cot x
dx
Before You Begin
xxi
.................................................................
( )
( )
d x
e = ex
dx
d
1
log a x =
dx
ln a x
) ( )
( )
( )
d x
a = ln a a x
dx
d
1
arcsin x =
dx
1 x2
d
1
arccos x =
dx
1 x2
1
d
arctan x =
dx
1 + x2
1
d
arccot x =
dx
1 + x2
d
1
arcsec x =
dx
x x2 1
d
1
arccsc x =
dx
x x2 1
( f ) x = f ( f 1 ( x ))
1
*P a r a m et r ic der iva t ives:
dy
dy
= dt ;
dx
dx
dt
d dy
dt dx
d2 y
=
dx
dx 2
dt
..............................................................................................
d
1
ln x =
dx
x
xxii
Before You Begin
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Deriva tive Applica tions
f b f (a )
( ) ( b) a
Mea n Va lu e Th eor em : f c =
s(t) is t h e posit ion fu n ct ion ; s(t) 5 v(t), t h e velocit y fu n ct ion ; v(t) 5 a(t), t h e a cceler a t ion fu n ct ion
P r oject ile posit ion equ a t ion :
()
s t = 12 gt2 + v0t + h0 ; g 5 9.8 m /s 2 or 32 ft /s 2
Integra tion
P ower Ru le for In t egr a ls: xn dx = x
*cos x d x 5 sin x 1 C
n+1
n +1
+C
*sin x d x 5 2cos x 1 C
*t a n x d x 5 2ln U cos x U 1 C
*cot x d x 5 ln U sin x U 1 C
*sec x d x 5 ln U sec x + t a n x U 1 C
*csc x d x 5 2ln U csc x + cot x U 1 C
du
2
a u
du
a +u
2
= arcsin
1
u
arctan + C
a
a
du
u u a
u
+C
a
1
a
= arcsec
+C
a
b a
Tr a pezoida l Ru le:
(f(a) 1 2f(x 1 ) 1 2f(x 2 ) 1 ... 1 2f(x n
2n
b
2
F u n da m en t a l Th eor em (P a r t 1):
of f(x)
(t)dt = f ( x )
Aver a ge Va lu e: f ( c ) = 1
b a
f ( x ) dx
a
*In t egr a t ion by P a r t s: *u d v 5 u v 2 *vd u
1 f(b))
a f (x ) dx = F (b) F(a), if F is t h e a n t ider iva t ive
F u n da m en t a l Th eor em (P a r t 2):
d x
f
dx a
2 1)
Before You Begin
xxiii
.................................................................
b
a
( )
Disk Met h od: r ( x ) dx

2
a ( R ( x )) (r ( x )) dx
Wa sh er Met h od:
Sh ell Met h od: 2
*Ar c Len gt h :
d ( x ) h ( x ) dx
a
) a
2
1 + f ' (x ) ;
dx
dy
dt + dt
r d
2 a ( ( ))
*P ola r Ar ea : 1
Differentia l Equa tions
dy
= ky; y = Ne kt
dt
dy
L
= ky ( L y ) ; y =
*Logist ic gr owt h :
dt
1 + ce Lkt
E xpon en t ia l gr owt h /deca y:
*Dy 5 Dx { m
*Sequences a nd Series
Su m of a geom et r ic ser ies:
Ra t io Test : lim
an +1
a
1 r
an
an
( )(
f c x c
f x = f c + f c xc +
+
2!
Ta ylor ser ies for f(x) cen t er ed a t x 5 c:
3
n
n
f c x c
f ( ) c x c
+ +
+
3!
n!
3
5
Lim it Com pa r ison Test : lim
n bn
sin x = x
x
x
+
+
3! 5!
cos x = 1
x2 x4
+
+
2! 4 !
ex = 1 + x +
( ) ( ) ( )(
( )( )
( )(
x2 x3
+
+
2! 3 !
1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 +
1 x
..............................................................................................
Integra tion Applica tions
xxiv
Before You Begin
.................................................................
............................................................................................
TOP 10 STRATEGIES TO RAISE YOUR SCORE

Wh en it com es t o t a kin g a n AP exa m , som e t est -t a kin g skills will do you m or e good t h a n
ot h er s. Th er e a r e con cept s you ca n lea r n a n d t ech n iqu es you ca n follow t h a t will h elp
you do you r best . H er es ou r pick for t h e t op 10 st r a t egies t o r a ise you r scor e:
1. P a c e y o u rs e lf. Usin g less t im e on t h e ea sier qu est ion s will give you m or e t im e for
t h e h a r der on es. Qu est ion s u su a lly go fr om ea siest t o m ost difficu lt . Wor k a s
qu ickly a s you ca n t h r ou gh t h e begin n in g of t h e t est . Don t get lu lled in t o a fa lse
sen se of secu r it y beca u se you a ppea r t o be m a in t a in in g a good pa ce in t h e fir st pa r t .
2. Ed u c a te d g u e s s in g w ill bo o s t y o u r s c o re . Alt h ou gh r a n dom gu essin g won t
h elp you , a n yt h in g bet t er t h a n r a n dom gu essin g will. On m ost qu est ion s, you
sh ou ld be a ble t o m a ke bet t er-t h a n -r a n dom gu esses by u sin g com m on sen se a n d
t h e pr ocess of elim in a t ion t ech n iqu es t h a t a r e developed t h r ou gh ou t t h is book. If
you ca n elim in a t e on e ch oice ou t of five, you h a ve a 25 per cen t ch a n ce of gu essin g
cor r ect ly. If you ca n kn ock ou t t wo ch oices, t h e odds go u p t o 33 per cen t .
3. Th e e a s y a n s w e r is n t a lw a y s th e be s t a n s w e r. Ma ke su r e you r ea d a ll of t h e
ch oices befor e select in g you r ch oice. Qu it e fr equ en t ly, t est m a ker s will pu t a n
a t t r a ct ive, bu t in cor r ect , a n swer a s a n (A) or (B) ch oice. Rea din g a ll of t h e ch oices
decr ea ses you r ch a n ce of bein g m isled, pa r t icu la r ly in qu est ion s wh er e n o ca lcu la t ion s a r e in volved.
4. U s e c o m m o n s e n s e . It is a lwa ys im por t a n t t o m a ke su r e you r a n swer s m a ke
sen se. On m u lt iple-ch oice qu est ion s, it m igh t be r ea dily a ppa r en t t h a t you ve
m a de a n er r or (e.g., n on e of t h e ch oices m a t ch you r a n swer ). H owever, on t h e fr ee
r espon se, t h er e is n o im m edia t e feedba ck a bou t t h e a ccu r a cy of you r a n swer. It is
im por t a n t t o in spect you r wor k t o m a ke su r e it m a kes sen se.
5. P u t d o w n y o u r c a lc u la to r. You on ly get t o u se you r ca lcu la t or for cer t a in pa r t s
of t h e t est . On t h e por t ion s of t h e exa m wh er e ca lcu la t or s a r e pr oh ibit ed, you
sh ou ld expect t o dea l wit h n u m ber s t h a t a r e fa ir ly ea sy t o wor k wit h .
6. B e c o m e fa m ilia r w ith th e to p ic s in th is bo o k . You sh ou ld fin d t h a t t h e
pr oblem sdifficu lt ies in cr ea se a s you pr ogr ess. H owever, t h e pr oblem s a t t h e en d of
ea ch sect ion of t h is book a r e h a r der a n d will h elp you bin d you r u n der st a n din g t o
pr eviou s t opics in t h e book. F in a lly, t h e pr oblem s a t t h e en d of ea ch ch a pt er a r e
t h e m ost ch a llen gin g of a ll, r equ ir in g you t o piece t oget h er a ll of t h e im por t a n t
t opics a n d in volve a ppr opr ia t e t ech n ology a lon g t h e wa y.
7. Ma k e s u re y o u fill in th e bu bble s h e e t n e a tly . Ot h er wise, t h e m a ch in e t h a t
scor es you r a n swer s won t give you cr edit .
8. S h o w a ll o f y o u r w o rk o n th e fre e -re s p o n s e qu e s tio n s . If you on ly sh ow you r
a n swer, a n d it h a ppen s t o be in cor r ect , t h e gr a der h a s n o ch oice bu t t o give you n o
cr edit for t h e en t ir e qu est ion . Wr it in g down a ll of you r st eps m a kes sen se.
9. Kn o w y o u r s tu ff. Wh ile a ll of t h ese st r a t egies a r e h elpfu l, t h er e is n o su bst it u t e
for kn owledge. You m a y n ot kn ow ever y bit of in for m a t ion on t h e exa m , bu t it is
im por t a n t t h a t you r em em ber t h e in for m a t ion you h a ve lea r n ed.
10. B e n e a t o n th e fre e -re s p o n s e qu e s tio n s . Let t h e gr a der focu s on con t en t ,
r a t h er t h a n t h e for m . Th e a n swer s a r e n ot len gt h y, so do you r best t o be n ea t a n d
or ga n ized.
PART I
..........................................................
AP CALCULUS AB & BC
BASICS
......................................................................
CHAPTER 1
All Ab out the AP Ca lc ulus

AB & BC Tests
All Ab out the AP

Ca lc ulus AB & BC Tests
....................................................................................
Frequently a sked questions a bout the AP ca lculus tests

Summing it up
You r goa l a n d vision in a n y Adva n ced P la cem en t cla ss sh ou ld be t o t a ke t h e
AP t est , pa ss it wit h a su fficien t ly h igh scor e, ju m p u p a n d down like a lu n a t ic
wh en you r eceive you r scor e, a n d a t t a in cr edit for t h e cla ss in t h e college or
u n iver sit y of you r ch oice. All AP t est s a r e gr a ded on a sca le fr om 1 t o 5, wit h
5 bein g t h e h igh est possible gr a de. Most colleges will a ccept a scor e of 3 or
a bove a n d a ssign cr edit t o you for t h e cor r espon din g cou r se. Som e, h owever,
r equ ir e h igh er scor es, so it s im por t a n t t o kn ow t h e policies of t h e sch ools t o
wh ich you a r e a pplyin g or h a ve been a ccept ed. An AP cou r se is a lit t le
differ en t fr om a college cou r se. In a college cou r se, you n eed on ly pa ss t h e
cla ss t o r eceive cr edit . In a n AP cou r se, you m u st scor e h igh en ou gh on t h e
cor r espon din g AP t est , wh ich is a dm in ist er ed wor ldwide in t h e m on t h of Ma y.
So, it s essen t ia l t o kn ow t h a t a ll-im por t a n t AP t est in side a n d ou t .
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ABOUT THE AP

CALCULUS TESTS
Below a r e com m on qu est ion s t h a t st u den t s pose a bou t t h e AP Ca lcu lu s t est s.
F or n ow, t h is t est is you r foe, t h e on ly t h in g st a n din g in you r wa y t o glor iou s
(a n d in expen sive) college cr edit . Spen d som e t im e u n der st a n din g t h e en em ys
ba t t le pla n s so t h a t you a r e pr epa r ed on ce you go t o wa r.
Wha t topics a re included on the test?

Th e list of t opics ch a n ges a lit t le bit ever y cou ple of yea r s. Th e College Boa r d
Web sit e (www.collegeboa r d.com /a p/ca lcu lu s) a lwa ys h a s t h e cu r r en t cou r se
descr ipt ion . As you r a ca dem ic yea r dr a ws t o a close, u se it a s a ch ecklist t o m a ke
su r e you u n der st a n d ever yt h in g.
Wha ts the difference between Ca lculus AB a nd BC?

Th e Ca lcu lu s BC cu r r icu lu m con t a in s sign ifica n t ly m or e m a t er ia l t h a n t h e AB
cu r r icu lu m . Com plet in g Ca lcu lu s BC is equ iva len t t o com plet in g college Ca lcu lu s I a n d Ca lcu lu s II cou r ses, wh er ea s AB cover s a ll of college Ca lcu lu s I a n d
a bou t h a lf of Ca lcu lu s II. Th e AB a n d BC cu r r icu la cover t h e sa m e m a t er ia l wit h
t h e sa m e a m ou n t of r igor ; BC sim ply cover s a ddit ion a l t opics. H owever, if you
c ha p ter 1
OVERVIEW
PART I: AP Ca lculus AB & BC Ba sics
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
t a ke t h e BC t est , you will get bot h a n AB a n d BC scor e (t h e AB scor e exclu des a ll BC

qu est ion s fr om t h e t est ).
Of the topics on the course description, which a ctua lly a ppea r the
most on the AP test?
Th is will va r y, of cou r se, bu t I a sked m y st u den t s t o list t h e t opics t h ey sa w t h e m ost .
Th is is t h e list of t opics t h ey gen er a t ed (BC t opics a r e den ot ed wit h a n a st er isk): r ela t ive
ext r em a (m a xim u m s a n d m in im u m s), t h e r ela t ion sh ips bet ween der iva t ives of a
fu n ct ion , t h e differ en ce qu ot ien t , ba sic in t egr a t ion , in t egr a l fu n ct ion s wit h va r ia bles a s
lim it s of in t egr a t ion , volu m es of solids wit h kn own cr oss-sect ion s, m ot ion (posit ion ,
velocit y, a n d a cceler a t ion fu n ct ion s), differ en t ia l equ a t ion s, a r ea bet ween cu r ves, power
ser ies*, elem en t a r y ser ies* (ex, cos x, sin x), Ta ylor polyn om ia ls*, r a diu s of con vergen ce*, a n d in t egr a t ion by pa r t s*.
How is the test designed?

Th e t est is split in t o t wo sect ion s, ea ch of wh ich h a s a ca lcu la t or-a ct ive a n d a ca lcu la t orin a ct ive por t ion . Sect ion I h a s 45 m u lt iple-ch oice qu est ion s a n d la st s 105 m in u t es. Of
t h a t t im e, 55 m in u t es a r e spen t on 28 n on -ca lcu la t or qu est ion s, a n d 50 m in u t es a r e
dedica t ed t o 17 ca lcu la t or a ct ive qu est ion s. Sect ion II h a s 6 fr ee-r espon se qu est ion s a n d
la st s 90 m in u t es. Th r ee of t h e fr ee-r espon se qu est ion s a llow t h e u se of a ca lcu la t or,
wh ile 3 do n ot .
Should I guess on the multiple-choice questions?

You lose a fr a ct ion of a poin t for ever y m u lt iple-ch oice qu est ion you a n swer in cor r ect ly;
t h is pen a lizes r a n dom gu essin g. If you ca n elim in a t e even on e ch oice in a qu est ion , t h e
odds a r e in you r fa vor if you gu ess. If you ca n n ot elim in a t e a n y ch oices, it is best t o om it
t h e qu est ion .
Should I ha ve the unit circle memorized?

Oh , yes. Th e u n it cir cle n ever diesit lives t o h a u n t you r life.
Should my ca lcula tor be in degrees or ra dia ns mode?

Un less specifica lly in st r u ct ed by t h e qu est ion , set you r ca lcu la t or for r a dia n s m ode.
I ha ve hea rd tha t the AP Ca lculus test is written by scientists living

in the Africa n ra inforest, a nd tha t ma ny tests a re lost ea ch yea r a s
couriers a re a tta cked a nd infected by virulent monkeys. Is this
true?
Defin it ely.
How ma ny questions do I ha ve to get right to get a 3?

Th er e is n o set a n swer t o t h is, a s t h e n u m ber va r ies ever y yea r ba sed on st u den t
a ch ievem en t . Un officia lly, a n swer in g a ppr oxim a t ely 50 per cen t of t h e qu est ion s corr ect ly u su a lly r esu lt s in a 3.
Cha pter 1: All About the AP Ca lculus AB & BC Tests
.................................................................
Ma n y st u den t s a r e sh ocked t h a t a 50 per cen t is pa ssin g on t h e AP t est , bu t t h e exa m

is con st r u ct ed t o be a su per t est t h a t t est s n ot on ly you r kn owledge bu t a lso you r
a bilit y t o a pply you r kn owledge u n der ext r em e pr essu r e a n d in ver y difficu lt cir cu m st a n ces. No on e expect s you t o get t h em a ll r igh t . You r e sh oot in g for bet t er t h a n 50
per cen t , so don t pa n ic.
How will I feel when the test is over?

H opefu lly, you will st ill be a ble t o fu n ct ion . Most st u den t s a r e com plet ely exh a u st ed a n d
dr a in ed a t t h e en d of t h e or dea l. St u den t s wh o a r e well pr epa r ed (like t h ose wh o bu y m y
book) exper ien ce less depr ession t h a n ot h er s. In gen er a l, st u den t s h a ve a va gu e posit ive
feelin g wh en t h ey exit t h e t est if t h ey dedica t ed t h em selves t o st u dyin g a ll yea r lon g. I
h a ve fou n d t h a t t h e wa y you feel wh en exit in g t h e t est is in depen den t of h ow you will
a ct u a lly per for m on t h e t est . F eelin g ba d in n o wa y im plies t h a t you will scor e ba dly.
Are there a ny Web sites on the Internet tha t could help me prepa re
for the AP test?
Th er e a r e a few good sit es on t h e Web t h a t a r e fr ee. Am on g t h em , on e st a n ds clea r ly
a bove t h e r est . It offer s a n ew AB a n d BC pr oblem ea ch week, t im ed t o coor din a t e wit h
a yea r-lon g cu r r icu lu m t o h elp you pr epa r e for t h e t est . F u r t h er m or e, ea ch pr oblem is
solved in det a il t h e followin g week. E ver y pr oblem ever post ed is list ed in a n a r ch ive, so
it s a ver y va lu a ble st u dyin g t ool for pr a ct icin g specific skills a n d r eviewin g for t est s
t h r ou gh ou t t h e yea r. To t op it off, t h e sit e is fu n n y, a n d t h e a u t h or is ext r em ely t a len t ed.
Th e sit e? Kelleys AP Ca lcu lu s Web P a ge, wr it t en a n d sh a m efu lly a dver t ised h er e by
you r s t r u ly. You ca n log on a t www.ca lcu lu s-h elp.com . E n joy t h e sa m e h ickor y-sm oked
fla vor of t h is book on lin e for fr ee ea ch a n d ever y week. An ot h er good pr oblem of t h e
week sit e is t h e Alvir n e P r oblem s of t h e Week (www.ser esc.k12.n h .u s/www/a lvir n e.h t m l).
How a re the free-response questions gra ded?

E a ch fr ee-r espon se qu est ion is wor t h u p t o n in e poin t s. F r ee r espon se qu est ion s u su a lly
h a ve m u lt iple pa r t s, t ypica lly t wo or t h r ee, a n d t h e a va ila ble poin t s a r e disper sed
a m on g t h em . Ma n y poin t s a r e a wa r ded for kn owin g h ow t o set u p a pr oblem ; poin t s a r e
n ot on ly given for cor r ect a n swer s. It is best t o sh ow a ll of t h e set u p a n d st eps in you r
solu t ion in a n or der ly fa sh ion t o get t h e m a xim u m a m ou n t of cr edit you ca n . Th e College
Boa r d h a s exa m ples of excellen t , good, a n d poor fr ee r espon se a n swer s given by a ct u a l
t est t a ker s on t h eir Web sit e (www.collegeboa r d.com /a p/ca lcu lu s). In a ddit ion , t h ey h a ve
t h e m ost r ecen t fr ee-r espon se qu est ion s wit h t h eir gr a din g r u br ics. You sh ou ld t r y t h ese
pr oblem s, gr a de you r self a ccor din g t o t h e r u br ics, a n d see h ow you st a ck u p t o t h e
n a t ion a l a ver a ges.
..............................................................................................
Why is the test so ha rd?
ALERT!
The World Wid e Web is
c onsta ntly in a sta te of flux.
Web sites c ome a nd g o,
a nd their a d d resses
c ha ng e a ll the time. All of
these links were a c tive a t
p ub lic a tion time.
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
TIP
The p a st free-resp onse
q uestions, c ourse outline,
a nd g ra d e rub ric s a re a ll
a va ila b le free of c ha rg e on
line. The Colleg e Boa rd
Web site is up d a ted fa r
more freq uently tha n
p rinted ma teria l. Chec k
there for b rea king news
a nd p olic ies.
TIP
Cross out a ny of your erra nt
work instea d of era sing it.
Era sing ta kes more time,
a nd time is money on the
AP test.
Are free-response questions the sa me a s essa ys?

No. F r ee-r espon se qu est ion s a r e m ost sim ila r t o qu est ion s you h a ve on a t ypica l
cla ssr oom qu iz or t est . Th ey r equ ir e you t o solve a pr oblem logica lly, wit h su ppor t in g
wor k sh own . Th er es n o gu essin g possible like on t h e m u lt iple-ch oice qu est ion s.
Th er es r ea lly n o n eed t o wr it e a n essa yit ju st slows you down , a n d you n eed ever y
la st secon d on t h e fr ee r espon seit s r ea lly qu it e m ea t y.
Should I show my work?
Yes, in deedy. Th e AP gr a der s (ca lled read ers) ca n n ot a ssign you pa r t ia l cr edit if you don t
give t h em t h e oppor t u n it y. On t h e ot h er h a n d, if you h a ve n o idea wh a t t h e pr oblem is
a skin g, don t wr it e a det a iled expla n a t ion of wh a t you w ou ld do, a n d don t wr it e
equ a t ion s a ll over t h e pa per. P ick a m et h od a n d st ick t o it t h e r ea der s ca n defin it ely
t ell if you a r e t r yin g t o blu ff you r wa y t h r ou gh a pr oblem you don t u n der st a n d, so don t
pu ll a Copper field a n d t r y t o wor k m a gic t h r ou gh sm oke a n d m ir r or s. Also, keep in m in d
t h a t a n y wor k er a sed or cr ossed off is n ot gr a ded, even if it is com plet ely r igh t .
Wha t if the problem ha s numerous pa rts a nd I ca nt get the first

pa rt?
You sh ou ld do you r best t o a n swer t h e fir st pa r t a n ywa y. You m a y n ot get a n y poin t s
a t a ll, bu t it is st ill wor t h it . If t h e secon d pa r t r equ ir es t h e cor r ect com plet ion of t h e
fir st , you r in cor r ect a n swer will n ot be pen a lized a ga in . If you com plet e t h e cor r ect
sequ en ce of st eps on a n in cor r ect solu t ion fr om a pr eviou s a n swer, you ca n st ill r eceive
fu ll cr edit for t h e su bsequ en t pa r t s. Th is m ea n s you a r e n ot doom ed, so don t give u p.
Is it true tha t a genetica lly engineered chicken once scored a 4 on

the AB test, but the government covered it up to a void sca nda l?
I a m n ot a llowed t o com m en t on t h a t for n a t ion a l secu r it y r ea son s. H owever, I ca n sa y
t h a t fr ee-r a n ge pou lt r y t ypica lly scor e bet t er on fr ee-r espon se qu est ion s.
NOTE
1
3
a c c ord ing to the log
2ln 3 5 ln 321 5 ln
p rop erty tha t sta tes

nlog a x 5 log a xn .
Should I simplify my a nswers to lowest terms?
Act u a lly, n o! Th e AP r ea der s will a ccept a n a n swer of 39

a s r ea dily a s a n a n swer of 13.
3
Som e fr ee-r espon se qu est ion s ca n get a lit t le m essy, a n d you r e n ot expect ed t o m a ke t h e
a n swer s pr et t y a n d pr esen t a ble. H owever, you st ill
n eed t o be a ble t o sim plify for t h e m u lt iple-ch oice qu est ion s. F or exa m ple, if you r ea ch
1
a solu t ion of ln 3 bu t t h a t is n ot list ed a m on g t h e ch oices, you sh ou ld be a ble t o
r ecogn ize t h a t 2ln 3 h a s t h e sa m e va lu e, if you a pply loga r it h m ic pr oper t ies.
How a ccura te should my a nswers be?

Un less specified ot h er wise, t h e a n swer m u st be cor r ect t o at least t h r ee decim a l pla ces.
You m a y t r u n ca t e (cu t off) t h e decim a l t h er e or r ou n d t h e decim a l t h er e. F or exa m ple, a
solu t ion of x 5 4.5376219 m a y be r ecor ded a s 4.537 (t r u n ca t ed) or 4.538 (r ou n ded). If you
wa n t t o wr it e t h e en t ir e decim a l, t h a t is oka y, t oo, bu t r em em ber t h a t t im e is m on ey.
.................................................................
If t h e pr oblem in dica t es u n it s, you n eed t o in clu de t h e a ppr opr ia t e u n it s in you r fin a l

a n swer. F or exa m ple, if t h e pr oblem in volves t h e m ot ion of a boa t a n d ph r a ses t h e
qu est ion in t er m s of feet a n d m in u t es, velocit y is in ft /m in , a n d t h e a cceler a t ion will be
in ft /m in 2 .
When ca n I use the ca lcula tor to a nswer questions?

You m a y u se t h e ca lcu la t or on ly on ca lcu la t or-a ct ive qu est ion s, bu t you pr oba bly figu r ed
t h a t ou t , Mr. or Ms. Sm a r t y P a n t s. Occa sion a lly, you m a y u se a ca lcu la t or t o com plet ely
a n swer a qu est ion a n d sh ow n o wor k a t a ll. You ca n do t h is on ly in t h e followin g
cir cu m st a n ces: gr a ph in g a fu n ct ion , ca lcu la t in g a n u m er ica l der iva t ive, ca lcu la t in g a
defin it e in t egr a l, or fin din g a n x-in t er cept . In fa ct , you r ca lcu la t or is expect ed t o h a ve
t h ese ca pa bilit ies, a n d you a r e expected t o kn ow h ow t o u se t h em . Th er efor e, in t h ese
fou r ca ses, you n eed on ly sh ow t h e set u p of t h e pr oblem a n d ju m p r igh t t o t h e solu t ion .
F or exa m ple, you m a y wr it e
*2 (x2ex )d x 5 2508.246
5
wit h ou t a ct u a lly in t egr a t in g by h a n d a t a ll or sh owin g a n y wor k. In a ll ot h er cir cu m st a n ces, you m u st sh ow su ppor t in g wor k for you r solu t ion s.
How should I write a n a nswer if I used my ca lcula tor?

As in t h e a bove exa m ple, *2 (x2ex)d x 5 2508.246 is a ll you sh ou ld wr it e; t h e r ea der s
5
u n der st ood a n d expect ed you t o u se you r ca lcu la t or. Never wr it e fr om t h e ca lcu la t or

a s a ju st ifica t ion t o a n a n swer. Also, n ever wr it e ca lcu la t or la n gu a ge in you r a n swer.
F or exa m ple, a fr ee-r espon se a n swer of fn In t (x 2*e (x),x,2,5) 5 2508.246 ca n n ot get a
poin t for t h e cor r ect set u p, t h ou gh it m a y get poin t s for t h e cor r ect a n swer.
..............................................................................................
Should I include units in my a nswer?
TIP
Never, never, never round a
numb er in a p rob lem unless
you a re g iving the a nswer.
If you g et a va lue of
3.5812399862 mid wa y
throug h a p rob lem, use the
entire d ec ima l a s you
c omp lete the p rob lem.
Round ing or trunc a ting
d uring c a lc ula tions a lmost
a lwa ys results in ina c c ura te
fina l a nswers.
TIP
Bec a use you c a n use your
c a lc ula tor to find
x-interc ep ts, you c a n a lso
use it to solve a ny eq ua tion
without exp la ining how. See
the Tec hnolog y sec tion in
Wha t ca lcula tors ca n I use on the AP test?
Cha p ter 2 for a more
Th e m ost cu r r en t list of ca lcu la t or s ca n be fou n d on t h e College Boa r d Web sit e. Most

fa vor ed a m on g t h e ca lcu la t or s a r e t h e Texa s In st r u m en t s 83 a n d 831 (a n d pr oba bly t h e
TI 89 befor e t oo lon g). It s a m a t t er of pr efer en ce. Som e people live a n d die by H P
ca lcu la t or s a n d will ju m p down you r t h r oa t in t h e blin k of a n eye if you su ggest t h a t t h e
TI ca lcu la t or s a r e bet t er. Ca lcu la t or s like t h e TI-92 ca n n ot be u sed beca u se t h ey h a ve
QWE RTY keyboa r ds. Ma ke su r e t o ch eck t h e Web sit e t o see if you r ca lcu la t or is
a ccept a ble.
I recently ma de a ca lcula tor out of tinfoil, ca t food, a nd toena il

clippings. Are you telling me I ca nt use it on the AP test?
Sor r y, bu t you ca n t . By t h e wa y, I sh u dder t o t h in k a bou t h ow t h e t oen a il clippin gs wer e
pu t t o u se.
d eta iled exp la na tion.
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
NOTE
Only in the four listed
c irc umsta nc es c a n you use
the c a lc ula tor to rea c h a n
a nswer. For insta nc e, most
c a lc ula tors c a n find the
ma ximum or minimum
va lue of a func tion b a sed
on the g ra p h, b ut you
c a nnot use a c a lc ula tor a s
your justific a tion on a
p rob lem suc h a s this.
NOTE
A QWERTY keyb oa rd , for
those not in the know, ha s
keys in the ord er of those
on a c omp uter keyb oa rd .
Ca n I ha ve progra ms stored in my ca lcula tors memory?

Yes. P r ogr a m s a r e n ot clea r ed fr om t h e ca lcu la t or s m em or y befor e t h e t est begin s.
Ma n y of m y st u den t s h a ve st or ed va r iou s pr ogr a m s, bu t I don t t h in k a sin gle st u den t
h a s ever u sed a pr ogr a m on t h e t est . Th e t est wr it er s a r e ver y ca r efu l t o con st r u ct t h e
ca lcu la t or por t ion s of t h e t est so t h a t n o ca lcu la t or h a s a n a dva n t a ge over a n ot h er. It s
r ea lly n ot wor t h you r t im e t o loa d u p you r ca lcu la t or.
If I ca n store progra ms in the ca lcula tor memory, ca nt I store

formula s a nd notes? Why do I need to memorize formula s?
Tech n ica lly, you ca n en t er for m u la s in t h e ca lcu la t or a s pr ogr a m s, bu t t h e t est wr it er s
a lso kn ow you ca n do t h is, so it is h igh ly u n likely t h a t su ch a pr a ct ice cou ld ever be
u sefu l t o you . Rem em ber t h a t m or e t h a n h a lf of t h e t est is n ow ca lcu la t or in a ct ive! Don t
becom e so ca lcu la t or depen den t t h a t you ca n t do ba sic t h in gs wit h ou t it .
.................................................................
All AP t est s a r e gr a ded on a sca le fr om 1 t o 5, wit h 5 bein g t h e h igh est possible

gr a de. Most colleges will a ccept a scor e of 3 or a bove a n d a ssign cr edit t o you for
t h e cor r espon din g cou r se (see t h e Appen dix a t t h e ba ck of t h is book).
Com plet in g Ca lcu lu s BC is equ iva len t t o com plet in g college Ca lcu lu s I a n d Ca lcu lu s II cou r ses. AB cover s a ll of college Ca lcu lu s I a n d a bou t h a lf of Ca lcu lu s II.
Th e t est is in t wo sect ion s: Sect ion I h a s 45 m u lt iple-ch oice qu est ion s a n d la st s

105 m in u t es; Sect ion II h a s 6 fr ee-r espon se qu est ion s a n d la st s 90 m in u t es.
Th e m ost cu r r en t list of ca lcu la t or s ca n be fou n d on t h e College Boa r d Web sit e.
..............................................................................................
SUMMING IT UP
PART II
..........................................................
AP CALCULUS AB & BC
REVIEW
......................................................................
CHAPTER 2
Ca lc ulus Prereq uisites
CHAPTER 3
Lim its a nd Continuity
CHAPTER 4
Differentia ting
CHAPTER 5
Ad va nc ed Top ic s in
Differentia tion
CHAPTER 6
Ap p lic a tions of the Deriva tive
CHAPTER 7
Integ ra tion
CHAPTER 8
Ad va nc ed Method s of
Integ ra tion
CHAPTER 9
Ap p lic a tions of Integ ra tion
CHAPTER 10
Differentia l Eq ua tions
CHAPTER 11
Seq uenc es a nd Series

(BC Top ic s Only)
Ca lc ulus Prereq uisites
....................................................................................
Functions a nd rela tions

Function properties
Inverse functions
Ha nds-On Activity 2.1: Tra nsforming functions
Trigonometry
Pa ra metric equa tions (BC topic only)
Pola r equa tions (BC topic only)
Vectors a nd vector equa tions (BC topic only)
Technology: Solving equa tions with a gra phing ca lcula tor
Summing it up
Th is ch a pt er is m ea n t t o h elp you r eview som e of t h e m a t h em a t ics t h a t lea d

u p t o ca lcu lu s. Of cou r se, a ll m a t h em a t ics (a n d you r en t ir e life, n o dou bt ) u p
u n t il t h is poin t h a s sim ply been a bu ild-u p t o ca lcu lu s, bu t t h ese a r e t h e m ost
im por t a n t t opics. Sin ce t h e focu s of t h is book m u st be t h e a ct u a l con t en t of t h e
AP t est , t h is ch a pt er is m ea n t on ly t o be a r eview a n d n ot a n in -dept h cou r se
of st u dy. If you fin d you r self wea k in a n y of t h ese a r ea s, m a ke su r e t o r eview
t h em a n d st r en gt h en you r u n der st a n din g befor e you u n der t a ke ca lcu lu s it self.
Idea lly, t h en , you sh ou ld plod t h r ou gh t h is ch a pt er ea r ly en ou gh t o a ddr ess
a n y of you r wea kn esses befor e it s t oo la t e (r ea d wit h a sca r y voice).
FUNCTIONS AND RELATIONS

Ca lcu lu s is r ife wit h fu n ct ion s. It is u n likely t h a t you ca n fin d a sin gle pa ge in
you r t ext book t h a t isn t bu r st in g wit h t h em , so it s im por t a n t t h a t you u n derst a n d wh a t t h ey a r e. A fu n ct ion is a specia l t ype of relation , m u ch a s, in
geom et r y, a squ a r e is a specia l t ype of r ect a n gle. So, in t h a t ca se, wh a t is a
r ela t ion ? Let s begin wit h a sim ple r ela t ion ca lled r. We will defin e r a s follows:
r(x) 5 3x 1 2. (Th is is r ea d r of x equ a ls 3 t im es x plu s 2.) Ou r r ela t ion will
a ccept som e sor t of in pu t (x) a n d give u s som et h in g in r et u r n . In t h e ca se of r, t h e
r ela t ion will r et u r n a n u m ber t h a t is t wo m or e t h a n t h r ee t im es a s la r ge a s you r
in pu t . F or exa m ple, if you wer e t o a pply t h e r u le ca lled r t o t h e n u m ber 10, t h e
r ela t ion wou ld r et u r n t h e n u m ber 32. Ma t h em a t ica lly, t h is is wr it t en r(10) 5
3(10) 1 2 5 30 1 2 5 32. Th u s, r(10) 5 32. We sa y t h a t t h e r ela t ion r h a s solu t ion
poin t (10,32), a s a n in pu t of 10 h a s r esu lt ed in a n ou t pu t of 32.
13
c ha p ter 2
OVERVIEW
14
PART II: AP Ca lculus AB & BC Review
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Ex a m p le 1: If g(x) 5 x 2 2 2x 1 9, eva lu a t e g(4) a n d g(23).

S o lu tio n : Sim ply su bst it u t e 4 a n d 23 in for x, on e a t a t im e, t o get t h e solu t ion s:
g(4) 5 (4)2 2 2(4) 1 9 5 16 2 8 1 9 5 17
g(23) 5 (23)2 2 2(23) 1 9 5 9 1 6 1 9 5 24
We ca ll g a n d r r ela t ion s beca u se of t h e wa y t h ey r ela t e n u m ber s t oget h er. Clea r ly, r

r ela t ed t h e in pu t 10 t o t h e ou t pu t 32 in t h e sa m e wa y t h a t g r ela t ed 4 t o 17 a n d 23 t o
24. It is con ven t ion a l t o expr ess t h ese r ela t ion sh ips a s or der ed pa ir s, so we ca n sa y
t h a t g cr ea t ed t h e r ela t ion sh ips (4,17) a n d (23,24).
Th er e a r e n u m er ou s wa ys t o expr ess r ela t ion s. Th ey don t a lwa ys h a ve t o be wr it t en
a s equ a t ion s, t h ou gh m ost of t h e t im e t h ey a r e. Som et im es, r ela t ion s a r e defin ed
sim ply a s t h e set s of or der ed pa ir s t h a t cr ea t e t h em . H er e, we h a ve defin ed t h e
r ela t ion k t wo wa ys t h a t m ea n t h e sa m e t h in g:
k : {(23,9),(2,6),(5,21),(7,12),(7,14)}
You ca n a lso expr ess a r ela t ion a s a gr a ph of va r iou s or der ed pa ir s t h a t cr ea t e it , in

t h e for m (x,y). Below we h a ve gr a ph ed t h e fu n ct ion we defin ed ea r lier, r(x) 5 3x 1 2.
Som et im es, t h e r u le for a r ela t ion ch a n ges depen din g on t h e in pu t of t h e r ela t ion .
Th ese a r e ca lled piecew ise-d efin ed relation s or m u lti-ru led relation s.
Cha pter 2: Ca lculus Prerequisites
15
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S o lu tio n : Th e gr a ph begin s a s t h e pa r a bola x 2 , bu t on ce x 5 21, t h e n ew r u le t a kes

over, a n d t h e gr a ph becom es t h e h or izon t a l lin e y 5 2. Th is lin e st ops, in t u r n , a t x 5
2. Th e fu n ct ion is u n defin ed bet ween x 5 2 a n d x 5 3, bu t for a ll x . 3, t h e lin e 2x 2
4 gives t h e cor r ect ou t pu t s.
N o te : If you didn t r ecogn ize t h a t y 5 x 2 is a pa r a bola , t h a t s OK (for n ow). La t er in
t h e ch a pt er, we discu ss h ow t o r ecogn ize t h ese gr a ph s.
h (22) 5 (22)2 5 4, sin ce 22 fa lls wit h in t h e defin it ion of t h e fir st of t h e t h r ee r u les.

h (21) 5 (21)2 5 1, for t h e sa m e r ea son .
h (0) 5 2, a s 0 is bet ween 21 a n d 2, t h e defin ed r egion for t h e secon d r u le.
h (2) 5 2, a s it ju st fa lls wit h in t h e defin it ion of t h e secon d r u le.
h (2.5) is n ot defin ed for t h is fu n ct ion n o in pu t s bet ween 2 a n d 3 a r e a llowed.
h (6) 5 2(6) 2 4 5 8, sin ce 6 . 3, t h e defin in g r est r ict ion for t h e la st r u le.
So, a r ela t ion is, in essen ce, som e t ype of r u le t h a t r ela t es a set , or collect ion , of in pu t s
t o a set of ou t pu t s. Th e set of in pu t s for a r ela t ion is ca lled t h e d om ain , wh er ea s t h e
set of ou t pu t s is ca lled t h e ran ge. Oft en , it h elps t o look a t t h e gr a ph of t h e r ela t ion t o
det er m in e it s dom a in a n d r a n ge, a s t h e x va lu es cover ed by a gr a ph r epr esen t it s
dom a in , a n d t h e y va lu es cover ed by a gr a ph r epr esen t it s r a n ge. Alt er n a t ively, you
ca n t h in k of t h e dom a in a s t h e n u m ber s cover ed by t h e widt h of t h e gr a ph , a n d t h e
r a n ge a s t h e n u m ber s cover ed by t h e h eigh t of t h e gr a ph .
..............................................................................................
Ex a m p le 2: Gr a ph t h e piecewise-defin ed r ela t ion a n d eva lu a t e h (22), h (21), h (0),

h (2), h (2.5), a n d h (6).
16
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Ex a m p le 3: F in d t h e dom a in a n d r a n ge for t h e r ela t ion s k a n d h , a s a lr ea dy defin ed

a bove.
S o lu tio n : F in din g dom a in a n d r a n ge for k is qu it e ea sy. Th e dom a in is {23,2,5,7} a n d
t h e r a n ge is {21,6,9,12,14}. Th e or der of t h e n u m ber s does n ot m a t t er in t h ese set s.
Th e dom a in of h com es r igh t fr om t h e r ela t ion wr it t en in in t er va l n ot a t ion , t h e
dom a in is (2`,2] (3, `). Th is is t r u e beca u se a n y n u m ber u p t o or in clu din g 2 is a n
in pu t for t h e r ela t ion , a s is a n y n u m ber gr ea t er t h a n 3. Th e r a n ge is ea sily det er m in ed
fr om t h e gr a ph we cr ea t ed a lr ea dy. Look a t t h e h eigh t or ver t ica l spa n of t h e gr a ph .
Not ice t h a t it n ever dips below a h eigh t of 1, bu t a bove 1, ever y sin gle n u m ber is
cover ed. E ven t h ou gh t h er e a r e h oles in t h e gr a ph a t (21,2) a n d (3,2), t h e h eigh t of 2
is cover ed by n u m er ou s ot h er x va lu es. Th u s, t h e r a n ge of t h e gr a ph is (1, `).
Now t h a t you kn ow qu it e a bit a bou t r ela t ion s, it s t im e t o in t r odu ce fu n ct ion s.
Fu n ction s are sim ply relation s su ch th at every in pu t h as a u n iqu e ou tpu t. In ot h er
wor ds, ever y elem en t of t h e dom a in m u st r esu lt in on ly on e ou t pu t .
Ex a m p le 4: Wh ich of t h e r ela t ion s, r, g, a n d k , a s defin ed in t h e pr ecedin g exa m ples,
a r e fu n ct ion s?
S o lu tio n : Ta ke r a s a n exa m ple. Wh en you eva lu a t ed r(10), t h e r esu lt wa s 32. Is t h er e
a n y ch a n ce t h a t som et h in g ot h er t h a n 32 cou ld r esu lt ? No. In a sim ila r fa sh ion , a n y
n u m ber, wh en su bst it u t ed for r, will r esu lt in on ly on e ou t pu t . Th u s, r is a fu n ct ion .
Sim ila r ly, g is a fu n ct ion . H owever, k is n ot a fu n ct ion , sin ce k (7) 5 12 a n d 14. Beca u se
t h e dom a in elem en t 7 r esu lt s in t wo r a n ge elem en t s, 12 a n d 14, k is n ot a fu n ct ion .
Con sider wh a t s h a ppen in g in fu n ct ion k gr a ph ica lly:
Gr a ph ica lly, t h e r oa d (or m a p) fr om 7 in t h e dom a in t o t h e r a n ge for ks, wh er ea s t h e

in pu t s 23, 2, a n d 5 h a ve on ly on e pa t h t o follow. Beca u se of t h is for k in t h e r oa d fr om
7, k is n ot a fu n ct ion .
Oft en , it is u n fr u it fu l t o pon der wh et h er or n ot a r ela t ion is a fu n ct ion m er ely by

r em em ber in g t h e defin it ion . A sh or t cu t t o det er m in in g wh et h er or n ot a given r ela t ion
is a fu n ct ion is t h e vertical lin e test. To u se t h is t est , im a gin e ver t ica l lin es pa ssin g
t h r ou gh t h e gr a ph of t h e r ela t ion . If a n y ver t ica l lin e you cou ld possibly dr a w in t ersect s t h e gr a ph in m or e t h a n on e pla ce, t h e r ela t ion is n ot a fu n ct ion . If a n y ver t ica l
lin e r esem bles for m er U.S. P r esiden t J a m es K. P olk, seek pr ofession a l h elp.
17
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S o lu tio n : F ir st , you n eed t o r em em ber t h a t x 2 1 y 2 5 9 is t h e equ a t ion of a cir cle

cen t er ed a t t h e or igin wit h r a diu s 3. Look a t t h e gr a ph of t h e r ela t ion :
Not ice t h e lin e x 5 2 (on e of m a n y ver t ica l lin es you cou ld im a gin e in t er sect in g t h e
gr a ph ) in t er sect s t h e cir cle in t wo pla ces. By su bst it u t in g 2 for x in t h e equ a t ion , you
ca n det er m in e t h a t t h e t wo poin t s of in t er sect ion a r e (2,=5) a n d (2,2=5). Sin ce x 5
2 h a s t wo dist in ct ou t pu t s, t h is is n ot a fu n ct ion .
E ven if you wer en t su r e wh a t a fu n ct ion wa s by defin it ion , you u n dou bt edly kn ow
m a n y fu n ct ion s a lr ea dy. You sh ou ld kn ow, a t t h e m in im u m , 15 specific fu n ct ion s a n d
t h eir pr oper t ies by h ea r t . Nin e of t h ese a r e list ed below wit h a n y im por t a n t ch a r a ct er ist ics you sh ou ld eit h er m em or ize or be a ble t o det er m in e fr om t h e gr a ph . Th e
r em a in in g six a r e pr esen t ed la t er in t h is ch a pt er. Th ese fu n ct ion s a n d t h eir defin in g
ch a r a ct er ist ics n eed t o becom e r ea lly fa m ilia r t o you .
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Ex a m p le 5: E xpla in wh y t h e r ela t ion descr ibed by t h e equ a t ion x 2 1 y 2 5 9 is n ot a

fu n ct ion .
NOTE
The other six func tions a re
g iven in the trig onometry
sec tion of this c ha p ter.
18
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Im portan t Fu n ction s to M em orize
ALERT!
[[24.9]] 24. The a nswer
c a nnot b e 24 sinc e 24 is
la rg er tha n 24.9, a nd the
g rea test integ er func tion
outp uts the la rg est integ er
less tha n or eq ua l to the
inp ut. [[24.0]] 5 25
Am on g t h ese fu n ct ion s, t h e st r a n gest m igh t be y 5 [[x]], ca lled t h e greatest in teger

fu n ction . Th is fu n ct ion t a kes a n y r ea l n u m ber in pu t a n d r et u r n s t h e la r gest in t eger
t h a t is less t h a n or equ a l t o it . F or exa m ple, [[5.3]] 5 5 sin ce a m on g t h e in t eger s t h a t
a r e less t h a n or equ a l t o 5.3 (5,4,3,2,1,0,21,22,...), t h e la r gest is 5. Likewise, [[4]] 5 4.
H owever, [[23.6]] 5 24, sin ce a m on g t h e in t eger s less t h a n 23.6 (24,25,26,27,...),
24 is t h e la r gest .
19
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YOU MAY USE A GRAPHING CALCULATOR FOR PROBLEMS 3 THROUGH 6.

1. Wh ich of t h e followin g r ela t ion s a r e fu n ct ion s?
(a )
(b)
(c )
(d ) y 5 6(2x) 1 3
exerc ises
D ire c tio n s : Solve ea ch of t h e followin g pr oblem s. Decide wh ich is t h e best of

t h e ch oices given a n d in dica t e you r r espon ses in t h e book.
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EXERCISE 1
20
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1 , x < 0
(e ) y = x
x , x 0
x2, x 1
(f) y =
1nx, x 1
2. If f(x) 5 x 2 2 25, g(x) 5 x 2 1 9x 1 20, a n d h (x) 5

3. If f(x) 5U x U 1 1 a n d g(x) 5
f~x!
, wh a t is t h e dom a in of h ?
g~x!
1
, fin d f(4) 2 g(3) 1 (fg)(0)
3x 2 1 4
4. Wr it e t h e fu n ct ion , m , wh ose gr a ph is given below. Also, fin d t h e dom a in a n d

r a n ge of m .
5. If m (x) is defin ed by t h e gr a ph below, eva lu a t e [[m (23)]], [[m (0)]], a n d [[m (4)]].
6. Gr a ph som e fu n ct ion s(x) su ch t h a t

s(1) 5 4
s(22) 5 s(2) 5 s(5) 5 0
s is in cr ea sin g on [26 , x , 1 a n d 4 , x , 6]
s h a s dom a in [26,6] a n d r a n ge (22,4]
21
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x 2 2 25
. Wh en t h e den om in a t or is zer o, t h e
x 2 1 9x 1 20
fu n ct ion is u n defin ed (sin ce it is illega l in t h is a r m of t h e Milky Wa y t o divide by
zer o). F a ct or in g t h e den om in a t or gives (x 1 4)(x 1 5), wh ich m ea n s t h a t fu n ct ion
is u n defin ed wh en x 5 24 or x 5 25. Th u s, t h e dom a in of h is a ll r ea l n u m ber s
except 24 a n d 25.
2. Accor din g t o t h e pr oblem , h (x) 5
3. Th e fu n ct ion (fg)(x) is cr ea t ed by t h e pr odu ct of f a n d g. Sin ce f(x) z g(x) 5
U xU 1 1
,
3x 2 1 4
1
1 647
1
1 5
or, a ppr oxim a t ely 5.218.
(fg)(0) 5 . Th u s, f(4) 2 g(3) 1 (fg)(0) 5 5 2
4
31 4 124
4. By exa m in in g t h e slopes a n d y-in t er cept s of t h ese lin es, it is n ot t oo h a r d t o get
t h e piecewise-defin ed fu n ct ion .
Th e dom a in of m (x) is (2`,`), a n d t h e r a n ge is (21,`).
6. Th er e a r e a n u m ber of solu t ion s t o t h e pr oblem . On e is given h er e:
exercises
5. F r om t h e gr a ph , you ca n see t h a t m (23) 5 0, m (0) 5 3.5, a n d m (4) 5 2.5, so t h e

gr ea t est in t eger fu n ct ion va lu es a r e n ot t oo difficu lt : [[m (23)]] 5 0, [[m (0)]] 5 3,
a n d [[m (4)]] 5 21.
a nsw ers
1. On ly c a n d e a r e fu n ct ion s. Not ice t h a t a , b, a n d f (wh en gr a ph ed) fa il t h e ver t ica l

lin e t est . In d , ever y in pu t except zer o will r esu lt in t wo ou t pu t s.
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ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS
22
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FUNCTION PROPERTIES
On ce a r ela t ion is cla ssified a s a fu n ct ion , t h e fu n is on ly ju st begin n in g. F u n ct ion s

exh ibit in g ot h er specific pr oper t ies a llow u s t o deepen ou r ever-widen in g pu ddle of
u n der st a n din g. F or exa m ple, som e fu n ct ion s ca n be cla ssified a s even . An even fu n ct ion
is so m a t h em a t ica lly r obu st t h a t a n ega t ive in pu t does n ot a ffect t h e fu n ct ion a t a ll.
Con sider t h e fu n ct ion f(x) 5 x 2 2 3, a n d com pa r e f(4) t o f(24). Upon su bst it u t in g, it is
clea r t h a t f(4) 5 f(24) 5 13. Opposit e elem en t s of t h e dom a in r esu lt in t h e sa m e ou t pu t .
Th u s, f(x) exh ibit s t h e pr oper t y t h a t a llows u s t o cla ssify it a s even . Ma t h em a t ica lly, we
wr it e: If f(2x) 5 f(x), t h en f(x) is even , wh ich m ea n s t h a t eva lu a t in g t h e fu n ct ion a t a
n ega t ive in pu t , 2x, r esu lt s in t h e or igin a l fu n ct ion , f(x).
Ex a m p le 6: P r ove t h a t m (x) 5 5x 4 2 2x 2 1 7 is even , wh er ea s b(x) 5 x 2 1 8x is n ot

even .
S o lu tio n : In or der t o t est m , you su bst it u t e 2x in t o t h e fu n ct ion t o get
m (2x) 5 5(2x)4 2 2(2x)2 1 7 5 5x 4 2 2x 2 1 7 5 m (x).
Beca u se m (2x) 5 m (x), t h e fu n ct ion is even . Sim ila r ly, t est b:
b(2x) 5 (2x)2 1 8(2x) 5 x 2 2 8x b(x)
Th u s, b is n ot even .
Be ca r efu l! It is ju st pla in wr on g t o a ssu m e t h a t beca u se b is n ot even , it m u st be a n
odd fu n ct ion . Th ou gh t h a t a ssu m pt ion is t r u e wit h in t eger s, it is n ot t r u e wit h
fu n ct ion s. In fa ct , for a fu n ct ion t o be odd, it m u st sa t isfy a com plet ely differ en t
pr oper t y: If g(2x) 5 2g(x), t h en g(x) is sa id t o be od d . Wh er ea s t h e t er m s in a n even
fu n ct ion st a y exa ct ly t h e sa m e for a n in pu t of 2x, ea ch of t h e t er m s of a n odd fu n ct ion
will becom e it s opposit e.
Ex a m p le 7: Sh ow t h a t t h e fu n ct ion d (x) 5 x 5 2 3x is odd.
ALERT!
If a func tion d oes not fulfill
the req uirements to b e
even or od d , the func tion is
c la ssified a s neither even
nor od d .
S o lu tio n : Not ice t h a t d (2x) 5 (2x)5 2 3(2x) 5 2x 5 1 3x 5 2d(x). Th er efor e, d is odd.

All of t h e t er m s m u st ch a n ge sign (a s t h ey did in t h is pr oblem ) in or der for t h e
fu n ct ion t o be odd.
An ot h er im por t a n t pr oper t y of a fu n ct ion is t h e sym m et r y, if a n y, t h a t is eviden t in it s

gr a ph . A gr a ph is ca lled sym m et r ic if it is exa ct ly t h e sa m e (or m ir r or ed) on bot h sides
of som e a r bit r a r y lin e or poin t . F or exa m ple, t h e gr a ph of y 5 x 2/3 , below, is descr ibed
a s y-sym m et r ic beca u se t h e gr a ph is iden t ica l on eit h er side of t h e y-a xis. All ysym m et r ic gr a ph s h a ve t h is defin in g pr oper t y: if a poin t (x,y) lies on t h e gr a ph , so
m u st t h e poin t (2x,y).
23
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Th e ot h er t ype of sym m et r y t h a t is ver y com m on t o ca lcu lu s is origin -sym m etry. If a

gr a ph (or fu n ct ion ) is or igin -sym m et r ic, t h en a ll poin t s (x,y) on t h e gr a ph m u st h a ve a
cor r espon din g (2x,2y), a s displa yed in t h e gr a ph below, t h e gr a ph of y 5 x 3 2 x.
Usin g t h e sa m e r ea son in g a s a bove, all od d fu n ction s are origin -sym m etric.

Ex a m p le 8: Det er m in e wh a t sym m et r y, if a n y, is eviden t in t h e fu n ct ion
h :{(3,5),(4,21),(0,0),(23,25),(24,1)}.
S o lu tio n : Th e fu n ct ion h is or igin -sym m et r ic, sin ce ever y (x,y) is pa ir ed wit h a
cor r espon din g (2x,2y).
..............................................................................................
Not ice t h a t t h e sign of t h e in pu t t o t h e fu n ct ion does n ot m a t t er bot h x a n d 2x r esu lt

in t h e sa m e y. Does t h a t sou n d fa m ilia r ? It sh ou ld! Th a t s t h e defin it ion of a n even
fu n ct ion . Th er efor e, all even fu n ction s are y-sym m etric an d vice versa.
TIP
It is ea sy to rememb er tha t
orig in-symmetric func tions
a re od d they b oth sta rt
with the letter o.
24
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EXERCISE 2

In pr oblem s 1 t h r ou gh 6, det er m in e if t h e given fu n ct ion is even , odd, or n eit h er.
1. g(x) 5 x 4 2 3x 2 1 1
2. p(x) 5 2x 3 1
3
3
x
=
3. m (x) 5 3x 1 + 4x
2x 4 5x 2
4. b(x) 5 x 7 1 5x 3 2 17
5. v:{(21,4),(2,6),(1,4)}
6.
7. Th e equ a t ion x 5 y 2 h a s a n x-sym m et r ic gr a ph . In x-sym m et r ic gr a ph s, if t h e

poin t (x,y) is con t a in ed, t h en so is (x,2y). Wh y a r en t x-sym m et r ic fu n ct ion s u sed
a s oft en a s y- a n d or igin -sym m et r ic fu n ct ion s in ca lcu lu s?
8. Com plet e t h e below gr a ph of f if ...
25
.................................................................
j~x!
, wh a t kin d of sym m et r y
k ~x!
ch a r a ct er izes h ?

1. g is even : g(2x) 5 (2x)4 2 3(2x)2 1 1 5 x 4 2 3x 2 1 1 5 g(x).
2. p is odd: p(2x) 5 2(2x)3 1
3
3
2x 5 22x 3 2 =x. Rem em ber
=
that
=21 5 21.
4. b is n eit h er even n or odd: b(2x) 5 (2x)7 1 5(2x)3 2 17 5 2x 7 2 5x 3 2 17 b(x).

Beca u se t h e 217 does n ot ch a n ge sign s like a ll t h e ot h er t er m s, b is n ot odd; b is
clea r ly n ot even , eit h er.
5. v is n eit h er even n or odd. You m igh t t h in k t h e fu n ct ion is even sin ce t h e pa ir of
poin t s (21,4) a n d (1,4) a r e pr esen t . H owever, (22,6) wou ld a lso h a ve t o be pr esen t
t o m a ke t h e fu n ct ion even .
6. r is n eit h er even n or odd sin ce t h er e is n o y- or or igin -sym m et r y.
7. Th e va st m a jor it y of x-sym m et r ic gr a ph s a r e n ot fu n ct ion s, a s t h ey fa il t h e
ver t ica l lin e t est . Not e t h a t t h e sin gle in pu t x r esu lt s in t wo ou t pu t s, y a n d 2y,
wh ich is for bidden in t h e h a ppy la n d of fu n ct ion s.
exercises
3. m is odd. No sign s will ch a n ge in m (2x), except 23x 3 will becom e 3x 3 . Th u s, t h e

en t ir e fr a ct ion (a ll on e t er m ) ch a n ges fr om n ega t ive t o posit ive, a n d
m (2x) 5 2m (x).
a nsw ers
9. If j(x) a n d k (x) a r e odd fu n ct ion s a n d h (x) 5
..............................................................................................
(a ) f is odd
(b) f is even
26
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
8.
j~2x!
. Sin ce j a n d k a r e odd, you kn ow
9. To t est h (x), you pr oceed a s u su a l: h (2x) 5
k ~2x!
j~x!
2j~x!
5
5 h (x). Th er efor e, h is even , a s t h e n ega t ive sign s will
t h a t h (2x) 5
2k ~x! k ~x!
NOTE
Plug g ing one func tion into
a nother is c a lled
c omp osing the func tion
with a nother. It it usua lly
written a s f(g (x)), where the
func tion g is b eing p lug g ed
into f. The nota tion
(f g )(x) is a lso used ; it mea ns
the sa me thing .
ca n cel ou t , m a kin g h (x) y-sym m et r ic by defin it ion .
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
E ver yt h in g h a s it s even t u a l u n doin gfor ever y h igh t h er e is a low, a n d for ever y u p,
t h er e is a down . Th e specific elem en t t h a t a ct u a lly pla ys t h e r ole of spoiler depen ds on
t h e sit u a t ion , of cou r se; Su per m a n h a s kr ypt on it e a n d t h e Wicked Wit ch of t h e West
h a s t h e bu cket of wa t er. F u n ct ion s a r e n o except ion t o t h is r u leever y fu n ct ion , f(x),
h a s it s in ver se fu n ct ion , f 21 (x)a r u le t h a t com plet ely u n does t h e fu n ct ion , effect ively dest r oyin g it , lea vin g beh in d on ly a sm older in g, wide-eyed va r ia ble. Th is is a
lit t le t oo m u ch im a ger y for m ost m a t h em a t icia n s, wh o ch oose, in st ea d, t o wr it e
f(f 21 (x)) 5 f 21 (f(x)) 5 x. Tr a n sla t ed, t h is m ea n s t h a t a n y fu n ct ion of x, wh en plu gged
in t o it s in ver se fu n ct ion (or vice ver sa ), lea ves beh in d on ly x.
An y fu n ct ion s t h a t sa t isfy t h is con dit ion a r e in ver se fu n ct ion s. Som e in ver se fu n ct ion s
a r e pr et t y obviou s. F or exa m ple, t h e in ver se of g(x) 5 x 1 3 is a piece of ca ke: g 21 (x) 5
x 2 3. (Th e opposit e of a ddin g 3 t o a n u m ber is su bt r a ct in g 3). H owever, it s n ot a lwa ys
so obviou s t o det er m in e if fu n ct ion s a r e in ver ses of ea ch ot h er.
Ex a m p le 9: P r ove t h a t h (x) 5 2x 2 2 3, x 0 a n d j(x) 5
x13
a r e in ver se fu n ct ion s.
2
27
.................................................................
h (j(x)) 5 j(h (x)) 5 x
S D
S D
x+3
2
x+3
2
2z
ensure tha t it ha s a n inverse
x13
235
2
x13235
func tion. This is exp la ined
la ter in this sec tion.
~2x 2 3! + 3
5x
2
235
NOTE
We must restric t h (x 0) to
5 j(2x 2 2 3) 5 x
..............................................................................................
S o lu tio n : If t h e fu n ct ion s fit t h e a bove r u le, t h ey a r e in ver se fu n ct ion s, bu t if t h e

glove don t fit , we m u st a cqu it .
2x 2
5x
2
=x 2 5 x
x5x5x
Th er efor e, h a n d j a r e in ver ses.
You m a y be won der in g h ow fu n ct ion s a n d t h eir in ver ses a ct u a lly u n do ea ch ot h er, a s
we h a ve sa id. Th e a n swer is t h a t , in essen ce, in ver se fu n ct ion s r ever se t h e dom a in
a n d r a n ge of t h e h ost fu n ct ion , m a kin g t h e in pu t s t h e ou t pu t s a n d t h e ou t pu t s t h e
1
in pu t s. Con sider t h e sim ple fu n ct ion r:{(1,5),(2,23), 7, ,(9,2p)}. Clea r ly, t h e dom a in
2
1
is {1,2,7,9} a n d t h e r a n ge is {5,23, ,2p}. It is qu it e ea sy t o con st r u ct r 21 sim ply
2
1
swit ch t h e dom a in a n d r a n ge: r 21 :{(5,1),(23,2), ,7 ,(2p,9)}. Now, t h e defin in g pr op2
S D
S D
er t y of in ver se fu n ct ion s becom es m or e obviou s. Con sider r 21 (r(x)) for t h e or der ed pa ir

(1,5). Beca u se r(1) 5 5, we wr it e r 21 (r(1)) 5 r 21 (5) 5 1. You en d u p wit h a 1, ju st a s
you st a r t ed, a n d t h e fu n ct ion s h a ve, in essen ce, ca n celed on e a n ot h er ou t . Th e sa m e
pr oper t y is a t wor k wh en you com m u t e fr om h om e t o sch ool in t h e m or n in g a n d t h en
ba ck h om e in t h e a ft er n oon . Th e r ides t o a n d fr om sch ool a r e in ver sely r ela t ed, a n d
you en d u p ba ck wh er e you st a r t ed.
Beca u se t h e pu r pose of in ver se fu n ct ion s is t o r ever se t h e dom a in a n d r a n ge of a
fu n ct ion ch a n gin g t h e or der of t h e fu n ct ion s (x,y) pa ir t h e gr a ph s of in ver se
fu n ct ion s h a ve a specia l pr oper t y a s well. Th e gr a ph s of in ver se fu n ct ion s a r e r eflect ion s of on e a n ot h er a cr oss t h e lin e y 5 x. Below, t h e fu n ct ion s h a n d j fr om E xa m ple
9 a r e gr a ph ed. Not ice h ow t h ey a r e sym m et r ic t o ea ch ot h er a cr oss t h e y 5 x lin e.
28
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
NOTE
By restric ting the g ra p h of h
to x 0, you a re removing
the left ha lf of the
p a ra b ola . The resulting
g ra p h only inc rea ses from
left to rig ht, a s the p ortion
tha t d ec rea sed wa s
inc lud ed on x , 0. Bec a use
the restric ted g ra p h moves
only in one d irec tion, it is
termed monotonic . Ma ny
monotonic g ra p hs ha ve
inverses b ec a use of their
unid irec tiona l na ture.
It s wor t h discu ssin g wh y you h a d t o lim it t h e dom a in of h in or der t o even qu a lify h

for a n in ver se fu n ct ion . Th e gr a ph of h (x) 5 2x 2 2 3, wit h n o r est r ict ion , h a s t wo r oot s.
r ever se or der ed pa ir s, h 21
S D S D
S D S D
3
,0 . Beca u se in ver se fu n ct ion s
2
3
3
m u st in clu de t h e poin t s 0,
a n d 0,2
. If t h is
2
2
E a sily fou n d, t h e t wo r oot s a r e
3
,0
2
and
wer e a llowed, h 21 wou ld h a ve t wo ou t pu t s for t h e dom a in elem en t 0 a n d, t h er efor e,

cou ld n ot be a fu n ct ion .
Th e visu a l t est u sed t o en su r e t h a t a fu n ct ion h a s a n in ver se is ca lled t h e h orizon tal
lin e test, a n d it wor ks m u ch like t h e ver t ica l lin e t est . If a n y h or izon t a l lin e dr a wn
t h r ou gh a fu n ct ion gr a ph in t er sect s t h e gr a ph a t m or e t h a n on e pla ce, t h e fu n ct ion
ca n n ot h a ve a n in ver se. (In t h e fu n ct ion h a bove, beca u se t h e pa r a bola h a s t wo r oot s,
t h e h or izon t a l lin e y 5 0 in t er sect s t h e pa r a bola in t wo pla ceson e of m a n y su ch lin es
t h a t en su r es h fa ils t h e t est .) If a fu n ct ion pa sses t h e h or izon t a l lin e t est , it is sa id t o
be on e-to-on e. In ot h er wor ds, for ever y in pu t t h er e is on e ou t pu t a n d vice ver sa .
It st ill r em a in s t o a ct u a lly fin d a n in ver se fu n ct ion , bu t t h e pr ocess is r a t h er sim ple
a n d is dir ect ly ba sed on t h e pr oper t ies dicu ssed a bove.
Ex a m p le 10: F in d t h e in ver se fu n ct ion of f(x) 5
4
2x 2 7.
=
S o lu tio n : Beca u se in ver se fu n ct ion s, in effect , swit ch t h e x a n d y va r ia bles, do so in

t h e fu n ct ion , a n d solve t h e r esu lt in g equ a t ion for y. Th is is t h e in ver se fu n ct ion .
4
2x 2 7
=
4
x 5 =2y 2 7
y5
x 4 5 2y 2 7
x 17
5 y 5 f 21 ~x!
2
4
H owever, you m u st r est r ict f 21 (x) t o x 0 t o m a ke t h e gr a ph m on ot on ic a n d en su r e t h e

exist en ce of a n in ver se.
29
.................................................................
YOU MAY USE A GRAPHING CALCULATOR FOR ALL OF THESE PROBLEMS.

1. If f(x) 5 x 2 1 3x 11 a n d g(x) 5
x 2 , fin d
(a ) (f + g)(x)
(b) g(g(x))
(c ) g 21 (f(x))
(d ) g(f(4))
USE THE CHART BELOW FOR PROBLEMS 2 AND 3.
2. If r(x) a n d s(x) a r e fu n ct ion s, a s defin ed a bove, eva lu a t e

(a ) r(s(2))
(b) s(r 21 (0))
(c ) r 21 (r 21 (s(1)))
3. Wh y does s 21 (x) n ot exist ?
4. F in d t h e in ver se fu n ct ion s of ea ch (if possible):
(a ) p(x) 5 2x 3 2 1
(b) y 5 [[x]]
5. If h (x) 5 x 5 1 3x 2 2, fin d h 21 (4).
6. Usin g t h e defin it ion of on e-t o-on e fu n ct ion s, expla in wh y fu n ct ion m , a s defin ed
in t h e fu n ct ion m a p below, h a s n o in ver se.
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 3
30
.................................................................
..............................................................................................

1. (a ) (f + g)(x) 5 f(g(x)) 5 f~=x 2 2! 5 ~=x 2 2!2 1 3~=x 2 2! 1 1 5 x 1 3
~=x 2 2! 2 1.
(b) g(g(x)) 5 g~=x 2 2! 5
==x 2 2 2 2.
21
(c ) F ir st , fin d g (x). Usin g t h e sa m e m et h od a s E xa m ple 10, g 21 (x) 5 x 2 1 2.

Now, g 21 (x 2 1 3x 1 1) 5 (x 2 1 3x 1 1)2 1 2 5 x 4 1 6x 3 1 11x 2 1 6x 1 3.
(d ) Clea r ly, f(4) 5 29 (by su bst it u t ion ), so g(f(4)) 5 g(29) 5
=27.
2. Th is pr oblem is sim plified by fin din g r 21 (x) (by r ever sin g t h e or der ed pa ir of r);
r 21 :{(1,23),(0,22),(2,21),(5,0),(3,1),(21,2),(23,3)}.
(a ) r(s(2)) 5 r(23) 5 1.
(b) s(r 21 (0)) 5 s(22) 5 4.
(c ) r 21 (r 21 (s(1))) 5 r 21 (r 21 (1)) 5 r 21 (23) 5 3.
3. F u n ct ion s h a s n o in ver se beca u se it is n ot on e-t o-on e. Not ice t h a t bot h x 5 22

a n d x 5 3 r esu lt in t h e sa m e ou t pu t of 4. In a on e-t o-on e fu n ct ion , ever y ou t pu t
m u st h a ve on ly on e in pu t t h a t m a ps t o it .
4. (a ) Rever se t h e x a n d y t o get x 5 2y 3 2 1, a n d solve for y; p 21 (x) 5 3 x +1 .
2
(b) Th er e is n o in ver se fu n ct ion for y 5 [[x]] sin ce t h e gr ea t est in t eger fu n ct ion
fa ils t h e h or izon t a l lin e t est . Beca u se t h e gr a ph is a collect ion of h or izon t a l
lin e segm en t s, a h or izon t a l lin e over la ppin g on e of t h ese segm en t s will in t ersect a n in fin it e a m ou n t of t im es.
5. Th is pr oblem is difficu lt beca u se you ca n n ot fin d h 21 (x)if you t r y t o u se t h e

m et h od of E xa m ple 10, you a r e u n a ble t o solve for y. Th u s, a differ en t a ppr oa ch is
n ecessa r y. Not e t h a t if 4 is in t h e dom a in of h 21 (a s eviden ced by t h e fa ct t h a t we
a r e a ble t o plu g it in t o h 21 ), t h en it m u st be in t h e ran ge of h . Th u s, h 21 con t a in s
som e poin t (4,a) a n d h con t a in s (a,4), wh er e a is a r ea l n u m ber. Su bst it u t e t h e
poin t (a,4) in t o h t o get a 5 1 3a 2 2 5 4, a n d u se you r gr a ph in g ca lcu la t or t o solve
t h e equ a t ion . Th er efor e, a 5 1.193 a n d h 21 con t a in s t h e poin t (4,1.193). H en ce,
h 21 (4) 5 1.193. See t h e t ech n ology sect ion a t t h e en d of t h is ch a pt er t o r eview
solvin g equ a t ion s wit h t h e gr a ph in g ca lcu la t or.
6. Not ice t h a t m (c) 5 m (d ) 5 3. Th er efor e, t wo in pu t s r esu lt in t h e sa m e ou t pu t , m
is n ot on e-t o-on e, a n d on ly on e-t o-on e fu n ct ion s ca n h a ve in ver ses. On e-t o-on e
fu n ct ion s m a p on e dom a in elem en t t o on e r a n ge elem en t ; visu a lly, t h is m ea n s
t h a t on ly on e r oa d ca n lea d a wa y fr om ea ch in pu t a n d on ly on e r oa d ca n lea d in t o
ea ch ou t pu t .
31
.................................................................
Th e pr ocess of gr a ph in g fu n ct ion s becom es m u ch ea sier on ce you ca n see h ow t h e

pr esen ce of a ddit ion a l n u m ber s a ffect s a gr a ph . You ca n m ove, r eflect , a n d st r et ch a
gr a ph sim ply by t in ker in g wit h t h e con st a n t s in a fu n ct ion , a s you will lea r n in t h is
a ct ivit y. You will fin d H a n ds-on Act ivit ies like t h is t h r ou gh ou t t h e book. Som et im es, t h e
best wa y t o lea r n som et h in g isn t by r ea din g bu t by doin g. In su ch ca ses, we h a ve
for egon e n ot es a n d su bst it u t ed t h ese la bor a t or y a ct ivit ies. In or der t o com plet e t h is
a ct ivit y, you will n eed t o be a ble t o gr a ph fu n ct ion s on a ca lcu la t or.
1. Dr a w t h e gr a ph s of y 5 x 2 , y 5 x 2 2 1, a n d y 5 x 2 1 2 on t h e gr ids below. Th e fir st
you sh ou ld kn ow by m em or y (a s on e of t h e n in e im por t a n t fu n ct ion s descr ibed
ea r lier in t h e ch a pt er ). You sh ou ld gr a ph t h e ot h er s wit h you r gr a ph in g
ca lcu la t or.
..............................................................................................
HANDS-ON ACTIVITY 2.1: TRANSFORMING FUNCTIONS
TIP
In the Ha nd s-On Ac tivities in
this b ook, exa c t g ra p hs a re
not imp orta nt. It is more
imp orta nt to g et the
g enera l sha p e of the g ra p h
c orrec t a nd p a y more
a ttention to the c onc ep ts
b ehind the
a c tvities instea d .
2. H ow do t h e n u m ber s 21 a n d 2 seem t o a ffect t h e gr a ph of x 2 ?
3. Com plet e t h is con clu sion : Wh en gr a ph in g t h e fu n ct ion f(x) 1 a, t h e a va lu e

ca u ses t h e gr a ph of f(x) t o
4. Usin g t h e sa m e pr ocess a s you did for pr oblem 1 a bove, gr a ph t h e fu n ct ion s

y 5 x 3 , y 5 (x 2 3)3 , a n d y 5 (x 1 1)3 .
5. H ow do t h e n u m ber s 23 a n d 1 seem t o a ffect t h e gr a ph of x 3 ?
32
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
6. Com plet e t h is con clu sion : Wh en gr a ph in g t h e fu n ct ion f(x 1 a), t h e a va lu e

ca u ses t h e gr a ph of f(x) t o
7. Tr y t o dr a w t h e gr a ph s of y 5 (x 1 2)2 2 3 a n d y 5 (x 2 1)3 1 1 below, ba sed on

t h e con clu sion s you m a de in pr oblem s 3 a n d 6. Ch eck you r r esu lt wit h you r
gr a ph in g ca lcu la t or.
8. Gr a ph t h e fu n ct ion s y 5 U x 1 1 U a n d y 5 2U x 1 1 U below. You sh ou ld be a ble t o

gr a ph t h e fir st , bu t u se t h e gr a ph in g ca lcu la t or for t h e secon d.
TIP
You ma y need to c onsult
your owner s ma nua l if
you re not sure how to
g ra p h a b solute va lues on
your c a lc ula tor. On a TI-83,
the c omma nd is a b s( a nd is
found on the
Ma thNumb er menu.
9. Com plet e t h is con clu sion : Mu lt iplyin g f(x) by a n ega t ive, 2f(x), ca u ses t h e
gr a ph t o
10. Gr a ph t h e fu n ct ion s y 5 =x a n d y 5
ca lcu la t or for t h e secon d gr a ph .
=2x
below, a ga in u sin g you r gr a ph in g
33
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
11. Com plet e t h is con clu sion : Su bst it u t in g 2x in t o t h e fu n ct ion f(x) ca u ses it s
gr a ph t o
TIP
When c hec king the sec ond
g ra p h in Question 12 with
1
2 2 ba sed on a ll of
12. Tr y t o dr a w t h e gr a ph s of y 5 2U x 1 2 U 1 3 a n d y 5 2
x21
you r con clu sion s so fa r. On ce a ga in , ch eck you r r esu lt s wit h you r gr a ph in g
ca lcu la t or.
your c a lc ula tor, ma ke sure

you enter the func tion a s
21
. If x 2 1 is not in
x21
p a rentheses, the c a lc ula tor
interp rets the eq ua tion a s
1
2 1.
x
13. Gr a ph t h e fu n ct ion s y 5 x 2 2 2 a n d y 5 U x 2 2 2 U on t h e gr ids below, a ga in u sin g

you r ca lcu la t or on ly for t h e secon d gr a ph , if possible.
14. Com plet e t h is con clu sion : Th e gr a ph s of f(x) a n d U f(x)U differ in t h a t U f(x)U
15. Gr a ph t h e fu n ct ion s y 5
on ly.
=x a n d y 5 =U x U , u sin g you r ca lcu la t or for t h e secon d
34
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
16. Com plet e t h is con clu sion : Th e gr a ph of f(U x U ) fu n da m en t a lly ch a n ges t h e gr a ph of

f(x) by
NOTE
You ma y not ha ve word ed
a ll of your a nswers exa c tly
the sa me, b ut tha t d oes
not mea n they a re wrong .
Chec k to see if the
c onc ep ts a re c orrec t.
SELECTED SOLUTIONS TO HANDS-ON ACTIVITY 2.1

2. Th e gr a ph is m oved down on e a n d u p t wo, r espect ively.
3. ...m ove u p if a is posit ive, a n d m ove down if a is n ega t ive.
5. Th e gr a ph is m oved r igh t 3 a n d left 1, r espect ively.
6. ...m ove left if a is posit ive, a n d m ove r igh t if a is n ega t ive (a lt h ou gh t h is m igh t be
t h e opposit e of wh a t you expect ed).
9. ...flip u pside down , or (m or e m a t h em a t ica lly) r eflect a cr oss t h e x-a xis.
11. ...r eflect a cr oss t h e y-a xis.
14. ...h a s n o n ega t ive r a n ge. Visu a lly, a n y n ega t ive por t ion of t h e gr a ph is flipped so
it lies a bove t h e x-a xis.
16. ...r epla cin g a ll t h e va lu es of x , 0 wit h a m ir r or im a ge of x . 0. Th e gr a ph s f(x)
a n d f(U x U ) a r e a lwa ys y-sym m et r ic.
35
.................................................................
DO NOT USE A GRAPHING CALCULATOR FOR THESE PROBLEMS.

1. Gr a ph t h e followin g:
(a ) y 5 (x 2 p)2 1 2
(b) y 5
1
21
x11
(c ) y 5 U x 2 1 U 1 3
(d ) y 5 2(U x U )3
(e ) y 5
( x 3) 2
2. E xpla in m a t h em a t ica lly wh y t h e gr a ph s of y 5 (2x)3 a n d y 5 2(x 3 ) a r e iden t ica l.

3. Given f(x) a s defin ed in t h e below gr a ph , gr a ph t h e in dica t ed t r a n sla t ion s:
(a )
f(x) 2 2
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 4
36
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
(b)
f(x 1 1)
(c )
2f(x)
(d )
f(2x)
(e )
U f(x)U
37
.................................................................
(g )
g 21 (x), if g(x) 5 f(x) wh en 23 x 21
4. Wh y does y 5 =2x h a ve a gr a ph if you ca n n ot fin d a r ea l squ a r e r oot of a

n ega t ive n u m ber ? (An swer ba sed on t h e gr a ph )

1.
2. Th e gr a ph s a r e iden t ica l beca u se y 5 x 3 is odd; t h er efor e (2x)3 5 2x 3 .
exerc ises
f(U x U )
..............................................................................................
(f)
38
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
3.
f x
1))
f ( )
f ( )
f (x
f ( )
g 1( )
Tr a n sla t e ea ch of t h e gr a ph s defin in g poin t s, a s in dica t ed in t h e gr a ph . To fin d

t h e in ver se fu n ct ion in 3(g), sim ply r ever se t h e or der of t h e coor din a t e pa ir of g(x);
n ot e t h a t g is m a de by t h e poin t s (23,21), (22,0), (21,1) a n d t h e lin e segm en t s
con n ect in g t h em .
39
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
4. You gr a ph ed t h is fu n ct ion in Act ivit y 2.1, Qu est ion 10. Not ice t h a t t h e dom a in of
t h e r esu lt in g fu n ct ion is (2`,0]. A n ega t ive in pu t will elim in a t e t h e pr oblem of a
n ega t ive r a dica n d, a s t h e pr odu ct of t wo n ega t ive n u m ber s is posit ive.
NOTE
Ra d ic a nd is the fa nc yp a nts term for stuff
b enea th the ra d ic a l sig n.
TRIGONOMETRY
It is ext r em ely im por t a n t t o m a ke su r e you a r e ver y pr oficien t in t r igon om et r y, a s a
gr ea t dea l of ca lcu lu s u ses t r igon om et r ic fu n ct ion s a n d iden t it es. We h a ve wh it t led t h e
con t en t down t o on ly t h e m ost im por t a n t t opics. F a m ilia r ize you r self wit h a ll t h ese
ba sics. Lea r n t h em . Love t h em . Ta ke t h em ou t t o din n er, a n d pick u p t h e t a b wit h ou t
gr im a cin g.
Th e st u dy of t r ia n gles a n d a n gles is fu n da m en t a l t o t r igon om et r y. Wh en a n gles a r e
dr a wn in a coor din a t e pla n e, t h eir ver t ices sit a t op t h e or igin , a n d t h e a n gles begin on
t h e posit ive x-a xis. A posit ive a n gle pr oceeds cou n t er clockwise fr om t h e a xis, wh er ea s
p
a n ega t ive a n gle win ds clockwise. Bot h a n gles in t h e below figu r e m ea su r e r a dia n s
3
(60), a lt h ou gh t h ey t er m in a t e in differ en t qu a dr a n t s beca u se of t h eir sign s.
On t h e ot h er h a n d, som e a n gles, a lt h ou gh u n equ a l, look t h e sa m e. In t h e figu r e below,

13p
5p
and B 5
t er m in a t e in t h e exa ct sa m e spot , bu t B h a s t r a veled
t h e a n gles A 5
4
4
a n ext r a t im e a r ou n d t h e or igin , com plet in g on e fu ll r ot a t ion befor e com in g t o r est .
An gles su ch a s t h ese a r e ca lled coterm in al an gles (sin ce t h ey t er m in a t e a t t h e sa m e
r a y).
TIP
In ord er to c onvert from
ra d ia ns to d eg rees, multip ly
180
. To
the a ng le b y
p
c onvert from d eg rees to
ra d ia ns, multip ly the a ng le
p
by
.
180
40
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
TIP
Ra d ia ns a re used a lmost
exc lusively on the AP test
(in lieu of d eg rees).
TIP
One rea l-life exa mp le of
c otermina l a ng les in a c tion
is a revolving d oor. You ma y
enter suc h a d oor a nd
p roc eed rig ht into the
b uild ing or c ontinue to loop
a round a nd a round b efore
entering . The numb er of
times you c irc led in the
revolving d oor d oes not
a ffec t your fina l d estina tion,
a lthoug h it ma y a la rm the
b uild ing s sec urity sta ff (who
a re typ ic a lly muc h la rg er
a nd strong er tha n you).
An ot h er m a jor t opic fr om yon der da ys of pr eca lcu lu s is t h e u n it cir clet h e dr ea ded

cir cle wit h cen t er a t t h e or igin a n d r a diu s on et h a t defin es t h e va lu es of m a n y
com m on sin es a n d cosin es. It is essen t ia l t o m em or ize t h e u n it cir cle in it s en t ir et y.
Th e poin t s n ext t o ea ch of t h e a n gles a r e t h e cosin e a n d sin e of t h a t a n gle, r espect ively. Th e r em a in in g t r igon om et r ic fu n ct ion s a r e dir ect ly ba sed on sin e a n d cosin e:
sin x
cos x
cos x
cot x 5
sin x
1
sec x 5
cos x
1
csc x 5
sin x
tan x 5
Ex a m p le 11: E va lu a t e a ll six t r igon om et r ic fu n ct ion s if u 5
11p
.
6
11p 21
11p =3
5
a n d sin
5
. F r om t h er e, we u se
6
2
6
2
t h e defin it ion s of t h e ot h er fu n ct ion s:
S o lu tio n : F r om t h e u n it cir cle, cos
41
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
1
2
2
11p
sin
11p
6
=3 5 2 1 or 2=3 (bot h a r e cor r ect )
5
tan
5
11p
6
2
3
=3
cos
6
ALERT!
Some stud ents rec ord unit
11p
23
cot
5
, a s cot a n gen t is t h e r ecipr oca l of t a n gen t
6
=3
c irc le va lues in their

c a lc ula tor s memory
2
2 =3
11p
5
or
, a s seca n t is t h e r ecipr oca l of cosin e
sec
6
3
=3
instea d of memorizing
them. Rememb er tha t
11p
5 22, a s coseca n t is t h e r ecipr oca l of sin e
csc
6
a p p roxima tely 50 p erc ent

of the AP exa m is ta ken
Th e r ea son t h a t cot er m in a l a n gles a r e so u sefu l in t r igon om et r y is t h a t a ll t r igon om et r ic fu n ct ion s a r e period ic fu n ction s, beca u se a ft er som e per iod of t im e, t h e gr a ph s
will r epea t t h em selves. Th a t in t er va l of t im e is ca lled (su r pr ise!) t h e period . Sin e,
cosin e, seca n t , a n d coseca n t a ll h a ve a per iod of 2p, wh er ea s t a n gen t a n d cot a n gen t
4p
p
5p
(p)
5 tan
, sin ce t h er e is a n in t er va l of
h a ve a per iod of p. Th u s, t a n
4
4
4
SD S D
bet ween t h e in pu t s, a n d t a n gen t h a s begu n t o r epea t it self.

P er h a ps t h e m ost im por t a n t a spect s of t r igon om et r y you will u se a r e t h e t r igon om et r ic iden t it ies. Th ese a r e u sed t o r ewr it e expr ession s a n d equ a t ion s t h a t a r e u n solva ble
in t h eir cu r r en t for m . In ot h er ca ses, t h r ou gh t h e su bst it u t ion of a n iden t it y, a n
expr ession becom es m u ch sim pler. You ll n eed t o m em or ize t h ese for m u la s, t oo. Below
a r e list ed t h e m ost im por t a n t t r igon om et r ic iden t it es:
P yt h a gor ea n iden t it ies:
E ven a n d odd iden t it ies:
Dou ble-a n gle for m u la s:
without a c a lc ula tor, a nd

those p rec ious notes will b e
ina c c essib le. Ma ke sure to
memorize the unit c irc le!
TIP
You a re not req uired to
ra tiona lize fra c tions on the
AP test (like when
c a lc ula ting sec a nt a nd
ta ng ent in Exa mp le 11),
a nd it s g enera lly a g ood
cos x 1 sin x 5 1 (Ma m m a Th eor em )

1 1 t a n 2 x 5 sec2 x (P a ppa Th eor em )
1 1 cot 2 x 5 csc2 x (Ba by Th eor em )
id ea not to wa ste time

d oing it. However, a
nonra tiona lized fra c tion
sin (2x) 5 2sin x

csc(2x) 5 2csc x
t a n (2x) 5 2t a n x
cot (2x) 5 2cot x
cos(2x) 5 cos x
sec(2x) 5 sec x
ma y not a lwa ys b e listed

a mong multip le-c hoic e
op tions, wherea s a
ra tiona lized a nswer c ould
b e. Ma ke sure you c a n
exp ress your a nswer
sin 2x 5
cos 2x 5
5
5
2sin xcos x
cos 2 x 2 sin 2 x
2cos 2 x 2 1
1 2 2sin 2 x
2t a n x
t a n 2x 5
1 2 tan2 x
either wa y.
42
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
TIP
The nic kna mes Ma mma ,
Pa p p a , a nd Ba b y a re not
c onventiona l b ut a re g ood
for q uic k referenc e. Don t
use these na mes on the AP
Test, or no one will ha ve
a ny id ea wha t you a re
ta lking a b out!
P ower-r edu cin g for m u la s:
1 1 cos 2x
2
1 2 cos 2x
sin 2 x 5
2
2
sin x 1 2 cos 2x
5
tan2 x 5
cos 2 x 1 1 cos 2x
cos 2 x 5
Su m a n d differ en ce for m u la s: sin (x 6 y) 5 sin x cos y 6 cos x sin y

cos (x 6 y) 5 cos x cos y 7 sin x sin y
tan x 6 tan y
t a n (x 6 y) 5
1 7 tan x tan y
sec2 x
2 t a n x.
Ex a m p le 12: Sim plify t h e expr ession
tan x
S o lu tio n : Th e fir st or der of bu sin ess is com m on den om in a t or s, so we ca n a dd t h e
tan x
t o do so. You t h en u se a r esu lt of t h e Big
t er m sm u lt iply t h e t a n x t er m by
tan x
P a ppa Th eor em t o sim plify.
NOTE
Only c osine a nd sec a nt a re
even func tions; the other
trig onometric func tions
a re od d .
NOTE
The c osine ha s three
p ossib le sub stitutions for a
d oub le a ng le. Choosing
the c orrec t one d ep end s
on the c irc umsta nc e.
sec2 x t a n 2 x
2
tan x
tan x
sec2 x 2 t a n 2 x
=
tan x
1
=
tan x
Ex a m p le 13: Rewr it e t h e expr ession
= cot x
=1 2 cos x in
t er m s of sin e.
S o lu tio n : If you m u lt iply t h e secon d power-r edu cin g for m u la by 2, t h e r esu lt is

x
1 2 cos 2x 5 2sin 2 x. Th er efor e, 1 2 cos x 5 2sin 2 . Th is is st ill t r u e, a s t h e cosin e
2
x
a n gle is st ill t wice a s la r ge a s t h e sin e a n gle. Th er efor e, we ca n su bst it u t e 2sin 2 for
2
1 2 cos x:
x
2sin 2
2
x
=2 sin 2
An ot h er m a jor im por t a n t t r igon om et r ic t opic is in ver se fu n ct ion s. In ver se t r igon om et r ic fu n ct ion s ca n be wr it t en on e of t wo wa ys. F or exa m ple, t h e in ver se of cosin e ca n be
wr it t en cos 21 x or a r ccos x. Beca u se t h e fir st for m a t looks like (cos x)21 (wh ich equ a ls
sec x), t h e la t t er for m a t (wit h t h e arc- pr efix) is pr efer r ed by m a n y. Bot h m ea n t h e
sa m e t h in g. Th e t r ickiest pa r t of in ver se t r ig fu n ct ion s is kn owin g wh a t a n swer t o
give.
p
If a sked t o eva lu a t e a r ccos 0, you m igh t a n swer t h a t cosin e is equ a l t o 0 wh en x 5
2
p
3p
3p
. It is t r u e t h a t cos 5 cos
5 0. H owever, t h is m ea n s t h a t t h e fu n ct ion y 5
or
2
2
2
a r ccos x h a s t wo ou t pu t s wh en x 5 0, so a r ccos x is n ot a fu n ct ion ! Th is is r em edied by
r est r ict in g t h e r a n ges of t h e in ver se t r ig fu n ct ion s, a s sh own below.
43
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
NOTE
T h e R estricted R an ges (T h e B u bbles)
Bec a use the Pa p p a

Theorem sa ys 1 1 ta n 2x 5
sec 2x, sub tra c t ta n 2x from
b oth sid es to g et 1 5 sec 2x
2 ta n 2x. This sub stitution is

ma d e in the sec ond step .
An y a n swer for a r csin x, a r ct a n x, or a r ccsc x will h a ve t o fa ll wit h in t h e in t er va l
F G
p p
2 ,
, wh er ea s ou t pu t s for a r ccos x, a r ccot x, a n d a r csec x m u st fa ll in t h e in t er va l
2 2
3p
p
does n ot fa ll
[0,p]. F or ou r pr eviou s exa m ple of a r ccos 0, t h e cor r ect a n swer is , a s
2
2
wit h in t h e cor r ect in t er va l (or bu bblesee Tip a t left ).

Ex a m p le 14: E va lu a t e t h e followin g expr ession s wit h ou t t h e u se of a ca lcu la t or :
(a ) a r csin
=3
the func tion a rc sin 1 is

a sking Where is sine eq ua l
p
to 1? . The a nswer is .
2
=3
3
S o lu tio n : (a ) Th e sin e fu n ct ion h a s t h e va lu e
=3 wh en x 5 p a n d 5p; on ly p fa lls in
2
t h e a r csin bu bble.
1
(b) If a n a n gle h a s a seca n t va lu e of 22, it m u st h a ve a cosin e va lu e of 2 , a s t h e
2
4p
2p
and
. On ly t h e
fu n ct ion s a r e r ecipr oca ls. Cosin e t a kes t h is va lu e wh en x 5
3
3
2p
.
fir st fa lls in t h e a r ccos bu bble, so t h e a n swer is
3
(c ) Not ice t h a t 2
t h e sa m e a s
It help s to rea d a rc a s
where is... . For exa mp le,
2
(b) a r csec 22
(c ) a r ct a n 2
TIP
=3 is t h e sa m e a s
3
1
2
2=3
2
1
(t h e la t t er is ju st n ot r a t ion a lized). Th is is
2=3
TIP
We will refer to the
restric ted trig ra ng es a s
b ub b les for c onvenienc e
a nd , well yes, fun. For

5p
exa mp le, a rc ta n 1
4
5p
is not in the
b ec a use
4
a rc ta n b ub b le (i.e., the
a ng le d oes not fa ll in the
. Ta n gen t is n ega t ive in t h e secon d a n d fou r t h qu a dr a n t s, bu t
interva ls g iven b y The

Restric ted Ra ng es
11p
has the
on ly t h e fou r t h qu a dr a n t is in t h e a r ct a n bu bble. Th u s, on ly a n gle
6
a ppr opr ia t e va lu es (r eca ll t h a t t a n gen t is equ a l t o sin e divided by cosin e). H ow11p p
11p
, you h a ve t o pa ss ou t side t h e a r csin bu bble, sin ce
. , the
ever, t o gr a ph
6
6
2
la r gest va lu e a llowed for a r ct a n , a n d pa ssin g ou t side t h e bu bble is n ot a llowed.
p
Th er efor e, t h e a n swer is t h e cot er m in a l a n gle 2 , wh ich en ds in t h e sa m e spot .
6
d ia g ra m).
44
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
TIP
When g iving solutions to
inverse trig onometric
func tions, a lwa ys rememb er
the b ub b le. The b ub b le is a
ha p p y p la c e. Outsid e the
b ub b le, the p eop le a re not
nic e, a nd the d og s b ite.
Also, it s ha rd to find stylish
shoes tha t a re still
c omforta b le outsid e the
b ub b le.
F in a lly, a s pr om ised ea r lier in t h e ch a pt er, h er e a r e t h e fin a l six fu n ct ion s you

n eed t o kn ow by h ea r t . Th ey a r ebig sh ocker t h e t r igon om et r ic fu n ct ion s:
T h e Trigon om etric Fu n ction s
y = sin x
y = sec x
y = cot x
1
2
y = cos x
y = tan x
y = csc x
45
.................................................................

3p
2
1. If sin b 5 2 a n d p , b ,
, fin d t h e va lu es of t h e ot h er five t r igon om et r ic
5
2
fu n ct ion s for b.
2. Use cot er m in a l a n gles t o eva lu a t e ea ch of t h e followin g:
(a ) sin (11p)
21p
4
13p
(c ) t a n
3
(b) cos
3. E va lu a t e cos(a r csin (22x)).

4. Sim plify:
(a ) t a n 4 x 1 2t a n 2 x 1 1
(b)
cos x sin x
1
sec x csc x
5. Ver ify t h a t csc2 x 5
1
.
cos 2 x 2 cos 2x
6. Solve t h is equ a t ion a lgebr a ica lly: cos 2 x 2 cos 2x 1 sin x 5 2sin 2 x, a n d give
a n swer s on t h e in t er va l [0,2p).
3
7. Gr a ph y 5 2 sin (2x) 1 1.
2
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 5
46
.................................................................
..............................................................................................

1. Th e given in t er va l for b m a kes it clea r t h a t t h e a n gle is in t h e t h ir d qu a dr a n t
(sin e is a lso n ega t ive in t h e fou r t h qu a dr a n t , so t h is in for m a t ion is n ecessa r y).
Th is a llows you t o dr a w a r efer en ce t r ia n gle for b, kn owin g t h a t sin e is t h e r a t io
of t h e opposit e side t o t h e h ypot en u se in a r igh t t r ia n gle. Be ca r efu l t o m a ke t h e
legs of t h e t r ia n gle n ega t ive, a s bot h x a n d y a r e n ega t ive in t h e t h ir d qu a dr a n t .
Usin g t h e P yt h a gor ea n Th eor em , t h e r em a in in g (a dja cen t ) side m ea su r es =21.
F r om t h e dia gr a m , you ca n ea sily fin d t h e ot h er 5 t r igon om et r ic r a t ios.
=21 , t a n
cos b 5 2
b5
5
5
2
, sec b 5 2
, csc b 5 2 , cot b 5
2
=21
=21
=21
2
2. (a ) sin (11p) 5 sin (p) 5 0

(b) cos
S D S D
S D SD
2=2
21p
5p
= cos
=
4
4
2
p
13p
p
3
(c ) t a n
= tan
=
=
p
3
3
cos
3
sin
=3
2
1
2
=3
3. Th is pr oblem is sim ila r t o Nu m ber 1, bu t t h e a ddit ion a l r est r ict ion we h a d t h er e

is r epla ced by t h e bu bble. You kn ow t h a t sin e is posit ive, bu t sin ce t h is is t h e
a r csin fu n cion , on ly t h e fou r t h qu a dr a n t is in t h e bu bble. Th u s, you r r efer en ce
t r ia n gle is dr a wn a s if in t h e fou r t h qu a dr a n t .
F r om t h e dia gr a m , cos u 5
a dja cen t
5
h ypot en u se
=1 2 4x 2
47
.................................................................
cos x
sin x
+
= cos2 x + sin 2 x
, wh ich equ a ls 1 by t h e Ma m m a Th eor em .
1
1
cos x
sin x
5.
1
1
=
sin 2 x
cos2 x cos 2x
cos 2 x 2 cos 2x 5 sin 2 x
cos 2 x 2 sin 2 x 2 cos 2x 5 0
cos 2 x 2 sin 2 x 5 cos 2x
6. Not e t h a t t h is qu est ion specifies t h e in t er va l [0,2p). Th u s, we do n ot ign or e

a n swer s ou t side of t h e a r csin bu bbles in t h e fin a l st ep bu t give a ll t h e a n swer s on
t h e u n it cir cle. Not e a lso t h a t we m a de t h e pr oblem ea sier by su bst it u t in g 1 for
cos 2 x 1 sin 2 x in t h e secon d st ep:
cos 2 x 1 sin 2 x 2 cos 2x 1 sin x 5 0
1 2 (1 2 2sin 2 x) 1 sin x 5 0
2sin 2 x 1 sin x 5 0
7. Th e coefficien t of t h e x a ffect s t h e gr a ph by st r et ch in g or sh r in kin g t h e per iod.

Th e n u m ber h er e 2expla in s h ow m a n y fu ll gr a ph s of sin e will fit wh er e on e
u sed t o. Sin ce t h e per iod of sin e is 2p, n ow t wo fu ll gr a ph s will occu py t h e per iod
in st ea d of on e. H a d t h e coefficien t been 3, t h r ee gr a ph s wou ld squ eeze in t o t h e
3
sa m e spa ce. Th e gives t h e a m plit u de of t h e sin e wa ve. Th e r est of t h e t r a n sla 2
t ion s wor k t h e sa m e a s t h ey did ea r lier in t h e ch a pt er.
exercises
sin x(2sin x 1 1) 5 0
7 11
,
.
x 5 0, p,
6
6
a nsw ers
(b) Su bst it u t in g t h e va lu es of sec x a n d csc x, you get
..............................................................................................
4. (a ) Th e qu a dr a t ic expr ession ca n be fa ct or ed t o get (t a n 2 x 1 1)(t a n 2 x 1 1), or

(t a n 2 x 1 1)2 . By t h e P a ppa Th eor em , t h is equ a ls (sec2 x)2 5 sec4 x.
48
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS (BC TOPIC ONLY)

Th er e a r e n u m er ou s wa ys t o expr ess r ela t ion s, a n d t h e Ca lcu lu s AB t est focu ses a lm ost
exclu sively on r ect a n gu la r r epr esen t a t ion . H owever, t h e BC t est in clu des t h r ee ot h er s:
pa r a m et r ic, pola r, a n d vect or. Lu ckily, t h er e is a lot of over la p a m on g t h e t h r ee, so com e
on ba ck in off of t h a t ledge, BCer you h a ve so m u ch t o live for !
NOTE
In this exa mp le, you should
use t va lues on the interva l
[0,2p), sinc e x a nd y involve
trig onometric func tions. The
g ra p h you g et a s a result is
the unit c irc le! If you think
a b out it, this ma kes a lot
of sense.
P a r a m et r ic equ a t ion s u se a param eter (a t h ir d va r ia ble) in t h eir defin it ion . F or

exa m ple, t h e pa r a m et r ic r epr esen t a t ion of a cir cle cen t er ed a t t h e or igin wit h r a diu s
on e is given by: x 5 cos t, y 5 sin t. You get t h e or der ed pa ir t o dr a w t h e gr a ph by
su bst it u t in g su ccessive va lu es of t in t o t h e expr ession s for x a n d y (t h e a r r ows give you
a sen se of dir ect ion in t h e gr a ph bu t a r e n ot a ct u a lly pa r t of t h e gr a ph ).
Th e gr a ph t ells you a lot m or e t h a n t h e equ iva len t r ect a n gu la r equ a t ion of x 2 1 y 2 5 1.

Wit h t h is set of pa r a m et er s, you ca n ea sily t ell t h a t t h e gr a ph begin s a n d en ds a t t h e
poin t (1,0) a n d pr oceeds in a cou n t er-clockwise pa t h . You ca n even get som e n ot ion of t h e
speed t r a veled in t h e pa t h . Th ese a r e t h e m a jor en dea r in g qu a lit ies of pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s.
You r TI ca lcu la t or ca n ea sily dr a w pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s. P r ess t h e Mode bu t t on a n d
select P a r a m et r ic m ode. Th e Y5 scr een will n ow sh ow x 1T 5 a n d y 1T 5. Type you r
pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s t h er e. Th e x,t,u bu t t on will n ow displa y a t, sin ce you a r e in
pa r a m et r ic m ode. In or der t o a dju st t h e va lu es t h r ou gh wh ich t will cycle, pr ess
Win dow, a n d set t h e m a xim u m a n d m in im u m va lu es of t.
49
.................................................................
S o lu tio n : Usin g a t a ble of va lu es or t h e ca lcu la t or, you get t h e gr a ph of a pa r a bola . If

you got on ly h a lf of t h e pa r a bola , m a ke su r e you a r e su bst it u t in g in n ega t ive va lu es of
t. A good r a n ge for t on t h e ca lcu la t or is 210 t 10 if t h er e a r en t a n y t r igon om et r ic
fu n ct ion s, a lt h ou gh som et im es 10 is u n n ecessa r ily h igh . Bet t er sa fe t h a n sor r y,
t h ou gh .
..............................................................................................
Ex a m p le 15: Gr a ph t h e pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion x 5 1 1 2t, y 5 2 2 t 2 a n d con ver t it t o

r ect a n gu la r for m .
NOTE
If you g ra p h the p a ra metric
eq ua tions x 5 c os (2t), y 5
sin (2t), the g ra p h is the
sa me a s x 5 c os t a nd y 5
sin t, b ut the c irc le is

a c tua lly d ra wn twic e! In
fa c t, the c irc le is fully
c omp leted when t 5 p.
There c a n b e numerous
wa ys to exp ress a g ra p h in
p a ra metric form, d iffering in
d irec tion, p a th, a nd the
sp eed of the g ra p h.
In or der t o con ver t t o r ect a n gu la r for m , solve eit h er x or y for t a n d plu g in t o t h e ot h er.
Th e x expr ession seem s ea sier, so it s bet t er t o st a r t by solvin g it for t:
x 2 1 5 2t
x21
=t
2
x21 2
y522
2
~x 2 1!2
y522
4
1
y 5 2 (x 2 1)2 1 2
4
TIP
S D
Ad just the ra ng e of t on the

c a lc ula tor b y p ressing the
Wind ow b utton.
Th is is a pa r a bola wit h ver t ex (1,2) open in g down wa r d, a s is ver ified in ou r gr a ph .
50
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Ex a m p le 16: Gr a ph t h e pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion x 5 cos 2 t, y 5 sin t, a n d fin d it s

cor r espon din g equ a t ion in r ect a n gu la r for m .
S o lu tio n : Aga in , gr a ph u sin g a t a ble of va lu es or a ca lcu la t or, bu t m a ke su r e t o r eset
you r t va lu es t o [0,2p). In or der t o con ver t t o r ect a n gu la r for m , u t ilize t h e Ma m m a
Th eor em a n d su bst it u t e.
cos 2 u 1 sin 2 u 5 1
x 1 y2 5 1
x 5 1 2 y2
Not ice t h a t t h e pa r a m et r ic gr a ph does n ot in clu de t h e en t ir e pa r a bola . Th er efor e, it is

im por t a n t t h a t you r est r ict t h e r ect a n gu la r equ a t ion so t h a t it s gr a ph m a t ch es
exa ct ly. Th e fin a l a n swer is x 5 1 2 y 2 , x 0.
51
.................................................................

1. Dr a w t h e gr a ph s of t h e followin g pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s a n d r ewr it e ea ch in
r ect a n gu la r for m :
(a ) x 5 3cos u, y 5 2sin u
(b) x 5 t 2 1, y 5 2 2
2
t
2. Given t h e gr a ph s below, dr a w t h e gr a ph of t h e pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s x 5 a(t),

y 5 b(t).
3. F in d pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s wh ose gr a ph is a n ellipse cen t er ed a t t h e or igin wit h

h or izon t a l m a jor a xis of len gt h 8 a n d m in or a xis of len gt h 4.
4. Ba sed on you r wor k on t h e a bove pr oblem s, n a m e a n ot h er ben efit of pa r a m et r ic
equ a t ion s ver su s r ect a n gu la r fu n ct ion s.
5. Cr ea t e a s m a n y pa r a m et r ic r epr esen t a t ion s of y 5 ax 1 b a s you ca n .

1. (a ) Th e gr a ph is ea sy t o fin d via ch a r t or gr a ph in g ca lcu la t or. In t h is in st a n ce, it
is ju st a s ea sy t o fin d by con ver t in g t h e equ a t ion t o r ect a n gu la r for m . Beca u se
t h e Ma m m a Th eor em st a t es t h a t cos 2 u 1 sin 2 u 5 1, you sh ou ld solve t h e
x
pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s for cos u a n d sin u. If you do, t h e r esu lt is 5 cos u a n d
3
x2 y2
y
5 sin u. By su bst it u t ion in t o t h e Ma m m a Th eor em ,
+ = 1, wh ich is
2
9
4
st a n da r d for m for a n ellipse.
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 6
52
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
(b) Aga in , t h e ch a llen ge is t h e con ver sion t o r ect a n gu la r for m . In t h is pr oblem , it

is ea sy t o solve t h e x equ a t ion for t: t 5 x 1 1. Su bst it u t e t h is in t o t h e y
2
. Sim plify t h is t o get t h e r ect a n gu la r equ a t ion
equ a t ion t o get y 5 2 2
x+1
2x
.
y5
x+1
2. Ma ke a n or der ed pa ir t o begin gr a ph in g. F or exa m ple, con sider t 5 2. At t h is

va lu e of t, a(2) 5 0 a n d b(2) 5 2. Th er efor e, t h e gr a ph will con t a in t h e poin t (0,2).
Use a sim ila r pr ocess for t h e ot h er va lu es of t bet ween 0 a n d 6.
53
.................................................................
x2
16
sin 2 t =
y4
(beca u se of Ma m m a )
4
y
x
sin t =
4
2
x 5 4cos t
y 5 2sin t
cos t =
4. P a r a m et r ic equ a t ion s ca n ea sily descr ibe n on -fu n ct ion s, a s best eviden ced in
Solu t ion 2 a bove. Th a t cr a zy-lookin g t h in g cer t a in ly does n ot pa ss t h e ver t ica l
lin e t est .
5. Th e sim plest r epr esen t a t ion of a n y fu n ct ion in pa r a m et r ic for m is a ccom plish ed
by set t in g x 5 t a n d t o m a ke t h a t su bst it u t ion in t h e y equ a t ion : y 5 at 1 b.
H owever, t h er e a r e m a n y wa ys t o expr ess t h a t fu n ct ion . Not ice t h a t x 5 t 2 b a n d
y 5 at 2 ab 1 b a lso r esu lt s in t h e sa m e gr a ph . Sim ply pick a n yt h in g for t h e x
equ a t ion a n d a dju st y a ccor din gly.
POLAR EQUATIONS (BC TOPIC ONLY)
All pola r poin t s a r e given in t h e for m (r,u), wh er e u is a n a n gle in st a n da r d posit ion

a n d r is a dist a n ce a lon g t h e t er m in a l r a y of t h a t a n gle. Th er efor e, in or der t o gr a ph
a pola r coor din a t e, fir st dr a w t h e a n gle specified by u, a n d t h en cou n t r u n it s a lon g t h e
t er m in a l r a y.
exercises
P ola r equ a t ion s a r e a ver y h a n dy wa y t o expr ess com plex gr a ph s ver y sim ply. H owever,
t h e pola r syst em u t ilizes a com plet ely differ en t coor din a t e a xis a n d gr a ph in g syst em .
On ce you wa r m u p t o pola r coor din a t es, it s n ot t oo h a r d t o bea r t h em .
a nsw ers
cos2 t =
..............................................................................................
3. You r wor k in 1(a ) m a kes t h is m u ch ea sier. Th e ellipse descr ibed h a s equ a t ion
2
x2 y
+
= 1. Beca u se t h e Ma m m a Th eor em a lso h a s t wo t er m s bein g su m m ed t o
16
4
equ a l 1, you ca n do t h e followin g:
54
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
3p
5p
p
Ex a m p le 17: Gr a ph t h e pola r coor din a t es A 5 (3, ), B 5 (1,2 ), a n d C 5 (22, ).
2
4
6
S o lu tio n :
NOTE
The orig in is a lso referred to
a s the p ole when
g ra p hing henc e the
na me of p ola r eq ua tions.
p
(or 90), t h e posit ive y-a xis. Cou n t 3 u n it s
2
a lon g t h is r a y fr om t h e or igin t o pla ce A. B is on e u n it a wa y fr om t h e or igin a t u 5
5p
3p
, you cou n t t wo u n it s
2 . C is ju st a lit t le t r ickier. Aft er dr a win g t h e a n gle u 5
4
6
back w ard fr om t h e or igin , a s r is given a s 22. Th er efor e, C en ds u p in t h e fou r t h
qu a dr a n t r a t h er t h a n t h e secon d, a s you m igh t h a ve h ypot h esized.
P oin t A is gr a ph ed on t h e t er m in a l r a y of
Gr a ph in g pola r equ a t ion s con sist s of n ot h in g m or e t h a n plot t in g a ser ies of pola r

poin t s (a s you ju st did) a n d con n ect in g t h e r esu lt in g dot s. J u st a s wa s t h e ca se for
pa r a m et r ic gr a ph s, a t a ble of va lu es a n d t h e ca lcu la t or a r e you r m a in gr a ph in g t ools.
TIP
Choose p ola r mod e b y
p ressing the Mod e b utton
on your c a lc ula tor. The
Y5 sc reen now func tions
a s a s the r5 sc reen, a nd
p ressing the x,t,u b utton will
d isp la y u.
NOTE
The g ra p h of r 5 4sin 2u is
c a lled a rose c urve, sinc e it
sort of looks like a flower.
More c ommon p ola r
g ra p hs a re g iven in the
exerc ises.
Ex a m p le 18: Gr a ph r 5 4sin 2u wit h ou t weepin g.
S o lu tio n : To solve t h is, we will a llow u t o t a ke on va lu es fr om 0 t o 2p a n d fin d t h e

cor r espon din g r va lu es. Th e t a ble below gives t h e m a jor a n gles of t h e fir st qu a dr a n t ,
a n d t h e r esu lt , r, wh en t h ose a n gles, u, a r e plu gged in t o r 5 4sin 2u. If you con t in u e
t h is pr ocess for t h e ot h er t h r ee qu a dr a n t s, you will obt a in a sim ila r sh a pe.
It is im por t a n t t h a t you kn ow h ow pola r gr a ph s a r e cr ea t ed, bu t it

will t ypica lly gr a ph t h em on you r ca lcu la t or. Th e AP t est is m or e
differ en t skills t o pola r a n d pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s, r a t h er t h a n
gr a ph in g t h em . So, don t spen d t oo m u ch t im e h on in g you r skills
t h ese qu icklym a ke u se of you r t ech n ology.
is expect ed t h a t you
focu sed on a pplyin g
focu sin g on sim ply
a n d t r yin g t o gr a ph
Alt h ou gh you pr a ct iced con ver t in g pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s t o r ect a n gu la r for m , n o su ch

pr a ct ice follows su it for pola r equ a t ion s. As you sa w in E xa m ple 18, t h e gr a ph s ca n be
55
.................................................................
Ex a m p le 19: Con ver t t h e pola r coor din a t e (22,
5p
) in t o a r ect a n gu la r coor din a t e.
4
S o lu tio n : An y pola r coor din a t e (r,u) ca n be t r a n sfor m ed in t o t h e cor r espon din g r ect 5p
a n gu la r coor din a t e (x,y) wit h t h e for m u la s x 5 rcosu a n d y 5 rsin u. Th er efor e, (22, )
4
2
2
=
=
,22z2
= ~=2,=2!. Th e dia gr a m
becom es t h e r ect a n gu la r coor din a t e 22z2
2
2
below gives a visu a l pr oof of t h ist h e r igh t t r ia n gle cr ea t ed by t h e pola r coor din a t e
a n d t h e a xes is a 45-45-90 isosceles r igh t t r ia n gle wit h h ypot en u se 2. Ba sic geom et r y
ver ifies t h a t t h e legs h a ve len gt h =2.
Ex a m p le 20: Wh a t pola r coor din a t e cor r espon ds t o t h e r ect a n gu la r coor din a t e

(23,23)?
p
5p
opposit e 23
=
= 1. Ta n gen t h a s a va lu e of 1 a t u 5 a n d
,
a dja cen t 23
4
4
5p
sin ce you a r e wor kin g in t h e t h ir d qu a dr a n t . All t h a t
bu t t h e cor r ect a n swer is
4
r em a in s, t h en , is t o fin d r, wh ich is ver y ea sy t o do t h a n ks t o good old P yt h a gor a s. By
t h e P yt h a gor ea n Th eor em , (23)2 1 (23)2 5 r 2 , so r 5 =18 5 3 =2. Th u s, t h e cor r ect
5p
.
pola r coor din a t e is 3 =2,
4
S o lu tio n : Not ice t h a t u =
..............................................................................................
qu it e com plica t ed, a n d t h e m a jor st r en gt h of pola r gr a ph in g is t h e ea se wit h wh ich

su ch com plica t ed gr a ph s ca n be for m ed. Th er es n o n eed t o st r on g-a r m t h e equ a t ion s
in t o r ect a n gu la r for m . It is in t er est in g, h owever, h ow sim ply pola r coor din a t es ca n be
con ver t ed in t o r ect a n gu la r coor din a t es a n d vice ver sa . Well, a t lea st it is in t er est in g t o
m e. A lit t le.
56
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 7
YOU MAY USE A GRAPHING CALCULATOR FOR PROBLEMS 4 AND 5.

1. Gr a ph t h e followin g pola r equ a t ion s wit h ou t a t a ble of va lu es:
(a ) r 5 2.5
3p
4
(c ) r 5 csc u
(b) u 5
2. P r edict t h e gr a ph of r 5 u, 0 u 2p, a n d ju st ify you r pr edict ion .

3. Below a r e exa m ples of com m on pola r cu r ves. Ma t ch t h e gr a ph s t o t h e cor r ect
equ a t ion s below.
r 5 1 1 sin u
r 5 2 1 3cos u
r 2 5 9cos 2u
r 5 2cos 3u
4. Gr a ph r 5 2sin u.
57
.................................................................
11p
t o r ect a n gu la r coor din a t es
6
(b) (x,y) 5 ~2=3,1! t o pola r coor din a t es.

1. (a )
Th e gr a ph will h a ve a r a diu s of 2.5, r ega r dless of t h e a n gle u. Does t h is sou n d

fa m ilia r ? Yep...it s a cir cle wit h r a diu s 2.5.
(b)
(c )
exercises
In t h is ca se, on ly t h e a n gle com es in t o pla y. Alon g t h a t a n gle, a n y r a diu s is fa ir

ga m e. Th e r esu lt is a lin e t h a t cor r espon ds t o t h e a n gle in dica t ed. Not ice t h a t t h e
lin e st r et ch es in t o t h e fou r t h qu a dr a n t (beca u se t h e n ega t ive r a dii a r e possible).
a nsw ers
(a ) (r,u) 5 22,
..............................................................................................
5. Con ver t :
58
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
1
a n d cr oss-m u lt iply, t h e r esu lt is rsin u 5 1.
sin u
H owever, a ccor din g t o E xa m ple 19, we kn ow t h a t y 5 rsin u. Th er efor e, rsin u 5 1
becom es t h e equ a t ion y 5 1, a h or izon t a l lin e.
If you r ewr it e r 5 csc u a s
2. Clea r ly, you begin t h e gr a ph a t t h e pole, a s r 5 u 5 0. As u in cr ea ses (m ovin g

cou n t er clockwise), you r r a diu s (bein g equ a l) in cr ea ses a lso. Th er efor e, t h e fu r t h er
you r ot a t e, t h e lon ger t h e r a diu s, for m in g a spir a l.
3. Th ese pr oblem s a r e sim ply a st u dy in t est in g poin t s. On ce you ch oose a sign ifica n t n u m ber of a n gles a n d plu g t h em in t o ea ch of t h e for m u la s, you ca n begin t o
see wh ich gr a ph s cou ld r epr esen t t h ose equ a t ion s.
(A) r 5 2cos 3u: A rose cu r ve h a s pet a ls, bu t n ot n ecessa r ily on ly t h r ee pet a ls,
a s in t h is pa r t icu la r gr a ph .
(B ) r 2 5 9cos 2u: A lem n iscate is in t h e sh a pe of a figu r e eigh t t h a t you ca n
sk ate.
(C) r 5 1 1 sin u: A card ioid cu r ve looks a lit t le bit like a h ea r t , h en ce t h e
n a m e. To m e, it looks m or e like a t u sh pr in t in a r eclin er.
(D ) r 5 2 1 3cos u: A lim aon m a y or m a y n ot h a ve t h e pu cker ed loop eviden t
in t h is gr a ph wit h ou t t h e loop, a lim aon looks like a less r ou n ded
ca r dioid.
4. A ca lcu la t or or a t a ble of va lu es r esu lt s in t h e gr a ph below. Ma ke su r e you ca n do

t h ese by eit h er m et h od.
59
.................................................................
Vect or cu r ves com plet e t h e t r iu m vir a t e of BC gr a ph r epr esen t a t ion s. Alt h ou gh t h ey

h a ve ver y pecu lia r a n d in dividu a l ch a r a ct er ist ics, t h ey a r e ver y closely r ela t ed (by
m a r r ia ge) t o pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s, a s you will see. A vector is, in essen ce, a lin e segm en t
wit h dir ect ion . It is t ypica lly dr a wn a s a n a r r ow on t h e coor din a t e pla n e. Th e dia gr a m
below is t h e vect or Y
AB , wit h in it ia l poin t A 5 (23,22) a n d t er m in a l poin t B 5 (4,1).
exercises
VECTORS AND VECTOR EQUATIONS (BC TOPIC ONLY)
a nsw ers
(b) On ce a ga in , a gr a ph is ver y h elpfu l; fr om t h e dia gr a m below, t a n u =

1
2
1
=3 . Th er efor e, u 5 5p. Use t h e P yt h a gor ea n Th eor em t o fin d r: 1 2 1
=
2
6
2=3
5p
2
2
~2=3! 5 r , so r 5 =4. On e a ppr opr ia t e pola r coor din a t e is (2, ).
6
..............................................................................................
5. (a ) Use t h e pola r coor din a t e t o cr ea t e a r igh t t r ia n gle, fr om wh ich it is clea r t h a t

x 5 2=3 a n d y 5 1. You ca n a lso u se t h e for m u la s fr om E xa m ple 19. F or
11p
=3 5 2 3. Th e y-coor din a t e will
5 22 z
in st a n ce x 5 rcos u 5 22 z cos
=
6
2
wor k ju st a s ea sily.
60
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
NOTE
You rea lly d on t need a
formula to p ut a vec tor in
sta nd a rd formyou c a n
simp ly c ount the numb er of
units you tra veled a long
the g ra p h.
Alt h ou gh you ca n dr a w vect or s a n ywh er e in t h e coor din a t e pla n e, it s r ea lly h a n dy

wh en t h ey begin a t t h e or igin su ch a vect or is sa id t o be in stan d ard position .
Ex a m p le 21: P u t vect or Y
AB (a s defin ed a bove) in st a n da r d posit ion .
Dy 1 2 ~22! 3
=
= . Th er eDx 4 2 ~23! 7
for e, t o get fr om poin t A t o poin t B , you t r a vel u p 3 u n it s a n d t o t h e r igh t 7 u n it s.
S o lu tio n : To begin , ca lcu la t e t h e slope of t h e lin e segm en t :
Y h a s t h e sa m e len gt h a n d dir ect ion wh er ever it is on t h e coor din a t e

Beca u se vect or AB
pla n e, m ovin g it t o st a n da r d posit ion did n ot a ffect it a t a ll. In fa ct , we ca n n ow wr it e
Y in com pon en t form : Y
AB
AB 5 ,7,3.. Gr a ph in g ,7,3. is a lm ost equ iva len t t o gr a ph in g t h e poin t (7,3), except t h a t ,7,3. will h a ve a vect or lea din g u p t o t h a t poin t .
Th a n ks t o P yt h a gor a s (ya got t a love h im ), fin din g t h e len gt h of a vect or, den ot ed
YUU , is ver y sim ple. F or in st a n ce, UU AB
YUU fr om E xa m ple 21 is =58. To ca lcu la t e t h e
UU AB
len gt h , sim ply dr a w a r igh t t r ia n gle wit h t h e vect or a s it s h ypot en u se a n d a pply t h e
P yt h a gor ea n Th eor em .
61
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..............................................................................................
P er h a ps t h e m ost com m on wa y a vect or is r epr esen t ed is in u n it vector for m . A u n it

vect or is defin ed a s a vect or wh ose len gt h is 1. Clea r ly, i 5 ,1,0. a n d j 5 ,0,1. a r e
u n it vect or s, a n d t h ese vect or s a r e t h e ba ckbon e of u n it vect or for m .
NOTE
The leng th of a vec tor is
a lso c a lled the norm of the
vec tor.
Let s pu t good old vect or Y

AB 5 ,7,3. fr om pr eviou s exa m ples in u n it vect or for m .
Th is vect or is cr ea t ed by m ovin g 7 u n it s r igh t a n d 3 u n it s u p fr om t h e or igin . As
dem on st r a t ed by t h e dia gr a m below, t h is is t h e sa m e a s seven i vect or s a n d t h r ee j
Y 5 7i 1 3j 5 7i 1 3j.
vect or s. Th er efor e, AB
NOTE
In textb ooks, vec tor v c a n
b e written a s vY or v. Sinc e
ha nd writing in b old fa c e is
not p ossib le, you should
d esig na te vec tors using the
little a rrow.
Ex a m p le 22: If vect or v h a s in it ia l poin t (22,6) a n d t er m in a l poin t (1,25), com plet e

t h e followin g:
(a ) P u t v in com pon en t for m .
In or der t o t r a vel fr om t h e begin n in g t o t h e en d of t h e vect or, you pr oceed
r igh t 3 u n it s a n d down 11. Th u s, v 5 ,3,211..
62
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..............................................................................................
(b) F in d UU v UU .
As pict u r ed in t h e dia gr a m below, UU v UU 5
3 2 + 112 = 130
(c ) Wr it e v in u n it vect or for m .
An y vect or ,a,b. h a s u n it vect or for m ai 1 bj, so v 5 3i 2 11j.
Gr a ph in g vect or cu r ves is qu it e ea sy. Alt h ou gh t h e gr a ph s a r e cr ea t ed by
vect or s, t h e gr a ph s a r e n ot cover ed wit h a r r ows. In st ea d, you ca n gr a ph
vect or equ a t ion s exactly th e sam e a s pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s.
Ex a m p le 23: Gr a ph t h e vect or cu r ve r(t) 5 (t 1 1)i 1 t 3 j.
S o lu tio n : Th is vect or fu n ct ion ca n be expr essed pa r a m et r ica lly. Rem em ber t h a t i

r efer s t o h or izon t a l dist a n ce a n d j t o ver t ica l dist a n ce, exa ct ly like x a n d y, r espect ively. Th er efor e, t h is vect or fu n ct ion h a s exa ct ly t h e sa m e gr a ph a s t h e pa r a m et r ic
equ a t ion s x 5 t 1 1, y 5 t 3 , wh ich you ca n gr a ph u sin g a ca lcu la t or or t a ble of va lu es.
Solvin g x 5 t 1 1 for t a n d su bst it u t in g t in t o t h e y equ a t ion gives you t h e r ect a n gu la r
for m of t h is gr a ph : y 5 (x 2 1)3 .
63
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YOU MAY USE A GRAPHING CALCULATOR FOR PROBLEM 4 ONLY.

F or n u m ber s 1 t h r ou gh 3, v 5 ,2,3., w h a s in it ia l poin t (3,23) a n d t er m in a l poin t
(21,4), a n d p 5 2v 2 w .
1. E xpr ess p in com pon en t for m .
2. F in d UU p UU .
3. Wh a t is t h e u n it vect or for m of p ?
4. Given vect or s r(t) 5 eti 1 (2et 1 1)j a n d s (t) 5 ti 1 (2t 1 1)j, expla in wh y r a n d
s h a ve t h e sa m e r ect a n gu la r for m bu t differ en t gr a ph s.

1. F ir st , pu t w in com pon en t for m . You ca n eit h er cou n t u n it s fr om t h e st a r t t o t h e
en d of t h e vect or or sim ply fin d t h e differ en ce of t h e begin n in g a n d en din g
coor din a t es: w 5 ,21 2 3,4 2(23). 5 ,24,7.. Now, p 5 2v 2 w 5
2,2,3. 2 ,24,7. 5 ,4,6. 2 ,24,7. 5 ,8,21..
2. If you like, you ca n dr a w a r igh t t r ia n gle t o ju st ify you r ca lcu la t ion s, bu t it is n ot
n ecessa r y. UU p UU = =64 + 1 = =65.
3. On ce p is in com pon en t for m , a ll of t h e h a r d wor k is don e. In st a n da r d u n it vect or
for m , p 5 8i 2 1j.
4. You ca n expr ess r(t) a s t h e pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s x 5 et, y 5 (2et 1 1). By
su bst it u t ion , y 5 2x 1 1. You will get t h e ver y sa m e pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s for s (t),
bu t t h e gr a ph of s (t) is t h e en t ir e lin e 2x 1 1, wh er ea s t h e gr a ph of r(t) is 2x 1 1,
x . 0. Th e r ea son for t h is is t h e dom a in of et. Th in k ba ck t o t h e m a jor gr a ph s t o
m em or ize for t h e ch a pt er. Rem em ber t h a t et h a s a posit ive r a n ge a n d ca n t ou t pu t
n ega t ive n u m ber s or 0. Th er efor e, a ft er su bst it u t in g x 5 et in t o y t o get 2x 1 1,
t h a t r esu lt in g lin ea r fu n ct ion ca r r ies wit h it t h e r est r ict ion x . 0, lim it in g t h e
gr a ph a ccor din gly.
TECHNOLOGY: SOLVING EQUATIONS WITH A GRAPHING

CALCULATOR
You kn ow h ow t o solve equ a t ion s; you ve been doin g it su ccessfu lly sin ce in t r odu ct or y
a lgebr a , a n d you r e n ot even a fr a id of qu a dr a t ic fu n ct ion s. Br in g em on , you sa y, wit h
a m en a cin g glin t in you r eye a n d a qu a dr a t ic for m u la pr ogr a m h u m m in g in you r
ca lcu la t or s m em or y. On e pr oblem : t h e College Boa r d a lso kn ows t h a t you h a ve a ccess t o
ca lcu la t or t ech n ology, a n d som e of t h e equ a t ion s you ll be a sked t o solve a r en t goin g t o
be t h e pr et t y lit t le fa ct or a ble on es you r e u sed t o. In fa ct , som e equ a t ion s on t h e
ca lcu la t or-a ct ive sect ion will look down r igh t u gly a n d fr igh t en in g.
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 8
64
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Th e College Boa r d expect s t h a t you will h a ve a ccess t o a n d pr oficien cy wit h a

gr a ph in g ca lcu la t or t h a t ca n do fou r m a jor t h in gs, a t t h e lea st , a s descr ibed in
Ch a pt er 1. Yo u m u s t be a ble to s o lv e e qu a tio n s (e v e n u g ly o n e s ) w ith y o u r
g ra p h in g c a lc u la to r. As a lwa ys, in st r u ct ion s a r e in clu ded for t h e TI-83, cu r r en t ly
t h e m ost com m on ca lcu la t or u sed on t h e AP t est . Con su lt you r in st r u ct ion m a n u a l if
you h a ve a ca lcu la t or ot h er t h a n t h e TI-83.
Ex a m p le 24: F in d t h e solu t ion s t o t h e equ a t ion e2x 1 cos x 5 sin x on [22p,2p].
S o lu tio n : Th er e is n o ea sy wa y t o solve t h is; it s ju st en ou gh t o sh a ke you r fa it h in t h e
u sefu ln ess of t h e qu a dr a t ic for m u la . H owever, t h er e is h ope! F ir st , m ove t h in gs
a r ou n d so t h a t t h e equ a t ion equ a ls zer o. If you su bt r a ct sin x fr om bot h sides of t h e
equ a t ion , t h a t goa l is a ccom plish ed: e2x 1 cos x 2 sin x 5 0. Now, t h e solu t ion s t o t h e
or igin a l equ a t ion will be t h e r oot s of t h is n ew equ a t ion . P u t you r ca lcu la t or in r a dia n s
m ode ([Mode] Ra dia n ) a n d gr a ph Y 5 e 2x 1 cos x 2 sin x. If you pr ess [Zoom ]
Zt r ig, t h e win dow is n icely su it ed t o t r igon om et r ic fu n ct ion st h e win dow is ba sica lly [22p,2p] for t h e x-a xis a n d [24,4] for t h e y-a xis. If you did ever yt h in g cor r ect ly,
you sh ou ld see t h is:
F in din g t h ose x-in t er cept s is ou r goa l. It doesn t m a t t er wh ich you fin d fir st , bu t well
p
st a r t wit h t h e r igh t m ost on e. Clea r ly, t h e r oot fa lls bet ween x 5 2p a n d 2 . To
2
ca lcu la t e t h e r oot , pr ess [2n d][Tr a ce] zer o, a s we a r e lookin g for zer os of t h e
fu n ct ion . At t h e pr om pt Left bou n d? t ype a n u m ber t o t h e left of t h is r oot ; for
exa m ple, 2p. Sim ila r ly, for t h e pr om pt Righ t bou n d? you ca n t ype 0.
At t h e pr om pt Gu ess? you sh ou ld t a ke a st a b a t pr ogn ost ica t in g t h e r oot . A good

3p
gu ess seem s t o be 2 . On ce you pr ess [E n t er ], t h e ca lcu la t or does t h e r est of t h e
4
wor k for you , a n d t h e r oot t u r n s ou t t o be x 5 22.362467. Th e AP t est on ly r equ est s
t h r ee-decim a l pla ce a ccu r a cy, so 22.362 is a ccept a ble. Not e, h owever, t h a t 2.363 is n ot
cor r ect a n d is n ot a ccept ed. You do n ot h a ve t o r ou n d a n swer syou ca n sim ply cu t off
(or t r u n ca t e) decim a ls a ft er t h e t h ou sa n dt h s pla ce.
F ollow t h e sa m e st eps t o get t h e secon d r oot . If you don t like t ypin g in gu esses for t h e
bou n da r ies, you ca n pr ess t h e left a n d r igh t a r r ow bu t t on s t o m ove t h e lit t le X t u r t le
a lon g t h e gr a ph . F or exa m ple, in t h e dia gr a m s below, you m ove t h e lit t le t u r t le t o t h e
65
.................................................................
Th e secon d r oot of t h e equ a t ion is 25.497775, wh ich ca n be wr it t en a s 25.497 or

25.498 on t h e AP t est .
..............................................................................................
left of t h e r oot a t t h e pr om pt Left bou n d?. On ce you pr ess E n t er a n d get t h e Righ t

bou n d? pr om pt , you m ove t h e t u r t le t o t h e r igh t of t h e r oot . You ca n even do t h is
wh en a sked for a gu essju st m ove t h e t u r t le bet ween t h e t wo bou n da r ies a n d get
close t o t h e r oot .
66
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EXERCISE 9
YOU MAY USE A GRAPHING CALCULATOR FOR PROBLEMS 9 AND 10 ONLY.

F or pr oblem s 1 t h r ou gh 5, u se t h e followin g gr a ph s of f a n d g:
1. Det er m in e wh ich of t h e t wo fu n ct ion s h a s a n in ver se a n d sket ch it .

2. Gr a ph U f(x)U a n d g(U x U ).
3. If f is cr ea t ed wit h a sem icir cle a n d a n a bsolu t e va lu e gr a ph , wr it e t h e equ a t ion

t h a t r epr esen t s f(x).
4. Dr a w a fu n ct ion h (x) su ch t h a t h (x) 5 g 21 (x) wh en x 0 a n d h (x) is odd.
5. E va lu a t e f(g(f(22))).
6. Solve t h e equ a t ion cos 2x 2 cos 2 x 5 2sin x a n d give solu t ion s on t h e in t er va l
[0,2p).
7. If m (x) 5 2x 3 1 5x 2 2, fin d m 21 (6).
ALERT!
A b a d c hoic e for the
b ound s would ha ve b een
[23p,0], a s this interva l
inc lud es b oth roots. When
you a re trying to c a lc ula te
a root, ma ke sure only the
root you a re trying to find
fa lls within the b ound a ries
you a ssig n.
*8. Gr a ph r 5 cos u 2 sin ucos u a n d fin d t h e va lu es of u wh er e t h e gr a ph in t er sect s

t h e pole.
*9. Gr a ph x 5 et , y 5 t 1 1, a n d expr ess t h e pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s in r ect a n gu la r

for m .
*10. J a m e s D ia bo lic a l Ch a lle n g e : Wr it e a set of pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s su ch t h a t : a t

t 5 0, x 5 0 a n d y 5 0 a n d a t t 5 4, x 5 4 a n d y 5 6. Th en , fin d t h e r ect a n gu la r
in ver se of you r equ a t ion s.
*B C2on ly problem
67
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2. Th e gr a ph of U f(x)U will n ot ext en d below t h e x-a xis, a n d g(U x U ) will be y-sym m et r ic,
a s sh own below:
4. Th e gr a ph of h will look exa ct ly like t h e gr a ph of g 21 for x 0 (a s t h e fu n ct ion s a r e

equ a l t h er e), bu t sin ce h is odd, it s gr a ph will h a ve t o be or igin -sym m et r ic, wh ich
dict a t es t h e gr a ph of h for x . 0.
exercises
3. Th e cir cle h a s equ a t ion (x 1 2)2 1 y 2 5 4, so solvin g for y a n d iden t ifyin g on ly t h e

u pper h a lf of t h e cir cle r esu lt s in t h e equ a t ion y 5 =4 2 ~x + 2!2 . Th e a bsolu t e
va lu e gr a ph is y 5 U x 2 1 U 2 1, by gr a ph t r a n sla t ion s. Th er efor e, we ca n wr it e t h e
m u lt i-r u le fu n ct ion .
a nsw ers
1. On ly g h a s a n in ver se fu n ct ion ; beca u se f fa ils t h e h or izon t a l lin e t est , it is n ot

on e-t o-on e a n d t h u s h a s n o in ver se. To gr a ph g 21 , eit h er r eflect g a bou t t h e lin e
y 5 x or ch oose som e coor din a t es fr om t h e gr a ph of g a n d r ever se t h em
r em em ber t h a t if (a,b) is on t h e gr a ph of g, t h en (b,a) is on t h e gr a ph of g 21 .
..............................................................................................
68
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5. F r om t h e gr a ph s, you see t h a t f(22) 5 2, g(2) 5 1, a n d f(1) 5 21. Th u s,

f(g(f(22))) 5 21.
6. Usin g a dou ble-a n gle for m u la for cos 2x, r ewr it e t h e equ a t ion t o get cos 2 x 2
sin 2 x 2 cos 2 x 5 2sin x. Th is sim plifies ea sily t o 2sin 2 x 2 2sin x 5 0. Now, fa ct or
t h e equ a t ion : 2sin x(sin x 1 2) 5 0. Th e a n swer is x 5 0, p (r em em ber t h a t you
ca n n ot solve sin x 5 22, sin ce sin e h a s a r a n ge of 0 y 1).
7. F ir st of a ll, if 6 is in t h e d om ain of m 21 , t h en it is in t h e ran ge of m . Th er efor e,

t h er e is som e n u m ber x su ch t h a t 2x 3 1 5x 2 2 5 6. It is n ot ea sy t o fin d t h a t
n u m ber, h owever, a n d you sh ou ld r esor t t o t h e gr a ph in g ca lcu la t or t o solve t h e
equ iva len t equ a t ion 2x 3 1 5x 2 8 5 0 in t h e m et h od descr ibed in t h e Tech n ology
sect ion of t h is ch a pt er. Doin g so r esu lt s in x 5 1.087. Th u s, m (1.087) 5 6 a n d
m 21 (6) 5 1.087.
8. Th e gr a ph , given below, will h it t h e pole wh en ever r 5 0. Th er efor e, set t h e
p
equ a t ion equ a l t o 0 a n d fa ct or t o get cos u(1 2 sin u) 5 0. Th is h a s solu t ion s u 5
2
3p
.
and
2
9. Th e gr a ph is given below. In or der t o pu t in r ect a n gu la r for m , solve x 5 et for t by

t a kin g ln of bot h sides. Doin g so r esu lt s in ln x 5 t. (You cou ld a lso solve t h e y
equ a t ion for t, bu t t h is r esu lt s in a m u ch u glier r ect a n gu la r for m a fu n ct ion of
y.) Su bst it u t in g t 5 ln x in t o t h e y equ a t ion gives y 5 ln x 1 1, x . 0. Th e
r est r ict ion is ca u sed by t h e r a n ge of et bein g posit ive, a s den ot ed ea r lier in t h e
ch a pt er.
69
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a nsw ers
exercises
..............................................................................................
3
3
10. Th e sim plest solu t ion for t h is pr oblem is x 5 t a n d y 5 t, a s 6 is of 4. Th e
2
2
2
3
r ect a n gu la r for m of t h is pr oblem is y 5 x, so t h e in ver se is y 5 x.
2
3
70
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SUMMING IT UP
Ca lcu lu s is r ife wit h fu n ct ion s so it s im por t a n t t h a t you u n der st a n d wh a t t h ey

a r e: a fu n ct ion is a specia l t ype of r ela t ion .
If a fu n ct ion does n ot fu lfill t h e r equ ir em en t s t o be even or odd, t h e fu n ct ion is

cla ssified a s n eit h er even n or odd.
It is ea sy t o r em em ber t h a t or igin -sym m et r ic fu n ct ion s a r e oddt h ey bot h st a r t

wit h t h e let t er o.
P lu ggin g on e fu n ct ion in t o a n ot h er is ca lled com posin g t h e fu n ct ion wit h a n ot h er.
Rem em ber n ot t o st r ess ou t over exact gr a ph s.
R ad ian s a r e u sed a lm ost exclu sively on t h e AP t est (in lieu of degr ees).
Som e st u den t s r ecor d u n it cir cle va lu es in t h eir ca lcu la t or s m em or y in st ea d of

m em or izin g t h em . Rem em ber t h a t a ppr oxim a t ely 50 per cen t of t h e AP t est is
t a ken wit h ou t a ca lcu la t or. Ma ke su r e t o m em or ize t h e u n it cir cle!
Wh en givin g solu t ion s t o in ver se t r igon om et r ic fu n ct ion , a lwa ys r em em ber t h e

bu bble.
Lim its a nd Continuity
....................................................................................
Ha nds-On Activity 3.1: Wha t is a limit?

Eva lua ting limits a na lytica lly
Continuity
Ha nds-On Activity 3.2: The extreme va lue theorem
Ha nds-On Activity 3.3: The intermedia te va lue theorem
Limits involving infinity
Specia l limits
Technology: Eva lua ting limits with a gra phing ca lcula tor
Summing it up
Th e con cept s of lim it s st ym ied m a t h em a t icia n s for a lon g, lon g t im e. In fa ct ,

t h e discover y of ca lcu lu s h in ged on t h ese wily lit t le cr ea t u r es. Lim it s a llow u s
t o do ot h er wise illega l t h in gs like divide by zer o. Sin ce, t ech n ica lly, it is n ever
a ccept a ble t o divide by zer o, lim it s a llow u pt igh t m a t h people t o sa y t h a t t h ey
a r e dividin g by ba sica lly zer o or essen t ia lly zer o. Lim it s a r e like for t u n e
t eller st h ey kn ow wh er e you a r e h ea din g, even t h ou gh you m a y n ot ever get
t h er e. Un like for t u n e t eller s, h owever, t h e a dvice of lim it s is a lwa ys fr ee, a n d
lim it s n ever h a ve biza r r e n a m es like Ma da m e Vin ch en se.
HANDS-ON ACTIVITY 3.1: WHAT IS A LIMIT?

By com plet in g t h is a ct ivit y, you will discover wh a t a lim it is, wh en it exist s, a n d
wh en it doesn t exist . As in pr eviou s H a n ds-On Act ivit ies, spen d qu a lit y t im e
t r yin g t o a n swer t h e qu est ion s befor e you br ea k down a n d look u p t h e a n swer s.
1. Let f(x) 5
x 2 2 3x 2 4
. Wh a t is t h e dom a in of f(x)? Gr a ph f(x).
x+1
71
c ha p ter 3
OVERVIEW
72
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TIP
Limits c a n help you
und ersta nd the b eha vior of
p oints not in the d oma in of
a func tion, like the va lue
you d esc rib ed in Numb er 1.
2. Th e t a ble below gives x-va lu es t h a t a r e less t h a n bu t in cr ea sin gly closer a n d

closer t o 21. Th ese va lu es a r e sa id t o be approach in g 21 fr om th e left. Use you r
ca lcu la t or t o fill in t h e m issin g va lu es of f(x) for ea ch x.
3. Th e y-va lu e (or h eigh t ) you a r e a ppr oa ch in g a s you n ea r t h e x va lu e of 21 in t h e

f(x). Wh a t is t h e
t a ble a bove is ca lled t h e left-h an d lim it of 21 a n d is wr it t en xlim
1
left -h a n d lim it of f(x)?
4. Th e t a ble below gives x-va lu es t h a t a r e gr ea t er t h a n bu t in cr ea sin gly closer t o

21. Th ese va lu es a r e approach in g 21 fr om th e righ t. Use you r ca lcu la t or t o fill in
t h e m issin g va lu es, a s you did in Nu m ber 2.
5. Th e y-va lu e (or h eigh t ) you a r e a ppr oa ch in g a s you n ea r t h e x va lu e of 21 in t h e

t a ble a bove is ca lled t h e righ t-h an d lim it of 21 a n d is wr it t en xlim
f(x). Wh a t is
1+
t h e r igh t -h a n d lim it of f(x)?
ALERT!
Just b ec a use the g enera l
limit ma y exist a t one x
va lue, tha t d oes not
g ua ra ntee tha t it exists for
a ll x in the func tion!
6. Gr a ph f(x) below, a n d dr a w t h e left - a n d r igh t -h a n d lim it s a s a r r ows on t h e gr a ph .
7. Wh en t h e left - a n d r igh t -h a n d lim it s a s x a ppr oa ch es 21 bot h exist a n d a r e equ a l,

t h e gen er a l lim it a t x 5 21 exist s a n d is wr it t en xlim
f(x). Does t h e gen er a l lim it
1
exist a t x 5 21? If so, wh a t is it ?
8. Wr it e a few sen t en ces descr ibin g wh a t a lim it is a n d h ow it is fou n d.
Cha pter 3: Limits a nd Continuity
73
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1 x + 3, x < 2
g(x)
if
g(x)
5
(a ) lim
2
x 2
3x 1, x 2
(b) lim
sin
x 0
(c ) lim
x 0
2p
x
1
x4
10. Com plet e t h is st a t em en t : A lim it does n ot exist if...

A.
B.
C.
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9. E a ch of t h e followin g gr a ph s h a s n o lim it a t t h e in dica t ed poin t . Use a gr a ph in g

ca lcu la t or a n d you r kn owledge of lim it s t o det er m in e wh y t h e lim it s do n ot exist .
74
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1. Th e dom a in is (2`,21) (21,`), or a ll r ea l n u m ber s exclu din g x 5 21, a s t h is
m a kes t h e den om in a t or zer o a n d t h e fr a ct ion u n defin ed. Th e gr a ph looks like
y 5 x 2 4 wit h a h ole a t poin t (21,25).
3. Th e gr a ph seem s t o be h ea din g t owa r d a h eigh t of 25, so t h a t is t h e left -h a n d
lim it .
5. Th e r igh t -h a n d lim it a lso a ppea r s t o be 25.
6. Th e gr a ph is iden t ica l t o y 5 x 2 4, except f(x) is u n defin ed a t t h e poin t (21,25).
E ven t h ou gh t h e fu n ct ion is u n defin ed t h er e, t h e gr a ph is st ill h ea ded t owa r d
t h e h eigh t (or lim it ) of 25 fr om t h e left a n d r igh t of t h e poin t .
7. Th e gen er a l lim it does exist a t x 5 21, a n d xlim

f(x) 5 25.
1
8. A gen er a l lim it exist s on f(x) a t x 5 c (c is a con st a n t ) if t h e left - a n d r igh t -h a n d

f(x) 5 L if a n d on ly if
lim it s exist a n d a r e equ a l a t x 5 c. Ma t h em a t ica lly, lim
x c
lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = L.
x c
x c
g(x) 5 2 a n d xlim
g(x) 5 5. Beca u se xlim
g(x) xlim
g(x), t h e gen er a l
9. (a ) xlim
2
2+
2
2+
g(x) does n ot exist , a ccor din g t o you r con clu sion fr om pr oblem 8.
lim it lim
x 2
(b) As you get closer t o x 5 0 fr om t h e left or t h e r igh t , t h e fu n ct ion does n ot
a ppr oa ch a n y on e h eigh t it oscilla t es in fin it ely bet ween h eigh t s, a s dem on st r a t ed in it s gr a ph on t h e followin g pa ge.
75
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
(c ) As you a ppr oa ch x 5 0 fr om t h e left or t h e r igh t , t h e fu n ct ion gr ows in fin it ely

la r ge, n ever r ea ch in g a n y specified h eigh t . F u n ct ion s t h a t in cr ea se or decr ea se wit h ou t bou n d, su ch a s t h is on e, h a ve n o gen er a l lim it .
76
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 1
F or pr oblem s 1 t h r ou gh 6, det er m in e if t h e followin g lim it s exist , ba sed on t h e gr a ph

below of p(x). If t h e lim it s do exist , st a t e t h em .
1. xlim
p(x)
2
2. xlim
p(x)
3+
3. lim
p(x)
x 3
4. xlim
p(x)
5
5. xlim
p(x)
5+
ALERT!
1
= `.
x4
Tec hnic a lly, however, a limit
You c a n write lim
x0
of ` mea ns there is no limit,

sinc e a limit must b e a rea l
numb er.
6. xlim
p(x)
1
77
.................................................................
8. lim
(f(x) z g(x))
x 0
9. lim
x 1
f (x )
g (x )

1. Th is lim it does n ot exist , a s p in cr ea ses wit h ou t bou n d a s x2 1. You ca n a lso sa y
lim p(x) 5 `, wh ich m ea n s t h er e is n o lim it .
x 2
2. You a ppr oa ch a h eigh t of 21. In t h is in st a n ce,
lim+ p ( x ) = lim p ( x ) = lim p ( x ) = 1
x 3
x 3
x 3
3. As st a t ed in Nu m ber 2, t h e gen er a l lim it exist s a t x 5 3 a n d is equ a l t o 21 (sin ce

t h e left - a n d r igh t -h a n d lim it s a r e equ a l t o 21).
4. xlim
p(x) 5 1
5
5. lim+ p(x) 5 21. Not ice t h a t lim+ p(x) ca n n ot exist .
x 5
x 5
6. lim p(x) 5 lim p(x) 5 0. Th u s, t h e gen er a l lim it , lim p(x) 5 0. E ven t h ou gh t h e
x 1
x 1
x 1
fu n ct ion is u n defin ed a t x 5 21, p is st ill h ea ded for a h eigh t of 0, a n d t h a t s
wh a t s im por t a n t .
7. lim
(f(x) 1 g(x)) 5 (21 1 1) 5 0
x 2
8. lim
(f(x) z g(x)) 5 (0 z 0) 5 0
x 0
1
g(x) a ppea r s t o be a ppr oxim a t ely , lim f ( x ) does n ot exist . Th er e9. Alt h ou gh xlim
1
4 x 1
f (x )
ca n n ot exist .
for e, lim
x 1 g ( x )
exerc ises
7. lim
(f(x) 1 g(x))
x 2
..............................................................................................
F or pr oblem s 7 t h r ou gh 9, eva lu a t e (if possible) t h e given lim it s, ba sed on t h e gr a ph s

below of f(x) a n d g(x).
78
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EVALUATING LIMITS ANALYTICALLY
At t h is poin t in you r m a t h em a t ics ca r eer, you possess cer t a in polish ed skills. F or

exa m ple, if a sked H ow m a n y is 4 1 5? you wou ld n ot n eed n in e a pples in or der t o r ea ch
a solu t ion . In t h e sa m e wa y, you ca n eva lu a t e m ost lim it s wit h ou t a ct u a lly lookin g a t a
gr a ph of t h e given fu n ct ion . In fa ct , you don t n eed fr u it of a n y kin d t o eva lu a t e lim it s
a n a lyt ica lly. In st ea d, you n eed t o lea r n t h e t h r ee m a jor m et h ods of fin din g lim it s:
su bst it u t ion , fa ct or in g, a n d t h e con ju ga t e m et h ods.
Rem em ber t h a t lim it s a n swer t h e qu est ion Wh er e is a fu n ct ion h ea din g? Lu ckily
for m a t h n er ds a ll over t h e wor ld (like m e), a fu n ct ion u su a lly r ea ch es t h e
dest in a t ion for wh ich it wa s h ea din g. In su ch ca ses, you ca n u se t h e su bstitu tion
m eth od for eva lu a t in g lim it s. It sh ou ld be t h e fir st m et h od you t r y in ever y lim it
pr oblem you en cou n t er.
Ex a m p le 1: E va lu a t e t h e followin g lim it s:
(x 2 2 4x 1 9)
(a ) lim
x 2
Su bst it u t e x 5 2 in t o t h e fu n ct ion t o get 2 2 2 4 z 2 1 9 5 5. Th u s,
lim (x 2 2 4x 1 9) 5 5. Th a t s a ll t h er e is t o it .
x 2
x
(b) lim z cot 3x
x 2
2
NOTE
The only a p p rec ia b le
d ifferenc e b etween
x2 2 3x 2 4
a nd x 2 4 is tha t
x+1
2
x 2 3x 2 4
is und efined
x+1
when x 5 21. Thoug h
tec hnic a lly uneq ua l, the
func tions sha re id entic a l
limit va lues everywhere.
Su bst it u t ion is a ga in t h e wa y t o go:
2 cot 3
2
2
3
cos 2
4 sin 3
2
0
50
4 1
If a ll lim it s wer e possible via dir ect su bst it u t ion , h owever, you wou ld h a ve don e lim it s
in ba sic a lgebr a , a n d ever yon e wou ld, in gen er a l, be h a ppier. Som et im es, su bst it u t ion
will n ot wor k, beca u se t h e r esu lt is illega l. F or exa m ple, con sider t h e fu n ct ion wit h
x 2 3 x 4 . If you t r y dir ect

wh ich you exper im en t ed in H a n ds-On Act ivit y 3.1: xlim
1
x +1
2
0
4
(
)
(
)
su bst it u t ion , t h e r esu lt is
= 1 + 3 4 = 0 . Th e t ech n ica l t er m for a
1 + 1
1 + 1
0
r esu lt of is in d eterm in ate, wh ich m ea n s t h a t you ca n n ot det er m in e t h e lim it u sin g
0
t h is m et h od. (An d you wer e ju st st a r t in g t o feel con fiden t ...) Lu ckily, ju st in t h e kn ick
of t im e, in r ides t h e factorin g m eth od of eva lu a t in g lim it s on a sh in y wh it e st eed.
79
.................................................................
x 2 2 3x 2 4
x+1
S o lu tio n : Th e fa ct or in g m et h od en t a ils fa ct or in g t h e expr ession a n d t h en sim plifyin g

x 4 ) ( x +1 )
. Next , ca n cel t h e com m on
it . Th is n u m er a t or fa ct or s ea sily, givin g you lim (
x +1
x 1
( x 4 ) ( x +1 )
(x 2 4). Th er efor e, xlim
5 xlim
(x 2 4).
fa ct or s in t h e fr a ct ion t o get xlim
1
1
1
x +1
Alt h ou gh su bst it u t ion did n ot wor k befor e, it cer t a in ly will in t h e n ew expr ession , so
lim (x 2 4) 5 21 2 4 5 25, t h e sa m e r esu lt you r ea ch ed in Act ivit y 3.1. H u zza h !
x 1
Th e la st lim it eva lu a t ion m et h od h a s a ver y specific n ich e in lifeit a t t a cks r a dica l
expr ession s in lim it s. Th is m a kes decidin g t o a pply t h e con ju gate m eth od r ela t ively
ea sy. Th is t ech n iqu e is ba sed on a sim ple com plex n u m ber con cept you h a ve m ost
likely a lr ea dy lea r n ed (a lt h ou gh you won t be u sin g it t o sim plify com plex n u m ber s in
t h is a pplica t ion ).
Ex a m p le 3: E va lu a t e lim
x 7
x 3 2
x 7
0
S o lu tio n : Su bst it u t ion will r esu lt in t h e in det er m in a t e a n swer , a n d fa ct or in g isn t
0
a s fr u it fu l a s it wa s in E xa m ple 2. To eva lu a t e t h is lim it , m u lt iply t h e fr a ct ion by t h e
con ju ga t e of t h e r a dica l expr ession divided by it self:
lim
x7
x 3 + 2
.
x 3 + 2
b i. To ta ke the c onjug a te,

c ha ng e the sig n tha t
( x 3) 4
( x 7)( x 3 + 2 )
lim
x7
( x 7) x 3 + 2
x7
x7
c omb ines the terms to

its op p osite.
It s best t o lea ve t h e den om in a t or a lon e in it ia lly, a s you ca n n ow ca n cel t h e com m on

(x 2 7) t er m t o get
1
lim
x7
x 3 +2
Now, su bst it u t ion is possible, a n d t h e a n swer is
1
73 +2
1
4 +2
The c onjug a te of the

the c omp lex numb er a 1
lim
NOTE
c omp lex numb er a 2 b i is
) ( x 3 +2)
( x 7) ( x 3 + 2 )
x 3 2
..............................................................................................
Ex a m p le 2: E va lu a t e xlim
1
1
4
80
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..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 2
DO NOT USE A CALCULATOR FOR PROBLEMS 1 THROUGH 6.

E va lu a t e t h e followin g lim it s, if t h ey exist .
3
2
1. lim 2x 7x 4x
x 4
x 4
2. lim
x 9
x 3
9x
2
3. lim x 2x 5
x 1
x +1
3
4. lim x + 8
x 2 x + 2
x2 5
,x 4
5. lim f ( x ) if f ( x ) = 5 x
x 4
0, x = 4
6. lim x
x 0 x
7. lim x sin 1
x 0
x
TIP
While und erta king the
fa c toring or c onjug a te
method s, ma ke sure to
lea ve the lim in front of
xc
ea c h suc c essive linethe

limits of ea c h step a re
eq ua l, b ut the func tions
themselves a re not
a lwa ys eq ua l.
0
a n d ca n n ot be u sed. Th e
0
x 2x + 1) ( x 4 )
best opt ion is fa ct or in gdoin g so r esu lt s in lim (
. E lim in a t in g
x 4
x 4
x(2x 1 1). Su bst it u t ion is n ow a llowed, a n d t h e
t h e com m on fa ct or gives you lim
x 4
a n swer is 36.
1. Dir ect su bst it u t ion r esu lt s in t h e in det er m in a t e for m
2. Su bst it u t ion (a lwa ys you r fir st m et h od t o a t t em pt ) fa ils. Th e pr esen ce of a r a dica l

a ler t s you t o u se t h e con ju ga t e m et h od:
lim
x 9
lim
x 9
) ( x + 3)
( 9 x )i( x + 3)
x 3i
x 9
( x 9) x + 3
81
.................................................................
x 9
3. Alt h ou gh you m a y wa n t t o a pply fa ct or in g in t h is exa m ple beca u se of t h e pr esen ce of polyn om ia ls, su bst it u t ion wor ksdon t for get t o t r y su bst it u t ion fir st :
12 2 (1) 5 6
=
= 3
1+1
2
4. Beca u se su bst it u t ion fa ils a n d t h er e a r e n o r a dica ls, fa ct or in g is t h e m et h od t o
u se. In fa ct , t h e n u m er a t or is a su m of per fect cu bes a n d fa ct or s ea sily.
lim
x 2
( x + 2) ( x 2 2x + 4 )
x+2
lim x 2x + 4 = ( 2 ) 2 ( 2 ) + 4
2
x 2
4 + 4 + 4 = 12
6. Non e of you r m et h ods will a pply in t h is pr oblem , so you ll n eed t o dr a w a gr a ph

(u se a t a ble of va lu es):
On ce you do, you ll see t h a t t h e left -h a n d lim it a t x 5 0 is 21 a n d t h e r igh t -h a n d

x
does n ot exist .
lim it a t x 5 0 is 1; t h u s, t h er e is n o gen er a l lim it , a n d lim
x 0 x
exercises
5. Don t be dist r a ct ed by t h e fa ct t h a t f(4) 5 0. Th is does n ot m ea n t h a t lim

f(x) 5 0.
x 4
If you gr a ph t h e fu n ct ion , you ll see t h a t f(x) is n ot h ead in g for a h eigh t (lim it ) of zer o
wh en x 5 4. Th e gr a ph is h ea ded for t h e h eigh t defin ed by t h e r u le t h a t is t r u e for
a ll x 4. Su bst it u t ion wor ks for t h is fu n ct ion . So, t h e lim it is 16 5 13.764 .
54
a nsw ers
1
x +3
1
9 +3
1
lim
..............................................................................................
Not ice t h a t you h a ve t o fa ct or a 21 ou t of (9 2 x) in t h e den om in a t or t o be a ble t o

m a t ch t h e (x 2 9) in t h e n u m er a t or.
82
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
7. You cu r r en t ly h a ve n o good m et h ods t o eva lu a t e t h is lim it , so look a t t h e gr a ph a s

x a ppr oa ch es 0 fr om t h e left a n d t h e r igh t :
Visu a lly, you ca n det er m in e t h a t t h e fu n ct ion a ppr oa ch es a lim it (h eigh t ) of zer o

a s you n ea r x 5 0.
CONTINUITY
I h a ve h a d som e ba d exper ien ces a t t h e m ovies. P er h a ps you h a ve a lsor igh t a t t h e
good pa r t of t h e film wh en ever yt h in gs get t in g excit in g, t h e m ovie flicker s off a n d t h e
h ou se ligh t s com e u p. An u sh er in for m s t h e cr owd t h a t t h ey a r e exper ien cin g t ech n ica l
difficu lt ies a n d t h a t t h e m ovie sh ou ld be u p a n d r u n n in g a ga in in a bou t 15 m in u t es. It
r u in s t h e wh ole exper ien ce, beca u se t h e sm oot h , flowin g, con tin u ou s st r ea m of even t s in
t h e film h a s been in t er r u pt ed. In ca lcu lu s, if a fu n ct ion exper ien ces a br ea k, t h en it , t oo,
is sa id t o be discon t in u ou s. An y h ole or ju m p in t h e gr a ph of a fu n ct ion pr even t s t h e
fu n ct ion fr om bein g cla ssified a s con t in u ou s. (Som et im es t h e sou n d in a t h ea t er
pr even t s you fr om en joyin g t h e film , bu t volu m e is n ot discu ssed u n t il Ch a pt er 9.)
NOTE
Cla ssifying func tions a s
c ontinuous or d isc ontinuous
is imp orta nt, b ec a use the
c ontinuity of a func tion is
often a p rereq uisite for
imp orta nt c a lc ulus
theorems.
Ma t h em a t ica lly, a fu n ct ion f(x) is sa id t o be con t in u ou s a t x 5 a if all th ree of t h e

followin g con dit ion s a r e t r u e:
f(x) exist s
(1) lim
x a
(2) f(a) exist s
f(x) 5 f(a).
(3) lim
x a
In ot h er wor ds, a fu n ct ion m u st be h ea ded t owa r d som e h eigh t a t x 5 a, a n d wh en you

r ea ch x 5 a, t h e fu n ct ion m u st a ct u a lly exist a t t h e h eigh t you expect ed.
83
.................................................................
g(x) exist s a n d is ea sily fou n d (u sin g t h e

In E xa m ple 4, it is st ill t r u e t h a t xlim
3
fa ct or in g m et h od) t o be 16, even t h ou gh t h e fu n ct ion doesn t exist t h er e. Wh a t if you
r ewr ot e t h e fu n ct ion a s follows?
h (x) 5
Th e n ew fu n ct ion , h , a ct s exa ct ly a s g did, except t h a t h (23) 5 16. Redefin in g x 5 3
fixes t h e discon t in u it y in g(x), sa t isfies t h e fin a l t wo con t in u it y con dit ion s t h a t g did
n ot , a n d m a kes h a con t in u ou s fu n ct ion . Wh en ever you a r e a ble t o r edefin e a fin it e
n u m ber of poin t s like t h is a n d m a ke a discon t in u ou s fu n ct ion con t in u ou s, t h e fu n ct ion
is sa id t o h a ve h a d rem ovable d iscon tin u ity. If it is n ot possible t o fix t h e discon t in u it y by r edefin in g a fin it e n u m ber of poin t s, t h e fu n ct ion is sa id t o be n on rem ovably
d iscon tin u ou s. If it is possible t o fix t h e discon t in u it y, bu t you don t feel like it , you
a r e sa id t o be a lazy bon eh ead .
x+2
?
Ex a m p le 5: Wh a t t ype of discon t in u it y is exh ibit ed by r(x)5 2
x 4
x+2
S o lu tio n : F a ct or t h e den om in a t or t o get r(x) 5
( x + 2) ( x 2) . Clea r ly, r is u n defin ed
for x 5 22 a n d 2, a n d, h en ce, t h ese a r e t h e discon t in u it ies. Next , it is im por t a n t t o
r (x) a n d xlim
r(x) exist , beca u se if a lim it exist s a t a poin t of
det er m in e if lim
x 2
2
discon t in u it y, t h a t discon t in u it y is r em ova ble. Rem em ber : if n o lim it exist s t h er e, t h e
discon t in u it y is n on r em ova ble. Usin g t h e fa ct or in g m et h od of eva lu a t in g lim it s,
lim r ( x ) = lim
x 2
x 2
1
1
1
=
=
x 2 2 20
4
..............................................................................................
3
2
Ex a m p le 4: On wh a t in t er va ls is g(x) 5 x x 17x 15 con t in u ou s?
x+3
S o lu tio n : Visu a lly, t h e gr a ph is discon t in u ou s a t a n y h ole or br ea k, bu t a gr a ph in g
ca lcu la t or sh ows n o obviou s h oles or br ea ksit looks like a pa r a bola . H owever,
beca u se g(x) is a r a t ion a l (fr a ct ion a l) fu n ct ion , it will be u n defin ed wh en ever t h e
den om in a t or equ a ls 0. Th u s, g(x) is discon t in u ou s a t x 5 23, beca u se g(23) does n ot
exist , a n d t h a t br ea ks t h e secon d r equ ir em en t for con t in u it y. Th er e m u st be a h ole (or
poin t d iscon tin u ity) in t h e gr a ph a t x 5 23, even t h ou gh it wa sn t obviou s fr om t h e
gr a ph . So, t h e in t er va ls of con t in u it y for g(x) a r e (2`,23) (23,`). Not e t h a t x 5 23
is t h e on ly discon t in u it y of t h e fu n ct ion g is con t in u ou s a t a ll ot h er va lu es of x.
84
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
TIP
Only p oint d isc ontinuities
a re remova b le, b ec a use a
limit exists.
TIP
Ra tiona l, polynomia l,
ra d ic a l, exp onentia l,
trig onometric , a nd
log a rithmic func tions a re
a lwa ys c ontinuous a t a ll
p oints in their d oma in. To
help rememb er this, use the
mnemonic d evic e Red
Pa rrots Continuously Rep ea t
Everything They Lea rn.
1
, wh ich does n ot exist . Th er efor e, t h er e is a poin t
0
discon t in u it y a t x 5 22 a n d a n in fin it e discon t in u it y a t x 5 2. Th e gr a ph of t h e
fu n ct ion ver ifies t h ese con clu sion s.
H owever, xlim
r(x) r esu lt s in
2
Su bst it u t ion is a sh or t cu t m et h od for cla ssifyin g t ypes of discon t in u it y of a fu n ct ion

t h a t t ypica lly wor ks ver y well. In t h e pr eviou s exa m ple, you su bst it u t ed x 5 2 in t o
1
r a n d got . In t h e sh or t cu t , a n u m ber divided by zer o su ggest s t h a t a ver t ica l
0
a sym pt ot e exist s t h er e, m a kin g it a n in fin it e (or essen t ia l) discon t in u it y (t h e t wo
0
t er m s a r e in t er ch a n gea ble). Su bst it u t in g x 5 22 r esu lt s in , wh ich su ggest s poin t
0
discon t in u it y.
Ex a m p le 6: F in d t h e va lu e of k t h a t m a kes f(x) con t in u ou s, given
f(x) 5
S o lu tio n : Beca u se f(x) is defin ed a s a r a dica l a n d a polyn om ia l fu n ct ion , t h e t wo

pieces of t h e gr a ph will be con t in u ou s. Th e on ly possible discon t in u it y is a t x 5 2,
wh er e t h e gr a ph s will h a ve t o m eet . Ot h er wise, a ju m p discon t in u it y will exist . You
kn ow t h a t f(2) 5 =11, a ccor din g t o t h e fu n ct ion . In or der for a lim it t o exist a t x 5 2,
t h e ot h er r u le in t h e fu n ct ion x 2 2 x 1 k m u st a lso r ea ch a h eigh t of =11 wh en x 5 2.
(2)2 2 2 1 k 5 11
4222
11 5 2k
2(2 2 11 ) 5 k
k ' 1.3166
85
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Th e gr a ph below of f(x) visu a lly ver ifies ou r r esu lt n o h oles, ga ps, or ju m ps wh en

x 5 2:
86
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 3
DO NOT USE A GRAPHING CALCULATOR FOR ANY OF THESE PROBLEMS.

F or pr oblem s 1 t h r ou gh 3, expla in wh y ea ch fu n ct ion is discon t in u ou s a n d det er m in e if
t h e discon t in u it y is r em ova ble or n on r em ova ble.
1. g(x) 5
2. b(x) 5
x (3x + 1)
3x 2 5x 2
3. h (x) 5
x 2 10x + 25
x 5
4. Descr ibe t h e con t in u it y of t h e 15 fu n ct ion s you wer e t o m em or ize in Ch a pt er 2

wit h ou t con su lt in g a n y n ot es.
5. Dr a w t h e gr a ph of a fu n ct ion , f(x), t h a t sa t isfies ea ch of t h e followin g con dit ion s.
Th en , descr ibe t h e con t in u it y of t h e fu n ct ion :
lim f(x) 5 21
x 2
f(x) 5 2`
xlim
0+
f(x) 5 `
xlim
0
f(2) 5 4
f(21) 5 f(3) 5 0
f in cr ea ses on it s en t ir e dom a in
6. F in d t h e va lu e of k t h a t m a kes p con t in u ou s if p(x) 5

1. g is m a de u p of t wo polyn om ia l (lin ea r ) segm en t s, bot h of wh ich will be con t in u ou s ever ywh er e. H owever, t h e gr a ph h a s a ju m p discon t in u it y a t x 5 3. Not ice
t h a t lim g(x) 5 3 (you get t h is by plu ggin g 3 in t o t h e x , 3 r u le). Th e r igh t -h a n d
x 3
lim it of g(x) a t x 5 3 is 2. Beca u se t h e left - a n d r igh t -h a n d lim it s a r e u n equ a l, n o

gen er a l lim it exist s a t x 5 3, br ea kin g t h e fir st con dit ion of con t in u it y. F u r t h erm or e, beca u se n o lim it exist s, t h e discon t in u it y is n on r em ova ble.
2. Beca u se b is r a t ion a l, b will be con t in u ou s for a ll x in t h e dom a in . H owever,

1
x 5 2 a n d 2 a r e n ot in t h e dom a in . Usin g t h e fa ct or in g m et h od of eva lu a t in g
3
1
x
1
lim it s, you get t h a t lim1 x 2 = 7 , so x 5 2 is a r em ova ble discon t in u it y. No
x
3
3
lim it exist s a t x 5 2, a n essen t ia l discon t in u it y.
87
.................................................................
( x 5)2
x 5
Rem em ber t h a t t h e squ a r e r oot fu n ct ion h a s a posit ive r a n ge, so t h e n u m er a t or
m u st be posit ive:
h (x) 5
x 5
x 5
It h elps t o t h in k a bou t t h is gr a ph ica lly. Aft er su bst it u t in g som e va lu es of x in t o h ,

you get t h e followin g gr a ph :
Th u s, h h a s a ju m p discon t in u it y a t x 5 5.
4. y 5 x: con t in u ou s on (2`,`)
y 5 x 3 : con t in u ou s on (2`,`)
y5
=x: con t in u ou s on
[0, `)
y 5 U x U : con t in u ou s on (2`,`)
1
y 5 : con t in u ou s on (2`,0) (0,`)
x
y 5 [[x]]: con t in u ou s for a ll r ea l n u m ber s x, if x is n ot a n in t eger
y 5 ex : con t in u ou s on (2`,`)
y 5 ln x: con t in u ou s on (0,`)
y 5 sin x: con t in u ou s on (2`,`)
y 5 cos x: con t in u ou s on (2`,`)
3
3
, (which
,2 , ,
y 5 tan x: continuous for all real numbers x, if x ,
2 2
2
2
ca n a lso be wr it t en x 2 ( n + 1)i , wh en n is a n in t eger )

2
y 5 cot x: con t in u ou s for a ll r ea l n u m ber s x if x ...,2p,0,p,... (wh ich ca n a lso be
wr it t en x n p, wh en n is a n in t eger )
y 5 sec x: con t in u ou s for a ll r ea l n u m ber s x, x 2 ( n + 1)i , wh en n is a n in t eger

2
y 5 csc x: con t in u ou s for a ll r ea l n u m ber s x, x n p, wh en n is a n in t eger
exercises
y 5 x 2 : con t in u ou s on (2`,`)
a nsw ers
h (x) 5
..............................................................................................
3. Th e n u m er a t or of t h e fr a ct ion is a per fect squ a r e, so sim plify t o get
88
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
5. Th er e is som e va r ia t ion in t h e possible a n swer gr a ph s, bu t you r gr a ph sh ou ld

m a t ch r ela t ively closely.
6. J u st like Nu m ber 1 in t h is pr oblem set , t h e x 4 r u le eva lu a t ed a t 4 r epr esen t s

lim , a n d t h e x . 4 r u le eva lu a t ed a t 4 r epr esen t s lim+ . In or der for p t o be
x 4
x 4
con t in u ou s, t h ese lim it s m u st be equ a l.
lim+ p(x) 5 2(4)2 1 11(4) 2 23 5 5
NOTE
The interva ls of c ontinuity
for trig onometric func tions
a re the interva ls tha t ma ke
up their d oma ins, a s
trig onometric func tions a re
c ontinuous on their entire
d oma ins.
x 4
p(x) 5 5
Th er efor e, xlim
4
lim p(x) 5 2U 4 2 2 U 1 k 5 5
x 4
22 1 k 5 5
k 57
HANDS-ON ACTIVITY 3.2: THE EXTREME VALUE THEOREM

Th is a n d t h e n ext a ct ivit y in t r odu ce you t o t wo ba sic bu t im por t a n t con t in u it y t h eor em s.
Not e t h a t bot h of t h ese a r e ca lled existen ce th eorem s. Th ey gu a r a n t ee t h e exist en ce of
cer t a in va lu es bu t do n ot t ell you wh er e t h ese va lu es a r eit s u p t o you t o fin d t h em , a n d
t h eyr e a lwa ys in t h e la st pla ce you look (wit h you r ca r keys, you r wa llet fr om t wo yea r s
a go, a n d t h e wor ds t o t h a t Bon J ovi son g you u sed t o kn ow by h ea r t ).
1. Given f(x) 5 x 4 2 3x 2 4, ju st ify t h a t f(x) is con t in u ou s on t h e x in t er va l [21,2].
89
.................................................................
3. Th e m a xim u m h eigh t r ea ch ed by f(x) on t h e in t er va l [21,2] is ca lled t h e m axim u m of f on t h e in t er va l. At wh a t va lu e of x does f(x) r ea ch it s m a xim u m , a n d

wh a t is t h a t m a xim u m va lu e?
4. To ca lcu la t e t h e m in im u m va lu e of f(x), u se t h e 2 n d Tr a cem in im u m fu n ct ion

on you r ca lcu la t or. Set bou n ds t o t h e left a n d t h e r igh t of t h e m in im u m a n d m a ke
a gu ess, a s you did wh en fin din g x-in t er cept s in Ch a pt er 2. Wh a t is t h e m in im u m
va lu e of f(x) on [21,2]?
..............................................................................................
2. Dr a w t h e gr a ph of f(x). Use a gr a ph in g ca lcu la t or if you wish .
NOTE
You a re not a llowed to use
the ma ximum/ minimum
func tions of your c a lc ula tor
5. At wh a t x-va lu e does t h e m in im u m occu r ? (Hin t: Th e va lu e is displa yed wh en

you ca lcu la t e t h e m in im u m wit h t h e ca lcu la t or.)
on the AP exa m. We will

lea rn how to find them in
d ifferent wa ys (whic h a re
a c c ep ta b le on the test)
1
6. Gr a ph g(x) 5 on t h e a xes below. Ca n you fin d a m a xim u m a n d a m in im u m for
x
g(x) on t h e x in t er va l (1,5)?
7. Wh y do you r r esu lt s for f a n d g differ ?
la ter.
90
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
3
2
8. Gr a ph h (x) 5 x 4x + 5x below. Wh y is t h er e n o m a xim u m on [0,3]?
x
ALERT!
If the EVT c ond itions a re not
sa tisfied , a func tion c a n still
ha ve a ma ximum, a
minimum, or b oththeir
existenc e is just not
g ua ra nteed in tha t c a se.
9. Com plet e t h e E xt r em e Va lu e Th eor em , ba sed on you r wor k a bove:

Ex tre m e Va lu e Th e o re m : An y fu n ct ion , f(x), will h a ve a m a xim u m a n d a
m in im u m on t h e ______________ in t er va l ___________ a s lon g a s f(x) is
______________.
10. Visu a lly spea kin g, wh er e ca n m a xim u m s a n d m in im u m s occu r on a gr a ph ?

1. f is a polyn om ia l wh ose dom a in is (2`,`), a n d polyn om ia ls a r e con t in u ou s on
t h eir en t ir e dom a in (r em em ber t h e r ed p a r r ot ?)
3. f r ea ch es it s h igh est poin t on [21,2] wh en x 5 2, a n d f(2) 5 6. Th u s, f h a s a
m a xim u m of 6.
4. f h a s a m in im u m of 26.044261. If you ca n t get t h is, u se a left bou n d of 0, a r igh t
bou n d of 2, a n d a gu ess of 1.
5. Th e m in im u m occu r s a t x 5 .9085621.
1
w ou ld
5
be t h e m a xim u m a n d m in im u m va lu es, r espect ively, t h ey a r e n ot in clu ded on t h e
open in t er va l (1,5). You ca n n ot ch oose a n x va lu e wh ose fu n ct ion va lu e is h igh er
or lower t h a n ever y ot h er in t h e in t er va lt r y it !
6. You ca n n ot fin d a m a xim u m or a m in im u m . Alt h ou gh g(1) 5 1 a n d g(5) 5
7. You u sed a closed in t er va l wit h f a n d a n open in t er va l wit h g.

8. h is r em ova bly discon t in u ou s a t x 5 0, a n d beca u se t h e m a xim u m wou ld h a ve
occu r r ed t h er e, t h e fu n ct ion will h a ve n o m a xim u m .
91
.................................................................
10. Th e m a xim u m a n d m in im u m (t oget h er ca lled extrem a, sin ce t h ey r epr esen t t h e

extrem e h igh est a n d lowest poin t s on t h e gr a ph ) will occu r a t h u m ps on t h e
gr a ph (like t h e m in im u m of f) or a t t h e en dpoin t s of t h e in t er va l (like fs m a xim u m ).
..............................................................................................
9. An y fu n ct ion , f(x), will h a ve a m a xim u m a n d m in im u m on t h e closed in t er va l

[a,b] a s lon g a s f(x) is con tin u ou s. If t h e in t er va l is n ot closed or t h e fu n ct ion is
discon t in u ou s, t h e gu a r a n t ees of t h e E xt r em e Va lu e Th eor em do n ot a pply.
92
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 4
YOU MAY USE YOUR CALCULATOR FOR ALL OF THESE PROBLEMS.

F or ea ch of t h e followin g fu n ct ion s a n d in t er va ls, det er m in e if t h e E xt r em e Va lu e
Th eor em a pplies, a n d fin d t h e m a xim u m a n d m in im u m of t h e fu n ct ion , if possible.
1. y 5 t a n x, on [0,p].
2. y 5
, on [2p, ].
4
3. y 5 ex 2 x 3 , on [22,4].
4. y 5 ln (x 2 1), on [2,5].
ALERT!
In p rob lem 2, a c ommon
mista ke is to sa y tha t the
ma ximum of the func tion is
2, b ut tha t is only the
x-va lue a t whic h the
ma ximum oc c urs.
1. Th e E xt r em e Va lu e Th eor em (E VT) does n ot a pply beca u se t a n x is discon t in u ou s

p
on t h e given in t er va l, specifica lly a t x 5 . No m a xim u m or m in im u m va lu es a r e
2
possible on t h e closed in t er va l, a s t h e fu n ct ion bot h in cr ea ses a n d decr ea ses
p
wit h ou t bou n d a t x 5 .
2
2. Th e fu n ct ion is con t in u ou s on t h e in t er va l. Bot h pa r t s of t h e fu n ct ion a r e t r igop

n om et r ic a n d, t h er efor e, con t in u ou s on t h eir dom a in , a n d [2p,2 ] is in clu ded in
4
p
t h e dom a in of ea ch . Th e on ly possible discon t in u it y com es a t x 5 2 , bu t bot h
2
fu n ct ion s h a ve t h e sa m e va lu e t h er e, gu a r a n t eein g t h a t t h e fu n ct ion is con t in u ou s. See t h e below gr a ph t h er e is n o br ea k or ju m p. Th e E VT will a pply. Th e
m a xim u m is 0 a n d occu r s a t x 5 2p, a s t h e fu n ct ion decr ea ses for t h e r em a in der
p
2
1.414 a n d occu r s a t x 5 2 .
of t h e in t er va l. Th e m in im u m is
4
2
93
.................................................................
Mu ch like t h e E xt r em e Va lu e Th eor em gu a r a n t eed t h e exist en ce of a m a xim u m a n d

m in im u m , t h e In t er m edia t e Va lu e Th eor em gu a r a n t ees va lu es of a fu n ct ion bu t in a
differ en t fa sh ion . On ce a ga in , con t in u it y is a cor n er st on e of t h is t h eor em .
1. Con sider a con tin u ou s fu n ct ion f(x), wh ich con t a in s poin t s (1,24) a n d (5,3). You
a r e n ot given a n equ a t ion t h a t defin es f(x)on ly t h ese poin t s.
Dr a w on e possible gr a ph of f(x) on t h e a xes a bove.

2. Decide wh ich of t h e followin g m u st occu r bet ween x 5 1 a n d x 5 5. J u st ify you r
a n swer.
exercises
HANDS-ON ACTIVITY 3.3: THE INTERMEDIATE

VALUE THEOREM
a nsw ers
4. Alt h ou gh ln (x 2 1) is discon t in u ou s a t x 5 1, ln (x 2 1) is con t in u ou s on t h e given

in t er va l [2,5], so t h e E VT will a pply. Beca u se ln x is m on ot on ic a n d in cr ea sin g,
t h e m in im u m (0) will occu r a t t h e begin n in g of t h e in t er va l, a n d t h e m a xim u m
(1.386) will occu r a t t h e en d of t h e in t er va l.
..............................................................................................
3. Th e E VT will n ot a pply, bu t t h e fu n ct ion st ill h a s a m a xim u m a n d m in im u m . Th e

m a xim u m occu r s a t t h e poin t (22,8.135), a n d t h e m in im u m occu r s a t t h e poin t
(3.733,210.216). (Th e m in im u m is fou n d u sin g t h e m in im u m fu n ct ion on you r
gr a ph in g ca lcu la t or.)
94
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
(A) m a xim u m
(B ) m in im u m
(C) r oot
(D ) y-in t er cept
3. Wh ich of t h e followin g h eigh t (s) is t h e fu n ct ion gu a r a n t eed t o r ea ch , a n d wh y?

(A) 25
(B ) 21
(C) 2
(D ) 5
4. Dr a w t h r ee differ en t gr a ph s of f(x) t h a t a r e d iscon tin u ou s a n d, t h er efor e, do n ot

fu lfill t h e con clu sion you dr ew in Nu m ber 2.
5. Ba sed on you r wor k a bove a n d t h e dia gr a m below, com plet e t h e In t er m edia t e

Va lu e Th eor em below.
In te rm e d ia te Va lu e Th e o re m : Given a fu n ct ion f(x) t h a t is ___________ on t h e

in t er va l _______, if d is bet ween _____ a n d ______, t h en t h er e exist s a c bet ween
_____ a n d _____ su ch t h a t f(c) 5 ______.
95
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
6. Rewr it e t h e In t er m edia t e Va lu e Th eor em in you r own wor ds t o bet t er illu st r a t e

it s m ea n in g.
ALERT!
The Intermed ia te Va lue
Theorem g ua ra ntees tha t I
will hit ea c h intermed ia te
heig ht a t lea st onc e. Note
7. Give on e r ea l-life exa m ple of t h e In t er m edia t e Va lu e Th eor em s gu a r a n t ees.
tha t in my solution for

p rob lem 1, f ha s 3 roots,
a lthoug h only 1 wa s
g ua ra nteed .
SOLUTIONS TO HANDS-ON ACTIVITY 3.3

1. Th er e a r e m a n y possible a n swer s, bu t h er es on e:
2. Th e cor r ect a n swer is (C), r oot . If t h e fu n ct ion is con t in u ou s, it m u st cr oss t h e

x-a xis a t som e poin t in t h e in t er va l. A con t in u ou s fu n ct ion will h a ve bot h a
m in im u m a n d m a xim u m va lu e. If t h e fu n ct ion begin s wit h n ega t ive va lu es a t
x 5 1 bu t even t u a lly h a s posit ive va lu es a t x 5 5, t h e fu n ct ion h ad t o equ a l zer o
(ch a n ge fr om posit ive t o n ega t ive) som ewh er e in [1,5].
3. Mu ch like t h e fu n ct ion m u st r ea ch a h eigh t of zer o (a s descr ibed in Nu m ber 2
a bove), t h e fu n ct ion m u st a lso r ea ch a ll ot h er h eigh t s bet ween 24 a n d 3. Th u s,
t h e a n swer is bot h (B) a n d (C).
4. Th er e a r e n u m er ou s wa ys t o dr a w discon t in u ou s fu n ct ion s t h a t will n ot r ea ch a
h eigh t of zer o. Below a r e t h r ee possible gr a ph s. Th is h igh ligh t s t h e im por t a n ce of
f(x) bein g con t in u ou s.
5. Given a fu n ct ion f(x) t h a t is con tin u ou s on t h e in t er va l [a,b], if d is bet ween f(a)

a n d f(b), t h en t h er e exist s a c bet ween a a n d b su ch t h a t f(c) 5 d .
96
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
6. If a con t in u ou s fu n ct ion begin s a t h eigh t f(a) wh en x 5 a a n d en ds a t h eigh t f(b)

wh en x 5 b, t h en t h e fu n ct ion will cover ever y sin gle h eigh t bet ween f(a) a n d f(b)
a t som e x bet ween a a n d b.
7. If I a m t wo feet t a ll wh en I a m 18 m on t h s old a n d 6 feet t a ll wh en I a m 27 yea r s
old, t h en a t som e a ge bet ween 18 m on t h s a n d 27 yea r s, I wa s 4 feet t a ll. (In fa ct ,
sin ce h eigh t a ccor din g t o a ge is con t in u ou syou don t su dden ly ju m p fr om 3 t o 4
feet t a llI will cover a ll h eigh t s bet ween 2 a n d 6 feet som et im e in t h a t t im e
in t er va l.)
97
.................................................................
DO NOT USE A CALCULATOR FOR PROBLEMS 1 AND 2.

1. On wh a t in t er va l m u st t h e fu n ct ion g(x) 5 2x 2 1 7x 2 1 in t er sect t h e lin e y 5 7?
(A) [28,26]
(B ) [24,21]
(C) [0,2]
(D ) [6,9]
2. Given a fu n ct ion h (x) con t in u ou s on [3,7] wit h h (3) 5 1 a n d h (7) 5 9, wh ich of t h e
followin g m u st be t r u e?
I. Th er e exist s a r ea l n u m ber p su ch t h a t h (p) 5 5, 1 , p , 9
II. h (5) 5 5
III. h h a s a m a xim u m a n d a m in im u m on [3,7]
(A) I on ly
(B ) III on ly
(C) I a n d III
(D ) I, II, a n d III
YOU MAY USE YOUR CALCULATOR FOR PROBLEM 3.
3. Given t h e con t in u ou s fu n ct ion f(x) 5 ln (2x) 1 cos x, pr ove t h a t t h er e exist s a
p
c [2p,2 ] su ch t h a t f(c) 5 .240 a n d fin d c.
2

1. Th is qu est ion is on ly t h e In t er m edia t e Va lu e Th eor em (IVT) r eph r a sed. Usin g t h e
t er m in ology of pr oblem 5 fr om t h e h a n ds-on exer cise, 7 is t h e d va lu e bet ween
g(a) a n d g(b). E a ch of t h e in t er va l ch oices is a ca n dida t e for [a,b]. You sh ou ld plu g
ea ch pa ir in t o t h e fu n ct ion t o see if t h e r esu lt in g pa ir f(a) a n d f(b) con t a in s 7.
Ch oice (C) r esu lt s in f(a) 5 21, f(b) 5 21. Clea r ly, 7 fa lls bet ween t h ese n u m ber s;
t h is is n ot t r u e for a n y of t h e ot h er in t er va ls.
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 5
98
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
2. It h elps t o dr a w t h e sit u a t ion in or der t o visu a lize wh a t s bein g a sked.
Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). St a t em en t I is t r u e. Th e IVT gu a r a n t ees t h a t p will

exist on t h e in t er va l [3,7]. So, if p exist s on [3,7], p will defin it ely exist on [1,9], a s
[3,7] is m er ely a su bset of [1,9]. St a t em en t II is n ot a lwa ys t r u e; in fa ct , it s n ot
t r u e in t h e r epr esen t a t ion of h in t h e dia gr a m a bove . St a t em en t III is t r u e by t h e
E xt r em e Va lu e Th eor em sin ce h is con t in u ou s on a closed in t er va l.
3. To a pply t h e IVT (t h e pr er equ isit es of t h e t h eor em a r e m et a s f is con t in u ou s on

p
a closed in t er va l), you n ot e t h a t f(2p) ' .1447 a n d f(2 ) ' .4516. As .240 fa lls
2
p
bet ween t h ese va lu es, a c [2p,2 ] su ch t h a t f(c) 5 .240 is gu a r a n t eed. To fin d
2
c, set f(x) 5 .240 a n d solve wit h you r ca lcu la t or ; c 5 22.0925.
99
.................................................................
You ca n lea r n a lot a bou t a fu n ct ion fr om it s a sym pt ot es, so it s im por t a n t t h a t you ca n

det er m in e wh a t kin d of a sym pt ot es sh a pe a gr a ph ju st by lookin g a t a fu n ct ion .
Rem em ber t h a t a sym pt ot es a r e lin es t h a t a gr a ph a ppr oa ch es bu t n ever r ea ch es, a s t h e
gr a ph st r et ch es ou t for ever. Th e t wo kin ds of a sym pt ot es wit h wh ich you sh ou ld con cer n
you r self a r e ver t ica l a sym pt ot es a n d h or izon t a l a sym pt ot es; in t h e gr a ph below of g(x),
x 5 22 is a ver t ica l a sym pt ot e a n d y 5 4 is a h or izon t a l a sym pt ot e.
lim f ( x ) =
x 2
lim f ( x ) =
x 2+
lim f ( x ) = 4
x
Som e st u den t s a r e con fu sed by t h is dia gr a m , sin ce g(x) a ct u a lly in t er sect s t h e h or izon t a l a sym pt ot e. I t h ou gh t a gr a ph ca n t h it a n a sym pt ot e, t h ey m u t t er, eyes fillin g
wit h t ea r s. A gr a ph can in t er sect it s a sym pt ot e, a s lon g a s it doesn t m a ke a h a bit of it .
E ven t h ou gh g in t er sect s y 5 4 a t (2,4), g on ly get s closer a n d closer t o y 5 4 a ft er t h a t
(for x . 2), a n d g won t in t er sect t h e lin e ou t t h er e n ea r in fin it yit s t h e in fin it e
beh a vior of t h e fu n ct ion t h a t con cer n s u s. It s t h e sa m e wit h t h e cr im in a l ju st ice
syst em if you cr oss pa t h s wit h t h e la w a cou ple of t im es wh en you r e ver y you n g, it s
n ot t h a t big a dea l, bu t a s you get m u ch older, t h e police t en d t o fr own u pon you r
cr ossin g t h em a ga in .
Ver t ica l a sym pt ot es a r e discon t in u it ies t h a t for ce a fu n ct ion t o in cr ea se or decr ea se
1
.
wit h ou t bou n d t o a void a n x va lu e. F or exa m ple, con sider t h e gr a ph of f(x) 5
x21
..............................................................................................
LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY
100
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
In t h is ca se, t h e fu n ct ion h a s a n in fin it e discon t in u it y a t x 5 1. As you a ppr oa ch

x 5 1 fr om t h e left , t h e fu n ct ion decr ea ses wit h ou t bou n d, a n d fr om t h e r igh t , you
in cr ea se wit h ou t bou n d. In gen er a l, if f(x) h a s a ver t ica l a sym pt ot e a t x 5 c, t h en
lim f(x) 5 ` or 2`. Th is is com m on ly ca lled a n in fin ite lim it. Th is t er m in ology is
xc
sligh t ly con fu sin g, beca u se wh en f h a s a n in fin it e lim it a t c, f h a s n o lim it a t c!
x+2
a r e ca u sed by
Ex a m p le 7: Det er m in e wh ich discon t in u it ies of p(x) 5 2
x + 5x + 6
ver t ica l a sym pt ot es.
x +2
S o lu tio n : To begin , fa ct or p(x) t o get x + 3 x + 2 . Beca u se t h e den om in a t or of a
(
)(
)
fr a ct ion ca n n ot equ a l zer o, p is discon t in u ou s a t x 5 22 a n d 23. H owever, u sin g t h e
1 5 1. Th er efor e, t h e discon t in u it y
p(x) exist s a n d equ a ls
fa ct or in g m et h od, xlim
2
2 + 3
a t x 5 22 is r em ova ble a n d n ot a ver t ica l a sym pt ot e; h owever, x 5 23 is a ver t ica l
1
a sym pt ot e. If you su bst it u t e x 5 23 in t o t h e p, you will get 2 . Rem em ber, a con st a n t
0
divided by zer o is t h e fin ger pr in t of a ver t ica l a sym pt ot e.
H or izon t a l a sym pt ot es (or lim its at in fin ity) a r e lim it in g h eigh t s t h a t a gr a ph
a ppr oa ch es a s x get s in fin it ely la r ge or sm a ll. Con sider t h e gr a ph below of
2
s(x) 5 4x2 + 1 .
2x 8
As x get s in fin it ely la r ge (t h e ext r em e r igh t side of t h e gr a ph ), t h e fu n ct ion is

a ppr oa ch in g a h eigh t of 2; in fa ct , t h e sa m e is t r u e a s x get s in fin it ely n ega t ive (t h e
left side of t h e gr a ph ). In t h is ca se, we wr it e lim s(x) 5 lim s(x) 5 2. Th e AP
x
f~x!
, a n d t h er e is a h a n dy t r ick
Ca lcu lu s t est oft en fea t u r es pr oblem s of t h e t ype lim
x g~x!
t o fin din g t h ese lim it s a t in fin it y of r a t ion a l fu n ct ion s. Well begin wit h a gen er ic
exa m ple t o lea r n t h e t ech n iqu e.
TIP
A ra tiona l func tion will
a lwa ys a p p roa c h the sa me
limit a s x` a nd x2`.
x
f~x!
.
g~x!
S o lu tio n : Let A be t h e degr ee of f(x) a n d B be t h e degr ee of g(x).

If A . B , t h en t h e lim it is `.
If B . A, t h en t h e lim it is 0.
If A 5 B , t h en t h e lim it is t h e r a t io of t h e lea din g coefficien t s of f(x) a n d g(x).
101
.................................................................
NOTE
Ex a m p le 9: E va lu a t e t h e followin g lim it s.
(a ) lim
x
x 4 2 3x 2 + 1
x2 + 5
Rememb er tha t the d eg ree

of a p olynomia l is its hig hest
Beca u se t h e degr ee of t h e n u m er a t or is gr ea t er t h a n t h e degr ee of t h e den om in a t or

(4 . 2), t h e lim it is `. In ot h er wor ds, t h e fu n ct ion does n ot a ppr oa ch a lim it in g h eigh t
a n d will r ea ch h igh er a n d h igh er a s x in cr ea ses.
(b) lim
x
exp onent, a nd the

c oeffic ient of the term with
the hig hest exp onent is
c a lled the lea d ing
x6 5x3 +2 x +7
c oeffic ient.
x 5 + 4 x 4 11 x 3
Th e degr ee of t h e n u m er a t or is 3, sin ce =x 6 5 x 3 , a n d t h e degr ee of t h e den om in a t or

is 5. Sin ce t h e den om in a t or s degr ee is h igh er, t h e lim it is 0.
(c ) lim
x
..............................................................................................
Th is t ech n iqu e on ly wor ks for r a t ion a l fu n ct ion s wh en you a r e fin din g t h e lim it a s x
a ppr oa ch es in fin it y, a n d a lt h ou gh it m a y sou n d t r icky a t fir st , t h e m et h od is qu it e
ea sy in pr a ct ice.
2 x3 7x 4 +2
5 x 4 + 3 x 2 +1
Th e degr ees of t h e n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or a r e bot h 4, so t a ke t h e r a t io of t h ose
7
t er m s coefficien t s t o get a lim it of 2 .
5
Ex a m p le 10: Give t h e equ a t ion s of t h e ver t ica l a n d h or izon t a l a sym pt ot es of
k (x) 5
2 x 2 5 x 12
x 2 12 x + 32
S o lu tio n : Th e h or izon t a l a sym pt ot es a r e ea sy t o fin d u sin g t h e t ech n iqu e of t h e

pr eviou s t wo exa m ples. Th e degr ees of t h e n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or a r e equ a l, so
2
lim k (x) 5 5 2. Th er efor e, k h a s h or izon t a l a sym pt ot e y 5 2. In or der t o fin d a n y
x
1
ver t ica l a sym pt ot es, begin by fa ct or in g k :
k (x) 5
( x 4 )( 2 x + 3)
( x 4 )( x 8 )
NOTE
Rememb er: If limit eq ua ls `,
there tec hnic a lly is no limit,
sinc e ` is not a rea l
numb er.
F r om t h is, you ca n see t h a t k h a s discon t in u it ies a t x 5 4 a n d 8. To det er m in e wh ich

76
0
r epr esen t s a n a sym pt ot e, su bst it u t e t h em bot h in t o k . k (4) 5 a n d k (8)5 . Th u s,
0
0
x 5 8 is a n in fin it e discon t in u it y, a n d x 5 4 is a poin t discon t in u it y, a s ver ified by t h e
gr a ph .
102
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 6
1. E xpla in h ow h or izon t a l a n d ver t ica l a sym pt ot es a r e r ela t ed t o in fin it y.

m (x) 5 0, dr a w a
2. If m is a n even fu n ct ion wit h ver t ica l a sym pt ot e x 5 2 a n d lim
x
possible gr a ph of m (x).
3. E va lu a t e:
1 4 x 3 + 6 x 4
(a ) lim
x
2 x 5 3 x 3 +12
(b) lim
x
5x3 +7x+4
3x +8 x 2 + 7 x 6
4. Given f(x) 5
bx 2 +14 x + 6
2 x 2 a2
, a a n d b a r e posit ive in t eger s, f h a s h or izon t a l a sym p-
t ot e y 5 2, a n d f h a s ver t ica l a sym pt ot e x 5 3:

(a ) F in d t h e cor r ect va lu es of a a n d b.
(b) F in d t h e poin t of r em ova ble discon t in u it y on f.
5. Dr a w a fu n ct ion g(x) t h a t sa t isfies a ll of t h e followin g pr oper t ies:

Dom a in of g is (2`,22) (22,2`)
g h a s a n on r em ova ble discon t in u it y a t x 5 22
Ra n ge of g is [23,`)
g h a s on e r oot : x 5 24
lim g(x) 5 3
x 2
lim g(x) 5 21
g(x) 5 1
lim
x

1. Wh en a fu n ct ion a ppr oa ch es t h e ver t ica l a sym pt ot e x 5 c, t h e fu n ct ion va lu es
eit h er in cr ea se or decr ea se wit h ou t bou n d (in fin it ely); for exa m ple:
lim f(x) 5 `.
xc +
A h or izon t a l a sym pt ot e occu r s wh en a fu n ct ion a ppr oa ch es a fixed h eigh t for ever

f(x) 5 c).
a s x a ppr oa ch es in fin it y (for exa m ple: lim
x
103
.................................................................
bx 2 +14 x + 6
2 x 2 18
If f h a s h or izon t a l a sym pt ot e y 5 2, t h en lim
f(x) 5 2. Th e n u m er a t or a n d
x
den om in a t or h a ve t h e sa m e degr ee, so t h e lim it is b 5 2. Th u s, b 5 4.
2
(b) Su bst it u t in g bot h b a n d a gives you
4 x 2 +14 x + 6
2 x 2 18
F a ct or com plet ely t o get
2 2 x 2 +7 x +3
2 x2 9
) = ( 2 x + 1) ( x + 3 )
( x + 3)( x 3)
Th e (x 1 3) fa ct or ca n be elim in a t ed, m ea n in g t h a t
lim f(x) 5 5 . Sin ce x 5
x 3
6
23 is a discon t in u it y a t wh ich a lim it exist s, f is r em ova bly discon t in u ou s a t
5
t h e poin t (23, ).
6
exercises
4. (a ) If f h a s ver t ica l a sym pt ot e x 5 3, we ca n fin d a. Rem em ber t h e ver t ica l

a sym pt ot e fin ger pr in t : a zer o in t h e den om in a t or bu t n ot in t h e n u m er a t or.
Th e den om in a t or equ a ls zer o wh en 3 2 2 a 2 5 0.
32 2 a 2 5 0
2
a 59
a 5 3 (sin ce a h a s t o be posit ive a ccor din g t o t h e pr oblem )
Su bst it u t e a in t o t h e fr a ct ion t o give you
a nsw ers
3. (a ) Beca u se t h e degr ee of t h e den om in a t or is gr ea t er t h a n t h e degr ee of t h e

n u m er a t or, t h e lim it a t in fin it y is zer o.
(b)
Th e n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or a r e bot h of degr ee 3 (sin ce =x 6 5 x 3 ), so
5
. Not e t h a t t h e
t a ke t h e cor r espon din g coefficien t s t o fin d t h e lim it of
7
r a dica l r em a in s a r ou n d t h e 7.
..............................................................................................
2. Beca u se m is even , it m u st be y-sym m et r ic, a n d, t h er efor e, h a ve a ver t ica l

m (x) m u st a lso equ a l 0. An y
a sym pt ot e a t x 5 22 a s well. F u r t h er m or e, xlim

solu t ion m u st fit t h ose ch a r a ct er ist ics; h er e is on e:
104
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
5. Th is pr oblem is pr et t y in volved, a n d a ll solu t ion s will look sim ila r t o t h e gr a ph

below.
In or der t o get t h e r a n ge of [23,`), it s im por t a n t t h a t
lim g(x) 5 `. Th e gr a ph
x 2 +
m u st a lso r ea ch down t o a n d in clu de t h e h eigh t of 23, a lt h ou gh it n eed n ot

h a ppen a t (26,23) a s on t h is gr a ph .
SPECIAL LIMITS
You h a ve a n u m ber of t ech n iqu es a va ila ble t o you n ow t o eva lu a t e lim it s a n d t o in t er pr et
t h e con t in u it y t h a t is depen den t on t h ose lim it s. Befor e you a r e com plet ely pr oficien t a t
lim it s, h owever, t h er e a r e fou r lim it s you n eed t o be a ble t o r ecogn ize on sigh t . (BC
st u den t s h a ve st ill a n ot h er t opic t o cover con cer n in g lim it sLH pit a ls Ru lebu t t h a t
occu r s in Ch a pt er 5.) I ca ll t h ese specia l lim it s beca u se we a ccept t h em wit h ou t for m a l
pr oof a n d beca u se of t h e specia l wa y t h ey m a ke you feel a ll t in gly in side.
1. lim
x
F o u r S p e c ia l Lim its
c
5 0, if c is a n on zer o con st a n t a n d n is a posit ive in t eger
xn
J u stification : In t h e sim plest ca se (c 5 1, n 51), you a r e con sider in g lim

x
1
. You sh ou ld
x
1
by h ea r t , a n d it s h eigh t clea r ly a ppr oa ch es zer o a s x a ppr oa ch es
x
in fin it y. Th e sa m e will h a ppen wit h a n y c va lu e. Rem em ber t h a t t h e den om in a t or is
a ppr oa ch in g in fin ity, so it is get t in g ver y la r ge, wh ile t h e n u m er a t or is r em a in in g
fixed. Th e den om in a t or will even t u a lly get so la r ge, in fa ct , t h a t n o m a t t er h ow la r ge
t h e n u m er a t or is, t h e fr a ct ion h a s a n ext r em ely sm a ll va lu e so close t o zer o t h a t t h e
kn ow t h e gr a ph of
differ en ce is n egligible. Th is lim it r u le wor ks t h e sa m e wa y for ot h er eligible n va lu es.

7
2 3 . Th e den om in a t or is gr owin g la r ger m or e qu ickly t h a n in t h e
Con sider lim
x
x
pr eviou s exa m ple, wh ile 7 r em a in s con st a n t . Clea r ly, t h is lim it is a lso equ a l t o 0.
2. lim
x
S D
11
1
x
5e
J u stification : Usin g t h e fir st specia l lim it r u le, lim

x
S D
S D
11
1
5 1 1 0 5 1. Tech n ica lly,
x
1
is a n u m ber ver y close t o, bu t n ot qu it e, on e. Th a t sm a ll differ en ce becom es
x
m a gn ified wh en r a ised t o t h e x power, a n d t h e r esu lt is e. To visu a lly ver ify t h a t t h e
11
105
.................................................................
S D
S D
11
1
x
for a ver y la r ge
1
5 2.718281815, wh ich is a px
pr oxim a t ely t h e va lu e of e, a ccu r a t e t o seven decim a l pla ces.
va lu e of x. F or exa m ple, if x 5 100,000,000,
11
sin a
51
3. lim
a0
a
J u stification : Th is is ea sily pr oven by LH pit a ls Ru le, bu t t h a t is ou t side t h e spect r u m of Ca lcu lu s AB, so ABer s will h a ve t o sa t isfy t h em selves wit h t h e gr a ph of
y 5 sin x a s pr oof.
x
Not e t h a t t h e for m u la a bove u ses a in st ea d of x, beca u se t h e r u le h olds t r u e for m or e

t h a n ju st sin x . F or exa m ple, you ca n set a 5 5x 3 a n d t h e for m u la st ill wor ks:
x
3
sin5
x
lim
5 1.
x 0
5x3
cos a 1
50
4. lim
a0
a
J u stification : Aga in , LH pit a ls Ru le m a kes t h is ea sy, bu t t h e gr a ph will su ffice a s
pr oof; a lso, a n y va lu e of a will m a ke t h is t r u e.
Ex a m p le 11: E va lu a t e ea ch of t h e followin g lim it s.

(a ) lim
x
32
4 8
+
x x2
..............................................................................................
lim it is a ccu r a t e, u se you r gr a ph in g ca lcu la t or t o ca lcu la t e
106
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
You ca n do ea ch of t h ese lim it s sepa r a t ely a n d a dd t h e r esu lt s:
4
8
5 0, lim
50
x
x
x2
4
8
lim 3 2 1
53101053
x
x x2
lim 3 5 3, lim
x
x
Th e la st t wo lim it s a r e possible beca u se of Specia l Lim it Ru le 1.

(b) lim
x
4
5
3 + 22
x
x
You ca n r ewr it e t h is a s
lim
x
5
1 4x 2
3
x
5
h a s a lim it of 0 a s x a ppr oa ch es in fin it y, 4x 2 will gr ow in fin it ely la r ge. Th e
x3
r esu lt in g su m will h a ve n o lim it in g va lu e, so t h e lim it is 0 1 ` 5 `. (No lim it exist s.)
Alt h ou gh
sin3 x
(c ) lim
x 0
x
Th is is n ot qu it e t h e for m of Specia l Lim it Ru le 3t h e 3x a n d x h a ve t o m a t ch .
3
H owever, if you m u lt iply t h e fr a ct ion by , you get
3
lim z
x 0
sin 3x
3x
Now, Specia l Lim it Ru le 3 a pplies:
NOTE
You a re a llowed to multip ly
3
b y in Exa mp le 11(c )
3
b ec a use d oing so is the
sa me a s multip lying b y
1you a re not c ha ng ing
the va lue of the fra c tion.
lim 3 z
x 0
sin 3x
5 lim
3z153
x 0
3x
Not ice t h a t 3 z 1 is n ot a ffect ed by t h e lim it st a t em en t a t a ll in t h e la st st ep; t h e x m a y

be a ppr oa ch in g 0, bu t t h er e a r e n o xs left in t h e pr oblem !
S D
2z 11
(d ) lim
x
1
x
1 cos
p
x
S D
1 x
p
5 2 z e. Not e t h a t will follow Specia l Lim it
x
x
Ru le 1, sin ce p is a con st a n t . Th er efor e, you get :
2z 11
By Specia l Lim it Ru le 2, lim
x
lim cos
x
p
5 lim
cos 0 5 1
x
x
Th er efor e, t h e solu t ion is 2e 1 1.
E xa m ple 11 dem on st r a t es t h a t t h e pr esen ce of a ddit ion a n d su bt r a ct ion does n ot

a ffect t h e ou t com e of t h e lim it . E a ch piece of t h e lim it ca n be don e sepa r a t ely a n d
com bin ed a t t h e en d.
107
.................................................................

1. lim
(4x 2 2 x 1 18)
x
2. lim
x 0
3. lim
1 cos 7 x
x
3cosx 2 3
x 0
9x2
2
4. lim 4 x
x
x3

1. lim
(4x 2 2 x 1 18) 5 `. Som e t ext s pr opose ver y com plica t ed m ea n s t o pr ove t h is.
x
H owever, t h e qu est ion is ver y ea sy if you con sider t h e gr a ph of y 5 4x 2 2 x 1 18it
(4x 2 2 x 1 18) 5 `. It is a lso cor r ect t o
is a pa r a bola fa cin g u pwa r d. Th er efor e, lim
x
sa y t h a t n o lim it exist s beca u se t h e fu n ct ion in cr ea ses wit h ou t bou n d.
cosx 1 . Mu lt iply t h e n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or

2. Th is is a lm ost of t h e for m lim
x 0
x
by 7, a n d fa ct or ou t a n ega t ive t o m a ke it m a t ch t h a t for m :
lim
x 0
cos 7x 1 7
x
7
lim ( 7 )
x 0
cos 7x 1
7x
27 z 0 5 0
3. Aga in , som e m in or m a ssa gin g is n ecessa r y t o u se Specia l Lim it Ru le 4:
lim
x 0
3 cos x 2 1
9x
1 cos x 2 1
x 0 3
x2
lim
1
z050
3
4. Th is fr a ct ion ca n be r ewr it t en t o give you lim 45 . Accor din g t o Specia l Lim it
x 0 x
c
Ru le 1, t h is is of for m n , so t h e lim it is 0.
x
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 7
108
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
TECHNOLOGY: EVALUATING LIMITS WITH A GRAPHING

CALCULATOR
You ca n su m u p t h e wh ole con cept of lim it s in on e st a t em en t : A lim it is a h eigh t t owa r d
wh ich a fu n ct ion is h ea din g a t a cer t a in x va lu e. Wit h t h is in m in d, a gr a ph in g ca lcu la t or
gr ea t ly sim plifies t h e lim it pr ocess. Ma n y t im es, t h e fu n ct ion you a r e given is biza r r e
lookin g, a n d it s gr a ph is beyon d t h e gr a sp of m er e m or t a l m en a n d wom en in t h e t im e
a llot t ed t o a n swer a n AP qu est ion . Th e m a jor it y of t h ese lim it qu est ion s a ppea r on t h e
n on -ca lcu la t or por t ion of t h e AP t est , for cin g you t o u se t h e su bst it u t ion , fa ct or in g, a n d
con ju ga t e m et h ods t o r ea ch a n a n swer. H owever, eva lu a t in g lim it pr oblem s will som et im es seep in t o t h e ca lcu la t or-a ct ive sect ion like a viscou s, st icky goo. In t h ese ca ses,
lim it s a r e n o m a t ch for you a t a ll, a s t h e ca lcu la t or a ffor ds you n u m er ou s t ools in you r
du a l qu est s for a 5 on t h e AP t est a n d pea ce in t h e u n iver se.
x 3 u sin g you r ca lcu la t or.

9x
S o lu tio n : You solved t h is pr oblem in a n ea r lier exer cise u sin g t h e con ju ga t e m et h od
1
(wh ich wor ks ju st fin e) a n d got 2 . Gr a ph it on you r ca lcu la t or it looks a lm ost like a
6
st r a igh t lin e (bu t it s defin it ely n ot lin ea r ).
ALERT!
Rememb er tha t your
c a lc ula tor c a n only b e
used to a p p roxima te limits.
Using the c a lc ula tor to
a p p roxima te a limit ma y
not b e a c c ep ta b le on a
free-resp onse q uestion. This
method is only your
la st resort!
x 9
Use t h e [2 n d ][Tr a ce]va lu e com m a n d on you r ca lcu la t or t o fin d t h e va lu e of t h e

fu n ct ion a t x 5 9. Th e cor r espon din g y va lu e sh ou ld com e ou t bla n k! Th is m a kes
sen se, beca u se 9 is n ot in t h e dom a in of t h e fu n ct ion . Th er efor e, su bst it u t ion does n ot
wor k. H owever, we ca n u se t h e ca lcu la t or t o su bst it u t e a n u m ber very close t o 9. Th is
va lu e is a good a ppr oxim a t ion of t h e lim it for wh ich you a r e lookin g. Aga in , u se t h e
[2 n d ][Tr a ce]va lu e fu n ct ion of you r ca lcu la t or t o eva lu a t e t h e fu n ct ion a t
x 5 8.9999.
109
.................................................................
To ver ify t h is n u m er ica lly, pr ess [Tr a ce] a n d r epea t edly pr ess t h e r igh t a r r ow key. Th e
3
fu n ct ion s h eigh t will slowly get closer t o 5 .6.
5
..............................................................................................
Th e ca lcu la t or gives a lim it of x 5 2.1666671. Usin g ot h er x va lu es even closer t o 9

(e.g., 8.99999999999), t h e a ppr oxim a t ion looks m or e like 2.16666666667, wh ich is
1
a ppr oxim a t ely 2 , t h e exa ct va lu e we r eceived fr om u sin g t h e con ju ga t e m et h od.
6
2
Ex a m p le 13: Sh ow t h a t lim 3x 7 2 = 3 u sin g you r ca lcu la t or.
x 4 + 2x + 5x
5
3
S o lu tio n : Usin g t h e r u le for r a t ion a l fu n ct ion s a t in fin it y, t h e lim it is clea r ly a s t h e
5
degr ees of t h e n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or a r e t h e sa m e. Th e gr a ph cer t a in ly a ppea r s
t o a ppr oa ch t h a t h eigh t a s x a ppr oa ch es bot h ` a n d 2`.
110
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
An ot h er opt ion open t o you is t h e [2 n d ]gr a ph (or [Ta ble]) fu n ct ion of t h e ca lcu la t or,
wh ich list s fu n ct ion va lu es qu ickly.
Clea r ly, t h e fu n ct ion a ppr oa ch es a lim it in g h eigh t of .6 a s x a ppr oa ch es `.
111
.................................................................
1. If
lim f(x) exist s, wh a t m u st be t r u e?

xa
2. Given p(x) 5
(x
(2x
+ 4x + b
+ 7x 15
, fin d t h e va lu e of b t h a t en su r es p is n on r em ova bly
discon t in u ou s on ly on ce on (2`,`).
3. Wh a t con dit ion s m u st be m et if f(x) is con t in u ou s a t x 5 c?
4.
lim
~5s + 1!~s 2 4!
~26 + 3s 2 7s 2 + 2s 3 !
5. Design t wo fu n ct ion s, g(x) a n d h (x), su ch t h a t g(x) 1 h (x) 5 4x 2 1 3x 1 1 a n d

g( x )
lim
5 3.
x h x
( )
6. Wh a t t h r ee fu n ct ion beh a vior s pr even t a lim it fr om exist in g?
7. Wh a t va lu e of a m a kes k con t in u ou s if k (x) 5
4
8. lim 2x x 2
x
2 3x
9. If d (x) is defin ed by t h e gr a ph below, a n swer t h e followin g qu est ion s:
(a ) lim
d (x)
x 0
(b) lim d (x)
x 1
(c ) lim d (x)
x 1
(d ) lim
d (x)
x 2
(e ) xlim
d(x)
4+
(f) List a ll x va lu es wh er e d is discon t in u ou s.
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 8
112
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
(g ) Wh ich of you r a n swer s t o pa r t (f) r epr esen t s r em ova ble discon t in u it ies,
a n d wh y?
(h ) Wh a t va lu e(s) of b m a ke t h e followin g st a t em en t t r u e?
lim d ( x ) =
x
10. lim
x 2
sin x
x
11. Give t h e equ a t ion s of t h e h or izon t a l a n d ver t ica l a sym pt ot es of

3 a 2 x 2 + 2 abx b 2 , if a a n d b a r e r ea l n u m ber s.
g(x) 5
6 a 2 x 2 abx b 2
12. lim 4 x 2 5 x +1 2 x
x
13. Th e popu la t ion , y, of t h e ba ct er ia M ak eyou cou gh u s h u rtyou rth roatu s is m odeled

by t h e equ a t ion y 5 50e .1013663t , wh er e t is da ys a n d y is t h e n u m ber of colon ies of
ba ct er ia . Use t h e In t er m edia t e Va lu e Th eor em t o ver ify t h a t t h e ba ct er ia will
r ea ch a popu la t ion of 100 colon ies on t h e t im e in t er va l [4,7].
14. If f(x) a n d g(x) a r e defin ed by t h e gr a ph s below, eva lu a t e t h e followin g lim it s (if

possible):
(a ) lim
(f(x) 2 3g(x))
x 2
(b)
(c )
lim
x 3
f ( x)
g( x )
lim g(f(x))
x 1
15. F in d t h e va lu es of c a n d d t h a t m a ke m (x) con t in u ou s if

m (x)5
16. J a m e s D ia bo lic a l Ch a lle n g e P ro ble m :

Given j(x) 5
fin d A a n d B .
, j(2) 5 1, a n d j(x) is ever ywh er e con t in u ou s,
113
.................................................................
2. Th e den om in a t or of p fa ct or s t o (2x 2 3)(x 1 5), so p will be discon t in u ou s a t

3
x 5 a n d 25. If t h e n u m er a t or con t a in s on e of t h ese fa ct or s, ou r goa l will be
2
a ch ieved. It m a kes good sen se t o for ce (x 1 5) t o be a fa ct or, r a t h er t h a n (2x 2 3)
beca u se t h e lea din g coefficien t of t h e n u m er a t or is 1. (In ot h er wor ds, t h e n u m er a t or will fa ct or in t o (x 1 A)(x 1 B) a n d (x 1 5) is of t h is for m .) To fin d b, we
fa ct or t h e n u m er a t or u sin g (x 1 5) a s on e of t h e fa ct or s:
(x 1 A)(x 1 5) 5 x 2 1 4x 1 b
x 2 1 5x 1 Ax 1 5A 5 x 2 1 4x 1 b
Su bt r a ct x 2 fr om ea ch side a n d fa ct or t o get
x(5 1 A) 1 5A 5 4x 1 b
Th u s, 5 1 A (t h e coefficien t of x on t h e left side of t h e equ a t ion ) m u st equ a l 4 (t h e
coefficien t of x on t h e r igh t side of t h e equ a t ion ).
51A 54
A 5 21
Th er efor e, (x 2 1) is t h e r em a in in g fa ct or. Th u s,
x 2 1 4x 1 b 5 (x 1 5)(x 2 1)
x 2 1 4x 1 b 5 x 2 1 4x 2 5
Beca u se (x 1 5) is a fa ct or of t h e n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or,
lim p(x) exist s,
x 5
a n d t h e discon t in u it y t h er e is r em ova ble. Th e discon t in u it y a t x 5

beca u se p
t in u it y).
SD S D
3
2
3
h a s n o lim it
2
3.25
, wh ich in dica t es a ver t ica l a sym pt ot e (essen t ia l discon 0
3. If f(x) is con t in u ou s a t x 5 c, t h en (1)

a r e equ a l.
lim f(x) exist s, (2) f(c) exist s, a n d (3) t h e t wo

xc
5 s 2 19 s 4
.
s 6 + 3 s 7 s 2 + 2 s 3
Beca u se t h is is a r a t ion a l fu n ct ion eva lu a t ed a t in fin it y, you ca n u se t h e sh or t cu t
m et h od of exa m in in g t h eir degr ees. Beca u se t h e degr ee of t h e den om in a t or
exceeds t h e degr ee of t h e n u m er a t or, t h e fu n ct ion s lim it a t in fin it y is 0. Don t be
con fu sed beca u se x2`. Rem em ber t h a t a r a t ion a l fu n ct ion a ppr oa ch es t h e
sa m e lim it s a s x` a n d 2`.
4. Mu lt iply t h e bin om ia ls in t h e n u m er a t or t o get
lim
g( x )
is a r a t ion a l fu n ct ion a n d lim
5 3, we kn ow t h a t t h e lea din g
x
h( x )
coefficien t s of g(x) a n d h (x) m u st be in t h e r a t io 3:1. On e possible g(x) is 3x 2 1 2x
1 1. Th e m a t ch in g h (x) wou ld h a ve t o be x 2 1 x. Not ice t h a t t h e su m of t h e t wo
g( x )
fu n ct ion s is 4x 2 1 3x 1 1, a s dir ect ed, a n d lim
5 3. Th er e a r e n u m er ou s
x h x
( )
possible a n swer s, bu t t h ey will wor k in essen t ia lly t h e sa m e fa sh ion .
5. Beca u se
exercises
b 5 25
a nsw ers
1. Th e t h r ee con dit ion s for a lim it t o exist a r e: (1) xlim

f(x) exist s, (2) xlim
f(x) exist s,
a+
a
a n d (3) t h ey a r e equ a l.
..............................................................................................
114
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
6. If a fu n ct ion oscilla t es in fin it ely, in cr ea ses or decr ea ses wit h ou t bou n d, or h a s

r igh t - a n d left -h a n d lim it s t h a t a r e u n equ a l, t h e fu n ct ion will n ot possess a lim it
t h er e.
1 2 cosx
5 0. Th u s, lim
k (x) 5 0, a n d t h e
x 0
x
fir st con dit ion of con t in u it y is m et . Not ice t h a t k (0) 5 a, a n d (for k t o be
con t in u ou s) a m u st equ a l t h a t lim it a s x a ppr oa ch es 0. Th er efor e, a 5 0.
7. Specia l Lim it Ru le 4 gives u s t h a t lim

x 0
8. Use Specia l Lim it Ru le 1 t o sim plify t h e fr a ct ion a s follows:
lim
x
2x 0
2 3x
Th is is a r a t ion a l fu n ct ion bein g eva lu a t ed a t in fin it y wit h equ a l degr ees in t h e

2
2
52 .
n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or, so t h e lim it is equ a l t o
23
3
9. (a ) 0
(b) 21: Rem em ber t h e key is t h a t you a r e a ppr oa ch in g 21 from t h e r igh t , n ot to
t h e r igh t .
(c )
(d )
(e )
(f)
3
2: even t h ou gh f(2) 5 21, t h e fu n ct ion lea ds u p t o a h eigh t of 2 wh en x 5 2
3
x 5 23, 22, 2, 4
(g ) x 5 2: If you r edefin e d su ch t h a t d (2) 5 2 (in st ea d of 21), t h en t h e lim it

a n d t h e fu n ct ion va lu e a r e equ a l t o 2 a n d d is con t in u ou s t h er e. No ot h er
discon t in u it ies ca n be elim in a t ed by r edefin in g a fin it e n u m ber of poin t s.
(h ) b 5 23,`: d in cr ea ses wit h ou t bou n d a s you a ppr oa ch 3 fr om t h e left a n d
t h e r igh t ; t h e gr a ph a lso in cr ea ses wit h ou t bou n d a s x a ppr oa ch es `.
10. You don t h a ve t o u se specia l lim it r u les h er esu bst it u t ion is possible. Th e
sin 2
, or .455.
a n swer is
2
11. F a ct or t h e fr a ct ion fu lly t o get
( 3 ax b ) ( ax + b )
( 3 ax + b ) ( 2 ax b )
b b
. H owever, t h e n u m er a t or
Th e den om in a t or of g will equ a l 0 wh en x 5 2 ,
3a 2a
will n ot equ a l zer o sim u lt a n eou sly. Th u s, ver t ica l a sym pt ot es a r e pr esen t , a n d
b
b
and x 5
. To fin d t h e
t h e equ a t ion s for t h e ver t ica l a sym pt ot es a r e x 5 2
3a
2a
h or izon t a l a sym pt ot es, n ot e t h a t t h e n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or h a ve t h e sa m e
degr ee, a n d fin d t h e lim it a t in fin it y.
115
.................................................................
12. It s t h e r even ge of t h e con ju ga t e m et h od! Mu lt iply t h e n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or of t h e fr a ct ion by t h e con ju ga t e of t h e expr ession .
4 x 2 5 x +1 2 x 4 x 2 5 x +1 + 2 x

lim
x
4 x 2 5 x +1 + 2 x
2
2
lim 4 x 5 x +1 4 x
x
4 x 2 5 x +1 + 2 x
lim
x
5 x +1
2
4 x 5 x +1 + 2 x
Beca u se t h e degr ees of t h e n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or a r e bot h 1 (sin ce

=x 2 5 x), you fin d t h e lim it by t a kin g t h e coefficien t s of t h e t er m s of t h a t degr ee
a n d ign or in g t h e r est of t h e pr oblem (ju st a s you ve don e in t h e pa st wit h r a t ion a l
lim it s a t in fin it y).
5 x
= 5 = 5
lim
4
2
x
4 +2
4 x +2 x
14. (a ) No lim it : lim

f(x) does n ot exist , so f(x) 2 3g(x) ca n n ot h a ve a lim it .
x 2
(b) 0:
(c ) 2:
lim f(x) 5 0 a n d lim g(x) 5 2. So, lim

x 3
x 3
x 3
lim f(x) 5 22 a n d g(22) 5 2.

x 1
f ( x)
5
g( x )
0 5 0.
2
15. Th e gr a ph will begin a s a sem icir cle of r a diu s 2 cen t er ed a t (23,0), will becom e a
lin e (sin ce cx 1 d is lin ea r ) bet ween t h e x va lu es of 21 a n d 3, a n d will en d a s t h e
gr a ph of =x sh ift ed t o t h e r igh t 3 a n d u p 4. To fin d t h e fir st poin t on t h e lin ea r
sect ion , plu g 21 in t o t h e fir st r u le: 2 4 ( 1 + 3 ) 2 5 0. Th e lin e will begin a t
poin t (21,0). Th e lin e will en d a t m (3) 5 3 3 1 4 5 4. Th e focu s of t h e pr oblem ,
t h en , is t o fin d t h e equ a t ion of t h e lin e t h a t pa sses t h r ou gh (21,0) a n d (3,4). F in d
t h e slope of t h e lin e a n d u se poin t -slope for m t o get
4
y 2 0 5 (x 1 1)
4
y5x11
exercises
13. Th e popu la t ion a t t 5 4 is a ppr oxim a t ely 75, a n d t h e popu la t ion a t t 5 7 is

a ppr oxim a t ely 101.655. Th e In t er m edia t e Va lu e Th eor em gu a r a n t ees t h e exist en ce of a c [4,7] su ch t h a t f(c) 5 100.
a nsw ers
1
F r om t h is, you kn ow t h a t t h e h or izon t a l a sym pt ot e is y 5 .
2
..............................................................................................
2
1
lim g(x) 5 3 a 5 if a 0
x
2
2
6a
116
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Th er efor e, t h e cor r ect c a n d d va lu es a r e bot h 1. Th e solu t ion is fu r t h er ju st ified

by t h e gr a ph of m .
16. To begin , fa ct or t h e fu n ct ion a n d u se t h e fa ct t h a t j(2) 5 1.
( x 4 )( x A )
5x 2A
x4
j(2) 5 2 2 A 5 1
j(x) 5
A 51
f(x) m u st be equ a l t o f(4). So, you get
Sin ce t h e fu n ct ion is con t in u ou s, lim
x 4
f(4)5 4 2 1 5 B (a ccor din g t o t h e given in for m a t ion ); B 5 3.
117
.................................................................
Rem em ber t h a t t h e lim it of a gr a ph a t x 5 c is t h e h eigh t t h a t t h e gr a ph r ea ch es

at x 5 c
Lim it s a n swer t h e qu est ion Wh er e is a fu n ct ion h ea din g?
On ly poin t discon t in u it ies a r e r em ova ble, beca u se a lim it exist s.
Ra t ion a l, polyn om ia l, r a dica l, expon en t ia l t r igon om et r ic, a n d loga r it h m ic fu n ct ion s a r e a lwa ys con t in u ou s a t a ll poin t s in t h eir dom a in . To h elp r em em ber t h is,
u se t h e m n em on ic device
Red P a r r ot s con t in u ou sly Repea t E ver yt h in g Th ey Lea r n .
..............................................................................................
SUMMING IT UP
Differentia ting
....................................................................................
Deriva tive a s a ra te of cha nge

The power rule
Deriva tives to memorize
The cha in rule
The product rule
The quotient rule
A word a bout respecting va ria bles
Implicit differentia tion
Ha nds-On Activity 4.1: Approxima ting deriva tives
Technology: Finding numerica l deriva tives with the
gra phing ca lcula tor
Summing it up
Th e st u dy of lim it s a n d con t in u it y on ly set s t h e st a ge for t h e fir st m ea t y t opic
of ca lcu lu s: der iva t ives a n d differ en t ia t ion . In fa ct , m or e t h a n h a lf of t h e
qu est ion s on t h e AP t est will in volve der iva t ives in som e wa y or a n ot h er.
Un like lim it s, h owever, fin din g der iva t ives is a n a lm ost m ech a n ica l pr ocess
fu ll of r u les a n d gu idelin es, wh ich som e st u den t s fin d a r elief. Ot h er st u den t s
don t fin d a n y r elief in a n y t opic of ca lcu lu s; t h ese people h a ve a wfu l n igh t m a r es in wh ich m on st er s cor n er t h em a n d for ce t h em t o eva lu a t e lim it s wh ile
pokin g t h em wit h spea r s.
DERIVATIVE AS A RATE OF CHANGE

Th e d erivative of a fu n ct ion descr ibes h ow fa st a n d in wh a t ca pa cit y a
fu n ct ion is ch a n gin g a t a n y in st a n t . You a lr ea dy kn ow a bit a bou t
der iva t ives, t h ou gh you m a y n ot kn ow it . Con sider t h e gr a ph of y 5 2x 2 1.
At ever y poin t on t h e lin e, t h e gr a ph is ch a n gin g a t a r a t e of 2. Th is is su ch
a n im por t a n t ch a r a ct er ist ic of a lin e t h a t it h a s it s own n ift y t er m slope.
Beca u se a slope descr ibes t h e r a t e of ch a n ge of a lin ea r equ a t ion , t h e
der iva t ive of a n y lin ea r equ a t ion is it s slope. In t h e ca se of y 5 2x 2 1, we
wr it e y 5 2.
119
c ha p ter 4
OVERVIEW
120
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
NOTE
Differentia tion is the p roc ess
of ta king d eriva tives. If a
func tion is d ifferentia b le,
then it ha s d eriva tives.
Not a ll der iva t ives a r e so ea sy, h owever. You ll n eed t o kn ow t h e defin it ion of t h e
der iva t ive, a lso ca lled t h e d ifferen ce qu otien t. Th e der iva t ive of a fu n ct ion f(x) is
defin ed a s t h is lim it :
lim
x 0
f ( x + x ) f ( x )
x
Ex a m p le 1: Use t h e differ en ce qu ot ien t t o ver ify t h a t
NOTE
dy
, a nd Dx
dx
a ll mea n the d eriva tive of y
The nota tions y ,
with resp ec t to x. Don t

c onc ern yourself too muc h
with wha t with resp ec t to
x a c tua lly mea ns yet.
dy
5 2 if y 5 2x 2 1.
dx
S o lu tio n : Set f(x) 5 2x 2 1, a n d a pply t h e differ en ce qu ot ien t . You n eed t o su bst it u t e

(x 1 Dx) in t o t h e fu n ct ion , su bt r a ct f(x), a n d t h en divide t h e wh ole t h in g by Dx.
lim 2 ( x + x ) 1 ( 2x 1)
x 0
lim 2 x + 2 x 1 2 x +1
x
x 0
lim 2x
x 0
lim 2 5 2
x 0
Th a t wa sn t so ba d, n ow wa s it ? Well, ba d n ewsit get s wor se. Wh a t a bou t t h e gr a ph

y 5 x 2 1 2? Th a t gr a ph ch a n ges t h r ou gh ou t it s dom a in a t differ en t r a t es. In fa ct , wh en
x , 0, t h e gr a ph is decr ea sin g, so it s r a t e of ch a n ge will h a ve t o be n ega t ive. H owever,
wh en x . 0, t h e gr a ph in cr ea ses, m ea n in g t h a t it s r a t e of ch a n ge will n eed t o be
posit ive. F u r t h er m or e, ca n you discu ss slope if t h e gr a ph in qu est ion isn t a lin e?
Yes. Der iva t ives a llow u s t o discu ss t h e slopes of cu rves, a n d we do so by exa m in in g
t a n gen t lin es t o t h ose cu r ves. Th e dia gr a m below sh ows y 5 x 2 1 2 a n d t h r ee of it s
t a n gen t lin es.
TIP
The d ifferenc e q uotient ha s
a n a lterna tive form for
find ing d eriva tives a t a
sp ec ific va lue x 5 c : f (c ) 5
f~x! 2 f~c!
.
lim
x2c
xc
The graph of y = x + 1
and some tangent lines.
Geom et r ica lly, t h e der iva t ive of a cu r ve a t a poin t is t h e slope of it s t a n gen t lin e t h er e.
In t h e dia gr a m a bove, it a ppea r s t h a t t h e t a n gen t lin e is h or izon t a l wh en x 5 0 a n d
Cha pter 4: Differentia ting
121
.................................................................
Ex a m p le 2: P r ove t h a t y (0) 5 0 if y 5 x 2 1 1 u sin g t h e differ en ce qu ot ien t .

S o lu tio n : Set f(x) 5 x 2 1 1. In t h is pr oblem , you a r e fin din g y(0), so c 5 0; t h er efor e,
f(c) 5 f(0) 5 1:
lim f ( x ) f ( 0 )
x 0
x0
lim x 2 +11
x 0
lim x 5 0 (by su bst it u t ion )

x 0
Som et im es, t h e AP t est will a sk you t o fin d t h e a ver a ge r a t e of ch a n ge for a fu n ct ion .
Th is is n ot t h e sa m e t h in g a s a der iva t ive. Th e der iva t ive is t h e in stan tan eou s r a t e of
ch a n ge of a fu n ct ion a n d is r epr esen t ed by t h e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e. Aver a ge r a t e
of ch a n ge gives a r a t e over a per iod of t im e a n d is r epr esen t ed geom et r ica lly by t h e
slope of a seca n t lin e. Th e n ext exa m ple dem on st r a t es t h e differ en ce.
Ex a m p le 3: Given t h e fu n ct ion f(x) defin ed by t h e gr a ph below is con t in u ou s on [a,b],
pu t t h e followin g va lu es in or der fr om lea st t o gr ea t est : f (d ), f (e), f (h ), a ver a ge r a t e
of ch a n ge of f on [a,b].
f (x )
h
a d
S o lu tio n : Th e fu n ct ion is n ot given , so you ca n n ot u se t h e differ en ce qu ot ien t .

Rem em ber t h a t der iva t ives a r e r epr esen t ed by slopes of t a n gen t lin es t o t h e gr a ph
(dr a wn below), a n d a ver a ge r a t e of ch a n ge is given by t h e slope of t h e seca n t lin e
(dr a wn below a s a dot t ed lin e).
f (x )
h
a d
Th e t a n gen t lin e a t x 5 e h a s t h e on ly n ega t ive slope, so it is r a n ked fir st . Of t h e

r em a in in g lin es, you ca n t ell wh ich slope is gr ea t est a ccor din g t o wh ich lin e is t h e
st eepest . Th u s, t h e fin a l r a n ked or der is f (e), f (h ), a ver a ge r a t e of ch a n ge, f (d ).
..............................................................................................
t h u s h a s slope zer o. Is it t r u e, t h en , t h a t y(0) 5 0? You ca n u se t h e a lt er n a t e for m of

t h e differ en ce qu ot ien t (given in t h e pr ecedin g m a r gin n ot e) t o fin d ou t .
122
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
By n ow, you h a ve a n idea of wh a t a der iva t ive is (a r a t e of ch a n ge), h ow it get s it s

va lu e (t h e differ en ce qu ot ien t ), a n d wh a t it looks like (t h e slope of a t a n gen t lin e). As
wa s t h e ca se wit h lim it s, t h er e a r e t im es wh en a der iva t ive does n ot exist . No
der iva t ive will exist on f(x) a t x 5 c wh en a n y of t h e followin g t h r ee t h in gs h a ppen :
Th e gr a ph of f h a s a sh a r p poin t (cu sp) a t x 5 c;
f is discon t in u ou s a t x 5 c;
Th e t a n gen t lin e t o f a t x 5 c is ver t ica l.
In t h e fir st gr a ph a bove, t wo lin ea r segm en t s m eet a t a sh a r p poin t a t x 5c. Th e slope

of t h e left segm en t is posit ive, wh ile t h e slope of t h e secon d is n ega t ive. Th e der iva t ive
will ch a n ge su dden ly a n d wit h ou t wa r n in g (St a n d ba ck, m y der iva t ive is a bou t t o
ch a n ge! Seek cover !) a t x 5 c, a n d t h u s, it is sa id t h a t n o der iva t ive exist s. Th e sa m e
is t r u e of t h e ca se of discon t in u it y a t x 5 c in t h e dia gr a m . You will ju st ify t h e
n on exist en ce of a der iva t ive a t a ver t ica l t a n gen t lin e in t h e pr oblem set .
Th e fin a l fa ct you n eed t o kn ow befor e we get ou r feet wet fin din g a ct u a l der iva t ives
wit h ou t t h e big, bu lky differ en ce qu ot ien t is t h is im por t a n t fa ct : If f(x) is a differ en t ia ble fu n ct ion (in ot h er wor ds, f h a s der iva t ives ever ywh er e), t h en f is a con t in u ou s
fu n ct ion . (Rem em ber fr om t h e discu ssion a bove t h a t if a fu n ct ion is discon t in u ou s,
t h en it does n ot h a ve a der iva t ive.) H owever, t h e con ver se is n ot t r u e: con t in u ou s
fu n ct ion s do n ot n ecessa r ily h a ve der iva t ives! E xplor e t h is fu r t h er in t h e pr oceedin g
exer cises.
123
.................................................................

1. Wh ich fu n ct ion , a m on g t h ose you a r e t o h a ve m em or ized, is con t in u ou s bu t n ot
differ en t ia ble on (2`,`)?
2. Wh a t is t h e a ver a ge r a t e of ch a n ge of g(x) 5 sin x on
p 11p
,
?
2 6
3. Kn owin g t h a t t h e der iva t ive is t h e slope of a t a n gen t lin e t o a gr a ph , a n swer t h e

followin g qu est ion s a bou t p(x) ba sed on it s gr a ph .
p (x )
(a ) Wh er e is p (x) 5 0?
(b) Wh er e is p (x) . 0?
(c ) Wh er e is p (x) , 0?
(d ) Wh er e is p(x) u n defin ed?
4. Wh y does n o der iva t ive exist wh en t h e cor r espon din g t a n gen t lin e is ver t ica l?
5. Set u p, bu t do n ot eva lu a t e, a n expr ession t h a t r epr esen t s t h e der iva t ive of g(x)5
p
csc x if x 5 .
4
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 1
124
.................................................................
..............................................................................................

1. y 5 U x U is con t in u ou s bu t n ot differ en t ia ble a t x 5 0, beca u se it s gr a ph m a kes a
sh a r p poin t t h er e.
2. Th e a ver a ge r a t e of ch a n ge is t h e slope of t h e lin e segm en t fr om
11p 1
, 2 , a s sh own in t h e dia gr a m below.
6
2
f (x) is p ositive when f(x) is

inc rea sing , a nd f (x) is
neg a tive when f(x) is
d ec rea sing . More on this
la tersta y tuned .
p
,1
2
to
To fin d slope, ca lcu la t e t h e ch a n ge in y divided by t h e ch a n ge in x:
1 1
y 2 y1
= 2
x 2 x1 11
6
2
TIP
Notic e in 3(b ) a nd 3(c ) tha t
S D
3
2
8
6
9
' 2.358
2
8p
3. (a ) Th e der iva t ive is zer o wh en t h e t a n gen t lin e is h or izon t a l. Th is h a ppen s a t

x 5 22, 1, a n d 3.
(b) If you dr a w t a n gen t lin es t h r ou gh ou t t h e in t er va l, t h eir slopes will be posit ive
on t h e in t er va ls (22,1) a n d (3,`).
(c ) Aga in , dr a win g t a n gen t lin es on t h e gr a ph sh ows t a n gen t s wit h n ega t ive
slope on (2`,22) a n d (1,3).
(d ) Th er e a r e n o cu sps, discon t in u it ies, or ver t ica l t a n gen t lin es, so t h e der iva t ive
is defin ed ever ywh er e.
4. Th e slope of a ver t ica l lin e does n ot exist , a n d sin ce t h e der iva t ive is equ a l t o t h e
slope of a t a n gen t lin e, t h e der iva t ive ca n n ot exist eit h er.
5. Use eit h er for m of t h e differ en ce qu ot ien t t o get on e of t h e followin g:
lim csc x csc 2

lim cscx 1
lim csc 4 + x csc 4 , x
,
or
x
x
x 0
4
4
125
.................................................................
Ma n y yea r s a go, I a t t en ded a F a ye Keller m a n book sign in g wit h m y fa t h er in Ca lifor n ia .

Th e fa m ou s m yst er y wr it er polit ely a sked wh a t I did for a livin g a s I h a n ded h er a copy
of h er m ost r ecen t book, Prayers for th e Dead , t o sign for m e. Wh en sh e fou n d ou t I wa s
a ca lcu lu s t ea ch er, sh e con fessed t o t a kin g m a n y m a t h cla sses in college a n d t h a t on e of
t h e m ost vivid t h in gs sh e r em em ber ed fr om ca lcu lu s wa s h ow t o t a ke a der iva t ive wit h
t h e power r u le. Th is sen t im en t is ech oed by m a n y of t h e people I m eet bu t on ly by
t h ose wh o will m a in t a in eye con t a ct wit h m e wh en t h ey fin d ou t I a m a m a t h t ea ch er.
Th e P ower Ru le is t h e m ost ba sic of der iva t ive t ech n iqu es, u sed wh en you en cou n t er
a va r ia ble r a ised t o a con st a n t power :
Th e P o w e r Ru le : If y 5 x c, wh er e c is a r ea l n u m ber, t h en y 5 c z xc21
..............................................................................................
THE POWER RULE
TIP
Visua lly, you p ull the
exp onent d own in front of
the va ria b le a nd sub tra c t
one from the p ower.
Th e P ower Ru le, so n a m ed beca u se t h e va r ia ble is r a ised t o a power, a lso wor ks if a

coefficien t is pr esen t . In t h e ca se of y 5 n x c, you st ill br in g t h e or igin a l expon en t c t o
t h e fr on t a n d su bt r a ct on e fr om t h e power, bu t n ow t h e c you br ou gh t t o t h e fr on t get s
m u lt iplied by t h e n t h a t wa s a lr ea dy t h er e. F or exa m ple, if y 5 5x 4 , t h en by t h e P ower
Ru le, y 5 5 z 4x 3 5 20x 3 .
Th a t s t h e P ower Ru le in it s en t ir et y. Som et im es, t h e P ower Ru le will a pply even
t h ou gh it is n ot obviou ssom e r ewr it in g will be n ecessa r y fir st , a s dem on st r a t ed
below.
Ex a m p le 4: Use t h e P ower Ru le t o fin d t h e der iva t ive of ea ch of t h e followin g:
The d eriva tive of y 5 2x is

not y 5 x z 2x 21. The Power
Rule works only when a
sing le, solita ry va ria b le is
ra ised to a c onsta nt p ower.
(a ) y 5 x 8
Th is is a st r a igh t for wa r d exa m ple: y 5 8x 7 .
(b) f(x) 5 2x 3 1 9x 2
Th is pr oblem is a su m , so ea ch t er m ca n be differ en t ia t ed sepa r a t elyt h e sa m e wou ld
be t r u e for a differ en ce. Rem em ber, wh en you br in g down t h e power s, you n eed t o
m u lt iply by t h e coefficien t s t h a t a r e a lr ea dy pr esen t .
ALERT!
You c a nnot find the
d eriva tives of p rod uc ts or
f 8(x) 5 3 z 2x 2 1 2 z 9x 1
q uotients a s ea sily a s you
f (x) 5 6x 1 18x
2
(c ) y 5
ALERT!
d id in 4(b ). Unlike sums a nd

d ifferenc es, they ha ve
5
x2
sp ec ia l rules (the Prod uc t

a nd Quotient Rules) tha t
Rewr it e t h is a s 5x 22 t o a pply t h e P ower Ru le:

10
y 5 5(22)x 23 5 210x 23 , or 2 3 .
x
g overn their d eriva tives.
126
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
TIP
Even thoug h you c a n find
the d eriva tives of 4(e) a nd
4(f) using the Power Rule,
it s b etter if you c a n find
the d eriva tives immed ia tely
using the imp orta nt fa c ts
listed there.
3p 2
(d ) y 5 2 6
5p
3
3
12
Th is fr a ct ion ca n be sim plified t o y 5 2 p 24 , so y 5 2 z (24)p 25 5 5
5
5
5p
(e ) y 5 6
You ca n r ewr it e t h is a s y 5 6x 0 , sin ce x 0 5 1 (a s lon g a s x 0, bu t don t wor r y a bou t

t h a t ). If y 5 6x 0 , t h en y 5 0 z 6x 21 5 0. Th is is a n im por t a n t fa ct : T h e d erivative of an y
con stan t term is zero.
(f) y 5 7x 1 5
Th is is t h e sa m e a s 7x 1 , so y 5 1 z 7x 0 5 7 z x 0 5 7 z 1 5 7. Th is is a n ot h er im por t a n t
fa ct : T h e d erivative of a lin ear polyn om ial, y 5 ax 1 b, is a.
Now t h a t you h a ve som e pr a ct ice u n der you r belt , t r y som e sligh t ly t r ickier pr oblem s
in E xa m ple 5. Mor e r ewr it in g is r equ ir ed h er e in or der t o a pply t h e P ower Ru le.
Ex a m p le 5: F in d
dy
for ea ch of t h e followin g:
dx
(a ) y 5 (x 2 2 1)(x 1 5)
You ll h a ve t o m u lt iply t h ese bin om ia ls t oget h er befor e you ca n a pply t h e P ower Ru le.
You can n ot sim ply fin d th e d erivative of each factor an d th en m u ltiply th ose. Rem em ber, pr odu ct s a n d qu ot ien t s h a ve t h eir own specia l r u les, a n d we h a ven t got t en t o
t h ose yet .
NOTE
The d irec tions in Exa mp les 1
throug h 5 a sk you to find
the d eriva tive b ut in
d ifferent wa ys. Be a b le to
rec og nize d ifferent kind s of
nota tion. More on the
dy
d
a nd
in the
nota tion
dx
dx
sec tion entitled A Word
Ab out Resp ec ting
Va ria b les.
y 5 x 3 1 5x 2 2 x 2 5
dy
5 3x 2 1 10x 2 1
dx
(b) y 5 (2x 3 )2
Squ a r e t h e (2x 3 ) t er m fir st t o get y 5 4x 6 . Clea r ly, t h en ,
(c ) y 5
3
x (x 2
3
)
x2
dy
5 24x 5 .
dx
Som e r ewr it in g a n d dist r ibu t in g is n ecessa r y t o begin t h is pr oblem :

y 5 x 1/2 (x 3 2 3x 22 )
y 5 x 7/2 2 3x 23/2
Now t h e P ower Ru le a pplies:
y 5 7 x 5/2 1 9 x 25/2
2
2
9
y 5 7 x 5/2 1 5/2
2
2x
127
.................................................................

1. F in d
dy
if y 5 12x p.
dx
2. If f(x) 5 x 4 1 3x 2 2 1, wh a t is f (x)?
3
3. Ca lcu la t e dy x .
dx 4 x 7
4. F in d DX [2x 2 1]3 .
5. F in d y if y 5
x + 2x5
.
4 x
6. Wh a t is t h e equ a t ion of t h e t a n gen t lin e t o h (x) 5 2x 3 2 3x 1 5 a t t h e poin t (1,4)?

7. H ow m a n y der iva t ives m u st you t a ke of g(x) 5 4x 2 1 9x 1 6 u n t il you get zer o?

1. p is ju st a r ea l n u m ber, so you ca n st ill a pply t h e P ower Ru le:
dy
5 12px p21 .
dx
2. E a ch of t h e t er m s ca n be differ en t ia t ed sepa r a t ely, so f (x) 5 4x 3 1 6x. Don t

for get t h a t t h e der iva t ive of a n y con st a n t (in t h is ca se 1) will be 0.
1
1
1 1
z 4 or x 24 . Th e is n ow a con st a n t a n d we ca n
4 x
4
4
1
1
a pply t h e P ower Ru le. Th e der iva t ive will be z (24)x 25 5 2 5 .
4
x
3. Rewr it e t h e expr ession t o get
4. A com m on m ist a ke is t o a ssu m e t h a t t h e der iva t ive is 3(2x 2 1)2 . Th is is n ot

cor r ect . In st ea d, expa n d t h e expr ession befor e a pplyin g t h e P ower Ru le:
y 5 (2x 2 1)3 5 (2x 2 1) (2x 2 1) (2x 2 1)
y 5 8x 3 2 12x 2 1 6x 2 1
y 5 24x 2 2 24x 1 6
5. Th is on e is a lit t le u gly t o st a r t wit h . Som e r ewr it in g a n d dist r ibu t in g will fix
that:
1
z (x 21/2 )(x 1/3 1 2x 5 )
4
1
y 5 (x 21/6 1 2x 9/2 )
4
y5
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 2
128
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
NOTE
The sec ond d eriva tive of
f(x) c a n b e written a s f (x)
2
d y
. Simila rly, the third
d x2
d eriva tive c a n b e written a s
or
f (x) or
d y
.
d x3
1
Not ice t h a t t h e 4 in t h e den om in a t or squ ir t s ou t ea sily t o becom e t h e coefficien t .
4
Th is is n ot a bsolu t ely n ecessa r y, bu t it sim plifies you r ca lcu la t ion s. As in pa st
exa m ples, lea ve t h e coefficien t a lon e u n t il t h e la st st ep a n d t h en m u lt iply it
t h r ou gh :
y 5
1
1
2 x 27/6 1 9x 7/2
4
6
1
9x 7/2
y 5 2
7/6 1
24x
4
6. To cr ea t e t h e equ a t ion of a lin e, you n eed a poin t a n d a slope; poin t -slope for m
will t h en ea sily follow. You a r e given t h e poin t (1,4), a n d t h e slope of a t a n gen t
lin e m a y be fou n d by t h e der iva t ive. Th u s, t h e slope we n eed is given by h (1):
h (x) 5 6x 2 2 3
h (1) 5 6(1)2 2 3 5 3
Apply t h e poin t -slope for m u la u sin g m 5 3 a n d (x 1 , y 1 ) 5 (1,4):
y 2 y 1 5 m (x 2 x 1 )
y 2 4 5 3(x 2 1)
y 2 4 5 3x 2 3
y 5 3x 1 1
7. E a ch of t h e der iva t ives is pr et t y ea sy: g(x) 5 8x 1 9, g(x) 5 8, g(x) 5 0. Th e

t h ir d der iva t ive, t h en , will give you zer o.
DERIVATIVES TO MEMORIZE
Befor e explor in g ot h er t ools of differ en t ia t ion , it is n ecessa r y t o su pplem en t you r
t oolbox. If t h e P ower Ru le is t h e h a m m er of der iva t ives, it is pr et t y u seless wit h ou t a
collect ion of differ en t kin ds of n a ilson e for ever y pu r pose. Ca lcu lu s is fu ll of der iva t ives, m ost of wh ich ca n n ot be n a iled down by t h e P ower Ru le a lon e. In or der t o su cceed
in ca lcu lu s a n d on t h e AP t est , you ll n eed t o be a ble t o der ive t h e fu n ct ion s in t h is sect ion
a u t om a t ica lly, wit h ou t even a secon d t h ou gh t . In ot h er wor ds, m em or ize, m em or ize,
m em or ize. Alt h ou gh m em or izin g m a y n ot be a glor iou s r oa d t o en ligh t en m en t , it h a s
plen t y of clea n r est st ops a lon g t h e wa y wit h r ea son a bly pr iced ven din g m a ch in es.
Trigonometric Deriva tives

Tr igon om et r ic fu n ct ion s a n d t h eir der iva t ives a r e a ll over t h e AP t est . By n ot m em or izin g t h ese, you a r e cr ipplin g you r self a n d you r ch a n ce t o scor e well.
NOTE
The nota tion for ea c h
d
d eriva tive formula is ,
dx
whic h mea ns the d eriva tive
with resp ec t to x.
d
dx
d
dx
d
dx
d
dx
(sin x) 5 cos x
(cos x) 5 2 sin x
(t a n x) 5 sec2 x
(sec x) 5 sec x t a n x
129
.................................................................
Not e t h e sim ila r it ies bet ween t h e t a n gen t a n d cot a n gen t fu n ct ion s a s well a s t h e
coseca n t a n d seca n t fu n ct ion s. It is a lso im por t a n t t o n ot e t h a t a ll t h e co-t r igon om et r ic
der iva t ives a r e n ega t ive.
Loga rithmic Deriva tives

In t r a dit ion a l cou r ses, loga r it h m ic a n d expon en t ia l der iva t ives a r e n ot in t r odu ced
u n t il t h e en d of ca lcu lu s. H owever, t h is is n ot t h e ca se a n y m or e. In fa ct , t h e fu n ct ion s
a r e per va sive on t h e AP t est , so it is com m on pr a ct ice n ow t o in t r odu ce t h em r igh t
a wa y. Th e r esu lt is a lot m or e t o m em or ize a t fir st , bu t gr ea t er su ccess a n d m a st er y
la t er.
1
d
(ln x) 5
dx
x
1
d
(log a x) 5
dx
x z ~ln a!
..............................................................................................
d
(cot x) 5 2csc2 x
dx
d
(csc x) 5 2csc x cot x
dx
NOTE
The a in the log a rithmic
a nd exp onentia l d eriva tive
formula s rep resents a
c onsta nt.
You will see fa r m or e n a t u r a l logs on t h e AP t est , bu t logs wit h differ en t ba ses

occa sion a lly m a ke ca m eo a ppea r a n ces.
Ex a m p le 6: F in d f (t) if f(t) 5 4log 3 t.
S o lu tio n : Rem em ber, wh en fin din g der iva t ives, you ca n ign or e t h e coefficien t a n d
m u lt iply t h r ou gh a t t h e en d. Th er efor e, a ccor din g t o t h e for m u la ,
1
f (t) 5 4 z
t ( ln a )
4
f (t) 5
t~ln 3!
Exponentia l Deriva tives

It doesn t get m u ch ea sier t h a n expon en t ia l der iva t ives, especia lly ex .
dy x
(e ) 5 ex
dx
dy x
(a ) 5 a x z ln a
dx
Not ice t h a t t h e der iva t ive of a x in volves m u lt iplyin g by t h e n a t u r a l log of t h e ba se
u sed. Th is is sim ila r t o der ivin g log a x, in wh ich you divide by t h e n a t u r a l log of t h e
ba se u sed. Th is m a kes sen se, beca u se expon en t ia l fu n ct ion s a n d loga r it h m ic fu n ct ion s
a r e in ver se fu n ct ion s, ju st like m u lt iplica t ion a n d division a r e in ver se oper a t ion s.
Ex a m p le 7: F in d y if y 5 csc x 2 ln x 1 5 x wit h ou t con su lt in g you r der iva t ive
for m u la s.
S o lu tio n : If you a r e m em or izin g t h ese for m u la s a s you pr oceed, t h is pr oblem is
1
r ela t ively sim ple: y 5 2csc x cot x 2 1 (ln 5)5 x .
x
130
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Inverse Trigonometric Function Deriva tives
Th ese fu n ct ion s r evisit you la t er, du r in g t h e in t egr a t ion sect ion of t h e book. Kn owin g
t h em n ow m a kes life so m u ch ea sier down t h e r oa d. Som e t ext books u se t h e n ot a t ion
sin 21 x t o den ot e t h e in ver se sin e fu n ct ion , wh er ea s m a n y u se a r csin x. Bot h m ea n t h e
sa m e t h in g. I per son a lly pr efer a r csin x beca u se sin 21 x looks h a u n t in gly sim ila r t o
(sin x)21 , or csc x.
TIP
If a nyone told you tha t
there wa s no memorizing in
c a lc ulus, they were
lying to you.
d
(a r csin x) 5
dx
1
1 x2
1
d
(a r ccos x) 5 2
dx
1 x2
d
1
(a r ct a n x) 5
dx
1+ x2
d
1
(a r ccot x) 5 2
dx
1+ x2
d
(a r csec x) 5
dx
1
x x2 1
1
d
(a r ccsc x) 5 2
dx
x x2 1
Th in gs st a r t get t in g m essy wit h a r cseca n t , bu t a ll t h ese der iva t ives h a ve t h in gs in

com m on . Not ice t h a t t h e der iva t ives con t a in ~1 1 x 2 !,
1 x2 , and
x 2 1. Lea r n -
in g wh ich den om in a t or goes wit h wh ich in ver se fu n ct ion is t h e key t o r ecogn izin g
t h ese la t er. Also n ot e t h a t t h e co- der iva t ives a r e a ga in n ega t ive, a s t h ey wer e wit h
or din a r y t r igon om et r ic fu n ct ion der iva t ives.
131
.................................................................

1. Below is a list of a ll t h e fu n ct ion s wh ose der iva t ives wer e list ed in t h is sect ion .
Com plet e t h e t a ble wit h ou t t h e u se of n ot es.
Not e: You m a y wa n t t o m a ke a few ph ot ocopies of t h is pr oblem a n d com plet e
t h em ever y few weeks t o keep t h e for m u la s fr esh in you r m in d.
d
(cos x) 5
dx
d x
(e ) 5
dx
d
(a r ccsc x) 5
dx
_______________
_______________
_______________
d
(t a n x) 5
dx
_______________
d
(a r csin x) 5
dx
_______________
d
(sec x) 5
dx
_______________
d
(a r ct a n x) 5
dx
_______________
d
~log a x! 5
dx
_______________
d
(cot x) 5
dx
_______________
d
(a r csec x) 5
dx
_______________
d
(ln x) 5
dx
_______________
d
(sin x) 5
dx
_______________
d
(a r ccos x) 5
dx
_______________
d
(csc x) 5
dx
_______________
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 3
132
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
d x
~a ! 5
dx
_______________
d
(a r ccot x) 5
dx
_______________
2. Na m e ea ch fu n ct ion wh ose der iva t ive a ppea r s below:

(a ) sec x t a n x
(b) 2
(c )
1
x
1
x 11
2
(d ) ex
(e ) 2
1
1 x2
(f) csc2 x
3. F in d ea ch of t h e followin g der iva t ives:

(a ) sec x 1 a r csec x
(b) 2x 2 1 cos x 2 8ex 1 a r ccot x
(c ) 4 x 1 log 4 x 2 ln x
4. Na m e a fu n ct ion , g(x), ot h er t h a n ex su ch t h a t g(x) 5 g(x).

1. Ch eck a n swer s wit h t h e for m u la s list ed pr eviou sly in t h is sect ion .
2. (a ) sec x
1
1
d
(2ln x) 5 21 z = 2
dx
x
x
a r ct a n x: By t h e com m u t a t ive pr oper t y of a ddit ion , 1 1 x 2 5 x 2 1 1
ex
a r ccos x
2cot x: By t h e sa m e r ea son in g a s 2(b) a bove.
(b) 2ln x: Th e 21 is a coefficien t , so

(c )
(d )
(e )
(f)
3. (a ) secx t a n x 1
1
x x2 1
1
1 + x2
1
1
(c ) (ln 4)4 x 1
( ln 4 ) x 2 x
(b) 4x 2 sin x 2 8ex 2
4. Th e ea siest su ch fu n ct ion is g(x) 5 0, sin ce t h e der iva t ive of a n y con st a n t is 0.
133
.................................................................
Th e P ower Ru le, a lt h ou gh won der fu l in som e in st a n ces, fa lls sh or t in ot h er s. F or

d
exa m ple, (x 3 ) is solved ea sily u sin g t h e P ower Ru le, a n d t h e a n swer is 3x 2 . H owever,
dx
if cos x is cu bed in st ea d of ju st x, t h e P ower Ru le fa ils! Th e der iva t ive of cos 3 x is n ot
3(cos x)2 . An ot h er r u le is n ecessa r y, a n d it is ca lled t h e Ch ain (r h ym es wit h pa in ) R u le.
Th e Ch a in Ru le a pplies t o a ll com posit e fu n ct ion s (expr ession s in wh ich on e fu n ct ion
is plu gged in t o a n ot h er fu n ct ion ). F or exa m ple, (cos x)3 is t h e cosin e fu n ct ion plu gged
in t o t h e cu bed fu n ct ion . Ma t h em a t ica lly, you ca n wr it e
f(x) 5 x 3 ; g(x) 5 cos x
f(g(x)) 5 f(cos x) 5 (cos x)3
To m a ke t h in gs clea r er, you ca n r efer t o cos x a s t h e in n er fu n ct ion a n d x 3 a s t h e
ou t er fu n ct ion .
Ex a m p le 8: E a ch of t h e followin g is a com posit ion of fu n ct ion s. F or ea ch , iden t ify
wh ich is t h e in n er a n d wh ich is t h e ou t er fu n ct ion .
(a )
..............................................................................................
THE CHAIN RULE
NOTE
It is no c oinc id enc e tha t
csc x
c ha in rhymes with p a in. You
Th e in n er fu n ct ion is csc x, a n d t h e ou t er fu n ct ion is =x. Not e t h a t t h e ou t er fu n ct ion

a lwa ys a ct s u pon t h e in n er fu n ct ion ; in ot h er wor ds, t h e in n er fu n ct ion is a lwa ys
plu gged in t o t h e ou t er fu n ct ion .
will use the Cha in Rule

often for the rema ind er of
this c ourse, so b e sure to
und ersta nd it, or the p a in
(b) sec 3x
will b e relentless.
Beca u se 3x is plu gged in t o seca n t , 3x is t h e in n er fu n ct ion , a n d sec x is t h e ou t er.

(c ) ln (x 2 1 4)
Th e in n er fu n ct ion is x 2 1 4, a n d t h e ou t er fu n ct ion is ln x. Aga in , you a r e fin din g t h e
n a t u r a l log of x 2 1 4, so x 2 1 4 is bein g plu gged in t o ln x.
(d ) 3 sin
Th e in n er fu n ct ion is sin x, a n d t h e ou t er fu n ct ion is 3 x . H er e, t h e expon en t ia l fu n ct ion

is bein g r a ised t o t h e sin x power, so sin x is bein g plu gged in t o 3 x . Wit h t h is
t er m in ology, t h e Ch a in Ru le is m u ch ea sier t o t r a n sla t e a n d u n der st a n d.
Th e Ch a in Ru le : Th e der iva t ive of f(g(x)), wit h r espect t o x, is f (g(x)) z g(x).
Tran slation : In or der t o fin d t h e der iva t ive of a com posit e fu n ct ion , t a ke t h e der iva t ive
of t h e ou t er fu n ct ion , lea vin g t h e in n er fu n ct ion a lon e; t h en , m u lt iply by t h e der iva t ive of t h e in n er fu n ct ion .
134
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
TIP
When a p p lying the Cha in
Rule, use the ma ntra , Ta ke
the d eriva tive of the
outsid e, lea ving the insid e
a lone, then multip ly b y the
d eriva tive of the insid e. It
b ec omes a utoma tic if you
sa y it enoug h.
Now it is possible t o fin d t h e der iva t ive of f(x) 5 cos 3 x. Rem em ber, cos 3 x is t h e sa m e a s
(cos x)3 . Th e ou t er fu n ct ion is x 3 , so we u se t h e power r u le t o t a ke t h e der iva t ive,
leavin g th e in n er fu n ction , cos x, alon e:
Bu t , we a lr ea dy sa id t h a t wa sn t r igh t ! Th a t s beca u se we wer en t fin ish ed. Now,

m u lt iply t h a t by t h e der iva t ive of t h e in n er fu n ct ion :
Don t forg et to lea ve the

inner func tion a lone when
you b eg in the Cha in Rule!
d
For exa mp le, ~ta n 4x!
dx
sec 2~4!. Instea d , the
2
d eriva tive is sec ~4x! z 4.
f (x) 5 3(cos x)2 z (2sin x)

f (x) 5 23cos 2 x sin x
(a )
TIP
f (x) 5 3(cos x)2
d
for ea ch of t h e followin g:
dx
csc x
Th is expr ession ca n be r ewr it t en (csc x)1/2 . You a lr ea dy kn ow t h e in n er a n d ou t er
fu n ct ion s fr om E xa m ple 8. Th u s, t h e der iva t ive is a s follows:
1
~csc x!21/2 z ~2csc x cot x!
2
cscxcot x
=2
~2 =cscx!
1
= 2 =cscx cot x
2
(b) sec 3x
Th e der iva t ive of sec x is sec x t a n x, so t h e der iva t ive of sec 3x is a s follows:
sec 3x t a n 3x z (3), or
3sec 3x t a n 3x
sin ce 3 is t h e der iva t ive of t h e in n er fu n ct ion 3x.
(c ) ln (x 2 1 4)
1
1
t im es t h e der iva t ive of
Th e der iva t ive of ln x is , so t h is der iva t ive will be 2
x
~x + 4!
2
(x 1 4):
1
2x
z 2x 5 2
2
x +4
x +4
(d ) 3 sin
Rem em ber, t h e der iva t ive of 3 x is 3 x z (ln 3), so t h e der iva t ive of 3 sin
3 sin
z (ln 3) z (cos x)
(ln 3)cosx 3 sin
is a s follows:
135
.................................................................

In qu est ion s 1 t h r ou gh 6, fin d
d
.
dx
1. ln (7x 3 1 2sin x)
2.
x3 + x ex
3. csc (a r csin x 2 )
x
5e
4. 4
5. t a n (cos(3x 1 4))
x
6. e6ln ~a r csec e !
7. Given f is a con t in u ou s a n d differ en t ia ble fu n ct ion su ch t h a t f a n d f con t a in t h e
va lu es given by t h e below t a ble:
(a ) E va lu a t e m (2) if m (x) 5 (f(x))3 .

(b) E va lu a t e g(3) if g(x) 5 a r ct a n (f(x)).
(c ) E va lu a t e k (0) if k (x) 5 f(ex ).
8. Let h be a con t in u ou s a n d differ en t ia ble fu n ct ion defin ed on [0,2p]. Som e fu n ct ion
va lu es of h a n d h a r e given by t h e ch a r t below:

If p(x) 5 sin 2 (h (2x)), eva lu a t e p
2
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 4
136
.................................................................
..............................................................................................

1.
1
7 x 3 + 2 sin x
( 21x
+ 2 cos x =
21 x 2 + 2 cos x
7 x 3 + 2 sin x
2. Rewr it e t h e expr ession a s (x 3 1 x 2 ex )1/3 . Th e der iva t ive will be
NOTE
Prob lem 6 uses the
log a rithmic p rop erty
n
log a x 5 n z log a x.
3x 2 + 1 e x
1 3
2/3
(x 1 x 2 ex )22/3 z (3x 2 1 1 2 ex ), or
3 x3 + x ex
3
1 2 x
3. 2csc (a r csin x 2 ) cot (a r csin x 2 ) z

2
) (
2 x csc arcsin x 2 cot arcsin x 2

1 x
( )
1 x2
) . In t h is pr oblem , t h e x
is plu gged in t o t h e
a r csin x fu n ct ion , wh ich is t h en plu gged in t o t h e csc x fu n ct ion . Th e Ch a in Ru le is

a pplied t wice.
x
4. 4 5e z (ln 4) z 5ex . Wh en you der ive 4u , you get 4u z (ln 4) z u . Th e u is t h e in n er

fu n ct ion a n d is left a lon e a t fir st . On ce t h e ou t er fu n ct ion is differ en t ia t ed, you
m u lt iply by t h e der iva t ive of u , u .
5. Th e Ch a in Ru le is a pplied t wice in t h is pr oblem . Begin wit h t h e ou t er m ost
fu n ct ion (lea vin g t h e r est a lon e) a n d wor k you r wa y in side:
sec2 (cos (3x 1 4)) z (2sin (3x 1 4)) z 3 5 23sec2 (cos (3x 1 4)) z sin (3x 1 4).
NOTE
It is not nec essa ry to write
U e xU
in the a rc sec a nt
d eriva tive formula b ec a use

e x ha s no neg a tive ra ng e
elements.
x 6
6. Usin g loga r it h m ic pr oper t ies, r ewr it e t h e expr ession a s eln ~a r c sec e ! . Beca u se ex
a n d ln x a r e in ver se fu n ct ion s, t h ey ca n cel ea ch ot h er ou t , a n d you get (a r csec ex )6 .
Th e Ch a in Ru le will be a pplied t h r ee t im es wh en you differ en t ia t e:
1
6(a r csec ex )5 z
ex
( )
ex
z ex
6ex ~a r csec ex !
ex =~ex !2 2 1
6ex ~a r csec ex !
=~ex!2 2 1
7. (a ) m (x) 5 3(f(x))2 z f (x), so m (2) 5 3(f(2))2 z f (2) 5 3(21)2 (6) 5 18

(b) g(x) 5
1
1 + ( f ( x ))
z f (x), so g(3) 5
1 + f ( 3)
z f (3) 5
4
1
z45
5
1+ 4
(c ) k (x) 5 f (e ) z e , so k (0) 5 f (e ) z e 5 f (1) z 1 5 1 z 1 5 1

x
137
.................................................................
Beca u se 2x 5 2
SD
p
5 p, you ca n wr it e:
2
p
5 2(sin (h (p))) z cos (h (p)) z h (p) z 2
p
2
p
p
p
5 2(sin
) z cos
z (21) z 2
p
2
4
4
SD
SD
SD
SD SD
p
52z
2
SD
2
2
z
z 22
2
2
p
5 22
2
THE PRODUCT RULE

If a sked t o fin d t h e der iva t ive of f(x) 5 sin x 1 cos x, you sh ou ld h a ve n o t r ou ble by n ow.
You wou ldn t n eed t o fu r r ow you r br ow a n d scr a t ch you r ch in like a gor illa t r yin g t o
det er m in e h ow t o file it s feder a l t a x r et u r n . You d kn ow t h a t f is t h e su m of t wo fu n ct ion s,
so t h e der iva t ive is sim ply t h e su m of t h e in dividu a l fu n t ion s der iva t ives:
f (x) 5 cos x 2 sin x
Th e P ro d u c t Ru le : If h (x) 5 f(x)g(x), t h en h (x) 5 f(x)g(x) 1 g(x)f (x).

Tran slation : To fin d t h e der iva t ive of a pr odu ct , differ en t ia t e on e of t h e fa ct or s a n d
m u lt iply by t h e ot h er ; t h en , r ever se t h e pr ocess, a n d a dd t h e t wo r esu lt s t oget h er.
F or exa m ple, in or der t o differ en t ia t e g(x) 5 sin x cos x, you m u lt iply sin x by t h e
der iva t ive of cos x a n d a dd t o t h a t cos x t im es t h e der iva t ive of sin x:
g(x) 5 sin x (2sin x) 1 cos x (cos x)
g(x) 5 cos 2 x 2 sin 2 x
g(x) 5 cos 2x (by a dou ble a n gle for m u la )
exercises
Given t h e fu n ct ion g(x) 5 sin x cos x, you m igh t be t em pt ed t o u se t h e sa m e st r a t egy

a n d give t h e der iva t ive g(x) 5 (cos x)(2sin x), bu t t h is is n ot correct. An y t im e you
wa n t t o fin d t h e der iva t ive of a pr odu ct of t wo n on -con st a n t fu n ct ion s, you m u st a pply
t h e P r odu ct Ru le:
a nsw ers
p(x) 5 2(sin (h (2x))) z cos (h (2x)) z h (2x) z 2
..............................................................................................
8. Th e Ch a in Ru le will h a ve t o be a pplied t h r ee t im es in t h is exa m ple. To m a ke it

ea sier t o visu a lize, we h a ve u n der lin ed t h e in n er fu n ct ion s t o be left a lon e a s we
fin d t h e der iva t ive. Not ice h ow t h e 2x is left a lon e u n t il t h e ver y en d.
138
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
NOTE
To find the d eriva tives of
2
ln x2, a rc ta n 2x, a nd e 4x in
Exa mp les 10 a nd 11, you
need to a p p ly the
Cha in Rule.
dy
if y 5 cos x ln x 2
dx
S o lu tio n : Beca u se you a r e given a pr odu ct of t wo fu n ct ion s, a pply t h e P r odu ct Ru le.

I h a ve den ot ed wh ich der iva t ives t o t a ke below wit h a pr im e sym bol (). It s n ot
won der fu l n ot a t ion , bu t it get s t h e poin t a cr oss:
y 5 cos x (ln x 2 ) 1 ln x 2 (cos x)
y5 cos x z
1
z 2x 1 ln x 2 (2sin x)
2
x
2 cos x
2 sin x ln x 2
x
dy
arctan 2x
u sin g t h e P r odu ct Ru le if y 5
2
dx
e 4 x
y 5
S o lu tio n : You ca n r ewr it e t h e expr ession a s t h e pr odu ct

2
y 5 (a r ct a n 2x)~e4x !
a n d a pply t h e P r odu ct Ru le a s follows:

2
y 5 (a r ct a n 2x)~e4x ! 1 ~e4x !(a r ct a n 2x)

2
2
1
z2
y 5 (a r ct a n 2x)~e4x !(8x) 1 ~e4x ! z
1+ 4x2
4x
2
y 5 8xe4x (a r ct a n 2x) 1 2 e
1+ 4x2
139
.................................................................

1. Wh y don t you h a ve t o u se t h e P r odu ct Ru le t o fin d t h e der iva t ive of y 5 7x?
dy
if y 5 x 2 3x + sin x
dx
3. F in d dp if p 5 sec xza r csec x
dx
2. F in d
4. F in d
d
((x 2 1 3)4 z (2x 3 1 5x)3 )
dx
5. E va lu a t e y(x) if y 5 sin x cos x t a n x

6. E va lu a t e h (2) if h (x) 5 2x z log 2 x
2
7. Given fu n ct ion s f a n d g su ch t h a t f(5) 5 1, f (5) 5 22, g(5) 5 4, a n d g(5) 5 , if
3
k (x) 5 g(x) 4 f ( x ) , eva lu a t e k (5).

1. Th e P r odu ct Ru le m u st be a pplied wh en der ivin g t h e pr odu ct of n on -con st a n t
fu n ct ion s. 7 is a con st a n t . H owever, t h e P r odu ct Ru le will wor k wh en fin din g
d
(7x)t r y it ! Rem em ber t h a t t h e der iva t ive of 7 is 0 sin ce 7 is a con st a n t .
dx
2.
dy
= x 2 3x + sin x + 3x + sin x x 2
dx
1 / 2
dy
1
(3 + cos x ) + 3x + sin x 2x
= x 2 (3x + sin x )
2
dx
x 2 (3 + cos x )
dy
+ 2x 3x + sin x
=
dx 2 3x + sin x
( )
3. Th ese fu n ct ion s a r e in verses, n ot reciprocals, so t h eir pr odu ct is n ot 1.

dp
sec x
=
+ arc sec x sec x tan x
dx
x x2 1
4. If you wish , you ca n expa n d ea ch of t h e polyn om ia ls a n d m u lt iply t h em t oget h er ;
on ly t h e P ower Ru le will be n ecessa r y, bu t you ll be m u lt iplyin g a ll da y lon g. Best
t o u se t h e P ower, Ch a in , a n d P r odu ct Ru les a ll com bin ed:
(x 2 1 3)4 z 3(2x 3 1 5x)2 z (6x 2 1 5) 1 (2x 3 1 5x)3 z 4(x 2 1 3)3 z 2x
You ca n r ewr it e t h e expr ession t o m a ke it sligh t ly m or e pr et t y, bu t t h a t is n ot
n ecessa r y.
5. You ca n gen er a lize t h e P r odu ct Ru le t o a n y n u m ber of fa ct or s. Th e key is t o t a ke
on ly on e der iva t ive a t a t im e, lea vin g t h e ot h er fa ct or s a lon e.
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 5
140
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
y 5 sin x cos x (sec2 x) 1 sin x (2sin x) t a n x 1 (cos x) cos x t a n x

y 5 sin x cos x sec2 x 2 sin 2 x t a n x 1 cos 2 x t a n x
6. To fin d h (2), fin d h (x) a n d su bst it u t e 2 for x.
NOTE
On the AP test, either you
will b e told wha t va ria b le to
d ifferentia te with resp ec t
to, or it will b e ob vious.
h ~x! 5 2x z
1
1 2 log 2 x
xln 2
2
+ 2log 2 x
ln 2
2
+ 2 log 2 2
h ~2! 5
ln 2
= 4.885
=
7. Th e fu n ct ion ca n be r ewr it t en a s
k (x) 5 g(x)(f(x))1/4
a n d n ow t h e P r odu ct Ru le ca n be a pplied.
1
k (x) 5 g(x) z (f(x))23/4 z f (x) 1 (f(x))1/4 z g(x)
4
1
k (5) 5 g(5) z (f(5))23/4 z f (5) 1 (f(5))1/4 z g(5)
4
2
1
k (5) 5 4 z z (1) 23/4 z (22) 1 (1)1/4 z
4
3
4
2
k (5) 5 22 1 5 2
3
3
THE QUOTIENT RULE
TIP
The word s top a nd b ottom
refer to the fra c tion s
numera tor a nd
d enomina tor, resp ec tively.
If you refer to the
numera tor of a fra c tion a s
the top d uring ma th c la ss,
your tea c her ma y hit you in
the mouth with a ha rd
lea ther shoe.
J u st like pr odu ct s, qu ot ien t s of fu n ct ion s r equ ir e t h eir own specia l m et h od of differ en t ia t ion . Beca u se m u lt iplica t ion a n d division a r e so closely r ela t ed, you ca n u se t h e
P r odu ct Ru le t o develop t h e Qu ot ien t Ru le fr om scr a t ch . In E xa m ple 12, you r object ive
will be t o cr ea t e t h e Qu ot ien t Ru le.
f (x)
Ex a m p le 12: Use t h e P r odu ct Ru le t o fin d t h e der iva t ive of y5
g( x )
S o lu tio n : You m u st r ewr it e t h e qu ot ien t a s a pr odu ct befor e you ca n begin : y 5 f(x) z
(g(x))21 . Now, a pply t h e P r odu ct Ru le a n d sim plify com plet ely.
y 5 f(x) z (2(g(x))22 ) z g(x) 1 g(x)21 z f(x)

f (x ) g (x )
( f ( x ))
1
y5 2
2
g (x )
( g ( x ))
g~x!
t o get com m on den om in a t or s a n d t h en com bin e t h e
Mu lt iply t h e secon d t er m by
g~x!
t er m s.
g (x ) f (x ) f (x ) g (x )
y 5
2
( g ( x ))
141
.................................................................
g (x ) f (x ) f (x ) g (x )
f (x)
, t h en y 5
2
g( x )
( g ( x ))
Tran slation : If a fr a ct ion is for m ed by t wo fu n ct ion s, t h e der iva t ive is fou n d by

m u lt iplyin g t h e bot t om by t h e der iva t ive of t h e t op m in u s t h e t op t im es t h e der iva t ive
of t h e bot t om , a ll divided by t h e bot t om squ a r ed. Som e people u se t h e followin g ver ba l
device t o r em em ber t h e Qu ot ien t Ru le:
d Hi Ho dHi less Hi dHo

=
dx Ho
Ho Ho
2
Ex a m p le 13: F in d p(t) if p(t) 5 3t
cot 5t
S o lu tio n : Applyin g t h e Qu ot ien t Ru le, t h e der iva t ive is a s follows:
cot 5t 6 t 3t 2 csc 2 5t 5
p(t) 5
cot 2 5t
p(t) 5
6 t cot 5t + 15t 2 csc 2 5t

cot 2 5t
32x
Ex a m p le 14: F in d h (e) if h (x) 5 a r ccot x z
ln x
S o lu tio n : Th is pr oblem begin s wit h t h e P r odu ct Ru le.
ALERT!
There a re a ll kind s of wa ys
3
3
h (x) 5 a r ccot x
1 ln x (a r ccot x)
ln
x
32 x
F in din g t h e der iva t ive of
will r equ ir e t h e Qu ot ien t a n d Ch a in Ru les.
ln x
( ln x ) 2 ln 3 32x 32x 1x 32x 1
h ( x ) = arccot x
+
ln x 1 + x 2
ln x 2
2x
..............................................................................................
Th e Qu o tie n t Ru le : If y 5
2x
Th a t su r e isn t pr et t y. Now fin d h (e), a n d r em em ber t h a t ln e 5 1. Th a t will r em ove

som e of t h e gr im e.
2 ln 3 32e 32e 1 32e
1
e +
h ( x ) = arccot e
1 1 + e2
12
You ca n fin d t h e decim a l va lu e of t h is loa d u sin g you r ca lcu la t or, bu t wh y pu t you r self
t h r ou gh t h a t m u ch a gon y? If you do a sin gle t h in g wr on g wh en en t er in g it in t o you r
ca lcu la t or, you cou ld lose t h ose poin t s you ea r n ed t h e h a r d wa y; be a h ea ds-u p t est
t a ker if sim plifyin g isn t wor t h it , lea ve t h e a n swer u n sim plified.
to sc rew up the Quotient

Rule. Often, p eop le
c onc entra te so ha rd on
g etting the numera tor of
the Quotient Rule c orrec t,
they forg et to write the
d enomina tor. Don t forg et
to sq ua re your b ottom!
142
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 6
YOU MAY USE YOUR CALCULATOR ONLY FOR PROBLEM 4.

2
1. F in d f (1) if f(x) 5 x ln x
3x 3 1
d
(t a n x) 5 sec2 x u sin g t h e Qu ot ien t Ru le.
2. P r ove t h a t
dx
3. Given y 5
csc 2 x
dy
x , fin d d x u sin g tw o d ifferen t m eth od s.
e
4. If f(x) a n d g(x) a r e con t in u ou s a n d differ en t ia ble fu n ct ion s wit h som e va lu es given

f (2 x )
by t h e t a ble below, fin d h (3) if h (x) 5
3g( x )
NOTE
Rememb er from the g ra p h
of ln x tha t ln 1 5 0.
1. Th e der iva t ive of t h e n u m er a t or will r equ ir e t h e u se of t h e P r odu ct Ru le, so be

ca u t iou s.
2. You ca n r ewr it e t a n x a s sin x a n d u se t h e Qu ot ien t Ru le t o fin d t h e der iva t ive.

cos x
143
.................................................................
M eth od Tw o: Prod u ct R u le
Rewr it e t h e expr ession a s a pr odu ct , a n d t h in gs a r e m u ch ea sier.
Bot h solu t ion s a r e equ iva len t , a lt h ou gh it is n ot obviou s t o t h e n a ked eye. Given
a ch oice, P r odu ct Ru le is clea r ly t h e wa y t o go, even t h ou gh t h e or igin a l pr oblem
wa s wr it t en a s a qu ot ien t .
1
ou t of t h e expr ession t o elim in a t e t h e 3 in t h e
3
den om in a t or, bu t t h a t is n ot r equ ir ed.
4. You m a y begin by fa ct or in g
If a sked t o fin d t h e der iva t ive of x, you wou ld pr oba bly give a n a n swer of 1. Tech n ica lly,
h owever, t h e der iva t ive of x is d x. (Sim ila r ly, t h e der iva t ive of y is d y, et c.) Th e der iva t ive
of x is on ly 1 wh en you a r e differ en t ia t in g wit h r espect t o x. E xa m in e m or e closely t h e
dy
t h a t you h a ve u n kn owin gly u sed a ll t h is t im e. Th is n ot a t ion lit er a lly m ea n s
n ot a t ion
dx
t h e der iva t ive of y wit h r espect t o x. Th e n u m er a t or con t a in s t h e va r ia ble you a r e
differ en t ia t in g, a n d t h e den om in a t or con t a in s t h e va r ia ble you a r e r espect in g. Usin g
dx
, or 1.
t h is n ot a t ion , t h e der iva t ive of x wit h r espect t o x is
dx
exercises
A WORD ABOUT RESPECTING VARIABLES
a nsw ers
Cer t a in ly, sim plifica t ion is possible, bu t t h e a n swer is qu it e m essy wit h n ega t ive
expon en t s.
..............................................................................................
3. M eth od On e: Qu otien t R u le
144
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Let s look a t a m or e com plica t ed exa m ple. You kn ow t h a t t h e der iva t ive of x 3 (wit h
r espect t o x) is 3x 2 . Let s be even m or e ca r efu l a bou t t h e pr ocess a n d u se t h e Ch a in
Ru le. Th e der iva t ive of x 3 wit h r espect t o x is 3x 2 t im es t h e der iva t ive of wh a t s in side,
dx
dx
. Th e fin a l a n swer is 3x 2 z
5 3x 2 z 1 5 3x 2 . If t h e va r ia ble in
x, wit h r espect t o x:
dx
dx
t h e expr ession m a t ch es t h e va r ia ble you a r e r espect in g, you differ en t ia t e like you
h a ve in pr eviou s sect ion s. Wh en t h e va r ia bles don t m a t ch , h owever, t h in gs get a lit t le
m or e biza r r e.
TIP
da
is rea d
Don t forg et:
db
the d eriva tive of a with
resp ec t to b . Use this

nota tion a b .
d
(5y 4 ), t h e der iva t ive of 5y 4 wit h r espect t o x.
dx
S o lu tio n : Apply t h e Ch a in Ru le t o t h is expr ession : t h e y is t h e in n er fu n ct ion ,

su bst it u t ed in t o x 4 . Th u s, t a ke t h e der iva t ive of t h e ou t er fu n ct ion lea vin g y a lon e,
20y 3
a n d t h en m u lt iply by t h e der iva t ive of t h e in side (y) wit h r espect t o x
a n swer is
20y 3 z
SD
dy
. You r fin a l
dx
dy
dx
It is ver y im por t a n t t o n ot ice wh en you a r e differ en t ia t in g wit h r espect t o va r ia bles

t h a t don t m a t ch t h ose in t h e expr ession . Th is on ly h a ppen s r a r ely, bu t it is im por t a n t
wh en it h a ppen s.
ALERT!
Th e t elevision sh ow T h e S im pson s u sed t h is con cept of differ en t ia t ion in t h e episode

wh er e Ba r t ch ea t s h is wa y in t o a sch ool for sm a r t kids. Th e t ea ch er a sks t h e st u den t s
No ma th joke is rea lly tha t
r3
. Th e der iva t ive is (t ech n ica lly)
3
r 2 d r, or r z d r z r (h a r dy-h a r-h a r ). In t h is pr oblem , d r is t h e der iva t ive of r beca u se n o
funny, so a lthoug h the

Simp sons joke is p retty
a musing to us ma th g eeks,
you risk serious p hysic a l
injury if you try to tell
it in p ub lic .
t o det er m in e wh a t is fu n n y a bou t t h e der iva t ive of
r espect in g va r ia ble wa s defin ed. H a d t h e t ea ch er a sked for t h e der iva t ive of
r3
wit h
3
r espect t o r, t h e joke wou ld h a ve been less fu n n y, sin ce t h a t der iva t ive is r 2 .

Ex a m p le 16: F in d t h e der iva t ive of ea ch wit h r espect t o x:
(a ) t
NOTE
The skill of d ifferentia ting
va ria b les with resp ec t to
other va ria b les ha p p ens
most often in imp lic it
d ifferentia tion, rela ted
ra tes, a nd d ifferentia l
eq ua tions.
Th e der iva t ive of t wit h r espect t o x is wr it t en
dt
dx
(b) 7x 3 sin x
Th is expr ession con t a in s t wo differ en t fu n ct ion s, so you n eed t o u se t h e P r odu ct Ru le:
dt
fr om t h e la st pr oblem , beca u se
7x 3 cos x 1 21x 2 sin x. Th er e is n o fr a ct ion like t h e
dx
you a r e t a kin g t h e der iva t ive wit h r espect t o t h e va r ia ble in t h e expr ession (t h ey
m a t ch ).
145
.................................................................
Th is is a com posit e fu n ct ion a n d will r equ ir e t h e Ch a in Ru le: Th e y is plu gged in t o x 2 ,

wh ich is plu gged in t o cos x. Th e der iva t ive, a ccor din g t o t h e Ch a in Ru le, is 2sin y 2
dy
z 2y z . Not ice t h a t you lea ve t h e y a lon e u n t il t h e ver y en d, a s it is t h e in n er m ost
dx
fu n ct ion .
(d ) 2xy
Th is is t h e pr odu ct of 2x a n d y, so u se t h e P r odu ct Ru le: 2x z
dy
1 y z 2. Th e der iva t ive
dx
of 2x wit h r espect t o x is sim ply 2.
..............................................................................................
(c ) cos y 2
146
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 7

1. Wh a t is m ea n t by
dg
dg
? Cr ea t e a n expr ession wh ose der iva t ive con t a in s
.
dc
dc
2. F in d t h e der iva t ive of ea ch wit h r espect t o y:

(a ) csc 2y
(b) e x1y
(c ) cos (ln x) 1 xy 2

1.
dg
is t h e der iva t ive of g wit h r espect t o c. Th is expr ession a ppea r s wh en ever you
dc
differ en t ia t e a n expr ession con t a in in g gs wit h r espect t o c. F or exa m ple, t h e
d
dg
der iva t ive of g 2 wit h r espect t o c (m a t h em a t ica lly, (g 2 ) is 2g z .
dc
dc
2. (a ) 22csc 2y cot 2y: Don t for get t o lea ve t h e 2y a lon e a s you fin d t h e der iva t ive of
coseca n t ; fin a lly, m u lt iply by t h e der iva t ive of 2y wit h r espect t o y, wh ich is 2.
dx x + y
(b)
+ 1 e
: Rem em ber, you a r e lookin g for t h e der iva t ive of x wit h
dy
r espect t o y in t h is pr oblem .
(c ) Th is pr oblem r equ ir es t h e Ch a in Ru le for t h e fir st t er m a n d t h e P r odu ct
Ru le for t h e secon d:
sin ( ln x )
1 dx
dx
+ x(2 y) + y 2
x dy
dy
IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION
At t h is poin t in you r lon g a n d pr osper ou s ca lcu lu s life, you a r e n o lon ger in t im ida t ed by
dy
: y 5 2sin x 1 3x 2 . Wit h ou t a secon d t h ou gh t (h opefu lly),
qu est ion s su ch a s F in d
dx
dy
5 2cos x 1 6x. Som et im es, h owever, t h e qu est ion s a r e n ot solved
you wou ld a n swer
dx
for a va r ia ble like t h e a bove pr oblem wa s solved for y. In fa ct , som e t h in gs you
differ en t ia t e a r en t even fu n ct ion s, like t h e a bove exa m ple is a fu n ct ion of x. In su ch
cir cu m st a n ces, you will em ploy im plicit d ifferen tiation . In or der t o differ en t ia t e im plicit ly, you n eed t o h a ve a ba sic u n der st a n din g of wh a t it m ea n s t o differ en t ia t e wit h
r espect t o a va r ia ble (t h e pr eviou s t opic in t h is ch a pt er ).
147
.................................................................
dy
, a s it is you r goa l 85 per cen t of t h e t im e. If
dx
ot h er va r ia bles a r e u sed, a dju st a ccor din gly.)
(Th ese st eps a ssu m e t h a t you a r e fin din g
..............................................................................................
Steps for Success in Implicit Differentia tion
ALERT!
You must b e a t lea st 18 to
p urc ha se a b ook tha t
d isc usses exp lic it
1. F in d t h e der iva t ive of t h e en t ir e equ a t ion wit h r espect t o x.

2. Solve for
dy
.
dx
3. If a specific solu t ion is r equ ir ed, su bst it u t e in t h e cor r espon din g x a n d y va lu es.
Ex a m p le 17: F in d t h e equ a t ion of t h e t a n gen t lin e t o t h e cir cle
x 2 1 y 2 5 9 wh en x 5 1
d ifferentia tion.
ALERT!
Don t forg et to ta ke the
S o lu tio n : In or der t o fin d t h e equ a t ion of a lin e, you n eed a poin t a n d a slope. It is
ver y sim ple t o fin d t h e poin t . Su bst it u t e x 5 1 in t o t h e for m u la t o fin d it s cor r espon din g y va lu e. Th is coor din a t e pa ir (1, 8 ) m a r ks t h e poin t of t a n gen cy, a s sh own in t h e
figu r e below.
All t h a t r em a in s is t o fin d t h e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e, wh ich is given by t h e

dy
der iva t ive, . You n eed t o fin d t h is der iva t ive im plicit ly, h owever. To do so, fir st fin d
dx
t h e der iva t ive of ever yt h in g wit h r espect t o x:
2x 1 2y
To com plet e t h e pr oblem , solve for
dy
50
dx
dy
:
dx
dy
5 22x
dx
2x
x
dy
52 52
dx
2y
y
2y
x
H en ce, t h e der iva t ive for a n y poin t (x,y) on t h e cir cle is given by t h e for m u la 2 .
y
Th er efor e, t h e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e a t (1, 8 ) is 2
a lin e, t h e equ a t ion of t h e t a n gen t lin e is
y2
8 52
1
. Usin g poin t -slope for m for
8
1
(x 2 1)
8
d eriva tive of the c onsta nt:

d
(9) 5 0.
dx
148
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
NOTE
A norma l line is
p erp end ic ula r to the
ta ng ent line a t the p oint of
ta ng enc y.
TIP
To keep resulting a nswers
a c c ura te, you should n t
round to .350 until the
p rob lem is c omp letely over.
Ex a m p le 18: F in d t h e equ a t ion of t h e n orm al lin e t o sin (x) 1 exy 5 3 wh en x 5 p.
S o lu tio n : In or der t o fin d t h e slope of t h e n or m a l lin e, you n eed t o t a ke t h e opposit e

r ecipr oca l of t h e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e (t h e der iva t ive), sin ce t h ey a r e per pen dicu la r. It is fa r fr om ea sy t o solve t h is equ a t ion for y, so you sh ou ld differ en t ia t e
im plicit ly. Aga in , st a r t by fin din g t h e poin t on t h e n or m a l lin e by plu ggin g in x 5 p:
You must use the Prod uc t

Rule to d ifferentia te xy.
0 1 epy 5 3
ln (epy ) 5 ln (3)
py 5 ln 3
y5
ln 3
' .3496991526
Th u s, t h e t a n gen t a n d n or m a l lin es bot h pa ss t h r ou gh (p, .3496991526).

Now, fin d t h e der iva t ive of t h e equ a t ion wit h r espect t o x t o get t h e slope of t h e
dy
t a n gen t lin e, :
dx
dy
cos x 1 exy z y 1 x
50
dx
Dist r ibu t e exy a n d solve for
TIP
sin (p) 1 epy 5 3
dy
:
dx
cos x 1 yexy 1 xexy
dy
50
dx
dy
5 2cos x 2 yexy
dx
dy
cos x + ye xy
=
dx
xe xy
xexy
P lu g in t h e coor din a t e (p, .3496991526) for (x,y) t o get t h e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e
t h er e:
If t h is is t h e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e a t (p, .3496991526), t h en t h e slope of t h e n or m a l

lin e is t h e n ega t ive r ecipr oca l of 2.0052094021, or 191.9606091 Th er efor e, t h e equ a t ion of t h e n or m a l lin e is
y 2 .350 5 191.961(x 2 p)
(You a r e a llowed t o r ou n d a t t h e ver y en d of t h e pr oblem on t h e AP t est .)
149
.................................................................

1. F in d
dy y 2
: e 1 3y 5 t a n x.
dx
2. Wh a t is t h e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e t o ln (xy) 1 y 2 5 2y a t t h e poin t (e,1)?

2
3. F in d d y if x 2 2 y 2 5 16.
dx 2
4. Den n is F r a n z H igh Sch ool (H om e of t h e F er ociou s P r a ir ie Dogs) h a s h a d a
t op-n ot ch t r a ck t ea m ever sin ce t h ey in st a lled t h eir ellipt ica l t r a ck. It s dim en sion s, m a jor a xis len gt h 536 feet a n d m in or a xis len gt h 208 feet , a r e close t o a n
a ct u a l t r a ck. Below is a dia gr a m of t h e P r a ir ie Dogs t r a ck su per im posed on a
coor din a t e pla n e. If t h e n or t h er n bou n da r ies of DF H igh a r e lin ea r a n d t a n gen t t o
t h e t r a ck a t x 5 6250 feet , fin d t h e equ a t ion s of t h e n or t h er n pr oper t y lin es.

1. F in d t h e der iva t ive wit h r espect t o x.
dy
dy
1 3 5 sec2 x
dx
dx
dy
dy
. You ll n eed t o fa ct or
ou t of bot h t er m s on t h e left side of t h e
Now, solve for
dx
dx
equ a t ion .
2
dy
~2y ey 1 3! 5 sec2 x
dx
sec2 x
dy
=
2
d x 2yey + 3
2
ey z 2y
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 8
150
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
d
d
. Rem em ber t o u se t h e P r odu ct Ru le for
(xy):
dx
dx
dy
dy
dy
1
z (x 1 y) 1 2y 5 2
xy
dx
dx
dx
dy
1
a n d solve for
:
Dist r ibu t e
xy
dx
1
dy
dy
1 dy
z
1 1 2y 5 2
y dx
x
dx
dx
dy
dy
1
1 dy
z
1 2y 2 2 5 2
y dx
dx
dx
x
1
dy 1
( 1 2y 2 2) 5 2
dx y
x
2. F ir st , fin d
dy
, bu t t h er e is n o r ea l n eed t o do so in t h is
dx
pr oblem . You ju st wa n t t h e der iva t ive a t (e,1), so plu g in t h ose va lu es for x a n d y:
At t h is poin t , you ca n solve for
2
3. d y m ea n s t h e secon d der iva t ive, so begin by fin din g dy , t h e fir st der iva t ive:
dx
dx 2
dy
2x 2 2y 5 0
dx
dy x
=
dx y
TIP
When entering fra c tions
into the c a lc ula tor, it s a
g ood id ea to surround the
numera tor a nd
d enomina tor with
p a rentheses.
Use t h e Qu ot ien t Ru le t o fin d t h e secon d der iva t ive:

dy
yx
d2 y
dx
=
dx 2
y2
You a lr ea dy kn ow t h a t
x
dy
5 , so plu g it in :
dx
y
y xi x
d2 y
y
=
2
2
dx
y
2
Get com m on den om in a t or s for y a n d x a n d sim plify:
y
151
.................................................................
Now fin d t h e y t h a t cor r espon ds t o bot h x 5 250 a n d x 5 2250:

y2
62500
+
=1
71824 10816
y 2 5 (1 2 .8701826687) z10816 5 1404.104255
y 5 37.47137914
dy
a t t h ese poin t s t o get t h e slope
dx
of t h e t a n gen t lin es. (Beca u se t h e gr a ph of a n ellipse is y-sym m et r ic, t h e slopes a t
x 5 250 a n d x 5 2250 will be opposit es.)
Now, you h a ve poin t s (6250,37.471379). F in d
exercises
Th e pr oper t y lin es h a ve equ a t ion s y 2 37.414 5 21.006(x 2 250) a n d y 2 37.414

5 1.006(x 1 250).
a nsw ers
4. Begin by cr ea t in g t h e equ a t ion of t h e ellipse. Rem em ber, st a n da r d for m of a n

x2 y2
ellipse is 2 + 2 = 1, wh er e a a n d b a r e h a lf t h e len gt h s of t h e a xes. Th er efor e, t h e
a
b
t r a ck h a s t h e followin g equ a t ion :
y2
y2
x2
x2
+
= 1, or
+
=1
2
2
71824 10816
268
104
..............................................................................................
Now, t h e or igin a l pr oblem st a t es t h a t x 2 2 y 2 5 16, so y 2 2 x 2 5 216. Su bst it u t e

t h is, a n d you r e fin ish ed:
d 2 y 16
= 3
dx 2
y
152
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
HANDS-ON ACTIVITY 4.1: APPROXIMATING DERIVATIVES

Occa sion a lly, t h e AP wr it er s ca n be n ot on ly t r icky bu t m a n ia ca l a s well. On e su ch
exa m ple is t h eir n ew pr a ct ice of a skin g st u den t s t o fin d der iva t ives wit h ou t even givin g
t h em a fu n ct ion .
1. A fu n ct ion w (t) is con t in u ou s; som e of it s va lu es a r e list ed in t h is t a ble.
Dr a w on e possible gr a ph of w (t) for 0 t 1.
2. Alt h ou gh it likely won t be exa ct , u se a r u ler t o dr a w t h e t a n gen t lin e t o w (t) a t

t 5 .95.
3. Descr ibe wh y it is im possible t o fin d t h e exa ct va lu e of w (t).
4. Dr a w t h e seca n t lin e con n ect in g t 5 .9 a n d .95. Wh y m igh t t h is seca n t lin e be a n

im por t a n t t ool? Wh a t ot h er seca n t lin es cou ld ser ve t h e sa m e pu r pose?
5. Appr oxim a t e w (.95) u sin g t h r ee differ en t m et h ods.
153
.................................................................

3. In or der t o fin d t h e exa ct va lu e of w (t), you wou ld n eed t o kn ow wh a t r u le defin es
w (t), n ot ju st t h e r esu lt in g gr a ph .
4. Th e seca n t lin e h a s a slope t h a t is ver y close t o t h a t of t h e t a n gen t lin e. Usin g t h e
Dy
, you ca n ca lcu la t e t h e seca n t slope
ver y sim ple slope for m u la fr om a lgebr a
Dx
a n d u se it a s a n a ppr oxim a t ion for t h e der iva t ive (t a n gen t slope). Ot h er seca n t
lin es t h a t a r e good t a n gen t a ppr oxim a t or s in clu de t h e seca n t con n ect in g (.95,3.6)
t o (1,3.7) a n d t h e seca n t lin e con n ect in g (.9,3.4) t o (1,3.7). All of t h ese wou ld be
good a ppr oxim a t ion s.
SD
5. (a ) Usin g t h e seca n t lin e con n ect in g (.9,3.4) t o (.95,3.6):
3.6 3.4
.95 .9
m (.95) ' 4
m (.95) '
(b) Usin g t h e seca n t lin e con n ect in g (.95,3.6) t o (1,3.7):

3.7 3.6
m (.95) '
1 .95
m (.95) ' 2
(c ) Usin g t h e seca n t lin e con n ect in g (.9,3.4) t o (1,3.7):
3.7 3.4
m (.95) '
1 .9
m (.95) ' 3
All o f th e s e a re a p p ro x im a tio n s , s o th e a n s w e rs n e e d n o t be th e s a m e .
6. You cou ld fin d a n y of t h e followin g seca n t slopes:
f (1.5 ) f ( .5 )
.
1
f ( 1 ) f ( .5 )
.5
f (1.5 ) f (1 )
.5
, or
..............................................................................................
6. If a differ en t gr a ph , f(t), wer e con t in u ou s on t h e in t er va l [22,1], bu t you wer e

1
3
3
on ly given t h e fu n ct ion va lu es for t 5 22, 2 , 21, 2 , , , a n d 2, expla in h ow
2
2
2
you wou ld a ppr oxim a t e f (1).
154
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 9
YOU MAY USE YOUR GRAPHING CALCULATOR TO ANSWER THE FOLLOWING

PROBLEMS.
P r oblem s 1 t h r ou gh 4 r efer t o g(x) a s defin ed by t h is gr a ph :
1. Give va lu es for g(2), g(3), a n d g(4). Of t h ese, wh ich ca n on ly be a n a ppr oxim a t ion ?
2. Appr oxim a t e h (2).
3. Appr oxim a t e t h e a ver a ge r a t e of ch a n ge of g(x) on t h e in t er va l [22,5].
4. Ra n k t h e followin g in n u m er ica l or der fr om lea st t o gr ea t est : h (21), h (1), h (2).

1. Th e gr a ph m a kes it pr et t y clea r t h a t g(2) 5 1 a n d g(4) 5 2. You ll h a ve t o
a ppr oxim a t e g(3); a ccor din g t o t h e gr a ph , g(3) ' .6.
2. Th e seca n t lin e con n ect in g (1,2) a n d (2,1) is a good a ppr oxim a t or ; t h er efor e,
(1 2 )
g(2) ' ( 2 1) 5 21.
NOTE
Prob lems 1 throug h 3
involve a p p roxima tions.
Your a nswers ma y not b e
exa c tly the sa me b ut ma y
still b e c orrec t; your a nswer
should b e rea sona b ly c lose.
3. Th e a ver a ge r a t e of ch a n ge of g(x) is given by
g ( 5) g ( 2 )
5 ( 2 )
3 ( 1.7 )
.671
5 ( 2 )
4. If you sket ch t a n gen t lin es a t t h ese poin t s, you ll n ot ice t h a t t h e t a n gen t lin e h a s
n ega t ive slope a t x 5 2, zer o slope a t x 5 1, a n d posit ive slope a t x 5 21. Alt h ou gh
you do n ot kn ow wh a t t h e slopes a ct u a lly a r e, you st ill kn ow t h a t n egatives , 0
, positives. Th er efor e, h (2) , h (1) , h (21).
155
.................................................................
If you a r e a st u diou s per son a n d a fr ien d of t h e en vir on m en t , you h a ve a lr ea dy r ea d

Ch a pt er 1, wh ich discu sses wh en you m a y a n d m a y n ot u se a gr a ph in g ca lcu la t or t o
ju st ify a n a n swer. You sh ou ld a lr ea dy kn ow h ow t o gr a ph u sin g t h e ca lcu la t or, a n d you
lea r n ed h ow t o solve equ a t ion s u sin g t h e ca lcu la t or in Ch a pt er 2. Th a t lea ves t wo t opics,
a n d on e of t h ese is ca lcu la t in g a n u m er ica l der iva t ive.
Th e TI-83 ca n eva lu a t e a der iva t ive a t a n y poin t on it s dom a in (cu e bu gle fa n fa r e).
Un for t u n a t ely, it will n ot a ct u a lly t a ke t h e sym bolic der iva t ive (cu e booin g fr om st u dio
d
(t a n x) a n d expect t h e ca lcu la t or t o r ea u dien ce). F or exa m ple, you ca n n ot t ype
dx
2
spon d sec x (a lt h ou gh som e ca lcu la t or s, su ch a s t h e TI-89, do h a ve t h is ca pa bilit y).
Th e n u m er ica l differ en t ia t ion fu n ct ion is ca lled n Der iv a n d is fou n d u n der t h e
[Ma t h ] bu t t on , opt ion Nu m ber 8. To lea r n t h is t ech n iqu e, let s r evisit a n old fr ien d:
pr oblem 1 in t h e Qu ot ien t Ru le sect ion .
2
Ex a m p le 19: F in d f (1) if f(x) 5 x 3ln x .
3x 1
S o lu tio n : Th e cor r ect syn t a x for a n u m er ica l der iva t ive is
n Der iv(fu n ction of x, x, n u m ber at w h ich to fin d d erivative).

Be ca r efu l t o t ype t h e fu n ct ion cor r ect ly; t h is on e will r equ ir e a wh ole bu n ch of
pa r en t h eses.
1
Wh en you did t h is pr oblem by h a n d, you got a n a n swer of . Not e t h a t t h e ca lcu la t or s
2
n Der iv r esu lt is n ot t h e exa ct a n swer, a s t h e ca lcu la t or on ly a ppr oxim a t es it , a lt h ou gh
it is a pr et t y da r n good a ppr oxim a t ion . Sin ce t h e AP t est on ly r equ ir es t h r ee-decim a l
a ccu r a cy, a t r u n ca t ed or r ou n ded a n swer of .500 wou ld h a ve been fin e, bu t t h e
com plet e ca lcu la t or a n swer m a y h a ve been m a r ked in correct, sin ce t h e a ct u a l a n swer
1
is a n d n ot .5000046667. Alwa ys t a ke you r ca lcu la t or s solu t ion s wit h a gr a in of sa lt ;
2
t h eyr e u su a lly close bu t n ot a lwa ys r igh t .
..............................................................................................
TECHNOLOGY: FINDING NUMERICAL DERIVATIVES WITH THE

GRAPHING CALCULATOR
156
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
NOTE
The c ub e root symb ol is
found in the [Ma th] menu
on the TI-83, a nd the
a b solute va lue nota tion
a b s is found in the
[Ma th] Num menu.
Ex a m p le 20: Use t h e ca lcu la t or t o fin d t h e followin g n u m er ica l der iva t ives:

(a ) h (0) if h (x) 5 3 3
x 1 2.
Wh en you t ype t h e n Der iv com m a n d, you get a ver y bizza r e r esu lt . I got 300, a s sh own
below.
You sh ou ld ch eck t h is by h a n d, beca u se it ju st feels wr on g. You ca n r ewr it e h a s h (x) 5

1
1
3x 1/3 1 2, so h (x) 5 3 z x 22/3 5 2/3 . Clea r ly, t h en , h (0) is u n defin ed, a n d t h e
3
x
der iva t ive does n ot exist . (Th is is beca u se h h a s a ver t ica l t a n gen t lin e a t x 5 0, a n d
n o der iva t ives exist a t ver t ica l t a n gen t lin es.) Th e ca lcu la t or h a s u n in t en t ion a lly lied.
(b) g(3) if g(x) 5 U x 2 3 U 2 1.
Below is t h e gr a ph of g a n d t h e n Der iv com m a n d r equ ir ed t o fin d g(0).
Does som et h in g a bou t t h ese im a ges m a ke you u n com for t a ble? g h a s a sh a r p poin t a t
(3,21), bu t t h e ca lcu la t or r epor t s t h a t t h e der iva t ive is 0. You kn ow bet t er t h a n
t h a t n o der iva t ive exist s a t a sh a r p poin t , so t h e cor r ect a n swer is g(3) does n ot
exist .
Th ese exa m ples illu st r a t e a ver y im por t a n t poin t . Th e ca lcu la t or is a gr ea t est im a t ion
t ool, bu t it ca n n ot a lwa ys r epla ce good kn owledge of wh er e der iva t ives exist a n d h ow
t o com pu t e t h em . Be a wa r e of t h e ca lcu la t or s lim it a t ion s, a n d don t a ccept t h e
ca lcu la t or ou t pu t s a s gospel t r u t h .
157
.................................................................
YOU MAY USE A GRAPHING CALCULATOR ONLY FOR PROBLEMS 5 THROUGH 12.
1. F in d
dy
: y 5 sin x cos
dx
2. F in d
d
(sec 3x ln (t a n x)).
dx
=x.
3. Det er m in e t h e va lu e of dy if x 5 0 for exy 1 cos y 5 1.

dx
2
4. Wr it e t h e equ a t ion of t h e t a n gen t lin e t o y 5 x 2 a t x 5 0.
4x + 5
2
4/5
5. At wh a t x-va lu es does (3x 1 2x)(x 2 1) h a ve h or izon t a l t a n gen t lin es? On wh a t
in t er va ls is t h e fu n ct ion differ en t ia ble?
6. Descr ibe t(x) a s com plet ely a s you ca n ba sed on it s gr a ph , sh own below.
7. If n (x) 5 (g(x))2 a n d p(x) 5 f(x)g(x), com plet e t h e ch a r t below kn owin g t h a t n (2) 5

26 a n d p(2) 5 23.
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 10
158
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
8. If b(x) h a s t h e gr a ph sh own below wit h poin t s of in t er est x 1 a n d x 2 ,
wh ich of t h e followin g cou ld be t h e gr a ph of b(x)?
1
9. If f(1) 5 1, f (1) 5 23, g(1) 5 4, a n d g(1) 5 2 , fin d
2
f (x)
(a ) p(1) if p(x) 5
2 g( x )
(b) h (1) if h (x) 5 (
f ( x ) )3
(c ) j(1) if j(x) 5 g(f(1))
159
.................................................................
x4
(c ) x 5 4 is a r oot of m (x).
(d )
(e )
(f)
(g )
m ca n n ot h a ve a poin t discon t in u it y a t x 5 4.
m (0) 5 4.
m (4) 5 m (24).
Th e a ver a ge r a t e of ch a n ge of m (x) on [24,4] 5 0.
11. Given t h a t t h e followin g gr a ph r epr esen t s a n a u dien ce m em ber s h ea r t r a t e (in

bea t s per m in u t e) for t h e la st 16 m in u t es of t h e n ew h or r or flick T h e B lood en in g
(st a r r in g Wh oopi Goldber g a n d La ssie), a ppr oxim a t e t h e followin g va lu es a n d
expla in wh a t t h ey r epr esen t .
(a ) h (9)
(b) h (6)
(c ) h (12 ) h ( 8 )
4
12. J a m e s D ia bo lic a l Ch a lle n g e : A pa r t icle m oves a lon g t h e x-a xis su ch t h a t it s
dist a n ce a wa y fr om t h e or igin is given by s(t) 5 t 3 2 9t 2 1 24t 2 7 (wh er e t is in
secon ds a n d s(t) is in m illim et er s).
(a ) F in d t h e a ver a ge velocit y of t h e pa r t icle on [1,3].
(b) H ow qu ickly is t h e pa r t icle m ovin g a t t 5 3, a n d in wh a t dir ect ion is it
m ovin g?
(c ) Wh en is t h e pa r t icle a t r est ?
(d ) Gr a ph s(t) a n d give t h e in t er va ls of t im e du r in g wh ich t h e pa r t icle is
m ovin g t o t h e r igh t .
exerc ises
(a ) m is con t in u ou s a t x 5 4.
(b) lim+ m (x) exist s.
..............................................................................................
10. If m (x) is a n even fu n ct ion differ en t ia ble a t x 5 4 a n d m (4) 5 0, det er m in e wh ich

of t h e followin g st a t em en t s m u st be t r u e a n d br iefly ju st ify you r a n swer s.
160
.................................................................
..............................................................................................

1. Th e P r odu ct Ru le sh ou ld be you r fir st pla n of a t t a ck (t h e Ch a in Ru le will follow
wit h cos =x):
y 5 sin x z 2sin
=x z
2 x
1 cos
=x z cos x
2. Th is pr oblem is ver y sim ila r t o t h e la st :

sec 3x z
1
z sec2 x 1 ln (t a n x) z 3sec 3x t a n 3x
(tan x )
sec 2 x
+ 3 tan 3x ln ( tan x )
sec 3x
tan x
3. F ir st , fin d t h e y t h a t cor r espon ds t o x 5 0:

e0 + cos y = 1
1 + cos y = 1
p
2
Now, u se im plicit differ en t ia t ion , bu t r em em ber t o a pply t h e P r odu ct Ru le t o xy:
y=
2
4. Clea r ly, t h e t a n gen t lin e will in t er sect t h e cu r ve a t (0,f(0)), or (0,2 ). Use t h e
5
Qu ot ien t Ru le t o fin d t h e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e:
y 5
( 4 x + 5 )( 2 x ) ( x 2 2 )( 4 )
y(0) 5
( 4 x + 5) 2
8
0 ( 8 )
5
25
25
Th er efor e, t h e equ a t ion of t h e t a n gen t lin e is y 1
8
2
5
x.
5
25
5. F ir st , fin d t h e der iva t ive u sin g t h e P r odu ct Ru le:

4
(x 2 1)21/5 1 (x 2 1)4/5 (6x 1 2)
5
Clea r ly, t h e der iva t ive will n ot exist a t x 5 1, beca u se (x 2 1)21/5 wou ld ca u se a
zer o in t h e den om in a t or. Th e fu n ct ion will h a ve a h or izon t a l t a n gen t lin e wh en it s
der iva t ive is 0, so u se t h e ca lcu la t or t o fin d wh en t h e der iva t ive is 0.
(3x 2 1 2x)
161
.................................................................
7. F ir st , fin d t h e der iva t ive of n (x) a n d u se t h e fa ct t h a t n (2) 5 26:

n (x) 5 2(g(x)) z g(x)
2g(2) z 1 5 26
g(2) 5 23
Now, you on ly n eed t o fin d f (2) t o com plet e t h e ch a r t . Use t h e fa ct t h a t
p(2) 5 23:
p(2) 5 f(2)g(2) 1 g(2)f (2) 5 23
9 z 1 1 (23)f (2) 5 23
(23)f (2) 5 212
f (2) 5 4
8. Dr a w a su ccession of t a n gen t lin es t o t h e gr a ph , a n d exa m in e t h e slope of t h e
t a n gen t lin es, a s pict u r ed h er e:
Th e slopes a r e posit ive on (2`, x 1 ) (x 2 ,`), so t h e der iva t ive is posit ive t h er e a lso.
Sim ila r ly, b(x) will be n ega t ive on (x 1 ,x 2 ). F u r t h er m or e, b(x) will h a ve h or izon t a l
exercises
n (2) 5 2g(2)g(2) 5 26
a nsw ers
6. Th is is a la r ge list of ch a r a ct er ist ics of t(x), a lt h ou gh t h er e a r e pr oba bly m or e

cor r ect a n swer s: t h a s ju m p discon t in u it ies a t x 5 23 a n d 3; t h a s n o der iva t ive a t
x 5 23, 3, 21, a n d 1 (r em em ber t h a t n o der iva t ive exist s a t discon t in u it ies or
sh a r p poin t s); t(x) 5 0 on (21,1); t(x) 5 1 on (23,21); t(x) 5 21 on (1,3); t
a ppea r s t o be a n even fu n ct ion ; t is n ega t ive on (2`,23) (1,3); t is posit ive on
(23,21) (3,`); sket ch t a n gen t lin es a n d exa m in e t h e slopes t o see t h a t t h is is
t r u e; t is decr ea sin g a t a decr ea sin g r a t e on (2`,3), in cr ea sin g a t a con st a n t r a t e
on (23,21), con st a n t on (21,1), decr ea sin g a t a con st a n t r a t e on (1,3), a n d
in cr ea sin g a t a n in cr ea sin g r a t e on (3,`).
..............................................................................................
H or izon t a l t a n gen t lin es sh ou ld occu r wh en x 5 2.366 a n d x 5 .651; t h ese r esu lt s

a r e su ppor t ed by t h e gr a ph of t h e fu n ct ion below:
162
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
t a n gen t lin es a t x 1 a n d x 2 , so der iva t ives t h er e will be 0. All t h ese ch a r a ct er ist ics
a pply on ly t o gr a ph D.
9. (a ) Use t h e Qu ot ien t Ru le t o fin d p(1):

p(1) 5
2 g (1) f (1) f (1) 2 g (1)
(2g (1))
p(1) 5
224 2 ~21!
23
=2
~2z4!2
64
(b) Rewr it e t h e fu n ct ion a s h (x) 5 f(x)3/2 , a n d t h en a pply t h e P ower Ru le:
(c ) Use t h e Ch a in Ru le t o fin d j(1):

j(1) 5 g(f(1)) z f (1)
j(1) 5 g(1) z (23)
3
1
j(1) 5 2 z 23 5
2
2
10. (a ) Tr u e: Differ en t ia bilit y im plies con t in u it y.
NOTE
You ma y ha ve notic ed tha t
when a func tion inc rea ses,
its d eriva tive is p ositive, a nd
when a func tion d ec rea ses,
its d eriva tive is neg a tive.
This is a very imp orta nt
ob serva tion, a nd it is
d isc ussed in d ep th in
Cha p ter 5.
(b) Tr u e: If con t in u ou s a t x 5 4, t h e lim it m u st exist .

(c ) F a lse: m (4) 5 0; it doesn t sa y t h a t m (4) 5 0.
(d ) Tr u e: If m is con t in u ou s, n o discon t in u it y exist s.
(e ) F a lse: Th is is wr on g for so m a n y r ea son s
(f) Tr u e: It is a lso t r u e t h a t m (4) 5 2m (24) sin ce m is y-sym m et r ic (dr a w a
pict u r e t o con vin ce you r self).
(g ) Tr u e: m (4) 5 m (24) 5 0 sin ce t h e gr a ph is y-sym m et r ic.
11. (a ) h (9) ' 100 bt /m in , wh ich is t h e a u dien ce m em ber s h ea r t r a t e a t t 5 9

m in u t es.
(b) h (6) is t h e r a t e of ch a n ge of t h e h ea r t r a t e a t t 5 6. Th e r a t e of ch a n ge of a
r a t e is m or e com m on ly kn own a s t h e a cceler a t ion . Th er e is n o for m u la in
eviden ce, so you ll n eed t o a ppr oxim a t e t h e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e. Do so by
fin din g t h e slope of a n ea r by seca n t lin e. On e good a ppr oxim a t or is t h e seca n t
lin e con n ect in g (4,115) a n d (6,103) (a lt h ou gh it is n ot t h e on ly via ble a ppr oxibt
103 2 115
m in
' 26
or 26 bt /m in 2 (t h e h ea r t
m a t ion ). Th a t slope is given by
624
m in
r a t e is deceler a t in g) .
163
.................................................................
12. (a ) In or der t o fin d velocit y, you n eed t o r ea lize t h a t velocit y is t h e r a t e of ch a n ge

of posit ion . Th is m a kes sen se; t h e r a t e a t wh ich a n object s posit ion ch a n ges
t ells you h ow fa st t h a t object is m ovin g. So, you a r e t r yin g t o fin d t h e a ver a ge
r a t e of ch a n ge of t h e posit ion :
s ( 3) s (1)
3 1
11 2 9
5 1 m m /sec
2
(b) H er e, you a r e t r yin g t o fin d t h e velocit y (r a t e of ch a n ge, or der iva t ive, of
posit ion ). Th u s, t h e velocit y equ a t ion will be v(t) 5 3t 2 2 18t 1 24, a n d v(3) 5
27 2 54 1 24 5 23 m m /sec. Beca u se velocit y is n ega t ive, t h e pa r t icle is
m ovin g t o t h e left in st ea d of t h e r igh t .
(c ) Th e pa r t icle is n ot m ovin g wh en it s velocit y is 0. So, set v(t) 5 3t 2 2 18t 1 24
equ a l t o 0 a n d u se t h e ca lcu la t or t o solve t h e equ a t ion . Th e pa r t icle will be a t
r est wh en t 5 2 a n d t 5 4 sec. F a ct or in g or u sin g t h e qu a dr a t ic for m u la wou ld
a lso h a ve wor ked.
Th e t-in t er cept s a ppea r t o be t 5 2 a n d 4, a n d t h a t is ver ified by you r wor k in

12(c), so t h e pa r t icle is m ovin g r igh t on (2`,2) (4,`).
exercises
(d ) s(t) is t h e velocit y of t h e pa r t icle, a n d a posit ive velocit y im plies t h a t t h e

pa r t icle is m ovin g t o t h e r igh t . Th u s, you a r e sim ply r epor t in g t h e in t er va ls
on wh ich s(t) is posit ive, a ccor din g t o t h e gr a ph .
a nsw ers
140 2 97 43
=
bt /m in 2
4
4
..............................................................................................
(c ) Th is is t h e for m u la for a ver a ge r a t e of ch a n ge on [8,12], or t h e a ver a ge r a t e of

ch a n ge of t h e h ea r t r a t e (a ver a ge h ea r t a cceler a t ion ). Th er e is n o a ppr oxim a t ion h er e; you r a n swer will be exa ct , a s a ll n ecessa r y va lu es a r e given exa ct ly:
164
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
SUMMING IT UP
Th e st u dy of lim it s a n d con t in u it y on ly set s t h e st a ge for der iva t ives a n d differen t ia t ion . Mor e t h a n h a lf of t h e qu est ion s on t h e t est will in volve der iva t ives in
som e wa y or a n ot h er
Th e der iva t ive of a fu n ct ion descr ibes h ow fa st a n d in wh a t ca pa cit y a fu n ct ion is

ch a n gin g a t a n y in st a n t .
Tr igon om et r ic fu n ct ion s a n d t h eir der iva t ives a r e a ll over t h e AP t est .
Ad va nc ed Top ic s in
Differentia tion
....................................................................................
The deriva tive of a n inverse function

Ha nds-On Activity 5.1: Linea r a pproxima tions
LHpita ls Rule (BC topic only)
Pa ra metric deriva tives (BC topic only)
Pola r deriva tives (BC topic only)
Technology: Finding pola r a nd pa ra metric deriva tives with
your ca lcula tor (BC topic only)
Summing it up
Th e P ower, P r odu ct , Qu ot ien t , a n d Ch a in Ru les a llow you t o fin d t h e der iva t ive of a lm ost a n y expr ession or equ a t ion you will en cou n t er. H owever, t h er e
a r e a few except ion s t o t h e r u le. Th is ch a pt er ser ves t o ir on ou t t h ose except ion s a n d m a ke you in vin cible in t h e la n d of der iva t ives. In a ddit ion , BC
st u den t s n eed t o kn ow h ow t o differ en t ia t e pola r, pa r a m t et r ic, a n d vect orva lu ed equ a t ion s, a n d t h ese t opics a r e in clu ded h er e.
THE DERIVATIVE OF AN INVERSE FUNCTION

F in din g t h e in ver se of a fu n ct ion is a n im por t a n t skill in m a t h em a t ics (a lt h ou gh
you m ost cer t a in ly n ever h a ve t o u se t h is skill in , sa y, t h e fr en ch fr y depa r t m en t
of t h e fa st -food in du st r y). In ver se fu n ct ion s a r e h elpfu l for so m a n y r ea son s; t h e
m a in r ea son , of cou r se, is t h eir power t o ca u se ot h er fu n ct ion s t o disa ppea r. H ow
do you solve t h e equ a t ion sec3 x 5 8? F in d t h e cu be r oot of ea ch side t o ca n cel t h e
expon en t a n d t h en t a ke t h e a r cseca n t of ea ch side t o ca n cel t h e seca n t . (Th e
a n swer, by t h e wa y, is .) F u n ct ion s t h is u sefu l a r e bou n d t o sh ow u p on t h e AP

3
exa m , a n d you sh ou ld kn ow h ow t o differ en t ia t e t h em .
( )
Ex a m p le 1: If f(x) 5 (3x 1 4)2 , x 4 find f 1 ( x ) .

3
S o lu tio n : Befor e you ca n fin d t h e der iva t ive of t h e in ver se, you n eed t o fin d
t h e in ver se fu n ct ion . Use t h e m et h od ou t lin ed in Ch a pt er 2 a s follows:
x 5 (3y 1 4)2
x 4 = 3y
f 1 ( x ) =
x 4 1
=
3
3
165
x 4
c ha p ter 5
OVERVIEW
166
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
( )
1 1
1
Now, fin d f 1 ( x ) : f 1 ( x ) = x 1 / 2 =
3 2
6 x
Th a t wa s pr et t y ea sy, wa sn t it ? H owever, a s lon g a s you ve been in m a t h cla sses,
you ve exper ien ced t ea ch er su n ca n n y a bilit y t o t a ke ea sy t h in gs a n d m a ke t h em m u ch
m or e difficu lt ea sy pr oblem s t en d t o lea ve you t h is u n ea sy feelin g in t h e pit of you r
st om a ch like you r e in a sla sh er m ovie, a n d t h e killer is r igh t beh in d you , bu t you r e
a fr a id t o t u r n a r ou n d. In t h e ca se of in ver se fu n ct ion differ en t ia t ion , t h e killer t a kes
t h e for m of fu n ct ion s for wh ich you ca n n ot ea sily fin d a n in ver se.
( )
H ow ca n you fin d t h e d erivative of a fu n ct ion s in ver se if you ca n t even fin d t h e

in ver se? You ll n eed a for m u la ba sed on a ver y sim ple ch a r a ct er ist ic of in ver se fu n c1
t ion s: f f ( x ) = x. Ta ke t h e der iva t ive of t h e equ a t ion , u sin g t h e Ch a in Ru le, t o get
f 8( f 1 (x)) z ( f 1 )8(x) 5 1
Now, solve t h e equ a t ion for ( f 1 )8(x):
( f ) 8(x) 5 f ( f ( x ))
1
Th is is a n in cr edibly u sefu l for m u la t o m em or ize; it s especia lly h a n dy wh en you

ca n n ot fin d a n in ver se fu n ct ion , a s in t h e n ext exa m ple.
Ex a m p le 2: F in d ( g 1 )8 (3) if g(x) 5 x 5 1 3x 1 2.
TIP
The formula for inverse
d eriva tives c a n b e
1
rememb ered a s , or
P.I.
One over Prime/ Inverse.
Ma ny stud ents rememb er
tha t Ma g num P.I. wa s a
p riva te inversetig a tor. Use
the mnemonic d evic e to
rememb er the ord er.
S o lu tio n : If you t r y t o fin d g 21 (x) by swit ch in g t h e x a n d y a n d solvin g for y (a s in

E xa m ple 1), you get
x 5 y 5 1 3y 1 2
in wh ich , despit e you r best effor t s a n d lot s of swea t , you ca n n ot solve for y. Beca u se
you ca n n ot ea sily fin d g 1 (x), you sh ou ld r esor t t o t h e Ma gn u m P.I. for m u la :
1
, or in t h is ca se:
( g 1 )8(x) 5
g g 1 ( x )
1
( g 1 )8 (3)5
g g 1 (3 )
H ow a r e you goin g t o fin d g 1 (3) if you ca n t fin d g 1 (x)? Good qu est ion . Tim e t o be
clever. If 3 is a n in pu t for g 1 (x), t h en 3 m u st be a n ou t pu t of g(x), sin ce t h e fu n ct ion s

a r e in ver ses. Th er efor e, we sh ou ld fin d t h e dom a in elem en t x t h a t r esu lt s in a n ou t pu t
of 3 for g(x):
x 5 1 3x 1 2 5 3
x 5 1 3x 1 5 0
Cha pter 5: Adva nced Topics in Differentia tion
167
.................................................................
g 1 (x). Did you m iss it ? You ju st fou n d t h a t g 1 (3) 5 .3319890296. Ret u r n t o t h e

for m u la , a n d plu g in wh a t you kn owt h e r est is ea sy:
1
( g 1 )8(3) 5
g g 1 (3 )
1
( g 1 )8(3) 5
g (.3319890296 )
Beca u se g8(x) 5 5x 4 1 3, g8(.3319890296) 5 3.060738622 a n d

( g 1 )8(3) 5
1
.327
3.060738622
Th e pr ocess of fin din g der iva t ives of in ver se fu n ct ion s becom es m ech a n ica l wit h
pr a ct ice. E ven a ft er t h e m illion t h pr oblem like t h is, it st ill excit es m e t o fin d va lu es of
a n in ver se fu n ct ion I don t even kn ow. Wh a t a r u sh !
..............................................................................................
Solve t h is equ a t ion on you r ca lcu la t or, a n d t h e r esu lt is x 5 .33198902969. Th u s, t h e

poin t (.3319890296,3) fa lls on g(x), a n d r esu lt in gly, (3,.3319890296) belon gs on
168
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 1
YOU MAY USE YOUR GRAPHING CALCULATOR FOR PROBLEM 2 ONLY.

1. If g(x) 5 3 x 1 1 2,
(a ) E va lu a t e g 1 (4) wit h ou t fin din g g 1 (x).
(b) F in d g 1 (x), a n d u se it t o ver ify you r a n swer t o pa r t (a ).
( )
1
2. If k (x) 5 4x 3 1 2x 2 5, fin d k 8(4).
( )
1
3. If h (x) is defin ed by t h e gr a ph below, a ppr oxim a t e h 8(2).
4. If m is a con t in u ou s a n d differ en t ia ble fu n ct ion wit h som e va lu es given by t h e

1
1
t a ble below, eva lu a t e m 8 .
2

1. (a ) To fin d g 1 (4), set g(x) 5 4 a n d solve for x.
3 x 1 + 2 = 4
x 1 =
x =
2
3
4
13
+1 =
9
9
169
.................................................................
x 2
=
3
( x 2)2
g 1( x ) =
g 1(4) =
y 1
32
( 4 2)2
32
2. Accor din g t o t h e for m u la , (k 21 )8(4) 5
+1 =
+ 1, so
4
13
+1 =
9
9
1
k 8~k
21
~4!!
. F in d k 21 (4) u sin g t h e sa m e
m et h od a s in 1(a ):
4x 3 1 2x 5 5 4
4x 3 1 2x 9 5 0
k 21 (4) 5 1.183617895
Beca u se k 8(x) 5 12x 2 1 2,
1
' .053.
k (1.183617895 )
(h 21 )8(2) 5
1
1
5 =1
h ( 3 )
1
4. Th e Ma gn u m P.I. for m u la a ga in r ea r s it s gr ot esqu e h ea d: (m 21 )8 1 5

2
1
1
1

. Accor din g t o t h e t a ble, m 21 5 21 (sin ce m (21) 5 2 ). Also

m m 1 1
2
2
2
1
1
fr om t h e t a ble, you see t h a t m 8(21) 5 22. Th er efor e, (m 21 )8 5 2 .
2
2
( )
exercises
1
. F r om t h e gr a ph , you ca n
h 8~h 21 ~2!!
21
see t h a t h (2) 5 3 (t h e gr a ph h a s a n ou t pu t of 2 wh en x 5 3), so t h e for m u la
1
. You will h a ve t o a ppr oxim a t e h 8(3); t h e seca n t lin e con n ect in g
becom es
h ( 3 )
2 1 .5
5 1,
(2.5,1.5) t o (3,2) looks like t h e best ca n dida t e. Th a t seca n t lin e slope is
3 2 .5
so a good (a n d t h a n kfu lly sim ple) a ppr oxim a t ion is h 8(3) 5 1. Th er efor e, you h a ve
3. Aga in , t h e for m u la dict a t es t h a t (h 21 )8(2) 5
a nsw ers
x = 3 y 1 + 2
..............................................................................................
(b) Swit ch x a n d y a n d solve for y t o get g 1 (x):
170
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
HANDS-ON ACTIVITY 5.1: LINEAR APPROXIMATIONS

Der iva t ives do so m u ch . Th ey r epor t slopes of t a n gen t lin es, descr ibe in st a n t a n eou s
velocit ies, a n d illu st r a t e r a t es of ch a n ge. Ta n gen t lin es, ba sed so closely on der iva t ives,
ser ve m a n y sim ila r pu r poses, bu t on e of t h eir m ost im por t a n t ch a r a ct er ist ics is t h a t
tan gen t lin es ten d to act lik e th e fu n ction s th eyre tan gen t to, a t lea st a r ou n d t h e poin t of
t a n gen cy.
1. Give t h e equ a t ion of t h e t a n gen t lin e t o f(x) 5 1 (x 2)3 1 4 a t x 5 3.
4
NOTE
Linea r a p p roxima tions a re
the first step in a more
c omp lic a ted p roc ess
known a s Euler s Method .
Wherea s a p p roxima tions
a re on b oth the AB a nd BC
tests, Euler s Method
a p p ea rs only on the
BC exa m.
2. Gr a ph f(x) a n d it s t a n gen t lin e on you r ca lcu la t or ; dr a w t h e r esu lt below.
3. Zoom in t h r ee t im es on t h e poin t of t a n gen cy (u sin g Zoom Zoom in on t h e TI-83).

Wh a t r ela t ion sh ip do you n ot ice bet ween t h e t wo gr a ph s a t t h is level of m a gn ifica t ion ?
4. Ret u r n you r gr a ph t o t h e st a n da r d viewin g win dow (Zoom st a n da r d). Ca lcu la t e

t h e va lu e of bot h fu n ct ion s a t x 5 3.1 a n d x 5 6. Wh a t con clu sion s ca n you dr a w?
5. Descr ibe t h e specia l pr oper t y of t a n gen t lin es t h a t is m a de clea r in t h is a ct ivit y;

m a ke su r e t o n ot e a n y dr a wba cks or wea kn esses in h er en t in t h is m et h od.
6. Use a t a n gen t lin e (lin ea r a ppr oxim a t ion ) t o est im a t e t h e va lu e of f(5.12) if f(x) 5
7
3x 2 3 .
x
171
.................................................................
1. Th e t a n gen t lin e h a s equ a t ion 3x 4y 5 8.
..............................................................................................
NOTE
2.
The tend enc y of a g ra p h to

look a nd a c t like its ta ng ent
line immed ia tely
surround ing the p oint of
ta ng enc y is c a lled loc a l
linea rity. Litera lly, the g ra p h
looks like a line in tha t
loc a lized a rea , a s
d emonstra ted b y the
3. Va r iou s st a ges of zoom in g a r e sh own h er e:
zooming exerc ise in

p rob lem 3.
Th e t wo gr a ph s h a ve ver y sim ila r va lu es t h e closer you zoom in t o t h e poin t of

t a n gen cy. In fa ct , if you keep zoom in g in , it s h a r d t o t ell t h e t wo gr a ph s a pa r t .
4. If you ca ll t h e t a n gen t lin e g(x), f(3.1) 5 4.33275 a n d g(3.1) 5 4.325. Th ese va lu es
a r e ext r em ely close. H owever, f(6) 5 20 a n d g(6) 5 6.5. Th ese va lu es a r en t even
in t h e sa m e ba llpa r k. Th e clea r con clu sion : t h e t a n gen t lin e on ly a ppr oxim a t es
t h e fu n ct ion s va lu es n ea r t h e poin t of t a n gen cy. F u r t h er a wa y fr om t h is poin t , a ll
bet s a r e off.
5. I dr ew t h is con clu sion in n u m ber 4; clea r ly, I a m a n over a ch iever.
6. F ir st , fin d t h e equ a t ion of t h e t a n gen t lin e t o f a t x 5 5; beca u se 5.12 is close t o 5,
t h e fu n ct ion a n d t h e t a n gen t lin e a t x 5 5 will h a ve sim ila r va lu es.
f 8(x) 5 6x 1 21x 24
f 8(5) 5 30.0336
Th e t a n gen t lin ewh ich pa sses t h r ou gh (5,74.944)h a s slope 30.0336. Th u s,
t a n gen t lin e h a s t h e followin g equ a t ion :
y 74.944 5 30.0336(x 5)
Now, eva lu a t e t h e t a n gen t lin e for x 5 5.12 for you r a ppr oxim a t ion , a n d you get
78.548.
172
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 2
YOU MAY USE YOUR CALCULATOR FOR ALL OF THESE PROBLEMS.

1. In t h e dia gr a m below, t h e fu n ct ion f(x) m eet s it s t a n gen t lin e a t t h e poin t (a,f(a)).
Wh a t is t h e equ a t ion of t h e lin ea r a ppr oxim a t ion t o f a t x 5 a?
2. Use a lin ea r a ppr oxim a t ion cen t er ed a t 2 t o est im a t e

1
j(2.14) if j(t) 5 2t 3 2 1 4ln t.
t
3. If h (0) 5 4 a n d h 8(0) 5 5, u se a lin ea r a ppr oxim a t ion t o est im a t e h (.25).

4. If g(x) is a con t in u ou s a n d differ en t ia ble fu n ct ion a n d con t a in s t h e va lu es given
by t h e t a ble below, est im a t e g(3.2) wit h a lin ea r a ppr oxim a t ion .

1. Th e equ a t ion of t h e lin ea r a ppr oxim a t ion is sim ply t h e equ a t ion of t h e t a n gen t
lin e t h r ou gh t h e poin t (a, f(a)) wit h slope f 8(a): y 2 f(a) 5 f 8(a)(x 2 a).
2. Th e lin ea r a ppr oxim a t ion is given by t h e equ a t ion of t h e t a n gen t lin e t o j a t
(2,18.52258872). So, fin d t h e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e by ca lcu a t in g t h e n u m er ica l
der iva t ive.
2 4
j8(t) 5 6t 2 1 3 +
t
t
1
105
j8(2) 5 24 1
125
4
4
Th e equ a t ion of t h e t a n gen t lin e (lin ea r a ppr oxim a t or ) is
105
y 18.52258872 5
(x 2)
4
Su bst it u t e x 5 2.14 t o get a n a ppr oxim a t ion of 22.198 for j(2.14).
173
.................................................................
E va lu a t e t h is equ a t ion for x 5 3.2, a n d you r a ppr oxim a t ion is 0.
LHPITALS RULE (BC TOPIC ONLY)
To explor e LH pit a ls Ru le, we will r evisit a n exa m ple fr om t h e Specia l Lim it s sect ion
0
sin x
. Su bst it u t ion r esu lt ed in , wh ich is in det er m in a t e. Non e of
of Ch a pt er 3: lim
x 0
x
0
ou r ot h er t ech n iqu es (e.g., fa ct or in g, con ju ga t e) a pplied t o t h is pr oblem eit h er, so we
sin x
t o fin d t h e lim it of 1. If you don t h a ve a ccess t o a gr a ph in g
u sed t h e gr a ph of
x
ca lcu la t or, h owever, t h is pr oblem is a lot m or e difficu lt , a s t h e gr a ph is fa r fr om t r ivia l
t o dr a w. E n t er LH pit a ls Ru le.
f (x )
f (x )
= lim
.
LH p ita ls Ru le : If f(x) 5 g(x) 5 0 or f(x) 5 g(x) 5 `, t h en lim
x a g ( x )
x a g ( x )
0
or
, you
Tran slation : If you a r e t r yin g t o eva lu a t e a lim it a n d you en d u p wit h
0
ca n t a ke t h e der iva t ives of t h e n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or sepa r a t ely. Th e n ew

fr a ct ion will h a ve t h e sa m e lim it a s t h e or igin a l pr oblem , so t r y a n d eva lu a t e it . If you
get a n ot h er in det er m in a t e a n swer, you ca n r epea t t h e pr ocess.
Ex a m p le 3: Use LH pit a ls Ru le t o eva lu a t e lim
x 0
sin x
.
x
0
S o lu tio n : As st a t ed pr eviou sly, su bst it u t ion r esu lt s in . Apply LH pit a ls Ru le by
0
der ivin g sin x a n d x (wit h r espect t o x):
lim
x 0
sin x
cos x
= lim
x 0
x
1
exercises
LH pit a ls Ru le m a y sou n d like t h e t yr a n n ica l r u le of a F r en ch m on a r ch , bu t it is

a ct u a lly a wa y t o ca lcu la t e in det er m in a t e lim it s. Wh a t is a n in det er m in a t e lim it , you
a sk? Th er e a r e n u m er ou s for m s t h a t a n in det er m in a t e lim it ca n t a ke, bu t you sh ou ld
0
. Un t il n ow, you wer e u n a ble t o

con cen t r a t e on in det er m in a t e for m s , 0 z `, a n d
0
eva lu a t e lim it s t h a t en ded wit h t h ose r esu lt s, bu t n ow, you will fa ce n o su ch r est r ict ion s.
Alt h ou gh LH pit a ls Ru le is a BC t opic, it is per h a ps on e of t h e ea siest t h in gs in ca lcu lu s
t o a pply a n d u n der st a n d, a n d AP st u den t s a r e well ser ved t o lea r n it a lso.
a nsw ers
4. Th e best a ppr oxim a t ion for g(3.2) will be given by t h e t a n gen t lin e con st r u ct ed a t
1
x 5 3. Clea r ly, t h e poin t of t a n gen cy is ( 3, ), bu t you ll h a ve t o a ppr oxim a t e t h e
2
1
5 7
der iva t ive a t x 5 3 u sin g t h e seca n t lin e con n ect in g , a n d ( 3, ). Th a t
2 4
2
y
5
is . Th er efor e, t h e best lin ea r a ppr oxim a t ion you ca n m a ke is
seca n t slope
2
x
1
5
5
(x 3)
y1
2
2
..............................................................................................
3. Begin by fin din g t h e equ a t ion of t h e t a n gen t lin e t o h wh en x 5 0 (sin ce .25 is

close t o 0, a n d a ll t h e in for m a t ion we h a ve cen t er s a r ou n d 0). You a lr ea dy kn ow
t h e slope of t h e lin e will be 5 a n d t h e poin t of t a n gen cy is (0,4), so t h e equ a t ion
of t h e lin e is y 5 5x 1 4. Th e lin ea r a ppr oxim a t ion for x 5 .25 is given by 25(.25)
1 4 5 2.75.
174
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Not e t h a t
sin x
cos x
and
a r e n ot equ al, bu t t h ey will h a ve t h e sa m e lim it a s x
x
1
a ppr oa ch es 0. Th e n ew pr oblem , lim cosx, is ver y ea sy by su bst it u t ion . Th a n ks t o t h e

x0
u n it cir cle, you kn ow cos 0 5 1, wh ich is t h e a n swer you m em or ized ba ck in t h e da y.
TIP
L Hp ita l s Rule is for use
only with ind etermina te
limits!
cos x 1
.
x
S o lu tio n : Rem em ber t h is on e? It s t h e ot h er lim it you m em or ized. Beca u se su bst it u 0
sin x
. E va lu a t e t h e n ew lim it by
t ion r esu lt s in , a pply LH pit a ls Ru le t o get lim
x 0
0
1
0
su bst it u t ion , a n d you get
, or 0. (An ot h er a n swer you pr oba bly expect ed. If you
1
didn t expect it , it pr oba bly feels like Ch r ist m a s.)
x 0
xe .
x
S o lu tio n : If you su bst it u t e, you get ` z 0, wh ich is a n in det er m in a t e for m , bu t you

n eed a fr a ct ion t o u se LH pit a l a n d h is fa bu lou s r u le. H owever, you ca n r ewr it e t h e
x
, a n d it s t im e t o wh ip ou t LH pit a l;
expr ession a s x . Su bst it u t ion n ow r esu lt s in
e
a ft er differ en t ia t in g, you get
Su bst it u t ion r esu lt s in
Ch a pt er 3.
NOTE
There is no limit to how
ma ny times L Hp ita l s Rule
c a n b e a p p lied in a
p rob lem, a s long a s ea c h
p rec ed ing limit is
ind etermina te.
lim
x
1
ex
1
1
or
, wh ich is 0, a ccor din g t o ou r specia l lim it r u les fr om
4 2x 2
u sin g LH pit a ls Ru le.
x 3x 2 + 5x 3
S o lu tio n : You sh ou ld be a ble t o get t h e a n swer sim ply by lookin g a t t h e pr oblem it s
a lim it a t in fin it y of a r a t ion a l fu n ct ion . So, you sh ou ld com pa r e t h e degr ees of t h e
n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or. Beca u se t h e degr ees a r e equ a l, t h e lim it is t h e qu ot ien t
2
of t h e lea din g coefficien t s: . You ca n ver ify t h is wit h LH pit a l. (Su bst it u t ion
3
, so LH pit a ls Ru le is a llowed.) F ir st , fin d t h e der iva t ives a s you h a ve

r esu lt s in
don e:
4x
lim
x 6x + 5
Su bst it u t ion still r esu lt s in

, so a pply LH pit a ls a secon d t im e.
4
2
=
lim
x 6
3
175
.................................................................
YOU MAY NOT USE YOUR GRAPHING CALCULATOR FOR THESE.

E va lu a t e t h e followin g lim it s.
1. lim arcsin x
x 0
2x
2. lim
x 3+x 9
49 x 2
3. lim
x + cos x
2x + 1
x 7
x 0
4. lim e
x 1
x 1
1
ln x
5. lim
x 2 cot x
x 0
1 + 1
6. lim
x x (H in t : u se n a t u r a l log)
x

1. Su bst it u t ion r esu lt s in 0 , so LH pit a l it t o get
0
lim
x 0
1
1
1 x 2 = lim
x 0
2
2 1 x2
Now, su bst it u t ion will wor k, a n d t h e a n swer is
1
.
2
2. Th e su bst it u t ion of x 5 7 r esu lt s in 0 , so u se LH pit a ls Ru le; you sh ou ld get

0
1 x 3 1 / 2 + 1
)
(
. At t h is poin t , it is n o lon ger illega l t o su bst it u t e 7; in fa ct ,
lim 2
x 7
2x
doin g so r esu lt s in t h e followin g:
1 1 +1
2 2
2 7
5
4
14
5
56
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 3
176
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
3. Wer e you fooled? LH pit a ls Ru le is n ot applicable t o t h is pr oblem , beca u se

1
su bst it u t ion r esu lt s in , so t h e lim it is equ a l t o 1. Rem em ber t o a pply LH pit a ls
1
Ru le on ly in ca ses of in det er m in a t e lim it s.
4. Dj vu a ll over a ga in ! In det er m in a t e for m 0 m a kes it s en cor e a ppea r a n ce.

0
LH pit a l is wa it in g in t h e win gs t o t a ckle t h is pr oblem like Kevin Cost n er in T h e
B od ygu ard :
lim
x 1
e x 1
1
x
lim xe x 1
x 1
Su bst it u t ion r esu lt s in 1 z 1 5 1.
5. Th is lim it is of in det er m in a t e for m 0 z `. In or der t o a pply LH pit a ls Ru le, you ll

n eed a fr a ct ion . Beca u se t a n x a n d cot x a r e r ecipr oca ls, you ca n r ewr it e t h e lim it
2
0
occu r s, so you kn ow wh a t t o do:
a s lim x . Now, t h e in det er m in a t e for m
0
x 0 tan x
NOTE
The ind etermina te form
exhib ited b y p rob lem 6 is
`
0
1`; while a nd a re, b y
0
`
fa r, the most c ommon
ind etermina te forms on the
AP test, there is a slig ht
c ha nc e you ma y see this
form or even 00 a s well.
lim
x 0
Su bst it u t ion r esu lt s in
2x
sec 2 x
0
, wh ich , of cou r se, is 0.
1
6. Th is on e is a bit t r icky, a lt h ou gh you h opefu lly r ecogn ize it fr om t h e specia l lim it s

sect ion ; t h e a n swer is su pposed t o be e. In or der t o fin d t h e a n swer, we m a ke t h e
cr a zy a ssu m pt ion t h a t t h er e is a n a n swer, a n d we ca ll it y:
x
1 + 1
y 5 lim
x
x
H er es wh er e t h e h in t com es in . Ta ke t h e n a t u r a l log of bot h sides of t h is
equ a t ion :
x
ln y 5 ln lim 1 + 1
x
x
You ca n pu ll t h a t lim it ou t of t h e n a t u r a l log (don t wor r y so m u ch a bou t wh y you
ca n ) a n d br in g t h e x expon en t down u sin g log pr oper t ies:
1
x ln 1 +
ln y 5 lim
x
x
177
.................................................................
( )
( )
1 + 1 i 12
x x
ln y 5 lim
x
1
x2
lim
ln y 5 x
1+ 1
x
F in a lly, su bst it u t ion is n ot illega l, a n d you ca n fin d t h e lim it :

ln y 5 1
H owever, you r or igin a l goa l wa s t o fin d t h e lim it expr essed a s y, so you ll h a ve t o
solve t h is equ a t ion for y by wr it in g e t o t h e power of bot h sides of t h e equ a t ion :
eln y 5 e1
y5e
PARAMETRIC DERIVATIVES (BC TOPIC ONLY)

If you a r e n ot yet con vin ced t h a t der iva t ives a r e n ot on ly u sefu l bu t a lso m or e fu n t h a n
you r cou sin la st Th a n ksgivin g wh en h e h a d t h e st om a ch flu , you n eed on ly wa it u n t il t h e
n ext ch a pt er. At t h a t poin t , you will lea r n t h a t der iva t ives ca n ser ve a ll kin ds of
pu r poses, m ost of wh ich even h a ve a pplica t ion s in t h e r ea l wor ld. Beca u se of t h e
ext r em e h a n din ess of der iva t ives, it is im por t a n t t h a t you , t h e BC st u den t , ca n
differ en t ia t e a ll kin ds of equ a t ion s; specifica lly, you sh ou ld be a ble t o fin d der iva t ives of
pola r, pa r a m et r ic, a n d vect or equ a t ion s a n d be a ble t o in t er pr et t h ese der iva t ives.
H owever, on e t h in g a t a t im e; we will st a r t wit h pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s.
dy
, of a pa r a m et r ica lly defin ed r ela t ion , we fin d t h e
In or der t o fin d t h e der iva t ive,
dx
der iva t ives of t h e x a n d y com pon en t s sepa r a t ely wit h r espect t o t a n d wr it e t h em a s
a qu ot ien t a s follows:
dy
dy
= dt
dx
dx
dt
exercises
Th is is t h e a n swer we expect ed, a lt h ou gh I don t kn ow t h a t we expect ed t h e

m a ssive a m ou n t of wor k r equ ir ed.
a nsw ers
( )
ln 1 + 1
x
ln y 5 lim
x
1
x
..............................................................................................
Th is lim it is t h e in det er m in a t e for m ` z 0, so you ca n a pply LH pit a ls Ru le a s

1
soon a s you m a ke it a fr a ct ion . If you r ewr it e x a s 1 (wh ich is n ot t oo obviou s t o
x
0
m ost people), you get t h e in det er m in a t e for m , so a pply LH pit a ls Ru le:
0
178
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
If it s a secon d der iva t ive you r e lookin g for, t h e for m u la is a lit t le differ en t . Th e
secon d der iva t ive is t h e der iva t ive of t h e fir st der iva t ive wit h r espect t o t divided by
t h e der iva t ive of t h e x com pon en t on ly wit h r espect t o t:
dy
2
Mor e sim ply, d y = dx
x
dx 2
d dy
dt dx
d2 y
=
dx
dx 2
dt
d2 y
dy
, a n d t h e secon d der iva t ive, 2 , of t h e pa r a m et dx
dx
r ic equ a t ion s x 5 3 cos , y 5 2 sin .
Ex a m p le 7: F in d t h e der iva t ive,
dy
dy
5 3sin a n d
5 2cos , a r e pr et t y sim ple t o fin d,
d
d
dy
:
a n d it s on ly a m a t t er of on e m or e st ep t o get
dx
S o lu tio n : Th e der iva t ives,
dy
dy
2 cos
= d =
dx
dx
3 sin
d
dy
2
= cot .
3
dx
In or der t o fin d t h e secon d der iva t ive, fin d t h e der iva t ive of t h e expr ession a bove, wit h
dx
r espect t o u a n d divide it by
:
d
2 csc 2
d2 y
3
=
3 sin
dx 2
d2 y
2
= csc3
9
dx 2
Ex a m p le 8: F in d t h e der iva t ive of t h e pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s in E xa m ple 7 by a

differ en t m et h od.
S o lu tio n : You ca n r ewr it e t h is set of pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s in r ect a n gu la r for m u sin g t h e
m et h od descr ibed in Ch a pt er 2. Beca u se of t h e Ma m m a Th eor em (cos 2 x 1 sin 2 x 5 1), t h e

2
2
dy
in t h is equ a t ion , you ll
equ iva len t r ect a n gu la r for m is x + y 5 1. In or der t o fin d
dx
9
4
h a ve t o u se im plicit differ en t ia t ion :
2
1 dy
x + i yi
=0
9
2 dx
dy
2x 2
= i
9 y
dx
dy
4x
=
9y
dx
179
.................................................................
dy
12 cos
=
dx
18 sin
dy
2
= cot
dx
3
wh ich m a t ch es t h e a n swer we got in E xa m ple 7.
dy
:
dx
Wh en t 5
p a ra metric eq ua tions in
Exa mp le 8 to rec ta ng ula r
form in the p rob lem set for
3e3t
= 3e3t 1 t 2
1
1 t2
1
, t h e der iva t ive is a ppr oxim a t ely 17.696, wh ich lea ds t o t h e t a n gen t lin e
2
equ a t ion of
1
5 17.696 x
, or
2
y 2 8.342 5 17.696 (x 2 .707)
y e
NOTE
We c onverted the
Ex a m p le 9: F in d t h e equ a t ion of t h e t a n gen t lin e t o t h e pa r a m et r ic cu r ve defin ed by

1
.
x 5 a r csin t, y 5 e3t , wh en t 5
2
S o lu tio n : As a lwa ys, we n eed a poin t a n d a slope in or der t o fin d t h e equ a t ion of a
3
3
1
, we get t h e cor r espon din g poin t (a r csin 1 , e 2 , or , e 2 . (You
lin e. Wh en t 5
4
2
2
m a y u se you r ca lcu la t or t o fin d t h e cor r espon din g decim a ls, bu t r em em ber n ot t o
r ou n d a n yt h in g u n t il t h e pr oblem is com plet ely over.) To fin d t h e slope of t h e t a n gen t
dy
:
lin e, you n eed t o ca lcu la t e
dx
dy
=
dx
..............................................................................................
Beca u se you kn ow t h e va lu es of x a n d y, su bst it u t e t h em in t o
p a ra metric eq ua tions in
Cha p ter 2. Chec k b a c k if
you c a nnot rememb er how
to c onvert.
TIP
1
3
2
=2
is eq uiva lent to
=2;
2
the la tter is ra tiona lized .
Vect or-va lu ed equ a t ion s a r e ver y sim ila r t o pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s. Beca u se vect or
equ a t ion s a r e a lr ea dy defin ed in t er m s of x a n d y com pon en t s, we follow t h e sa m e
dy
. H owever, vect or pr oblem s som et im es r equ ir e u s t o fin d vectors
pr ocedu r e t o fin d
dx
t h a t r epr esen t r a t e of ch a n ge. Th is t opic is discu ssed in det a il in t h e n ext ch a pt er in
t h e sect ion en t it led Mot ion in t h e P la n e.
180
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 4
YOU MAY USE YOUR GRAPHING CALCULATOR ONLY FOR PROBLEM 5.

1. Wh a t is t h e der iva t ive of t h e pa r a m et r ic cu r ve defin ed by x 5 t a n t, y 5 cot 2 t?
2. F in d t h e der iva t ive of t h e pa r a m et r ica lly defin ed cu r ve x 5 1 1 2t, y 5 2 2 t 2

u sin g t wo differ en t m et h ods.
TIP
Your c a lc ula tor c a n find
p oints on a p a ra metric
g ra p h b a sed on t a nd
dy
dy dx
, , a nd
.
c a lc ula te
dt dt
dx
Instruc tions a re g iven in the
tec hnolog y sec tion a t the
end of the c ha p ter.
TIP
Even thoug h p rob lems 1
throug h 4 would b e
c a lc ula tor-ina c tive
q uestions, you ma y wa nt to
use your c a lc ula tor to
c hec k your work a s you
p rog ress. Ma ke sure you
d on t rely on the c a lc ula tor
to c omp lete these.
2
3. F in d d y2 wh en t 5 2 for t h e pa r a m et r ic cu r ve defin ed by t h e equ a t ion s x 5 e3t ,
dx
y 5 t 2 e3t .
4. If a pa r a m et r ic cu r ve is defin ed by
t3
x =
+ 3t 2 + 5t 11 a n d
3
t3 t2
2t + 5
3 2
(a ) At wh a t poin t (s) does t h e cu r ve h a ve h or izon t a l t a n gen t lin es?
(b) At wh a t poin t (s) is t h e cu r ve n on differ en t ia ble?
y=
5. Th e posit ion of a cr a zed liza r d, a s it r u n s left a n d r igh t a lon g t h e t op of a h ot br ick

wa ll, is defin ed pa r a m et r ica lly a s x 5 2et , y 5 t 3 4t 1 7 for t 0 (t is in secon ds).
Ra n k t h e followin g va lu es of t fr om lea st t o gr ea t est in t er m s of h ow fa st t h e
liza r d wa s m ovin g a t t h ose m om en t s: t 5 0, .5, 1, 2, 3.

1. Beca u se
dy
dx
5 csc2 t a n d
5 sec2 t,
dt
dt
dy
dy
= dt
2. M eth od On e:
dx
dx
dt
dy
csc 2 t
cos2 t
=
=
dx
sec 2 t
sin 2 t
dy
= cot 2 t
dx
dy
2t
=
= t
dx
2
181
.................................................................
y 5 2 t2
y 52
1 2
x 2x + 1
4
Now, t a ke t h e der iva t ive wit h r espect t o x:

1
1
dy
52 x1
dx
2
2
Th is a n swer doesn t seem t o m a t ch t h e on e a bove, bu t it a ct u a lly does; t h e
differ en ce is t h a t t h is solu t ion is in t er m s of x, wh er ea s t h e pr ecedin g solu t ion
wa s in t er m s of t. To see t h a t t h ey a r e equ a l, r em em ber t h a t x 5 1 1 2t a n d
su bst it u t e:
1
1
dy
5 2 ~1 1 2t! 1
dx
2
2
1
1
dy
5 2 2t 1 5 2t
dx
2
2
3. F ir st , you n eed t o fin d dy . Don t for get t o u se t h e P r odu ct Ru le wh en differ en t idx
a t in g t 2 e3t :
dy 3t 2 + 2t
2
=
= t2 + t
dx
3
3
dy
d dy
:
by
dt dx
dt
2t + 2
d2 y
5
3
2
dx
3e3t
Now, t o fin d t h e secon d der iva t ive, divide
Th e fin a l a n swer is t h e der iva t ive eva lu a t ed a t t 5 2:
4+2
3 . It s u gly, bu t it s
3e 6
r igh t . Mor e sim plifica t ion ca n be don e, bu t it s n ot n ecessa r y a n d n ot r ecom m en ded.

4. (a ) F ir st fin d dy a s you h a ve don e n u m er ou s t im es a lr ea dy:
dx
dy
t2 t 2
5
dx t 2 + 6t + 5
dy (t 2 ) (t + 1)
=
dx (t + 5 ) (t + 1)
exercises
dy 3e3tt 2 + 2te3t
=
dx
3e3t
a nsw ers
Begin by solvin g eit h er x or y for t a n d su bst it u t in g it in t o t h e ot h er equ a t ion .

x 1
, a n d you ca n su bst it u t e:
Beca u se x 5 1 1 2t, t 5
2
..............................................................................................
M eth od Tw o: Con vert to rectan gu lar form first
182
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
H or izon t a l t a n gen t lin es h a ve a slope of 0; t h e der iva t ive will on ly h a ve a

41 5
va lu e of 0 wh en t 5 2. Th e poin t t h a t cor r espon ds wit h t 5 2 is , .
3 3
(b) dy does n ot exist wh en t 5 1 or 5, beca u se bot h va lu es ca u se a 0 in t h e
dx
den om in a t or. Wh ile t h e gr a ph in g ca lcu la t or sh ows a defin it e sh a r p poin t
wh en t 5 1,
t h e t a r get lin e is ver t ica l wh en t 525. Th e poin t s cor r espon din g t o t h ese
40 , 37 (for t 5 1) a n d 8 , 235 (for t 5 5).
va lu es a r e
3
3 6
6
5. Th e der iva t ive of t h e pa r a m et r ic cu r ve will be
NOTE
Sp eed is d efined a s the
a b solute va lue of veloc ity.
dy 3t 2 4
dx 5 2et
Ra t h er t h a n su bst it u t e ea ch t va lu e in by h a n d, u se you r ca lcu la t or t o eva lu a t e
dy
dy
(.5) .986,
(0) 5 2,
ea ch . You sh ou ld get t h e followin g va lu es:
dx
dx
dy
dy
dy
(1) .184,
(2) .541, a n d
(3) .573. Rem em ber t h a t t h e der iva t ive is
dx
dx
dx
t h e r a t e of ch a n ge, so t h ese n u m ber s a r e t h e r a t e of ch a n ge of t h e posit ion of t h e
liza r d, or it s velocit y. Nega t ive velocit y in dica t es t h a t t h e liza r d is r u n n in g t o t h e
left , posit ive velocit y in dica t es r u n n in g t o t h e r igh t . H owever, wh en speed is t h e
issu e, dir ect ion does n ot m a t t er, so t h e liza r d wa s m ovin g t h e fa st est a t t 5 0. Th e
cor r ect or der is: t 5 0, t 5 .5, t 5 3, t 5 2, t 5 1.
POLAR DERIVATIVES (BC TOPIC ONLY)

On e of t h e defin in g qu a lit ies of pola r equ a t ion s is t h eir sim ila r it y t o pa r a m et r ic
equ a t ion s. Rem em ber t h a t a n y pola r fu n ct ion r 5 f(u) ca n be expr essed pa r a m et r ica lly
by x 5 rcos u, y 5 rsin u. Th er efor e, you differ en t ia t e pola r equ a t ion s u sin g essen t ia lly
t h e sa m e m et h od ou t lin ed for pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s:
dy
dy d
dx 5 dx
d
Th e der iva t ive of t h e y com pon en t divided by t h e der iva t ive of t h e x com pon en t , bot h
wit h r espect t o u, a s bot h sh ou ld con t a in us.
Th e on ly differ en ce bet ween t h is a n d t h e ot h er for m u la is t h a t t h e in depen den t

va r ia ble is in st ea d of t, t h e t ypica l pa r a m et er in pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s. Wh ile t h e
m a t h em a t ics in volved is n ot t oo difficu lt , t h er e a r e a lot of pla ces t o m a ke m ist a kes;
183
.................................................................
x 5 (2 1 3cos u)cos u
y 5 (2 1 3cos u)sin u
NOTE
c os 2u 5 c os2u 2 sin 2u
x 5 2cos u 1 3cos u
y 5 2sin u 1 3cos u sin u

dx
5 2sin u 6cos u sin u. You ll h a ve t o u se t h e P r odu ct
Now, differ en t ia t e t o get
du
dy
:
Ru le t o fin d
du
dy
5 2cos u 1 3(cos 2 u sin 2 u)
du
dy
5 2cos u 1 3cos 2u
du
dy
To fin d t h e der iva t ive a t u 5 , su bst it u t e t h a t in t o

:
3
dx
dy
2 cos + 3 cos 2
= r ( ) =
dx
2 sin 6 cos sin
r =
3
..............................................................................................
t h is is t h e on ly t h in g t h a t m a kes pola r differ en t ia t ion t r icky. Ma ke su r e t o pr oceed

slowly a n d ca u t iou sly.
Ex a m p le 10: F in d t h e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e t o r 5 2 1 3cos u if u 5 .

3
S o lu tio n : F ir st , expr ess r pa r a m et r ica lly a s x 5 rcosu a n d y 5 rsin u:
2i1 3
2 2
3 3 3
2
r .106
3
No pa r t icu la r st ep of t h is pr oblem is difficu lt , bu t a sin gle in cor r ect sign cou ld t h r ow
off a ll you r ca lcu la t ion s.
Ex a m p le 11: At wh a t va lu es of , 0 , does r 5 2cos (3 ) h a ve ver t ica l or

2
h or izon t a l t a n gen t lin es?
S o lu tio n : Qu est ion s r ega r din g t a n gen t lin es lea d you r igh t t o t h e der iva t ive; begin
wit h pa r a m et r ic r epr esen t a t ion : x 5 2cos (3 ) cos , y 5 2cos (3 ) sin ) . Now t a ke
dy
; ea ch will r equ ir e t h e
t h e der iva t ive of ea ch wit h r espect t o in or der t o bu ild
dx
P r odu ct Ru le:
a c c ord ing to trig onometric

d oub le a ng le formula s.
Chec k Cha p ter 2 if you
d on t rememb er these.
TIP
dy
dx
a nd
a re 0 a t the
du
du
sa me time, you c a nnot
If
d ra w a ny c onc lusions
c onc erning horizonta l a nd
dx
5 2cos (3 u) sin u cos u 6sin (3 u)
du
vertic a l a symp totes.
dy
5 2cos (3 u) cos u sin u 6sin (3 u)
du
Rem em ber, h or izon t a l t a n gen t s occu r wh en t h e n u m er a t or of t h e slope is 0 (bu t t h e
den om in a t or isn t ), a n d ver t ica l t a n gen t s occu r wh en t h e den om in a t or of t h e slope is 0
(bu t t h e n u m er a t or isn t ). Use you r ca lcu la t or t o solve t h ese equ a t ion s (bu t you ll h a ve
dx
equ a ls 0 a t 5 0, .912, a n d ; t h e
t o set it ba ck in t o r ect a n gu la r m ode fir st ).
d
2
dy
equ a ls 0 a t u
der iva t ive will n ot exist a t t h ese poin t s du e t o ver t ica l t a n gen t lin es.
d
5 .284 a n d 1.103; t h e der iva t ive will be zer o for t h ese va lu es, in dica t in g h or izon t a l
t a n gen t lin es.
184
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 5
YOU MAY USE YOUR GRAPHING CALCULATOR FOR PROBLEMS 3 AND 4.

1. If r(u) 5 1 1 sin u, wh er e is r 8(u) defin ed on [0,2p]?
2. F in d t h e equ a t ion of t h e t a n gen t lin e t o r 5 t a n u wh en u 5 11 .
6
3. If r(u) 5 3 sin (3u), a t wh a t va lu es of u is r 8(u) 5 1?

4. F in d t h e slopes of t h e t a n gen t lin es t o r 5 a z sin (2u) (a . 0) a t t h e fou r poin t s
fu r t h est fr om t h e or igin (a s in dica t ed in t h e gr a ph below).

1. F ir st , con ver t t h e pola r equ a t ion t o r ect a n gu la r equ a t ion s u sin g t h e for m u la s
x = r(u)cosu a n d y = r(u)sin u. We h a ve r(u) = 1 + sin u. So,
x = r ( ) cos
= (1 + sin ) cos
= cos + sin cos
y = r ( ) sin
= (1 + sin ) sin
= sin + sin 2
185
.................................................................
sin u 1 (1 2sin 2 u) 5 0
2sin 2 u 1 sin u 1 5 0
(2sin u 1)(sin u 1 1) 5 0
5
3
u 5 , , and
2
6 6
Th e fir st t wo va lu es cor r espon d t o ver t ica l t a n gen t lin es, a n d t h e fin a l va lu e
cor r espon ds t o a sh a r p poin t on t h e gr a ph , (a s sh own in t h e gr a ph below).
sin . Use t h ese t o fin d t h e r ect a n gu la r coor din a t es of t h e poin t of t a n gen cy

11
11
(wh en 5
). If you plu g 5
in t o bot h , you get t h e coor din a t e
6
6
1
1
,
2 2 3
. Now, you n eed t o fin d t h e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e. To do so, fin d
t h e der iva t ives of x a n d y (u sin g P r odu ct Ru le for y8):

x8 5 cos
y8 5 t a n cos 1 sin sec2
exercises
2. In pa r a m et r ic for m , r 5 t a n becom es x 5 t a n cos 5 sin , a n d y 5 t a n
a nsw ers
sin u 1 cos 2u 5 0
..............................................................................................
dy
5 cos u 1 2sin u cos
du
dx
dy
dx
5 sin u 1 cos 2u. Th e der iva t ive,
u and
, will be defin ed wh er ever
0,
d
du
dx
so set it equ a l t o zer o t o fin d t h ese poin t s:
Now, ca lcu la t e t h e der iva t ives of t h e x- a n d y-com pon en t s:
186
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Th er efor e,
y 11
dy 11
=
5
x 6
dx 6
1 i 3 1 i4
2 3
3 2
3
2
1 2
2 3
3
2
7 2
7
i
=
6 3
3 3
Th er efor e, t h e equ a t ion of t h e t a n gen t lin e is a s follows:
7
1
x+
2
2 3
3 3
Th a t wa s t r u ly a n u gly pr oblem , bu t doin g it wit h ou t you r ca lcu la t or t ou gh en ed
you u p som ea dm it it .
y
3. On ce a ga in , it is im por t a n t t o expr ess t h e pola r equ a t ion in pa r a m et r ic for m :

x 5 3 cos u 2 sin 3u cos u, y 5 3 sin u 2 sin 3u sin u. Ta ke t h e der iva t ives of ea ch
dy
y
5
below:
t o get
dx
x
TIP
Even thoug h your g ra p hs
a re d one in p ola r mod e, a ll
eq ua tion-solving with the
c a lc ula tor (using
x-interc ep ts) req uires tha t
you switc h b a c k to
rec ta ng ula r mod e first.
dy
3 cos 3 sin cos 3 cos sin 3
=
dx
3 sin + sin sin 3 3 cos 3 cos
You wa n t t o fin d wh en t h a t big, u gly t h in g equ a ls on e, so ca r efu lly t ype it in t o
you r ca lcu la t or a n d solve t h a t equ a t ion .
Th er e a r e fou r solu t ion s, a ccor din g t o t h e gr a ph below, a n d t h ey a r e 5 1.834,
2.699, 3.142 (or p), a n d 5.678.
187
.................................................................
a r csin (sin (2 u)) 5 a r csin (61)
3 5 7
, , ,
2 2 2 2
3 5 7
u5 , , ,
4 4 4 4
2u5
So, you n eed t o fin d t h e der iva t ives a t t h ese va lu es. Not e t h a t t h e der iva t ives will
n ot ch a n ge r ega r dless of as va lu e. To con vin ce you r self of t h is, you m a y wa n t t o
dr a w a cou ple of gr a ph s wit h differ en t a va lu es. Th er es n o sh a m e in u sin g you r
ca lcu la t or t o eva lu a t e t h ese der iva t ives sin ce t h is is a ca lcu la t or-a ct ive qu est ion .
(If you r e n ot su r e h ow t o do t h a t , m a ke su r e t o r ea d t h e t ech n ology sect ion a t t h e
3
7
and
, a n d t h e der iva t ive is
en d of t h e ch a pt er.) Th e der iva t ive is 1 for 5
4
4
5
and
.
1 for 5
4
4
E va lu a t in g pola r a n d pa r a m et r ic der iva t ives a r en t t h e m ost difficu lt t opics you ll

en cou n t er in AP Ca lcu lu s. H owever, wh en t h e h ea t is on du r in g t h e AP t est a n d you r e
sea r ch in g for t h a t n eedle-in -a -h a yst a ck er r or you com m it t ed t h a t is ca u sin g you r
a n swer t o be m or t a lly a n d in explica bly wr on g, t h ese der iva t ives ca n be pr et t y difficu lt .
As you h a ve seen in t h is ch a pt er, even r ela t ively sim ple pola r equ a t ion s ca n h a ve lon g
a n d yu cky der iva t ives. Th er e is good n ewsyou ca n u se you r ca lcu la t or t o fin d t h ese
der iva t ives, a n d t h e pr ocess is ver y sim ple. To pr ove it t o you , well r evisit E xa m ple 9
fr om ea r lier in t h e ch a pt er, wit h ou r n ew ca lcu la t or bu ddies t u cked sn u gly in ou r swea t y
pa lm s.
Ex a m p le 12: F in d t h e equ a t ion of t h e t a n gen t lin e t o t h e pa r a m et r ic cu r ve defin ed by
1
.
x 5 a r csin t, y 5 e3t , wh en t 5
2
S o lu tio n : Ou r over a ll a ppr oa ch will r em a in t h e sa m e. We st ill n eed a poin t a n d a
slope in or der t o con st r u ct a lin e. Ma ke su r e you r ca lcu la t or is in pa r a m et r ic m ode
([Mode]P a r ) a n d gr a ph t h e equ a t ion . (You m a y wa n t t o a dju st t h e gr a ph s
[win dow] t o see it bet t er ; I u sed a win dow of x 5 [2,2] a n d y 5 [1,15].) Th e poin t of
1
. To fin d t h is poin t in
t a n gen cy occu r s (a ccor din g t o t h e pr oblem ) wh en t 5
2
1
. Th e poin t of
r ect a n gu la r coor din a t es, pr ess [2 n d ][Tr a ce]va lu e a n d in pu t t 5
2
t a n gen cy is (.707,8.342), ju st a s we got pr eviou sly.
exercises
TECHNOLOGY: FINDING POLAR AND PARAMETRIC

DERIVATIVES WITH YOUR CALCULATOR (BC TOPIC ONLY)
a nsw ers
a z sin (2 u) 5 6a
..............................................................................................
4. You h a ve t o decide wh a t poin t s will be t h e fu r t h est fr om t h e or igin ; in ot h er

wor ds, wh a t s t h e la r gest a z sin (2 u) ca n be? To st a r t wit h , sin (2 u) ca n be n o
la r ger t h a n 1 a n d n o sm a ller t h a n 1 (t h e r a n ge of sin x). Th er efor e, t h e gr a ph of
a z sin (2 u) ca n be n o fu r t h er t h a n a z 1 5 a u n it s fr om t h e or igin . (Not e t h a t a
dist a n ce of a fr om t h e or igin is t h e sa m e, ju st in t h e opposit e dir ect ion .) Set t h e
equ a t ion equ a l t o 6a t o fin d ou t wh ich va lu es of u give t h ese m a xim u m dist a n ces:
188
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
1
, go ba ck t o t h e [Ca lc] m en u a n d t h is t im e
2
1
dy
for t a s you did la st t im e, a n d
5 17.696.
dx
2
In or der t o fin d t h e der iva t ive wh en t 5
NOTE
Your c a lc ula tor c a n find
p oints of ta ng enc y for p ola r
g ra p hs, too. This (like
everything else) is a lso
found in the [Ca lc ] menu.
select
dy
. E n t er
dx
Th e equ a t ion of t h e t a n gen t lin e, t h en , is

y 8.342 5 17.696(x .707)
P ola r der iva t ives a r e ju st a s ea sy wit h t h e ca lcu la t or. Wh os u p for r er u n s? Let s en joy
E xa m ple 10 a secon d t im e, t h is t im e wit h ou r lil com pu t in g bu ddy by ou r side.
.
3
S o lu tio n : Ma ke su r e t o set t h e ca lcu la t or t o P ola r m ode ([Mode]pol) a n d gr a ph
t h e equ a t ion . Beca u se t h is gr a ph h a s t r igon om et r ic equ a t ion s, it s a good idea t o
ch oose [Zoom ]Zt r ig (win dow set t in gs t h a t a r e fr ien dly t o t r igon om et r ic gr a ph s).
Mu ch like E xa m ple 11, you pr oceed t o t h e [Ca lc] m en u ([2 n d ][Tr a ce]) a n d select
dy
, t h e der iva t ive. Th e ca lcu la t or t h en pr om pt s you t o in pu t u; t ype in

(a s sh own
3
dx
dy
.115.
below), a n d t h e der iva t ive a ppea r s a s if by m a gic:
dx
Ex a m p le 13: F in d t h e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e t o r 5 2 1 3cos if 5
It s wor t h r epea t in g t h a t you m u st kn ow h ow t o ca lcu la t e poin t s of t a n gen cy a n d

der iva t ives wit h ou t a ca lcu la t or, a lt h ou gh n o on e wou ld a r gu e t h a t t h e ca lcu la t or
doesn t m a ke it sign ifica n t ly ea sier.
189
.................................................................
YOU MAY USE A GRAPHING CALCULATOR FOR PROBLEMS 4 THROUGH 8 ONLY.

1. Use a lin ea r a ppr oxim a t ion a t x 5
2
1
t o est im a t e m (.502) if m (x) 5 2x 3 3x .
2
x
3x 2 + 2x + 5 2
.
(5x 7 )
dy
7
at u 5
for t h e pola r equ a t ion r 5 sin u cos u.
*3. F in d
6
dx
dy
1
5
for t h e pa r a m et r ic fu n ct ion defin ed by x 5 2 1
*4. At wh a t va lu es of t does
2
dx
2
t , y 5 3 t?
2. E va lu a t e lim
x
*5. If f(x) 5 2t a n x 1 x 3 a n d g(x) is a con t in u ou s, or igin -sym m et r ic fu n ct ion t h a t

con t a in s t h e followin g va lu es:
E st im a t e lim
x 0
f (x )
.
g (x )
*6. F in d t h e equ a t ion of t h e ver t ica l t a n gen t lin e (in r ect a n gu la r for m ) t o t h e cu r ve
defin ed by t h e pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s x 5 e t sin t, y 5 2t 1 1, 0 t , 2p.
7. If k (x) 5 2x 3 1 x 1 2, wh a t is t h e equ a t ion of t h e t a n gen t lin e t o k 1 (x) wh en x 5
4.3?
*8. At wh a t r ect a n gu la r coor din a t es do t h e t a n gen t lin es t o r 5 sin 2 u a t u =
p
and
6
2p
in t er sect ? (Not e: An swer t h is a s you wou ld a fr ee r espon se qu est ion . Sh ow
5
a ll wor k, a n d m a ke su r e t o in clu de t h e set u p for a n y a n swer s you give ba sed on
ca lcu la t or wor k.)
u=
2
9. J a m e s D ia bo lic a l Ch a lle n g e : Let f(x) 5 xx , x 0.
e
(a ) E va lu a t e f 1 (0).
(b) F in d (f 1 ) 8 (0).
*(c ) Wh a t is lim f ( x ) ?
x
*a B C-on ly qu estion .
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 6
190
.................................................................
..............................................................................................

1. We h a ve t o begin by fin din g t h e equ a t ion of t h e t a n gen t lin e t o m a t x 5 1 .
2
1
:
We det er m in e t h e poin t of t a n gen cy by ca lcu la t in g m
2
SD
13
2 2 = 1 = 8
1
1
8
8
1
Th e poin t of t a n gen cy, t h er efor e, is , 8 . Th e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e will, a s

2
a lwa ys, be given by t h e der iva t ive, so u se t h e Qu ot ien t Ru le t o fin d it :
m ( x ) =
)( )
x 3 ( 4 x 3) 2 x 2 3 x 3 x 2
m ( x ) =
(x )
3 2
2 x 4 + 6 x 3
x
2 x + 6
x3
1 1 + 6 5
m =
= = 40
1
1
2
8
8
1
Th er efor e, t h e equ a t ion of t h e t a n gen t lin e is y + 8 = 40 x .

2
La st st ep: Su bst it u t e x 5 .502 in t o t h e t a n gen t lin e t o get t h e lin ea r
a ppr oxim a t ion :
y 1 8 5 40 (.502 .5)
y 1 8 5 .08
y 5 7.92
(If you plu g t h e a n swer in t o t h e or igin a l equ a t ion , m
m a t ion is r ela t ively close.)
SD
1
2
5 8, so t h is a ppr oxi-
2. LH pit a ls Ru le is t oo cu m ber som e for t h is pr oblem . Not ice t h a t you h a ve a

x = x in t h e n u m er a t or a n d den om ir a t ion a l fu n ct ion wit h t h e sa m e degr ee
n a t or. Th u s, t h e lim it a t in fin it y will be t h e r a t io of t h e n u m er a t or s a n d den om in a t or s lea din g coefficien t s: 3 .
5
191
.................................................................
x8 5 2cos u sin 2 u 1 cos 3 u

y8 5 sin 2 u (cos u)8 1 cos u (sin 2 u)8
y8 5 sin 3 u 1 2cos 2 usin u
dy sin 3 + 2 cos 2 sin

=
dx 2 cos sin 2 + cos 3
Now, eva lu a t e
dy
7
for 5
:
6
dx
1 +2 3 1
8
4
2
3 1
27
2
4
8
Of cou r se, t h er e is n o n eed t o sim plify t h is a n swer, a n d doin g so dr a st ica lly
in cr ea ses you r ch a n ces of m a kin g a m ist a ke. If you sim plifed fu r t h er a n d wa n t t o
kn ow if you got it r igh t , u se a ca lcu la t or t o eva lu a t e you r expr ession ; it sh ou ld
equ a l 2.887.
dy
=
dx
4. F ir st , fin d dy :
dx
dy 1
=
dx 2 t
Clea r ly, t h e der iva t ive will equ a l
1
wh en ever t 5 21.
2
5. If you t r y t o eva lu a t e t h e lim it via su bst it u t ion , you will get in det er m in a t e for m
f (x )
0
, so you sh ou ld defa u lt t o LH pit a ls Ru le a n d fin d lim
. Sim ple differ en x 0 g ( x )
0
t ia t ion yields f 8(x) 5 2sec2 x 1 3x 2 , so f 8(0) 5 2 z 1 1 0 5 2. To com plet e t h e
pr oblem , h owever, you ll a lso n eed g8(0), a n d t h a t will r equ ir e som e est im a t ion .
Beca u se g is or igin sym m et r ic, you a u t om a t ica lly kn ow t h a t g(.1) 5 .492 a n d
g(.2) 5 .942. You sh ou ld u se on e of t h e followin g seca n t lin es t o est im a t e t h e
der iva t ive: fr om x 5 .1 t o .1, fr om x 5 .1 t o 0, or fr om 0 t o .1. If you ch oose t h e
0 .493
= 4.93 .
seca n t lin e fr om .1 t o 0, t h e seca n t slope is
0 ( .1)
f (x )
2
=
.406
Th er efor e, lim
x 0 g ( x )
4.93
exercises
dy y
=
dx x
a nsw ers
x8 5 sin u(cos 2 u)8 1 cos 2 u (sin u)8
..............................................................................................
3. In or der t o fin d dy , you fir st m u st expr ess t h e equ a t ion pa r a m et r ica lly: x 5 sin u
dx
y
dy
2
2
is ba sica lly
. You ll n eed t o u se t h e
cos u, y 5 sin u cosu. Rem em ber t h a t
x
dx
P r odu ct Ru le t o get x8 a n d y8:
192
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
6. Th e slopes of a ll t a n gen t lin es, ver t ica l or n ot , a r e fu r n ish ed by dy , so begin by

dx
fin din g it :
NOTE
You need only worry a b out
(c os t 1 sin t) b eing eq ua l
to 0 in p rob lem 6 b ec a use
e t never eq ua ls 0 (the
ra ng e of e x is y . 0).
CAUTION
You c a nnot use the
[2nd ][Tra c e]
intersec tion fea ture of
your c a lc ula tor on the
free-resp onse p ortion of the
test, so use the eq ua tion
solving fea ture of the
c a lc ula tor instea d .
2
dy
=
dx e t cos t + e t sin t
A ver t ica l a sym pt ot e will occu r wh en t h e den om in a t or is 0 bu t t h e n u m er a t or is
n ot . Th is n u m er a t or is a lwa ys 2, so you n eed on ly det er m in e wh er e t h e den om in a t or is 0. You ca n u se you r ca lcu la t or t o solve t h is, bu t t h e pr oblem is pr et t y ea sy
wit h ou t t h e ca lcu la t or :
et (cos t 1 sin t) 5 0
cos t 1 sin t 5 0
cos t 5 sin t
3 7
t=
,
4 4
H owever, t h is is n ot t h e a n swer t o t h e qu est ion . In st ea d, you n eed t o give t h e
r ect a n gu la r equ a t ion s of t h e ver t ica l t a n gen t lin es t h a t occu r a t t h ese va lu es of t.
To do so, u se t h e [2 n d ][Tr a ce]va lu e fu n ct ion of you r ca lcu la t or. Wh en t 5
3
7
, t h e cor r espon din g r ect a n gu la r coor din a t e is (7.460,5.712); wh en t 5
, the
4
4
cor r espon din g coor din a t e is (2172.641,11.996). Th er efor e, t h e equ a t ion s of t h e
ver t ica l t a n gen t lin es a r e x 5 7.460 a n d x 5 172.641.
7. You ll n eed, a s a lwa ys, a poin t a n d a slope t o for m a lin e. You ca n n ot fin d k 21 (x)
a lgebr a ica lly, so you ll n eed t o u se t h e Ma gn u m P.I. for m u la t o fin d t h e der iva t ive
of t h e in ver se fu n ct ion a n d, h en ce, t h e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e:
( k ) ( 4.3) = k k
(
1
(k 21 )8(4.3) =
1
1
( 4.3))
1
k (.8900107776 )
( k ) (4.3) .174
1
Now t h a t you h a ve t h e poin t a n d t h e slope, it is a t r ivia l pu r su it t o wr it e t h e

equ a t ion of t h e lin e (a lt h ou gh I a lwa ys h a ve t r ou ble wit h t h ose en t er t a in m en t
qu est ion s):
y .890 5 .174(x 4.3)
dy
8. Use t h e ca lcu la t or s [2 n d ][Tr a ce]va lu e a n d [2 n d ][Tr a ce] fu n ct ion s t o
dx
ca lcu la t e t h e poin t s of t a n gen cy a n d der iva t ives for ea ch lin e. Th e t a n gen t lin es
sh ou ld be
y .125 5 1.0392309 (x .21650635), for u 5 , a n d

6
2
y .8602387 5 1.235663(x .2795085), for u 5
5
To fin d t h e in t er sect ion of t h ese lin es, solve bot h for y a n d set t h em equ a l t o ea ch
ot h er :
1.0392309(x .21650635) 1 .125 5 1.235663(x .2795085) 1 .8602387
193
.................................................................
x 5 .57392439
Su bst it u t e t h is va lu e in t o eit h er lin es equ a t ion t o get t h e cor r espon din g y-va lu e,
a n d t h e r esu lt in g coor din a t e is (.574, .496).
9. (a ) To fin d f 21 a t a specific x, set f equ a l t o x a n d solve:
x2
=0
ex
x2 = 0
x =0
Th er efor e, f 1 (0) 5 0.
(b) Th is r equ ir es t h e in ver se fu n ct ion der iva t ive for m u la . Apply t h e in for m a t ion fr om 9(a ), a n d t h e for m u la becom es
( f ) ( 0 ) = f 1( 0 )
1
If you fin d f 8(x) wit h t h e Qu ot ien t Ru le, you get
f ( x ) =
2 xe x x 2 e x
2x x2
ex
Th er efor e, f 8(0) 5 0; su bst it u t e t h is in t o t h e in ver se fu n ct ion der iva t ive
for m u la :
1
f 1 ( 0 ) =
0
21
(f )8(0) is u n defin ed; t h e in ver se fu n ct ion is n ot differ en t ia ble t h er e du e t o
a ver t ica l t a n gen t lin e.
(c ) To fin d t h is lim it , you m u st a pply LH pit a ls Ru le t wice (du e t o t h e pr es`
en ce of in det er m in a t e for m ):
`
( )
lim
lim
x
2x
ex
2
2
=
=0
ex
exercises
f ( x ) =
e2x
a nsw ers
1.0392309(x .21650635) 1 .125 1 1.235663(x .2795085) .8602387 5 0
..............................................................................................
You ca n n ow solve t h e equ a t ion on you r ca lcu la t or by set t in g t h e a bove equ a t ion
equ a l t o 0 a n d fin din g t h e r oot :
194
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
SUMMING IT UP
Th e P ower, P r odu ct , Qu ot ien t , a n d Ch a in Ru les a llow you t o fin d t h e der iva t ive in
a lm ost a n y expr ession or equ a t ion you will en cou n t er.
In ver se fu n ct ion s a r e h elpfu l in t h eir power t o ca u se ot h er fu n ct ion s t o disa ppea r.
Lin ea r a ppr oxim a t ion s a r e t h e fir st st ep in a m or e com plica t ed pr ocess kn own a s

E u ler s Met h od. Wh er ea s a ppr oxim a t ion s a r e on bot h t h e AB a n d BC t est s,
E u ler s Met h od a ppea r s on ly on t h e BC t est .
Wh en a pplyin g LH opit a ls Ru le, fin d t h e der iva t ives of t h e n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or sepa r a t ely. Do n ot u se t h e Qu ot ien t Ru le t o fin d t h e der iva t ive of t h e
en t ir e fr a ct ion .
LH opit a ls Ru le is for u se on ly wit h in det er m in a t e lim it s.
E ven t h ou gh you r gr a ph s a r e don e in pola r m ode, a ll equ a t ion -solvin g wit h t h e

ca lcu la t or (u sin g x-in t er cept s) r equ ir es t h a t you swit ch ba ck t o r ect a n gu la r m ode
fir st .
Ap p lic a tions of the

Deriva tive
....................................................................................
Rela ted ra tes

Ha nds-On Activity 6.1: Rolles a nd mea n va lue theorems
Ha nds-On Activity 6.2: The first deriva tive test
Conca vity
Motion
Motion in the pla ne (BC topic only)
Optimiza tion
Technology: Modeling a pa rticles movement with a
Summing it up
By t h is t im e, you a r e begin n in g t o for m a n opin ion a bou t der iva t ives. E it h er
you like t h em or you don t . H opefu lly, t h e t wo of you a r e a t lea st on spea kin g
t er m s. If you a r e, you a r e goin g t o be ver y im pr essed by t h e t h in gs der iva t ives
ca n do. Th ey ca n even h elp you in th e real w orld , wh ich som et im es su r pr ises
m a t h st u den t s. Befor e we get in t o t h ese t opics, it s t im e t o decide wh et h er or
n ot you a r e a der iva t ive fa n .
You Might Love Deriva tives If...
You h a ve a n over sized foa m h a n d t h a t r ea ds Der iva t ives #1!
Wh en you r fr ien d flipped a coin t h e ot h er da y, you sa id, Th a t s wh a t I ca ll

a r a t e of ch an ge. An d n o on e la u gh ed bu t you .
You love it wh en people go off on t a n gen t s.
You t ook u p skiin g so you cou ld lea r n m or e a bou t slopes.
You lou dly com m en t ed a t t h e gr ocer y st or e t h e ot h er da y t h a t , Th is

expr ess lin e looks m or e like a lin ea r approxim ation .
You a lwa ys r espon d t o ch a in let t er s beca u se t h ey r em in d you of t h e Ch a in

Ru le.
You h a ve a gia n t t a t t oo of t h e Qu ot ien t Ru le on you r ba ck.
RELATED RATES
You a lr ea dy kn ow t h a t a fu n ct ion or equ a t ion sh ows a clea r r ela t ion sh ip
bet ween t h e va r ia bles in volved. F or exa m ple, in t h e lin ea r equ a t ion y 5 3x 2 2,
ea ch or der ed pa ir h a s a n x t h a t is 2 less t h a n 3 t im es a s la r ge a s y. Wh a t you m a y
195
c ha p ter 6
OVERVIEW
196
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
n ot kn ow is t h a t wh en you fin d t h e der iva t ive of su ch a n equ a t ion wit h r espect t o tim e,
you fin d a n ot h er r ela t ion sh ipon e bet ween t h e r a t es of ch a n ge of t h e va r ia bles. Ba ck t o
ou r equ a t ion : If you fin d t h e der iva t ive of y 5 3x 2 2 wit h r espect t o t, you get
dy
dx
= 3
dt
dt
Th is m ea n s t h a t y is ch a n gin g a t a r a t e 3 t im es fa st er t h a n x is ch a n gin g. Th is m a kes

3
dy
, is . F or ever y on e u n it you t r a vel t o t h e r igh t , you
sen se, beca u se t h e der iva t ive,
dx
1
m u st t r a vel u p 3 t o st a y on t h e gr a ph . Th ese t ypes of pr oblem s a r e ca lled related rates
(for obviou s r ea son s).
As we pr ogr ess t h r ou gh t h e followin g exa m ples, we will be closely followin g t h e pla n
below. Get u sed t o t h e ch r on ology of t h ese st epst h e m et h od of solvin g r ela t ed r a t es
pr oblem s a lwa ys follows t h e sa m e pa t t er n .
TIP
Of a ll the top ic s in AP
Ca lc ulus, stud ents often
forg et how to d o rela ted
ra tes b y test time. Ta ke
some extra time a nd ma ke
sure tha t your
und ersta nd ing is c omp lete.
5 Steps to Success with Rela ted Ra tes

Iden t ify wh ich r a t e you a r e t r yin g t o fin d a n d wh a t in for m a t ion is given t o you .
F in d a n equ a t ion t h a t r ela t es t h e va r ia bles t o on e a n ot h er if you r e n ot given on e.
E lim in a t e ext r a va r ia bles, if a t a ll possible, by su bst it u t in g in for t h em (see
E xa m ple 3).
F in d t h e der iva t ive of t h e equ a t ion wit h r espect t o t.
P lu g in wh a t you kn ow, a n d solve for t h e r equ ir ed r a t e.
Ex a m p le 1: My br ot h er, Da ve, a n d I r ecen t ly wen t golfin g. Aft er a pr om isin g st a r t , h e

la n ded 3 con secu t ive ba lls in t h e la ke in fr on t of t h e secon d gr een . As t h e fir st ba ll
en t er ed t h e wa t er, it ca u sed a m u lt it u de of r ipples in t h e for m of con cen t r ic cir cles
3
em a n a t in g fr om t h e poin t of im pa ct a t a st ea dy r a t e of ft /sec.
4
(a ) Wh a t wa s t h e r a t e of ch a n ge of t h e a r ea of t h e ou t er m ost r ipple wh en it s r a diu s

wa s 3 feet ?
NOTE
dy
is interp reted a s the ra te
dt
of c ha ng e of y with resp ec t
dx
to time, a nd
is the ra te
dt
of c ha ng e of x with resp ec t
to time.
Th is qu est ion con cer n s a r ea a n d r a diu s; bot h of t h ese elem en t s a r e con t a in ed by t h e

for m u la for a r ea of a cir cle: A 5 pr 2 . To fin d t h e r ela t ion sh ip bet ween t h e r a t es, fin d
t h e der iva t ive wit h r espect t o t:
dA
dr
= 2r
dt
dt
3
dr
You a r e t r yin g t o fin d dA
dt , t h e r a t e of in cr ea se of A. You kn ow t h a t dt 5 4 a ccor din g
t o t h e given in for m a t ion , a n d t h e pr oblem pr om pt s you t h a t r 5 3 in t h is in st a n ce.
Su bst it u t e t h ese va lu es in t o t h e equ a t ion t o solve:
Cha pter 6: Applica tions of the Deriva tive
197
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
3 9 2
dA
= 2 (3) =
ft /sec
4
2
dt
(b) Wh a t wa s t h e r a t e of ch a n ge of t h e golf clu b h e t h r ew wit h a m igh t y in it ia l velocit y
a ft er dr own in g t h e t h ir d ba ll? No on e kn ows, bu t ever yon e kn ew t o st a y ou t of t h e
wa y.
ALERT!
If something is d ec rea sing
or b ec oming sma ller, its
As E xa m ple 1 illu st r a t es, m a ke su r e t h a t you in clu de t h e cor r ect u n it s in you r fin a l

a n swer wh en u n it s a r e in clu ded in t h e pr oblem . F ollowin g a r e t h e m ost com m on ly
r equ est ed r a t es (a ssu m in g t h a t t h e pr oblem in clu des m et er s a n d secon ds): a r ea
(m 2 /sec), volu m e (m 3 /sec), len gt h or velocit y (m /sec), a n d a cceler a t ion (m /sec2 ). If t h e
pr oblem con t a in s u n it s ot h er t h a n m et er s a n d secon ds, t h e for m a t is st ill t h e sa m e.
Ex a m p le 2: Wh ile pa in t in g m y h ou se a n d a t op a 25-foot la dder, I wa s h or r ified t o
discover t h a t t h e la dder bega n slidin g a wa y fr om t h e ba se of m y h om e a t a con st a n t
r a t e of 2 ft /sec (don t a sk m e h ow I kn ew t h a t , I ju st did). At wh a t r a t e wa s t h e t op of
t h e la dder ca r r yin g m e, scr ea m in g like a 2-yea r-old ch ild, t owa r d t h e gr ou n d wh en t h e
ba se of t h e la dder wa s a lr ea dy 17 feet a wa y fr om t h e h ou se?
ra te of c ha ng e will b e
neg a tive.
ALERT!
You c a n only insert a
c onsta nt into your p rima ry
eq ua tion in rela ted ra tes if
tha t c onsta nt c a nnot
c ha ng e throug hout the
p rob lem. For exa mp le, the
la d d er is c onsta nt in
Exa mp le 2.
25
y
x
2 m/sec
S o lu tio n : You fir st n eed t o set u p a r ela t ion sh ip t h a t con t a in s you r given in for m a t ion
a n d wh a t you n eed t o fin d. Th e r igh t t r ia n gle m a de by t h e la dder a n d m y h ou se
con t a in s a ll of t h is in for m a t ion (a lt h ou gh you wou ldn t h a ve t o h a ve t h e sa m e va r ia bles, of cou r se), so by t h e P yt h a gor ea n Th eor em :
2
y 1 x 5 25
Not ice t h a t t h e va lu es of x a n d y will ch a n ge a s t h e la dder slides, bu t t h e la dder will

a lwa ys be 25 feet lon g, so I ca n u se t h is con st a n t r a t h er t h a n a t h ir d va r ia ble.
Now, fin d t h e der iva t ive wit h r espect t o t:
2y z
dy
1 2xz
dt
dx
50
dt
Th e ba se of t h e la dder is slidin g a wa y fr om t h e h ou se a t 2 ft /sec, so
dx
5 2; t h e
dt
pr oblem a lso st a t es t h a t x 5 17. You ll h a ve t o u se t h e P yt h a gor ea n Th eor em t o fin d

t h e va lu e of y for t h is specific va lu e of x:
y 2 1 x 2 5 25
y 2 1 (17)2 5 25 2
y5
336
ALERT!
Don t forg et to ta ke the
d eriva tive of the c onsta nt,
25 2 , to g et 0.
198
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
dy
, t h e r a t e t h a t you a r e t r yin g
dt
dy
:
t o fin d. Su bst it u t e a ll you r va lu es in t o t h e der iva t ive you fou n d ea r lier t o fin d
dt
Now, you h a ve a ll t h e va r ia bles in qu est ion except for
336
+ 2(17)(2) = 0
) dy
dt
dy
' 21.855 ft /sec
dt
Not ice t h a t t h e len gt h of y is decr ea sin g, sin ce t h e la dder is slidin g down wa r d;

dy
m u st be n ega t ive.
t h er efor e,
dt
A few yea r s a go, I h a d t o u n der go m a ssive n a sa l su r ger y, t h e focu s of wh ich wa s t o

scr a pe ou t a ll of m y sin u s ca vit ies t o r em ove disgu st in g m u cou s cyst s t h a t h a d
ga t h er ed t h er e like college st u den t s wa it in g for a pa r t y. I wr ot e t h e n ext pr oblem soon
a ft er t h a t exper ien ce. It wa s, a t t h e t im e, t h e wor st t h in g t h a t cou ld h a ppen . (Th is
pr oblem a ppea r ed on m y Web sit e a s it wa s ju st get t in g st a r t ed.)
NOTE
Exa mp le 3 is q uite d iffic ult
when c omp a red to the
others. A p rob lem of this
d iffic ulty in rela ted ra tes is
rela tively ra re on the
AP test.
Ex a m p le 3: Th e n igh t m a r e h a s com e t o pa ss. All of Kelleys ext en sive su r ger ies a n d

n a sa l pa ssa ge scr a pin gs h a ve (u n for t u n a t ely) gon e a wr y, a n d h e sit s in t h e ea r, n ose,
a n d t h r oa t doct or s office wa it in g a r ea spewin g bloody n ose dr ippin gs in t o a con ica l
pa per cu p a t t h e r a t e of 2.5 in 3 /m in . Th e cu p is bein g h eld wit h t h e ver t ex down a n d
h a s a h eigh t of 4 in ch es a n d a ba se of 3 in ch es. H ow fa st is t h e m u cou s level r isin g in
t h e cu p wh en t h e liqu id is 2 in ch es deep?
S o lu tio n : You sh ou ld fir st est a blish wh a t you kn ow: a con es volu m e is V 5 pr 2 h ,
dV 5 2.5, h eigh t of t h e con e is 4, a n d t h e dia m et er of t h e ba se is 3, wh ich m a kes t h e
dt
3
r a diu s of t h e ba se, r, equ a l t o . (You a lso kn ow t h a t t h e m u cou s it self will be in t h e
2
sh a pe of a con e sin ce it is in a con ica l con t a in er.) Wh a t s even m or e im por t a n t is wh a t
you don t kn ow. You don t kn ow t h e r a diu s of t h e m u cou s, a n d you don t kn ow it s r a t e
of ch a n ge. Th er efor e, you sh ou ld t r y t o elim in a t e t h e va r ia ble r fr om t h e volu m e
equ a t ion . Wh y in clu de a va r ia ble you kn ow n ot h in g a bou t ? To do so is t h e m ost
com plica t ed pa r t of t h is pr oblem . You n eed t o u se sim ila r t r ia n gles. Below is a
cr oss-sect ion of t h e cu p.
1.5
Two sim ila r r igh t t r ia n gles ca n be for m ed. Look a t t h e set of over la ppin g t r ia n gles on
t h e r igh t . Th e sm a ller t r ia n gle (r epr esen t in g m u cou s) h a s u n kn own h eigh t a n d r a diu s, wh er ea s t h e la r ger t r ia n gle (t h e cu p) h a s h eigh t 4 a n d r a diu s 1.5. Th is a llows
199
.................................................................
4 23
=
h r
3h
. If you su bst it u t e t h is for r in t o t h e
8
volu m e equ a t ion , t h e pr oblem of kn owin g n ot h in g a bou t r is com plet ely solved.
1
V 5 r 2h
3
1 3h 2
V 5 h
3 8
3
V 5 h3
64
Now, fin d t h e der iva t ive wit h r espect t o t t o get r ollin g:
Solve t h is pr opor t ion for r a n d you get r 5
dV
9
dh
= h2
dt 64
dt
a n d su bst it u t e in a ll t h e in for m a t ion you kn ow t o solve for
t h e pr oblem :
2.5 =
dh
, t h e va lu e r equ est ed by
dt
9 2 dh
(2 )
64
dt
dh
' 1.415 in /m in
dt
My c u p , it o v e rflo w e th .
..............................................................................................
you t o set u p a pr opor t ion , sin ce cor r espon din g sides of sim ila r t r ia n gles a r e in
pr opor t ion .
200
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 1

1. A pa r t icle m oves a lon g t h e pa t h y 5 x 3 2 3x 2 1 2. If t h e pa r t icles h or izon t a l r a t e
of ch a n ge wh en x 5 4 secon ds is 23 ft /sec, wh a t is it s ver t ica l r a t e of ch a n ge a t
t h a t in st a n t ?
2. If a sph er ica l ba lloon is bein g defla t ed a t a r a t e of 5 in 3 /sec, a t wh a t r a t e is t h e

r a diu s of t h e ba lloon decr ea sin g wh en r 5 5 in ?
3. La st week, I a cciden t a lly dr opped a cu be in t o a va t of n u clea r wa st e, set t in g off a

ch a in r ea ct ion of even t s t h a t even t u a lly ca u sed t h e cu be t o possess su per power s,
a m on g t h em t h e a bilit y t o ea t r ocks. As t h e cu be a m a ssed t h ese su per power s, it
swelled a t a r a t e of 7 in /sec. At wh a t r a t e wa s t h e su r fa ce a r ea of Su per Cu be
ch a n gin g wh en on e of it s sides wa s 2 feet lon g?
NOTE
A fa ll from a helic op ter 3
miles in the sky is not only
d a ng erous b ut nea rly
imp ossib le. It should only b e
a ttemp ted b y a tra ined
p rofessiona l or someone
really fa mous.
4. Du r in g a r ea lit y sh ow pr esen t a t ion , on e of t h e celebr it ies displa ys h er a t h let ic

pr owess by skydivin g ou t of a h over in g h elicopt er 100 feet a wa y fr om a cliff. If h er
posit ion , in feet , is given by s(t) 5 216t 2 1 15,840, fin d t h e r a t e of ch a n ge of t h e
a n gle of depr ession (n o pu n in t en ded) in degr ees/sec a t t 5 30.9 secon ds for a
viewer st a n din g a t t h e edge of t h e cliff, a ssu m in g t h a t h is h ea d is 600 feet a bove
t h e floor of t h e va lley below.

1. Th e equ a t ion is a lr ea dy given , so fin d t h e der iva t ive wit h r espect t o t a n d
su bst it u t e:
dy
dx
dx
= 3x 2
6x
dt
dt
dt
B C s tu d e n ts n o te :
dy
dt
dx
dt
dy
= 3( 4)2 ( 3) 6( 4)( 3) 5
dt
dy
5 272 ft /sec
dt
dy
72
wh en x 5 4.
=
= 24 , wh ich is a lso
dx
3
201
.................................................................
25 5 4p(5)2
dr
dt
dr
5 2.016 in /sec
dt
Not ice t h a t you h a ve t o m a ke dV
dt n ega t ive beca u se t h e volu m e is d ecreasin g.
3. Th e su r fa ce a r ea of a cu be is t h e su m of t h e a r ea s of it s sides. Th e sides a r e a ll
squ a r es, so t h e su r fa ce a r ea is S 5 6x 2 , wh er e x is t h e len gt h of a side. Now fin d
t h e der iva t ive a n d su bst it u t e:
dS
dx
= 12 x
dt
dt
dS
5 12(24)(7)
dt
Not e t h a t you u se 24 in ch es in st ea d of 2 feet for x, sin ce t h e r est of t h e pr oblem is

t o be given in t er m s of in ch es.
4. Begin by dr a win g a pict u r e.
exercises
dS
5 2,016 in 2 /sec
dt
a nsw ers
dV
dr
5 4pr 2
dt
dt
..............................................................................................
2. You n eed t o kn ow t h e volu m e of a sph er e. F in d it s der iva t ive wit h r espect t o t a n d

plu g in t h e given in for m a t ion :
4
V 5 pr 3
3
202
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Th e h or izon t a l dist a n ce bet ween t h e spect a t or a n d An gela will r em a in fixed, bu t

t h e ver t ica l dist a n ce will ch a n ge dr a m a t ica lly. You n eed t o u se a va r ia ble t o la bel
a n y len gt h t h a t ca n ch a n ge; h er e we u sed x. You ll n eed a n equ a t ion t h a t con t a in s
u, sin ce you r goa l is t o fin d d . Th e per fect ch oice is t a n gen t , a n d t h e equ a t ion
x . Now,dtfin d it s der iva t ive wit h r espect t o t:
sh ou ld be t a n u 5 100
1 dx
sec 2 d =
dt 100 dt
You st ill n eed t o fin d u a n d dx
dt t o fin ish t h is pr oblem . To fin d x, you fir st m u st
fin d s(t) wh en t 5 30.9, so plu g 30.9 in t o t h e posit ion equ a t ion :
s(t) 5 216(30.9)2 1 15,840 5 563.04
You ca n t ell by lookin g a t t h e dia gr a m t h a t x 5 600 2 s(t), so a t t h e in st a n t t h a t
t 5 30.9, x 5 600 2 563.04 5 36.96. F in a lly, we ca n fin d u (in degr ees a s a sked):
tan =
x
36.96
=
100
100
u 5 20.28431249
dx
Now you n eed t o fin d dt . We ju st sa id x 5 600 2 s(t), so fin d t h e der iva t ive wit h
r espect t o t wh en t 5 30.9:
dx
5 2s(t)
dt
dx
5 2(232t) 5 32(30.9)
dt
dx
5 988.8 ft /sec
dt
All of t h e r equ ir ed in for m a t ion is fin a lly a va ila ble, so su bst it u t e a n d fin ish t h is
pr oblem :
1
d
(988.8)
5
sec2 (20.28431249)
dt
100
d
5 8.700 deg/sec
dt
203
.................................................................
Th e followin g a ct ivit y will h elp you u n cover t wo of t h e m ost fou n da t ion a l t h eor em s of
differ en t ia l ca lcu lu s. Rolles Th eor em is on e of t h ose r a r e ca lcu lu s t h eor em s t h a t m a kes
a lot of sen se r igh t a wa y. Th e Mea n Va lu e Th eor em is n ot ver y difficu lt eit h er, a n d it
u su a lly a ppea r s on t h e AP t est pr et t y fr equ en t ly. Wit h you r deep con cept u a l u n der st a n din g of der iva t ives, you sh ou ld h a ve n o pr oblem a t a ll u n der st a n din g.
..............................................................................................
HANDS-ON ACTIVITY 6.1: ROLLES AND MEAN

VALUE THEOREMS
ALERT!
Some stud ents c onfuse the
Mea n Va lue Theorem with
the Intermed ia te Va lue
Theorem. They a re simila r
1. Let s sa y t h a t you h a ve t h e con t in u ou s a n d differ en t ia ble fu n ct ion f(x) 5 x 3 2 6x 2

1 12x 2 5. Dr a w t h e por t ion of t h e gr a ph in dica t ed by t h e a xes below (x 5 [0,4]).
only in tha t they a re b oth

existence theorems, in tha t
they g ua ra ntee the
existenc e of something .
2. Dr a w t h e seca n t lin e t h a t con n ect s x 5 1 t o x 5 3 on t h e gr a ph of f, a n d ca lcu la t e

t h e slope of t h e seca n t lin e.
3. Ar e t h er e a n y pla ces on t h e gr a ph of f wh er e t h e t a n gen t lin e t o t h e gr a ph

a ppea r s t o be pa r a llel t o t h e seca n t lin e you ve dr a wn ? H ow m a n y t im es does t h is
h a ppen on [0,3]? Dr a w t h ese t a n gen t lin es t h a t a ppea r t o be pa r a llel t o t h e seca n t
lin e.
4. Wh a t does it m ea n geom et r ica lly if t h ose t a n gen t lin es a r e pa r a llel t o t h e seca n t

lin e?
5. Wr it e you r con clu sion t o pr oblem 4 a s a m a t h em a t ica l for m u la . If you solve t h is

for x (you ll h a ve t o u se you r ca lcu la t or ), you will fin d t h e x va lu es for t h e t a n gen t
lin es. Wh a t a r e t h ey?
204
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
TIP
The Mean Va lue Theorem is
so na med b ec a use of the
la rg e role the a vera g e, or
mean, ra te of c ha ng e
p la ys in the theorem.
6. Tim e t o be gen er ic. Given a con t in u ou s, differ en t ia ble fu n ct ion g(x) on t h e in t erva l [a,b], com plet e t h e followin g:
Give t h e slope of t h e seca n t lin e fr om x 5 a t o x 5 b.
Give t h e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e t o g(x) a t a n y poin t on it s dom a in .
Use you r a n swer s a bove t o fill in t h e bla n ks a n d com plet e t h e Mea n Va lu e
Th eor em :
Me a n Va lu e Th e o re m : Given a fu n ct ion g(x) t h a t is con t in u ou s a n d differ en t ia ble on a closed in t er va l [a,b], t h er e exist s a t lea st on e x on [a,b] for wh ich _____,
t h e slope of t h e seca n t lin e, equ a ls ______, t h e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e.
7. Illu st r a t e t h e Mea n Va lu e Th eor em gr a ph ica lly u sin g t h e gr a ph below of g on

[a,b].
8. Tr a n sla t e t h e Mea n Va lu e Th eor em in t o a st a t em en t a bou t r a t es of ch a n ge.
9. Rolles Th eor em is a specific ca se of t h e Mea n Va lu e Th eor em , wh ich a pplies

wh en ever g(a) 5 g(b). Wh a t is t h e slope of t h e seca n t lin e for su ch a fu n ct ion ?
Wh a t is gu a r a n t eed by t h e Mea n Va lu e Th eor em a s a r esu lt , a n d wh a t does t h a t
m ea n geom et r ica lly?
10. F ill in t h e bla n ks t o com plet e t h e t h eor em :

Ro lle s Th e o re m : Given a fu n ct ion f(x) t h a t is con t in u ou s a n d differ en t ia ble on
t h e closed in t er va l [a,b] a n d ____ 5 ____, t h en t h er e exist s a t lea st on e x on [a,b]
su ch t h a t ____________.
11. Dr a w a fu n ct ion g(x) on t h e a xes below t h a t sa t isfies Rolles Th eor em on [a,b] bu t

sa t isfies it m or e t h a n on e t im e.
205
.................................................................
2. Th e slope of t h e seca n t lin e is f (3) f (1) = 4 2 = 1 .

3 1
3 1
3. Th er e a r e t wo pla ces on [0,3] wh er e t h e t a n gen t lin es a ppea r t o be pa r a llelon e
fa lls n ea r ly m idwa y bet ween x 5 1 a n d 2 a n d a n ot h er bet ween x 5 2 a n d 3.
secant line
4. It m ea n s t h a t t h ey sh a r e t h e sa m e slope.
5. Th e for m u la sh ou ld st a t e t h a t t h e seca n t a n d t a n gen t slopes a r e t h e sa m e:
f (3) f (1)
= f ( x )
3 1
Th e left -h a n d for m u la is t h e seca n t slope, a n d t h e der iva t ive on t h e r igh t r epr esen t s t h e t a n gen t slope. You a lr ea dy kn ow t h e seca n t slope, so f (x) 5 1. F in d f (x)
a n d solve u sin g you r ca lcu la t or ; you sh ou ld get x ' 1.423 a n d x ' 2.577.
6. Th e seca n t slope is g (b ) g ( a ) , a n d t h e t a n gen t slope is g(x).
ba
Me a n Va lu e Th e o re m : ...t h er e exist s a t lea st on e x on [a,b] for wh ich
g(b) g(a )
equ a ls g(x).
ba
7. E st im a t e on t h e gr a ph wh er e t h e seca n t a n d t a n gen t lin es appear t o be pa r a llel.
tangent line
secant line
8. At lea st on ce on t h e in t er va l [a,b], t h e in st a n t a n eou s r a t e of ch a n ge equ a ls t h e

a ver a ge r a t e of ch a n ge for t h a t in t er va l.
..............................................................................................
206
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
NOTE
The fa c t tha t a d eriva tive of
0 ind ic a tes a p ossib le
ma ximum or minimum on
the g ra p h is a n inc red ib ly
imp orta nt fa c t a s this
c ha p ter p rog resses.
9. Th e slope of t h e seca n t lin e is 0, so t h e Mea n

som ewh er e on [a,b], t h er e will be a h or izon t a l
m ea n s t h a t t h e gr a ph r ea ch es a m a xim u m or a
a n d b, a ssu m in g, of cou r se, t h a t t h e fu n ct ion
con n ect in g (a,f(a)) t o (b,f(b)).
Va lu e Th eor em gu a r a n t ees t h a t
t a n gen t lin e. Geom et r ica lly, t h is
m in im u m som ewh er e bet ween a
is n ot m er ely a h or izon t a l lin e
10. Ro lle s Th e o re m : ...[a,b] a n d f(a) 5 f(b), t h en t h er e exist s a t lea st on e x on [a,b]

su ch t h a t f (x) 5 0.
11.
207
.................................................................

1. Det er m in e if ea ch of t h e followin g st a t em en t s is t r u e or fa lse. If t r u e, ju st ify you r
a n swer. If fa lse, pr ovide a cou n t er exa m ple.
If f(x) is a con t in u ou s fu n ct ion on [a,b], a n d f(a) 5 f(b), t h en ...
(a ) f h a s a n a bsolu t e m a xim im a n d a n a bsolu t e m in im u m .
(b) Th er e exist s a c, a c b, su ch t h a t f (c) 5 0.
2. Du r in g va ca t ion , J en n ifer is en r ou t e t o h er br ot h er s h ou se. Un bekn own st t o h er,
t wo policem en a r e st a t ion ed t wo m iles a pa r t a lon g t h e r oa d, wh ich h a s a post ed
speed lim it of 55 m ph . Th e fir st clocks h er a t 50 m ph a s sh e pa sses, a n d t h e
secon d m ea su r es h er speed a t 55 m ph bu t pu lls h er over a n ywa y. Wh en sh e a sks
wh y sh e got pu lled over, h e r espon ds, It t ook you 90 secon ds t o t r a vel 2 m iles.
Wh y is sh e gu ilt y of speedin g a ccor din g t o t h e Mea n Va lu e Th eor em ?
3. Given g(x) a s defin ed by t h e gr a ph below, a n d g(b) 5 g(c).
g(x )
(a ) H ow m a n y t im es does g(x) sa t isfy t h e Mea n Va lu e Th eor em on [a,b]?

(b) Wh a t con clu sion s, if a n y, ca n be dr a wn a bou t g(x) u sin g Rolles Th eor em ?
5 2
4. At wh a t va lu e(s) of x is t h e Mea n Va lu e Th eor em sa t isfied for m (x) 5 x 3 2 x 2
2
2x 1 1 on [22,4]?
5. If h (0) sa t isfies t h e Mea n Va lu e Th eor em for h (x) 5 ln (sin x 11) on [2 ,b], fin d
4
t h e sm a llest possible va lu e of b.
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 2
208
.................................................................
..............................................................................................

1. (a ) Tr u e: Th is va lu e is gu a r a n t eed by t h e E xt r em e Va lu e Th eor em ; t h e fu n ct ion
n eed on ly be con t in u ou s on a closed in t er va l.
NOTE
In fa c t, Jennifer p rob a b ly
went a whole lot fa ster
tha n 80 mp h when she
thoug ht no one wa s
looking , b ut the Mea n
Va lue Theorem c a n only d o
so muc h.
(b) F a lse: It m a y sou n d like Rolles Th eor em , bu t Rolles Th eor em in clu des t h e
gu a r a n t ee t h a t t h e fu n ct ion is differ en t ia ble on [a,b]; t h e dia gr a m below
sh ows on e possible gr a ph of f for wh ich t h er e is n o h or izon t a l t a n gen t lin e
on t h e in t er va l.
f (x )
2. You ca n figu r e ou t J en n ifer s a ver a ge speed for t h e t wo m iles bet ween t h e police;
t h in k ba ck t o t h e old, fa m ilia r for m u la d 5 rt (dist a n ce 5 r a t e z t im e). H er r a t e
d
will be given by r 5 . You r u n it s a r e h ou r s, so 90 secon ds h a s t o be r ewr it t en in
t
t er m s of h ou r s. Beca u se t h er e a r e 3,600 secon ds in a n h ou r, 90 secon ds r epr esen t s
1
90
3,600 of a n h ou r, or 40 . Clea r ly, d 5 2 fr om t h e in for m a t ion given . Th er efor e, you
ca n fin d t h e a ver a ge r a t e of speed:
r 5 1 5 80 m ph
40
Th e Mea n Va lu e Th eor em sa ys t h a t on a closed in t er va l, you r in st a n t a n eou s r a t e

of ch a n ge (in t h is ca se, velocit y) m u st equ a l t h e a ver a ge r a t e of ch a n ge (a ver a ge
speed) a t lea st on ce. Th er efor e, ol lea dfoot J en n y h a d t o h a ve t r a veled 80 m ph a t
lea st on ce, a n d t h e policem a n ca n t icket h er.
3. (a ) Th e t a n gen t lin e m u st be pa r a llel t o t h e seca n t lin e (sh own dot t ed in t h e

dia gr a m below) fou r t im es in t h a t in t er va l a t a ppr oxim a t ely t h e pla ces
m a r ked below.
(b) Rolles Th eor em en su r es t h a t g(x) 5 0 a t lea st on ce bet ween x 5 c a n d x 5

b. In fa ct , g(x) 5 0 t wice on t h e in t er va l, a lt h ou gh you m a y n ot be a ble t o
ju st ify t h a t visu a lly u n t il la t er in t h is ch a pt er.
209
.................................................................
m( 4) m( 2)
4 ( 2)
On ce you fin d m (c) a n d eva lu a t e t h e fr a ct ion , you ca n solve for c:

17 ( 13)
3c2 2 5c 2 2 5
6
2
3c 2 5c 2 2 5 5
3c2 2 5c 2 7 5 0
Th is doesn t fa ct or, so you n eed t o r esor t t o t h e qu a dr a t ic for m u la . Th e solu t ion s
a r e c 5 5 6109 . H owever, on ly t h e solu t ion s on t h e in t er va l [22,4] cou n t . Wit h ou t
a ca lcu la t or, h ow ca n you t ell if eit h er of t h ese fa ll in t h e in t er va l? Well, 109 is
bet ween
100 (10) a n d 121 (11). If you eva lu a t e t h e solu t ion s wit h t h ese
est im a t ion s in pla ce, bot h a n swer s fa ll wit h in t h e in t er va l, so bot h va lu es of c a r e
cor r ect .
5. If t h e Mea n Va lu e Th eor em is sa t isfied a t h (0), t h en t h e a ver a ge r a t e of ch a n ge
on t h e in t er va l m u st be equ a l t o t h a t va lu e; t h a t va lu e is
h (0) 5
cos 0
51
sin 0 + 1
Th er efor e, a ll you n eed t o do is t o fin d t h e a ver a ge va lu e a n d set it equ a l t o 1 in

or der t o fin d b:
ln ( sin b + 1) ln (sin ( 4 ) + 1)
1 = 0
b + 4
On ce you set t h is giga n t ic equ a t ion equ a l t o zer o, you ca n u se you r ca lcu la t or t o
solve, a n d b ' 1.07313.
exercises
h (b ) h ( 4 )
=1
b 4
a nsw ers
m (c) 5
..............................................................................................
4. Th e Mea n Va lu e Th eor em st a t es t h a t a t som e poin t c bet ween 22 a n d 4,
210
.................................................................
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TIP
The rela tionship s b etween a
func tion a nd its d eriva tives
a re a ll over the AP test. This
is one of the most essentia l
c onc ep ts in AP Ca lc ulus, so
ma ke sure to und ersta nd
itit s not tha t ha rd ,
a c tua lly.
ALERT!
A g ra p h is not g ua ra nteed
to c ha ng e d irec tion just
b ec a use it ha s a c ritic a l
numb er there. However, if
the g ra p h c ha ng es
d irec tion, it need s to
ha p p en a t a c ritic a l
numb er.
HANDS-ON ACTIVITY 6.2: THE FIRST DERIVATIVE TEST

You m igh t su spect t h a t t h er e is som e kin d of r ela t ion sh ip bet ween fu n ct ion s a n d t h eir
der iva t ives. Som et im es, la t e a t n igh t , t h ey sh ow u p h oldin g h a n ds, in sist in g t h a t t h ey
a r e ju st fr ien ds. It s ju st a s you su spect der iva t ives ca n a lwa ys t ell wh a t a fu n ct ion is
doin gt h ey h a ve t h is con n ect ion t h a t ot h er people en vy a n d yea r n for. You ll lea r n m or e
a bou t t h is con n ect ion in t h e followin g a ct ivit y.
5
1. Gr a ph t h e fu n ct ion f(x) 5 x 3 2 x 2 2 2x 1 1 on t h e a xes below.
2
2. You r goa l in t h is exer cise will be t o descr ibe wh er e f is in cr ea sin g a n d decr ea sin g
wit h ou t depen din g on it s gr a ph . In ot h er wor ds, you wa n t t o descr ibe t h e d irection of f. Im p o rta n t fa c t: If a gr a ph ch a n ges dir ect ion , t h e ch a n ge will occu r a t a
critical n u m ber, a n u m ber a t wh ich t h e der iva t ive eit h er equ a ls zer o or is u n defin ed. Wh a t a r e t h e cr it ica l n u m ber s for f?
3. Wh a t r ela t ion sh ip do you see bet ween t h e cr it ica l n u m ber s a n d t h e dir ect ion of f?
4. Th e lin e gr a ph below is ca lled a w iggle graph . It is u sed in con ju ct ion wit h cr it ica l
n u m ber s t o descr ibe a fu n ct ion s dir ect ion . La bel t h e gr a ph below by m a r kin g off
t h e cr it ica l n u m ber s you fou n d in pr oblem 2 a bove. Th ey sh ou ld br ea k t h e wiggle
gr a ph in t o t h r ee sepa r a t e segm en t s.
TIP
Whenever you use a wig g le
g ra p h, it is imp orta nt to
la b el it c orrec tly. We will
use this g ra p h with c ritic a l
numb ers tha t c a me from
f(x), so the wig g le g ra p h
must b e la b eled f.
5. P ick a n u m ber fr om ea ch of t h e t h r ee segm en t s of t h e wiggle gr a ph a n d plu g ea ch

sepa r a t ely in t o t h e der iva t ive. If t h e r esu lt is n ega t ive, wr it e a 2 a bove t h e
cor r espon din g segm en t of t h e wiggle gr a ph ; if t h e r esu lt is posit ive, den ot e it wit h
a 1.
6. Wh a t r ela t ion sh ip do you see bet ween t h e wiggle gr a ph you h a ve con st r u ct ed a n d
t h e gr a ph of f?
211
.................................................................
8. Con sider t h e sim ple fu n ct ion g(x) 5 x 2 . Con st r u ct a wiggle gr a ph for it , a n d give
t h e in t er va ls for wh ich g is in cr ea sin g.
..............................................................................................
7. Com plet e t h is st a t em en t ba sed on you r r esu lt s: If a fu n ct ion f is in cr ea sin g on a n

in t er va l, t h en it s der iva t ive f will be ___________ t h er e. H owever, if a fu n ct ion is
decr ea sin g, it s der iva t ive will be ___________.
NOTE
Crea ting a wig g le g ra p h is
a very ea sy thing to d o. If
you a re c onfused b y the
9. Gr a ph y 5 x 2 a n d dr a w t wo t a n gen t lin es t o t h e gr a ph on e on t h e in t er va l
(2`,0) a n d on e on (0,`). H ow do t h e slopes of t h ese t a n gen t lin es su ppor t you r
wiggle gr a ph ?
10. H ow cou ld you t ell fr om t h e wiggle gr a ph of p(x) 5 x 2 t h a t x 5 0 wa s a r ela t ive

m in im u m ?
11. In gen er a l, h ow ca n you t ell wh er e a r ela t ive m a xim u m or m in im u m occu r s u sin g

on ly a wiggle gr a ph ?
1
. Wh a t a r e t h e r ela t ive ext r em a (r ela t ive
x2
m a xim u m s or m in im u m s) for t h e gr a ph ? Wh y?
12. F or m t h e wiggle gr a ph for h (x) 5

2. To fin d cr it ica l n u m ber s, you m u st fir st fin d t h e der iva t ive: f (x) 5 3x 2 2 5x 2 2.
Cr it ica l n u m ber s occu r wh er ever t h is is zer o or is u n defin ed. By fa ct or in g, you
1
ca n see t h a t f (x) 5 0 wh en x 5 2 a n d x 5 2.
3
3. At t h e x-va lu es t h a t r epr esen t t h e cr it ica l n u m ber s, t h e gr a ph seem s t o ch a n ge
dir ect ion .
4.
5. You ca n ch oose a n y n u m ber fr om ea ch of t h e in t er va ls; t h e n u m ber s 21, 0, a n d 3
a r e good, sim ple ch oices. P lu g ea ch in t o t h e d erivative: f (21) 5 6, f (0) 5 22, a n d
f (3) 5 10. Th er efor e, m a r k t h e in t er va ls left t o r igh t a s posit ive, n ega t ive, a n d
posit ive:
d irec tions, flip b a c k a nd

forth b etween the solutions,
a nd it should b e c lea r.
NOTE
It ma kes sense to c a ll
ma ximums a nd minimums
extrema p oints, b ec a use
the g ra p h ta kes on its most
extreme va lues there.
212
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Let t h e m ea n in g of t h e dia gr a m sin k in . You ca n ea sily ca lcu la t e t h a t f (21) is

1
posit ive. Th a t m ea n s t h a t an y va lu e on t h e in t er va l (`,2 ) will r et u r n a posit ive
3
va lu e if su bst it u t ed in t o t h e der iva t ive. Likewise, a n y n u m ber in t h e in t er va l
1
(2 ,2) will r et u r n a n ega t ive va lu e wh en su bst it u t ed in t o t h e der iva t ive, a ccor d3
in g t o t h e wiggle gr a ph .
6. Wh en ever t h e wiggle gr a ph is posit ive, f is in cr ea sin g, a n d wh en t h e gr a ph

wiggles n ega t ive, f is decr ea sin g.
7. posit ive, n ega t ive
NOTE
A rela tive ma ximum is
d ifferent from a n a b solute
ma ximum. A relative
maximum a p p ea rs a s a
little hump on the g ra p h.
At the c rest of tha t hump ,
the g ra p h is a t a
ma ximuma t lea st rela tive
to the p oints d irec tly
a round it. A relative
minimum a p p ea rs a s a
va lley in the g ra p h.
TIP
The wig g le g ra p h you
c rea ted in p rob lem 5
c orresp ond s exa c tly with
the g ra p h of f (x). If you
g ra p h f (x), you ll notic e
tha t it is a p a ra b ola tha t is
1
neg a tive on 2 ,2 b ut
3
p ositive elsewhere. The
S D
wig g le g ra p h is simp ly a
one-d imensiona l
rep resenta tion of the
d eriva tive s g ra p h.
8. g will be in cr ea sin g on (0,`), sin ce g is posit ive on t h a t in t er va l:
9. Wh en ever t h e gr a ph is decr ea sin g (in t h is ca se (2`,0)), t h e t a n gen t lin es on t h e

gr a ph will h a ve a n ega t ive slope. Wh en t h e gr a ph is in cr ea sin g, t h e t a n gen t lin es
h a ve a posit ive slope. Th e wiggle gr a ph is ba sed on t h e der iva t ive, wh ich is
defin ed by t h e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e.
negative
slope
positive
slope
10. Th e wiggle gr a ph sh ows t h a t t h e der iva t ive ch a n ges fr om n ega t ive t o posit ive a t
x 5 0, wh ich m ea n s t h a t g ch a n ges fr om decr ea sin g t o in cr ea sin g t o x 5 0. If a
gr a ph su dden ly st ops decr ea sin g a n d begin s in cr ea sin g, t h e poin t a t wh ich it
st opped m u st be a m in im u m dr a w it !
g decreasing
g increasing
relative minimum
of g
11. Wh en t h e der iva t ive ch a n ges sign , t h e fu n ct ion ch a n ges dir ect ion . Th er efor e, if a
wiggle gr a ph ch a n ges fr om 1 t o 2 or vice ver sa , a r ela t ive ext r em a poin t h a s
occu r r ed.
213
.................................................................
It looks like x 5 0 sh ou ld be a r ela t ive m a xim u m , beca u se t h e fu n ct ion ch a n ges

fr om in cr ea sin g t o decr ea sin g t h er e. H owever, x 5 0 is n ot in th e d om ain of t h e
or igin a l fu n ct ion h ! x 5 0 ca n n ot be a m a xim u m on a gr a ph if it s n ot even in t h e
dom a in . Th is is beca u se h (x) h a s a ver t ica l a sym pt ot e a t x 5 0. Th u s, x 5 0 is n ot
a n ext r em a poin t . Beca u se it wa s t h e on ly cr it ica l n u m ber (a n d a ll ext r em a m u st
occu r a t cr it ica l n u m ber s), t h er e a r e n o ext r em a on h .
..............................................................................................
12. You ca n r ewr it e h a s x 22 ; t h er efor e, h (x) 5 22x 23 , or 23 . Th e der iva t ive n ever
x
equ a ls zer o; h owever, h is u n defin ed wh en x 5 0. Th er efor e, x 5 0 is a cr it ica l
n u m ber for h . Th e wiggle gr a ph looks like t h e followin g:
214
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 3

1. Dr a w t h e gr a ph of a fu n ct ion , b(x), t h a t h a s a r ela t ive m in im u m a t x 5 23 wh en
b(23) does n ot exist .
2. Give t h e x-va lu es a t wh ich ea ch of t h e followin g fu n ct ion s h a ve r ela t ive ext r em a ,
a n d cla ssify t h ose ext r em a . J u st ify you r a n swer s wit h wiggle gr a ph s.
2
(a ) y = 2 x 9 x 5
x+3
2 x +1
e
(b) y =
ln x
3. Given t h e gr a ph below of m (x), t h e der iva t ive of m (x), descr ibe a n d cla ssify t h e
r ela t ive ext r em a of m (x).
4. Below a r e t h e gr a ph s of t wo fu n ct ion s, g(x) a n d g(x). Wh ich is wh ich , a n d wh y?
5. If f(x) is defin ed a s follows:
215
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1.
2. (a ) Th e der iva t ive, u sin g t h e Qu ot ien t Ru le, is
( x + 3)(4 x 9) (2 x 2 9 x 5)
( x + 3)2
y =
4 x 2 + 3 x 27 2 x 2 + 9 x + 5
( x + 3)2
2x 2 + 12x 22
( x + 3)2
Th e cr it ica l n u m ber s occu r wh er e t h e n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or equ a l 0.

Clea r ly, t h e den om in a t or is 0 wh en x 5 23. Set t h e n u m er a t or equ a l t o 0, a n d
u se t h e qu a dr a t ic for m u la t o get x 5 23 6 20 . P lu g t est poin t s fr om ea ch
in t er va l in t o t h e der iva t ive, a n d you get t h is wiggle gr a ph :
Th is gr a ph h a s a r ela t ive m a xim u m a t x 5 23 2

m u m a t 23 1 20 .
20 a n d a r ela t ive m in i-
(b) F ir st , r ea lize t h a t t h e dom a in of t h is fu n ct ion is x . 0, beca u se t h a t is t h e

dom a in of t h e den om in a t or. On ce a ga in , cr it ica l n u m ber s occu r wh er ever t h e
n u m er a t or or den om in a t or of t h e der iva t ive equ a ls zer o. Th e n u m er a t or is
t h e n a t u r a l expon en t ia l fu n ct ion , wh ich n ever equ a ls zer o (it s r a n ge is (0,`)).
H owever, t h e den om in a t or equ a ls 0 wh en x 5 1. Th er efor e, x 5 1 is t h e on ly
cr it ica l n u m ber. Th e r esu lt in g wiggle gr a ph looks like t h e followin g:
H owever, t h er e is n o r ela t ive m in im u m a t x 5 1, even t h ou gh t h e dir ect ion

of t h e fu n ct ion ch a n ges. Beca u se x 5 1 is n ot in t h e dom a in of t h e fu n ct ion ,
it ca n n ot be a n ext r em a poin t . In fa ct , x 5 1 is a ver t ica l a sym pt ot e for t h is
fu n ct ion . Th er e a r e n o ext r em a poin t s for t h is fu n ct ion .
exercises
y =
a nsw ers
(c ) On wh a t in t er va ls is f in cr ea sin g?
..............................................................................................
(a ) F in d a ll poin t s of discon t in u it y on f(x).

(b) Det er m in e if f (p) exist s.
216
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3. Th e der iva t ive ch a n ges fr om n ega t ive t o posit ive a t x ' 2 .8, m ea n in g t h a t t h e
or igin a l fu n ct ion m ch a n ges fr om decr ea sin g t o in cr ea sin g. Th er efor e, m h a s a
r ela t ive m in im u m t h er e. Usin g sim ila r r ea son in g, m h a s a r ela t ive m a xim u m a t
x 5 7. Th er e a r e n o ext r em a poin t s wh en x 5 4, even t h ou gh t h e der iva t ive equ a ls
0 t h er e (m a kin g it a cr it ica l n u m ber ); t h e der iva t ive doesn t a ct u a lly ch a n ge sign s
a r ou n d x 5 4, so t h e fu n ct ion does n ot ch a n ge dir ect ion .
4. Th e dot t ed fu n ct ion is g(x). Not e t h a t wh en ever t h e dot t ed fu n ct ion r ea ch es a

r ela t ive m a xim u m or m in im u m , t h e ot h er gr a ph h a s a va lu e of 0 (a n x-in t er cept
occu r s). F u r t h er m or e, wh en ever t h e dot t ed fu n ct ion is in cr ea sin g, t h e solid fu n ct ion is posit ive (a bove t h e x-a xis) a n d vice ver sa .
5. (a ) Th e on ly possible poin t of discon t in u it y of f is a t x 5 pif t h e t wo gr a ph s do
n ot m eet a t t h a t poin t , t h er e will be a ju m p discon t in u it y. If you su bst it u t e x
5 p in t o ea ch of t h e t wo pieces of t h e fu n ct ion , t h ey bot h r esu lt in a n ou t pu t
of 0, m a kin g f con t in u ou s on it s en t ir e dom a in [0,2p].
(b) Th ese t wo fu n ct ion s cou ld m eet in a sh a r p poin t , ca u sin g a cu sp, a n d n o
der iva t ive wou ld exist . To det er m in e if a cu sp occu r s, you u n der t a ke a
pr ocess sim ila r t o 5(a ). To be con t in u ou s, bot h pieces h a d t o h a ve t h e sa m e
fu n ct ion va lu e. To be differ en t ia ble, bot h pieces m u st h a ve t h e sa m e
der iva t ive a t x 5 p. Th e der iva t ives a r e a s follows:
d
(sin x cos x) 5 cos 2 x 2 sin 2 x
dx
d
(sin 2 x) 5 2sin x cos x
dx
Wh en x 5 p, t h e fir st r u le h a s a der iva t ive of 1, a n d t h e secon d h a s a

der iva t ive of 0. Beca u se t h ese der iva t ives do n ot m a t ch , n o der iva t ive exist s
on f wh en x 5 p.
(c ) In or der t o det er m in e dir ect ion , you n eed t o set t h e der iva t ives fou n d in 5(b)
equ a l t o zer o a n d com plet e a wiggle gr a ph . Beca u se t h e fir st r u le of t h e
piecewise-defin ed fu n ct ion per t a in s on ly t o [0,p), t h e wiggle gr a ph on t h e
sa m e in t er va l will be ba sed on it s der iva t ive. Th er efor e, t h e in t er va l [0,p) h a s
cr it ica l n u m ber s 4 a n d 34 . Sim ila r ly, you set 2sin x cos x 5 0 a n d plot t h e
r esu lt in g cr it ica l n u m ber s on ly on t h e in t er va l [p,2p]. Th ese cr it ica l n u m ber s
a r e p, 32 , a n d 2p. Th e fin a l wiggle gr a ph looks like t h e followin g:
217
.................................................................
Two of t h e m a jor ch a r a ct er ist ics u sed t o descr ibe gr a ph s a r e dir ect ion a n d con ca vit y. You
h a ve a lr ea dy u sed t h e sign of t h e fir st der iva t ive t o det er m in e t h e dir ect ion of a fu n ct ion ,
a n d in t h is sect ion , you will u se t h e sign of t h e secon d der iva t ive t o det er m in e t h e
con ca vit y of t h e or igin a l fu n ct ion . In 1955, pr ison wa r den s a ll over t h e wor ld in t r odu ced
flu or ide in t o t h e dr in kin g wa t er of t h eir pr ison s in a coor din a t ed effor t t o r edu ce con
ca vit ies, bu t t h eir effor t s pr oved t o be in va in . Th u s, con ca vit y st ill per va des fu n ct ion s
wor ldwide.
Con ca vit y descr ibes t h e cu r vin ess of a cu r ve. Con sider t h e m ou t h s on t h e fa ces dr a wn
below:
Th e sm ile on a h appy fa ce is descr ibed a s con cave u p, wh er ea s t h e frow n is con cave

d ow n . Not ice t h a t frow n a n d d ow n r h ym e. It is a lso sa id t h a t m ilk pou r ed in t o a
con ca ve u p cu r ve st a ys t h er e, wh er ea s m ilk pou r ed on a con ca ve down cu r ve will
spla t t er on you r m om s clea n floor a n d m a ke h er a n gr y. In t h is m n em on ic device, a
cu p sh ou ld be con cave u p.
Not ice t h e sign s t h a t con st it u t e t h e eyes of t h e fa ces; t h ese sign s r em in d u s of t h e
m ost im por t a n t fa ct con cer n in g con ca vit y: If a fu n ction , f(x), is con cave d ow n on an
in terval, th en th e secon d d erivative, f (x), w ill be n egative th ere. S im ilarly, if a
fu n ction is con cave u p, its secon d d erivative w ill be positive.
Th is is h a u n t in gly sim ila r t o ou r wor k wit h dir ect ion a n d t h e fir st der iva t ive. In t h a t
ca se, t h e sign of t h e first der iva t ive in dica t ed dir ect ion . Con ca vit y, on t h e ot h er h a n d,
exercises
+ +
a nsw ers
CONCAVITY
..............................................................................................
Th er efor e, f is in cr ea sin g on (0, 4 ) ( 34 , 32 ). In ca se you a r e skept ica l,

h er es t h e gr a ph of f:
218
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
is dict a t ed by t h e sign of t h e secon d der iva t ive. Th is r ela t ion sh ip is explor ed by t h e

dia gr a m below:
Th e sign of a fu n ct ion descr ibes t h e dir ect ion of t h e fu n ct ion on e st ep a bove it , a n d

t h a t sa m e sign descr ibes t h e con ca vit y of t h e fu n ct ion t wo st eps a bove.
Ex a m p le 4: On wh a t in t er va ls is t h e gr a ph of t h e fu n ct ion g(x) 5 x 3 2 2x 2 2 4x 1 2
con ca ve down ?
S o lu tio n : Th e con ca vit y of a fu n ct ion is ba sed on t h e sign of it s secon d der iva t ive, so
you n eed t o begin by fin din g g(x):
g(x) 5 3x 2 2 4x 2 4
g(x) 5 6x 2 4
H er e, you n eed t o fin d cr it ica l n u m ber s a ga in , ju st a s you did wh en you fou n d

dir ect ion . Th is t im e, t h e cr it ica l n u m ber s occu r wh en t h e secon d der iva t ive is eit h er
2
zer o or u n defin ed. Th e on ly cr it ica l n u m ber is x 5 . Use t h is t o cr ea t e a secon d
3
d erivative wiggle gr a ph , a n d m a ke su r e t o la bel it g. Ch oose t est n u m ber s fr om bot h
of t h e in t er va ls a n d m a ke su r e t o plu g t h em in t o t h e secon d der iva t ive, a s it is t h e sign
of t h e secon d der iva t ive t h a t pr ovides t h e in for m a t ion you a r e seekin g. Th e wiggle
gr a ph looks like t h e followin g wh en you a r e fin ish ed:
Th e gr a ph of g(x) is con ca ve down on (2`, 32 ).
In t h e pr ecedin g exa m ple, t h e gr a ph ch a n ged fr om con ca ve down t o con ca ve u p a t t h e

2
poin t (3 ,2 34
27 ). Th e ch a n ge of con ca vit y m a kes t h is a poin t of in flection , m u ch a s a
ch a n ge of dir ect ion ca u sed poin t s t o becom e ext r em a poin t s.
219
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..............................................................................................
Ex a m p le 5: Given t h e gr a ph below of h (x), t h e der iva t ive of h (x), descr ibe t h e

con ca vit y of h (x).
TIP
Just a s you used the wig g le
g ra p h to d esc rib e d irec tion
a nd d irec tion c ha ng es,
you ll use a sec ond
d eriva tive wig g le g ra p h to
d esc rib e c onc a vity a nd
c onc a vity c ha ng es.
S o lu tio n : Not on ly does t h e h (x) descr ibe t h e con ca vit y of h (x), bu t it a lso descr ibes
t h e d irection of t h e h (x). (Sin ce h (x) is on e st ep a bove h (x).) F r om t h e gr a ph , you
ca n t ell t h a t h (x) is in cr ea sin g on (22,2) (3.5,`) a n d decr ea sin g on (2`,22)
(2, 3.5). Th er efor e, h (x) will be n ega t ive on (2`,22) (2, 3.5) a n d posit ive on
(22,2) (3.5,`), a s in dica t ed on t h e con ca vit y wiggle gr a ph below:
TIP
Do you see why it s so
imp orta nt to la b el your
wig g le g ra p h? Without the
h la b el in Exa mp le 5, it
would n t b e immed ia tely

ob vious whic h d eriva tive
we were referenc ing .
Wit h ou t h a vin g seen a gr a ph of h (x), we ca n dr a w fr om t h e con ca vit y wiggle gr a ph

t h a t h is con ca ve u p on (22,2) (3.5,`) a n d con ca ve down on (2`,22) (2, 3.5).
220
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EXERCISE 4

1. Descr ibe t h e con ca vit y of t h e gen er ic lin ea r fu n ct ion y 5 ax 1 b, a n d in t er pr et
you r a n swer.
2. On wh a t in t er va ls is t h e fu n ct ion g(x) 5 sin 2 x cos x con ca ve u p on t h e in t er va l
sin x
[0,2p]?
3. Given t h e differ en t ia ble gr a ph of f (x) below, a n swer t h e followin g qu est ion s:
(a ) Descr ibe t h e con ca vit y of f(x).

(b) At wh a t x-va lu es will f (x) h a ve it s a bsolu t e m a xim u m a n d a bsolu t e
m in im u m va lu es?
(c ) Will f (0) be posit ive or n ega t ive? Wh a t a bou t f (4)(0)?
(d ) On wh a t in t er va ls will f (x) be con ca ve down ?
4. Given t h e below gr a ph of h (x), descr ibe t h e con ca vit y of h (x), given h (x) is
con t in u ou s.
221
.................................................................
y 5 a
y 5 0
It is difficu lt t o in t er pr et a va lu e of zer o in t h e secon d der iva t ive. In t h is ca se, it
is beca u se a lin e by it self does n ot h a ve a n y con ca vit y. H owever, a secon d
der iva t ive of 0 does n ot a lwa ys m ea n t h a t n o con ca vit y exist s (see pr oblem 4).
2. It s n ecessa r y, a ga in , t o fin d t h e secon d der iva t ive. In st ea d of u sin g t h e Qu ot ien t
Ru le, u se a dou ble a n gle for m u la t o sim plify t h e fr a ct ion fir st :
g(x) 5
2 sin x cos x cos x

5 2cos 2 x
sin x
g(x) 5 24cos x sin x

g(x) 5 24(cos 2 x 2 sin 2 x)
Set t h e secon d der iva t ive equ a l t o 0, a n d solve t o get cr it ica l n u m ber s of 4 , 34 ,
5
7
4 , a n d 4 . Use t h ese a n d t est poin t s fr om ea ch in t er va l t o con st r u ct t h e
followin g wiggle gr a ph for con ca vit y:
3. (a ) f (x) is n ega t ive on (23,21), so f(x) will be con ca ve down t h er e. H owever, f(x)
will be con ca ve u p on (21,5), sin ce f (x) is posit ive on t h a t in t er va l.
(b) Beca u se f (x) is n ega t ive on (23,21), you kn ow t h a t f (x) is decr ea sin g on
t h a t in t er va l. H owever, f (x) will be in cr ea sin g on t h e in t er va l (21,5) by t h e
sa m e r ea son in g. Not ice t h a t t h e gr a ph ch a n ges fr om decr ea sin g t o in cr ea sin g a t x 5 21, so a r ela t ive m in im u m will occu r t h er e. Th a t r ela t ive
m in im u m will a lso be t h e a bsolu t e m in im u m of t h e gr a ph , beca u se t h e
gr a ph on ly in cr ea ses on ce you pa ss t h a t poin t . Beca u se t h e gr a ph in cr ea ses
for t h e r em a in der of it s dom a in , t h e a bsolu t e m a xim u m of t h e gr a ph will
occu r a t x 5 5, wh ich is t h e la st defin ed poin t on t h e gr a ph .
(c ) Th e t h ir d der iva t ive of f descr ibes t h e dir ect ion of t h e secon d der iva t ive of f.
You a r e given t h e gr a ph of t h e secon d der iva t ive, a n d a t x 5 0, f (x) is
in cr ea sin g, so f (0) will be posit ive. On t h e ot h er h a n d, f (4)(x) descr ibes t h e
con ca vit y of f (x), a n d t h e gr a ph of f (x) is con ca ve down a t x 5 0. Th er efor e, f (4)(0) will be n ega t ive.
(d ) Th e sign s of f (x) will descr ibe t h e con ca vit y of f (x). H ow do you det er m in e
t h e sign s for f (x)? Rem em ber t h a t it descr ibes t h e dir ect ion of f (x).
Beca u se f (x) decr ea ses on (23,22) (2,5) a n d in cr ea ses on (22,2), you ca n
con st r u ct t h e followin g wiggle gr a ph of f (x):
exercises
Th er efor e, g(x) will be con ca ve u p on t h e in t er va ls ( 4 , 34 ) a n d ( 54 , 74 ).
a nsw ers
1. Th e con ca vit y of a fu n ct ion is descr ibed by it s secon d der iva t ive, so fin d t h a t fir st :
..............................................................................................
222
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TIP
A rela tive extrema p oint is
the hig hest or lowest va lue
in a sma ll interva l of the
g ra p h. An a b solute
extrema p oint is the hig hest
or lowest p oint on the
entire d oma in of the g ra p h.
Ab solute extrema c a n
oc c ur a t rela tive extrema
or end p oints, if the func tion
ha s them.
NOTE
A p osition eq ua tion
d esc rib es a n ob jec t s
motion b y g iving its p osition
a t a ny time.
Th er efor e, f (x) will be con ca ve down on (2`,22) (2,`).
4. Th is r equ ir es som e t h in kin g. Th e gr a ph t ells you t h a t h (x) is som e fu n ct ion wh ose

der iva t ive is con sist en t ly 4 u n t il x 5 2, a n d t h en t h e der iva t ive su dden ly ch a n ges
t o 24. Wh a t kin d of a fu n ct ion h a s a con st a n t der iva t ive? A lin ea r fu n ct ion . F or
exa m ple, if y 5 4x 1 3, t h en y 5 4. H owever, wh a t sor t of lin ea r fu n ct ion
su dden ly ch a n ges der iva t ive? Con sider t h e a bsolu t e va lu e gr a ph pict u r ed below:
Th e slope of t h e cu r ve is 4 u n t il x 5 2, a t wh ich poin t t h e slope t u r n s in t o it s

opposit e, 24. Th e gr a ph of h (x) is con ca ve down on it s en t ir e in t er va l.
MOTION
Ca lcu lu s h a s it s lon g, t h r ea t en in g t a lon s in ju st a bou t ever y a spect of da y-t o-da y life;
lu ckily, m ost of u s a r e blissfu lly ign or a n t of it a n d u n a wa r e of it st a lkin g u s, wa it in g
u n t il we go t o sleep, a n d t h en m essin g wit h ou r st u fflike pu t t in g CDs in t h e wr on g
ca ses a n d br ea kin g a ll t h e poin t s off you r pen cils on t est da y. Bu t n ot even ca lcu lu s ca n
h ide it s in flu en ce in t h e t opic of m ot ion . Beca u se a der iva t ive descr ibes a r a t e of ch a n ge,
we h a ve a lr ea dy seen it s in flu en ce m a n y t im es a n d a llu ded t o t h is ver y m om en t :
descr ibin g h ow a der iva t ive a ffect s a posit ion equ a t ion .
Importa nt Fa cts About Position Equa tions

A posit ion equ a t ion is t ypica lly den ot ed a s s(t) or x(t); for a n y t im e t, it s ou t pu t is t h e
object s posit ion r ela t ive t o som et h in g else. F or exa m ple, ou t pu t m a y r epr esen t h ow fa r
a pr oject ile is off t h e gr ou n d or h ow fa r a wa y a pa r t icle is fr om t h e or igin .
Th e der iva t ive of posit ion , s(t) or v(t), gives t h e velocity of t h e object . In ot h er wor ds,
v(t) t ells h ow fa st t h e object is m ovin g a n d in wh a t dir ect ion . F or exa m ple, if we a r e
discu ssin g a ba ll t h r own in t o t h e a ir a n d v(3 secon ds) 5 24 ft /sec, wh en t im e equ a ls 3,
t h e ba ll is t r a velin g a t a r a t e of 4 ft /sec down wa r d.
Th e der iva t ive of velocit y, v(t) or a(t), gives t h e acceleration of t h e object . Th is t ies in
dir ect ly t o t h e sect ion you ju st com plet ed. If a n object h a s posit ive a cceler a t ion , t h en
t h e posit ion equ a t ion (t wo der iva t ives a bove a(t)) m u st be con ca ve u p, a n d t h e
velocit y equ a t ion (on e der iva t ive a bove a (t)) m u st be in cr ea sin g.
Th e m ost com m on m ot ion qu est ion s on t h e AP t est focu s on t h e m ot ion of a pa r t icle on
a lin e, u su a lly h or izon t a l (a lt h ou gh t h e dir ect ion of t h e lin e doesn t m a t t er ). F or
223
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s(t )
bu t t h e pa r t icle it self n ever lea ves t h e x-a xis. Let s look a t t h is pr oblem in dept h t o
bet t er u n der st a n d a t ypica l pa r t icle m ot ion pr oblem .
Ex a m p le 6: If t h e posit ion (in feet ) of a pa r t icle m ovin g h or izon t a lly a lon g t h e x-a xis
is given by t h e equ a t ion s(t) 5 t 3 2 10t 2 1 25t, t . 0 secon ds, a n swer t h e followin g:
(a ) E va lu a t e s(1), s(4), a n d s(5), a n d in t er pr et you r r esu lt s.
By sim ple su bst it u t ion , s(1) 5 16, s(4) 5 4, a n d s(5) 5 0. In ot h er wor ds, wh en 1
secon d h a s ela psed, t h e pa r t icle is 16 feet t o t h e r igh t of t h e or igin , bu t 3 secon ds la t er
a t t 5 5, t h e pa r t icle is ba ck t o t h e or igin .
(b) At wh a t t im e(s) is t h e pa r t icle t em por a r ily n ot m ovin g, a n d wh y?
Th e pa r t icle will be t em por a r ily st opped wh en it s velocit y equ a ls 0t h is m a kes a lot
of sen se, doesn t it ? Sin ce t h e der iva t ive of posit ion is velocit y, t a ke t h e der iva t ive a n d
set it equ a l t o 0:
v(t) 5 s(t) 5 3t 2 2 20t 1 25 5 0
..............................................................................................
exa m ple, con sider a pa r t icle m ovin g a lon g t h e x-a xis wh ose posit ion a t a n y t im e t is
given by s(t) 5 t 3 2 10t 2 1 25t 21, t .0. Th e gr a ph of t h e posit ion equ a t ion looks like
ALERT!
Now, fa ct or t h e qu a dr a t ic equ a t ion t o com plet e t h e solu t ion :

(3t 2 5)(t 2 5) 5 0
Some stud ents d on t
5
t 5 ,5
3
Th er efor e, a t t h ese t wo m om en t s, t h e pa r t icle is st opped beca u se it is in t h e pr ocess of
ch a n gin g dir ect ion . (Rem em ber, pa r t (a ) sh owed you t h a t it ch a n ged dir ect ion bet ween
t 5 1 a n d t 5 4.)
b elieve me when I sa y tha t

it is nec essa ry to b riefly stop
when c ha ng ing d irec tion,
a nd in d emonstra ting their
p oint, ma ny of these
stud ents end up with nec k
(c ) On wh a t in t er va l of t im e is t h e pa r t icle m ovin g ba ckwa r d?

Th e pa r t icle m oves ba ckwa r d wh en it h a s n ega t ive velocit y. Th er efor e, we will dr a w a
velocit y (fir st der iva t ive) wiggle gr a ph . We a lr ea dy kn ow t h e cr it ica l n u m ber s fr om
pa r t (b), so a ll t h a t r em a in s is t o ch oose som e t est poin t s fr om a m on g t h e in t er va ls.
Beca u se v(.5) is posit ive, v(3) is n ega t ive, a n d v(6) is posit ive (of cou r se you wou ldn t
h a ve t o pick t h e sa m e t est poin t s), you get t h e followin g wiggle gr a ph :
injuries.
224
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
5
Th er efor e, t h e pa r t icle is m ovin g ba ckwa r d on ( ,5). Th is m a kes sen se if you con sider
3
t h e gr a ph of s(t). Rem em ber, t h is posit ion gr a ph t ells h ow fa r t h e pa r t icle is a wa y fr om
5
t h e or igin . On t h e in t er va l ( ,5), t h e pa r t icles dist a n ce fr om t h e or igin is d ecreasin g,
3
in dica t in g ba ckwa r d m ovem en t . It sh ou ld be n o su r pr ise t h a t t h e velocit y is n ega t ive
t h en , sin ce velocit y is t h e der iva t ive of t h a t gr a ph , a n d der iva t ives h a ve a n a st y h a bit
of descr ibin g t h e dir ect ion of t h in gs.
(d ) H ow fa r does t h e pa r t icle t r a vel in it s fir st 4 secon ds of m ot ion ?
You m a y be t em pt ed t o a n swer 4 feet , sin ce s(4) 5 4; h owever, t h a t is wh a t s ca lled t h e

d isplacem en t of t h e pa r t icle. Th e displa cem en t is t h e n et ch a n ge in posit ion . Beca u se
s(0) 5 0 a n d s(4) 5 4, n o m a t t er wh a t h a ppen ed in bet ween , t h e pa r t icle en ded u p a
t ot a l of 4 u n it s fr om wh er e it st a r t ed. H owever, t h e pr oblem doesn t a sk for displa cem en t it a sks for total d istan ce traveled . We n eed t o m ea su r e h ow fa r it swu n g ou t t o
5
a n d t h en h ow fa r ba ck
t h e r igh t of t h e or igin wh en it ch a n ged dir ect ion a t t 5
3
t owa r d t h e or igin it ca m e. We a lr ea dy kn ow s(0) 5 0, bu t it is essen t ia l t o kn ow t h a t
5
s( ) ' 18.518518518, beca u se it t ells u s t h a t t h e pa r t icle t r a veled 18.518518518 feet
3
2
in t h e fir st 1 3 secon ds. At t h is poin t , t h e pa r t icle ch a n ges dir ect ion a n d en ds u p 4 feet
fr om t h e or igin . In t h e r et u r n t r ip, t h en , it t r a veled 18.518518518 2 4 5 14.518518518
feet . Th e t ot a l dist a n ce it t r a veled wa s 18.518518518 1 14.518518518 '33.037 feet .
NOTE
Air resista nc e ha s b een
neg lec ted for so long in
theoretic a l ma thema tic s
tha t it is rumored to ha ve
joined a 12-step p rog ra m.
Th e ot h er t ype of m ot ion pr oblem t h e AP t est en joys in flict in g u pon you is t h e dr ea ded

t r a ject or y pr oblem . Did you kn ow t h a t a n yt h in g t h r own , kicked, fir ed, or ot h er wise
sim ila r ly pr opelled follows a pr edet er m in ed posit ion equ a t ion on t h e ea r t h ? It s t r u e,
n eglect in g a ir r esist a n ce of cou r se. Th e gen er ic pr oject ile posit ion equ a t ion is
s(t) 5 2
g 2
t 1 v 0t 1 h 0
2
wh er e g is t h e gr a vit a t ion a l a cceler a t ion con st a n t (32 ft /sec2 in t h e E n glish syst em

a n d 9.8 m /sec2 in t h e m et r ic), v 0 is t h e object s in it ia l velocit y, a n d h 0 is t h e object s
in it ia l h eigh t . It is pr oba bly a good idea t o m em or ize t h is equ a t ion in ca se you ever
n eed it , a lt h ou gh t h e qu est ion s t ypica lly a sked for t h is sor t of pr oblem a r e ext r em ely
sim ila r t o t h ose a sked in E xa m ple 6.
225
.................................................................
YOU MAY USE A GRAPHING CALCULATOR FOR BOTH OF THESE PROBLEMS.

1. A ver y n eu r ot ic pa r t icle m oves u p a n d down t h e y-a xis a ccor din g t o t h e posit ion
equ a t ion y 5 (t 2 2 6t 1 8) z sin t, t . 0, wh er e posit ion is in cen t im et er s a n d t im e
is in secon ds. Kn owin g t h is, a n swer t h e followin g qu est ion s:
(a ) Wh en is t h e pa r t icle m ovin g down on t h e in t er va l [0,5]?
(b) At wh a t va lu es of t is t h e pa r t icle m ovin g a t a r a t e equ a l t o t h e a ver a ge
r a t e of ch a n ge for t h e pa r t icle on t h e in t er va l [0,5]?
(c ) At wh a t t im e(s) is t h e pa r t icle exa ct ly 2 cm a wa y fr om t h e or igin on t h e
in t er va l [0,5]?
(d ) Wh a t is t h e a cceler a t ion of t h e pa r t icle t h e fir st t im e it com es t o r est ?
2. Th e pr a ct ice of sh oot in g bu llet s in t o t h e a ir for wh a t ever pu r poseis ext r em ely
da n ger ou s. Assu m in g t h a t a h u n t in g r ifle disch a r ges a bu llet wit h a n in it ia l
velocit y of 3,000 ft /sec fr om a h eigh t of 6 feet , a n swer t h e followin g qu est ion s
(n eglect in g win d r esist a n ce):
(a ) H ow h igh will t h e bu llet t r a vel a t it s pea k?
(b) H ow lon g will it t a ke t h e bu llet t o h it t h e gr ou n d?
(c ) At wh a t speed will t h e bu llet be t r a velin g wh en it sla m s in t o t h e gr ou n d,
a ssu m in g t h a t it h it s n ot h in g in it s pa t h ?
(d ) Wh a t ver t ica l dist a n ce does t h e bu llet t r a vel in t h e fir st 100 secon ds?

1. (a ) Th e pa r t icle is m ovin g down wh en it s posit ion equ a t ion is decr ea sin gwh en
t h e velocit y is n ega t ive. You sh ou ld m a ke a fir st der iva t ive wiggle gr a ph , so
begin by fin din g t h e cr it ica l n u m ber s of t h e der iva t ive:
v(t) 5 (t 2 2 6t 1 8)(cos t) 1 (2t 2 6)(sin t) 5 0
It s best t o solve t h is u sin g you r gr a ph in g ca lcu la t or. Th e solu t ion s a r e t 5
.738, 2.499, a n d 3.613. Th e wiggle gr a ph is
Th er efor e, t h e pa r t icle is m ovin g down on (.738,2.499) (3.613,5).

(b) Th e a ver a ge r a t e of ch a n ge of t h e pa r t icle will be y( 5) y( 0 ) 5 2.5753545648
5
cm /sec. To det er m in e wh en t h e pa r t icle t r a vels t h is speed, set t h e velocit y
equ a l t o t h is va lu e a n d solve wit h you r ca lcu la t or. Th is is a ct u a lly t h e
Mea n Va lu e Th eor em in disgu ise; we kn ow a t lea st on e t will sa t isfy t h e
r equ ir em en t s in t h e qu est ion , bu t it t u r n s ou t t h a t t h e in st a n t a n eou s r a t e
of ch a n ge equ a ls t h e a ver a ge r a t e of ch a n ge th ree t im es, wh en t 5 .813,
2.335, a n d 3.770 sec.
(c ) Th e pa r t icle will be t wo cm a wa y fr om t h e or igin wh en it s posit ion is 2 (t wo
cm a bove) or 22 (2 cm below). So, you n eed t o solve bot h t h e equ a t ion s
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 5
226
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
(t 2 2 6t 1 8)sin t 5 2 a n d (t 2 2 6t 1 8)sin t 5 22 wit h you r ca lcu la t or. Th e

solu t ion s a r e t 5 .333, 1.234, a n d 4.732 sec.
(d ) Th e pa r t icle fir st com es t o r est a t it s fir st cr it ica l n u m ber, t 5 .73821769.
To fin d a cceler a t ion , you n eed t o differ en t ia t e t h e velocit y a n d su bst it u t e in
t h e cr it ica l n u m ber. Ra t h er t h a n doin g t h is by h a n d, wh y n ot u se t h e
gr a ph in g ca lcu la t or a n d t h e n Der iv fu n ct ion ? You wou ld t ype t h e followin g
on you r TI-83: n Der iv((x 2 2 6x 1 8)(cos (x)) 1 (2x 2 6)(sin (x)),x,.73821769).
Th e r esu lt in g a cceler a t ion is 28.116 cm /sec2 .
2. (a ) You will n eed t o a pply t h e pr oject ile posit ion equ a t ion . Th e in it ia l h eigh t a n d
velocit y a r e st a t ed by t h e pr oblem , a n d sin ce t h e qu est ion u ses E n glish
syst em u n it s (feet ), you sh ou ld u se g 5 32 ft /sec2 a s t h e a cceler a t ion du e t o
gr a vit y. You pu t you r left foot in , you t a ke you r left foot ou t , you pu t you r left
foot in , sh a ke it a ll a bou t , a n d t h e posit ion equ a t ion is
s(t) 5 216t 2 1 3,000t 1 6
Th e bu llet will r ea ch it s pea k a t t h e m a xim u m of t h e posit ion equ a t ion (sin ce
it is a n u pside-down pa r a bola , t h er e will be on ly on e ext r em a poin t ). To fin d
t h e t va lu e a t wh ich t h e pea k occu r s, fin d t h e der iva t ive a n d set it equ a l t o 0
(sin ce t h e bu llet will h a ve a velocit y of 0 a t it s h igh est poin t befor e it begin s t o
fa ll t owa r d t h e gr ou n d):
v(t) 5 s(t) 5 232t 1 3,000 5 0
t 5 93.75 secon ds
Th is, h owever, is n ot t h e a n swer. Th e h eigh t t h e bu llet r ea ch es a t t h is poin t is
t h e solu t ion : 140,631 feet , or 26.635 m iles.
(b) Th e bu llet will h it t h e gr ou n d wh en s(t) 5 0lit er a lly, wh en t h e bu llet is 0
feet off of t h e gr ou n d. So, set t h e posit ion equ a t ion equ a l t o 0, a n d solve (if
you u se t h e ca lcu la t or, you ll h a ve t o Zoom Ou t a few t im es befor e t h e gr a ph
a ppea r st h ese a r e big n u m ber s). Th e bu llet will r em a in in t h e a ir 187.502
secon ds, or 3.125 m in u t es.
(c ) U s(187.502) U 5 3,000.064 ft /sec (sin ce speed is t h e a bsolu t e va lu e of
velocit y, t h e a n swer is n ot n ega t ive). Th e bu llet will h it a t a speed sligh t ly
gr ea t er t h a n t h a t a t wh ich it wa s fir ed. Th er efor e, bein g h it by a bu llet t h a t
wa s fir ed in t o t h e a ir will h a ve t h e sa m e im pa ct a s bein g h it by a bu llet a t
poin t -bla n k r a n ge.
(d ) You a lr ea dy kn ow t h a t t h e bu llet t r a vels 140,631 feet in t h e fir st 93.75
secon ds. Beca u se s(100) 5 140,006, t h e bu llet fa lls 140,631 2 140,006 5
625 feet bet ween t 5 93.75 a n d t 5 100. Th er efor e, t h e bu llet t r a vels a t ot a l
ver t ica l dist a n ce of 140,631 feet u p 1 625 feet down 5 141,256 feet .
MOTION IN THE PLANE (BC TOPIC ONLY)

Alt h ou gh t h ese qu est ion s a r e less fr equ en t , t h e AP t est som et im es con t a in s qu est ion s
con cer n in g m ovem en t a lon g a pa r a m et r ica lly defin ed or vect or pa t h . Vect or defin ed
fu n ct ion s a r e qu it e ea sy t o differ en t ia t e, m a kin g t h is t opic r ela t ively sim ple in t h e gr a n d
sch em e of BC t opics. Befor e you r ea d on , you sh ou ld look ba ck a t t h e in t r odu ct ion t o
vect or fu n ct ion s in Ch a pt er 2.
In or der t o differ en t ia t e a vect or fu n ct ion s 5 f(t)i 1 g(t)j, fin d t h e der iva t ives of t h e
com pon en t s sepa r a t ely:
d
(s ) 5 f (t)i 1 g(t)j
dt
227
.................................................................
Ex a m p le 7: A pa r t icle m oves in t h e pla n e su ch t h a t t h e posit ion vect or fr om t h e or igin

t o t h e pa r t icle is
s 5 (cos t sin 2t)i 1 (2t 1 1)j, for a ll t on t h e in t er va l [0,2p]
(a ) F in d t h e velocit y a n d a cceler a t ion vect or s for a n y t im e t.
To fin d t h e velocit y vect or, t a ke t h e der iva t ive of t h e x a n d y com pon en t s sepa r a t ely:
v 5 (2cos t cos 2t 2 sin t sin 2t)i 1 2j
In or der t o fin d t h e a cceler a t ion vect or, t a ke t h e der iva t ive a ga in :
a 5 (24cos t sin 2t 2 2sin t cos 2t 2 2sin t cos 2t 2 cos t sin 2t)i
(b) Wh a t is t h e velocit y vect or wh en t 5 2 , a n d wh a t is t h e speed of t h e pa r t icle
t h er e?
P lu g t 5 2 in t o t h e velocit y vect or t o get t h e specific a n swer for t h a t va lu e of t:
v 5 (0 z 21 2 1 z 0)i 1 2jv 5 2j
Th e gr a ph a n d it s velocit y vect or a t t 5 2 a r e sh own below. Th e velocit y vect or h a s n o
h or izon t a l com pon en t beca u se t h e gr a ph is ch a n gin g dir ect ion a t t h a t poin t (kin d of
like a sidewa ys ext r em a poin t ).
Th e speed of t h e pa r t icle is given by t h e n or m of t h e velocit y vect or. Rem em ber, you

fin d t h e n or m wit h t h e equ a t ion
2
dy
dx
v = +
dt
dt
In t h is ca se v = 0 + 2 2 = 2.
..............................................................................................
Vect or posit ion equ a t ion s wor k sim ila r ly t o t h e posit ion equ a t ion s we ju st discu ssed.
Th e velocit y vect or is given by t h e fir st der iva t ive of t h e posit ion equ a t ion , a n d t h e
a cceler a t ion vect or is given by t h e secon d.
228
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..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 6
YOU MAY USE YOUR GRAPHING CALCULATOR FOR PART (B) OF PROBLEM 1 AND
ALL OF PROBLEMS 2 AND 3.
1. A pa r t icle m oves a lon g t h e gr a ph defin ed by x 5 cos t, y 5 cos 3t, for t on t h e
in t er va l [0,2p].
7p
?
4
(b) Dr a w t h e pa t h of t h e pa r t icle on t h e coor din a t e pla n e, a n d in dica t e t h e
7p
.
dir ect ion t h e pa r t icle m oves. Dr a w t h e velocit y vect or for t 5
4
7p
(c ) Wh a t is t h e m a gn it u de of t h e a cceler a t ion wh en t 5
?
4
(a ) Wh a t is t h e velocit y vect or, v , wh en t 5
2. A pa r t icle m oves a lon g a con t in u ou s a n d differ en t ia ble pa t h t h a t in clu des t h e

coor din a t es (x,y) below for t h e cor r espon din g va lu es of t:
Appr oxim a t e t h e speed of t h e pa r t icle a t t 5 3.
3. Cr ea t e a posit ion equ a t ion in vect or for m for a pa r t icle wh ose speed is 15 wh en
t 5 1.

1. (a ) Th e gen er a l posit ion vect or is given by s 5 (cos t)i 1 (cos 3t)j. Th er efor e, t h e
velocit y vect or will be v 5 (2sin t)i 1 (23sin 3t)j. Th e velocit y vect or wh en
7p
2
3 2
21
7
will be v 5
i 1
j, sin ce 3 5
, wh ich is cot er m i4
4
4
2
2
5
.
n a l wit h
4
t5
229
.................................................................
(c ) Th e m a gn it u de of t h e a cceler a t ion is fou n d by ca lcu la t in g t h e n or m of t h e

a cceler a t ion , m u ch like t h e speed is t h e m a gn it u de (n or m ) of t h e velocit y.
Th er efor e, you sh ou ld begin by fin din g t h e a cceler a t ion vect or by differ en t ia t in g t h e velocit y vect or :
a 5 (2cos t)i 1 (29cos 3t)j
Th e m a gn it u de of t h e a cceler a t ion is t h e n or m of t h a t vect or, so ca lcu la t e it
7p
:
wh en t 5
4
2
7
21
a = cos + 9 cos
4
4
1
1
+ 81
2
2
a = 41
2. Reca ll t h e gen er ic for m u la for speed a s t h e n or m of velocit y: v =
( dxdt ) + ( dydt )
2
Beca u se you do n ot h a ve t h e posit ion vect or, you ca n n ot fin d v . H owever, you ca n
dy
dx
and
:
u se slopes of seca n t lin es t o a ppr oxim a t e
dt
dt
dx 5.02 4.91
= .22
dt
3 2 .5
dy 4.73 4.35
= .76
3 2 .5
dt
Th er efor e, v = .22 2 + .76 2 .791 .
exercises
a =
a nsw ers
T h e g r a p h p r oceed s fr om (1,1) t o (21,21) on [0,] a n d t h en r et u r n s t o

(1,1) on [,2].
..............................................................................................
(b)
230
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
3. F r om t h e given in for m a t ion , we kn ow t h a t

2
dx + dy = 15
dt dt
so t h er efor e,
2
dx + dy = 225
dt dt
Th er e a r e n u m er ou s a ppr oa ch es t o t a ke, bu t we will discu ss t h e ea siest . Beca u se
dy
dx
5 15 a n d
5 0.
we ca n do a n yt h in g we like (a s lon g a s it wor ks), well set
dt
dt
Not ice t h a t t h e su m of t h eir squ a r es equ a ls ou r goa l. Next , we n eed a n expr ession
2
for x wh ose der iva t ive, eva lu a t ed a t 1, is 15. Wh a t a bou t x 5 15
2 t ? Th e t r ick is
t a kin g h a lf of t h e n u m ber you wa n t t o en d u p wit h a n d u sin g it a s t h e coefficien t ,
sin ce t h e P ower Ru le dict a t es t h a t you will m u lt iply by 2: x 5 2 z 15
2 t 5 15t.
Clea r ly, t h is h a s a va lu e of 15 wh en t 5 1. You ca n u se a n y con st a n t for you r y
com pon en t , sin ce it s der iva t ive will be 0. On e possible a n swer for t h is pr oblem ,
2
t h er efor e, is s 5 ( 15
2 t )i 1 19j. Ch eck it t o con vin ce you r self t h a t it s r igh t .
OPTIMIZATION
Opt im iza t ion , like r ela t ed r a t es, is on e of t h e m ost u sefu l t opics in ca lcu lu s beca u se of it s
dir ect t ie t o r ea l-wor ld a pplica t ion s. H owever, ju st like r ela t ed r a t es, it is on e of t h e
t opics m a n y st u den t s for get a bou t by t est t im e. Th er e a r e m a n y t h eor ies t h a t cou ld
a ccou n t for t h is for get fu ln ess in st u den t s. On e t h eor y is t h a t r ela t ed r a t es a n d opt im iza t ion , u n like m a n y ot h er ca lcu lu s t opics, r equ ir e st u den t s t o follow a st r ict a lgor it h m in
or der t o a r r ive a t a cor r ect a n swer (you m u st pr oceed fr om on e st ep t o t h e n ext , a n d
t h er e a r e fewer a lt er n a t ive solu t ion s possible t h a n in ot h er ca lcu lu s t opics).
An ot h er less widely h eld t h eor y is t h a t t h e con cept s of r ela t ed r a t es a n d opt im iza t ion
a r e im pr in t ed on sm a ller m em or y m olecu les t h a n ot h er ca lcu lu s t opics. Th ese
sm a ller m olecu les a r e, t h en , sh a ken loose fr om t h e br a in a n d esca pe t h r ou gh sm a ll
lesion s in it s su r fa ce ever y t im e you sn eeze. I, m yself, a m t or n a s t o wh ich is a ct u a lly
t r u e, bu t it does expla in t h e com m on st u den t ph r a se Good lu ck on t h e AP Ca lcu lu s
t est , a n d t r y n ot t o sn eeze, wh ich h a s pu zzled sch ola r s for deca des.
NOTE
The entire c onc ep t of
op timiza tion is b a sed on our
a b ility to find ma x s a nd
min s using c ritic a l numb ers
a nd wig g le g ra p hs.
Optim ization is t h e pr ocess of fin din g a n opt im a l va lu e, eit h er m a xim u m or m in im u m ,

u n der st r ict con dit ion s. You m a y be a sked t o m in im ize a r ea , m a xim ize volu m e,
m in im ize cost , or m a xim ize pr ofit , ju st t o n a m e a few a pplica t ion s. Bu t , we will st a r t
ou t wit h a sim pler exa m ple.
Ex a m p le 8: Wh a t t wo posit ive r ea l n u m ber s give t h e sm a llest possible pr odu ct if on e
n u m ber is t wo less t h a n t h r ee t im es t h e ot h er ?
S o lu tio n : Th e fir st st ep in a n opt im iza t ion pr oblem is t o design a n equ a t ion t h a t
r epr esen t s wh a t you a r e a ct u a lly t r yin g t o opt im ize. In t h is ca se, you wa n t t h e
m in im u m pr odu ct of t wo n u m ber s.
231
.................................................................
P 5 xy
wh ich sim ply m ea n s t h a t som e pr odu ct P is equ a l t o t wo differ en t n u m ber s, x a n d y,
m u lt iplied. We wa n t a m in im u m va lu e for P. On e pr oblem st a n ds in ou r wa y. Optim ization problem s requ ire a sin gle variable in th e expression . We h a ve t wo va r ia bles, so
we n eed t o go ba ck t o t h e or igin a l pr oblem for m or e in for m a t ion . Th er e is a n ot h er
r ela t ion sh ip bet ween t h e va r ia bles: on e (it doesn t m a t t er wh ich ) is t wo less t h a n
t h r ee t im es t h e ot h er, so we ca n wr it e:
y 5 3x 2 2
Now, su bst it u t e t h is y va lu e in t o ou r or igin a l equ a t ion for P t o get
P 5 x z (3x 2 2) 5 3x 2 2 2x
We n ow h a ve a n equ a t ion for t h e pr odu ct in a sin gle va r ia ble! Do you r ea lize h ow
won der fu l t h a t is? We a lr ea dy kn ow h ow t o fin d a m a xim u m or m in im u m t a ke t h e
der iva t ive a n d con st r u ct a wiggle gr a ph :
..............................................................................................
We will set u p t h e equ a t ion
TIP
You c a n tell tha t this is a n
op timiza tion p rob lem
P 5 6x 2 2 5 0
b ec a use it a sks for the
2 1
x = =
6 3
sma llest p ossib le numb er.

If the p rob lem is a sking for
a n extreme va lue (whether
la rg e or sma ll), it s a n
op timiza tion p rob lem.
F r om t h e wiggle gr a ph , it is sim ple t o see t h a t t h e fu n ct ion P will h a ve a m in im u m

1
. Wh a t is t h e cor r espon din g y? P lu g it ba ck in t o ou r secon da r y equ a t ion
wh en x 5
3
y 5 3x 2 2:
1
y53 22
3
y 5 1 2 2 5 21
1
h a ve t h e sm a llest possible pr odu ct , given ou r
Th er efor e, t h e n u m ber s 21 a n d
3
in it ia l defin in g con dit ion of on e bein g t wo less t h a n t h r ee t im es t h e ot h er (21 is 2 less
1
t h a n 3 z ).
3
To be h on est , t h is looks like a com plica t ed pr ocess, bu t t h e m et h od is r ea lly qu it e
st r a igh t for wa r d a n d r epet it ive.
3 Steps for Success with Optimiza tion Problems

Wr it e a n equ a t ion t h a t r epr esen t s wh a t you a r e t r yin g t o m a xim ize or m in im ize
(t h is is ca lled t h e prim ary equ ation ).
If m or e t h a n on e va r ia ble is pr esen t , u se ot h er in for m a t ion in t h e pr oblem (in t h e
for m of secon da r y equ a t ion s like y 5 3x 2 2 in E xa m ple 8) t o elim in a t e t h e excess
va r ia bles.
F in d t h e der iva t ive of you r pr im a r y equ a t ion so t h a t you ca n iden t ify t h e cr it ica l
n u m ber s a n d dr a w a wiggle gr a ph t o fin d t h e a n swer.
232
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..............................................................................................
If you r em em ber t h ese st eps, you a r e well on you r wa y t o su cceedin g a t opt im iza t ion
pr oblem s.
Ex a m p le 9: Wh a t poin t on t h e gr a ph of y 5 sin x is t h e closest t o (0,1)?
S o lu tio n : You a r e t r yin g t o m in im ize dist a n ce, so u se t h e dist a n ce for m u la a s you r
pr im a r y equ a t ion :
ALERT!
Bec a use op timiza tion
p rob lems ha ve numerous
step s, stud ents sometimes
stop too ea rly a nd d on t
a c tua lly a nswer the
q uestion p osed to them.
When you re d one, rerea d
the q uestion a nd ma ke
sure you ve a nswered it.
D=
( x2 x1 )2 + ( y2 y1 )2
Alt h ou gh it doesn t m a t t er wh ich is wh ich , well set (x 1 ,y 1 ) equ a l t o t h e st a t ion a r y

poin t (0,1) a n d set (x 2 ,y 2 ) equ a l t o t h e poin t on t h e gr a ph of sin e (x, sin x). Su bst it u t e
t h ese poin t s in t o get
D=
D=
x 2 + ( sin x 1)
x 2 + sin 2 x 2 sin x + 1
Tim e t o fin d t h e der iva t ive a n d set it equ a l t o zer o t o fin d cr it ica l n u m ber s:
D =
1 2x + 2 sin x cos x 2 cos x

=0
2 x 2 + sin 2 x 2 sin x + 1
Th e cr it ica l n u m ber will be x 5 .4787224241. You h a ve t o gr a ph t h e der iva t ive t o fin d

t h is va lu e, so wh ile you h a ve D on you r ca lcu la t or scr een , n ot ice t h a t it is n ega t ive
befor e t h e cr it ica l n u m ber a n d posit ive a ft er. Th er efor e, x 5 .4787224241 is a m in im u m . (Th is is a qu ick ca lcu la t or sh or t cu t for con st r u ct in g wiggle gr a ph s wit h ou t t h e
t ediou s t est poin t su bst it u t ion .) In or der t o fin ish t h e pr oblem , h owever, we n eed t o
give t h e coord in ate t h a t is closest t o sin x, so plu g x in t o sin x t o get t h e y va lu e. Th e
fin a l a n swer is (.479,.461).
NOTE
By the wa y, 100 in 3 is a
frea kin lot of Sc hwop ! In
fa c t, there is so muc h
b evera g e in ea c h c a n tha t
c onsumers ha ve c oined the
p hra se Schwop! buckets
when referring to your
p rod uc t.
Ex a m p le 10: You h a ve in ven t ed a n ew a n d deliciou s bever a ge ca lled Sch wop!, wh ich

t a st es in explica bly like cot t on ba lls. Deem ed t h e lea st r efr esh in g dr in k in t h e kn own
u n iver se, it is n on et h eless flyin g off t h e sh elves. If you wish ea ch cylin dr ica l ca n of
Sch wop! t o con t a in 100 in 3 of bever a ge, wh a t h eigh t m u st ea ch ca n be t o m in im ize t h e
a m ou n t of a lu m in u m you u se t o m a n u fa ct u r e t h e ca n s?
233
.................................................................
Th e c o n s tru c tio n o f a c a n o f S c h w o p !
You fir st n eed t o wr it e a n equ a t ion r epr esen t in g wh a t you wa n t t o m in im ize (a lu m in u m ), wh ich in t h is ca se is t h e su r fa ce a r ea of t h e ca n plu s t h e a r ea of t h e t op a n d
bot t om of t h e ca n :
A 5 2prh 1 2pr 2
Da n ger ! Th er e a r e t wo va r ia bles pr esen t . To r ect ify t h is, u se t h e ot h er in for m a t ion
given by t h e pr oblem t h e volu m e of Sch wop! in ea ch ca n :
NOTE
The top of the Sc hwop !
V 5 pr 2 h 5 100
c a n ha s c irc umferenc e 2pr,

whic h is why the rec ta ng le
You ca n solve t h is for h t o elim in a t e t h a t pesky ext r a va r ia ble:
100
r 2
Su bst it u t e ba ck in t o t h e or igin a l equ a t ion t o get
100
A = 2r 2 + 2r 2
r
200
A=
+ 2r 2
r
As is t ypica l of opt im iza t ion pr oblem s, t h e h a r dest pa r t wa s fin din g t h e equ a t ion ; n ow,
h=
fin d t h e der iva t ive a n d set u p a wiggle gr a ph :
A =
..............................................................................................
S o lu tio n : E a ch ca n is m a de u p of a r ect a n gle a n d t wo cir cles (you ca n t for get t h e t op

a n d bot t om of t h e ca n !), a s sh own below:
200
+ 4r
r2
r 5 2.515397996 in ch es
Th is is t h e r a diu s of t h e sm a llest possible ca n . Be ca r efu lt h e pr oblem does n ot a sk

for t h is va lu e. It a sks for t h e h eigh t t h a t cor r espon ds t o it . Th a t h eigh t is
100
h=
2 5 5.031 in ch es
( 2.515397996 )
of a luminum ha s tha t a s its

leng th when the c a n is
c ut a p a rt.
234
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..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 7

1. (A classic m axim ization problem ) F a r m er Rogen doger br eeds cows t h a t ca n t
swim . Non bu oya n t cows ju st t a st e bet t er, da dgu m it , h e in sist s (a n d it s best n ot
t o qu est ion h im fu r t h er ). Beca u se t h e cows a r e la n dlocked, it sa ves h im fen ce
cost s. If Rogen doger set s u p a r ect a n gu la r pa st u r e t h a t is bor der ed on on e side by
a r iver (wh ich r equ ir es n o fen ce, for obviou s r ea son s), wh a t is t h e m a xim u m a r ea
h e ca n en close wit h 1,000 feet of fen ce? (F ood for t h ou gh t : H ow does h e pr even t
ca t t le t h eft by r iver boa t -r idin g m a r a u der s?)
2. Wh a t poin t (s) on t h e gr a ph of y 5 cot x is closest t o t h e coor din a t e pa ir (p,0)?
3. F in d t h e m a xim u m a r ea of a r ect a n gle t h a t h a s t wo ver t ices on t h e x-a xis a n d t wo
ver t ices on t h e gr a ph of y 5 x 2 2 8.
4. To celebr a t e ou r fir st a n n iver sa r y, I a m com m ission in g t h e con st r u ct ion of a

fou r-in ch -t a ll box m a de of pr eciou s m et a ls t o give t o m y br ide, Lisa . Th e jewelr y
box will h a ve r ect a n gu la r sides a n d a n open t op. Th e lon ger sides of t h e box will
be m a de of gold, a t a cost of $300/in 2 ; t h e sh or t er sides will be m a de of pla t in u m ,
a t a cost of $550/in 2 . (Let s ca ll it practical, n ot ch eap, t h a t t h e sh or t er sides a r e
m or e expen sive). Th e bot t om will be m a de of plywood, a t a cost of $.02/in 2 . Wh a t
dim en sion s pr ovide m e wit h t h e lowest cost if I a m a da m a n t t h a t t h e box h a ve a
volu m e of 50 in 3 ?

1. You sh ou ld begin t h is pr oblem wit h a dia gr a m , in clu din g a ll r eleva n t in for m a t ion , like so:
235
.................................................................
Now, fin d t h e m a xim u m of t h is equ a t ion t h r ou gh t h e u su a l ch a n n els:

A 5 1,000 2 4x 5 0
4x 5 1,000
x 5 250
Th e opt im u m va lu e for x is 250, a n d t h e cor r espon din g y will be
y 5 1,000 2 2(250) 5 500
Th er efor e, t h e m a xim u m a r ea is 500 z 250 5 125,000 ft 2 . As fa r a s t h e r iver boa t
m a r a u der s, a n swer s m a y va r y.
2. Th is is sim ila r t o E xa m ple 9, so t h er es n o n eed t o go in t o a gr ea t dea l of det a il
h er e. Use t h e sa m e pr ocess wit h poin t s (p,0) a n d (x, cot x):
D=
D =
( x )2 + ( cot x )2
Th er e a r e t wo cr it ica l n u m ber s t o wor r y a bou t , sin ce on ly t wo of t h em a r e close t o

(p,0): 2.163306396 a n d 4.119878911. (Don t for get t h a t p is a lso a cr it ica l n u m ber
sin ce cot x is u n defin ed t h er e.)
In or der t o figu r e ou t wh ich is closer, you ll n eed t o plu g t h em bot h in t o t h e
dist a n ce for m u la . Rem em ber, we h a ve design ed t h is for m u la t o t ell u s h ow fa r
a wa y som et h in g is fr om (p,0) m er ely by su bst it u t in g in t h e x va lu e. It t u r n s ou t
t h a t t h ey both a r e a dist a n ce of 1.187534573 u n it s a wa y, so bot h a r e cor r ect
a n swer s. Th e pr oblem does a sk for poin ts h owever, so plu g bot h x va lu es (don t
r ou n d u n t il t h e ver y en d!) in t o cot x t o get you r fin a l a n swer of (2.163,2.673) a n d
(4.120,.673), sh own below.
exercises
2
1 2 ( x ) 2 cot x csc x
2
( x )2 + ( cot x )2
a nsw ers
A 5 x (1,000 2 2x) 5 1,000x 2 2x 2
..............................................................................................
You wa n t t o m a xim ize t h e a r ea , so you r pr im a r y equ a t ion m u st be t h e a r ea of t h e

r ect a n gle: A 5 xy. H owever, t h er e a r e t wo va r ia bles, so con sider t h e secon da r y
equ a t ion ba sed on t h e lim it ed a m ou n t of fen ce: 2x 1 y 5 1,000 (it s n ot 2x 1 2y
beca u se you don t n eed t o fen ce t h e r iver ). Solve t h e secon da r y equ a t ion for y t o
get y 5 1,000 2 2x a n d su bst it u t e t h a t in t o t h e a r ea equ a t ion :
236
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
3. You sh ou ld a ga in begin by dr a win g a pict u r e:
Beca u se t h e pa r a bola is y-sym m et r ic, ou r r ect a n gle sh ou ld be, t oo, in or der t o

m a xim ize a r ea . Th e widt h of t h e r ect a n gle in t h e dia gr a m is 2x, a n d it s len gt h is
2f(x), if we set f(x) 5 x 2 2 8. Th is is beca u se f(x) will be n ega t ive, a n d you don t
wa n t a n ega t ive len gt h . You r over a ll goa l is t o m a xim ize a r ea , so you r equ a t ion
sh ou ld be t h e a r ea of a r ect a n gle:
A 5lzw
A 5 2(x 2 2 8)(2x) 5 22x 3 1 16x
On ly on e va r ia ble is in t h e equ a t ion , so pr oceed a s pla n n ed, a n d cr it ica lly
wiggle:
A5 26x 2 1 16 5 0
8
x =
3
Th er efor e,
8 is t h e opt im u m va lu e for x, so t h e m a xim u m widt h of t h e

3
8
2
= 4 . Th e cor r espon din g len gt h will be
r ect a n gle is 2
3
3
8 2
16
l =
8 =
. F in a lly, t h e m a xim u m a r ea will be
3
3
16 4 2 64 2
A=
=
17.419 .
3
3
3 3
4. Below is a gr a ph ic r epr esen t a t ion of t h e box in qu est ion :
G
G
wood
x
P
y
As dr a wn , t h e side t owa r d you a n d in t h e ba ck a r e t h e la r ger, gold sides, a n d t h e

left a n d r igh t sides a r e t h e sm a ller, pla t in u m sides. In a ddit ion , x r epr esen t s t h e
len gt h of t h e gold side a n d y r epr esen t s t h e len gt h of t h e pla t in u m side. As st a t ed
in t h e pr oblem , t h e h eigh t of t h e box is 4 in ch es. Rem em ber t h a t you r over a ll goa l
is t o fin d t h e m in im u m cost , so you n eed t o design a cost equ a t ion ba sed on h ow
237
.................................................................
Som et h in gs wr on gt h er e a r e t wo va r ia bles. Tim e t o u se t h e la st bit of in for m a t ion fr om t h e pr oblem : t h e box m u st h a ve a volu m e of 50 in 3 . Th a t is wr it t en a s

25
. Su bst it u t e t h is ba ck in t o t h e cost
4xy 5 50. If you solve for y, you get y 5
2x
equ a t ion t o get
S D
25 25 2
+
2x
2 100
1
C = 2,400x + 55,000x 21 +
4
Ta ke t h e der iva t ive a n d do t h e wiggle t h in g:
C 5 2,400x 1 4,400 z
C5 2,400 2
55,000
50
x2
Th er efor e, t h e opt im a l va lu e for x will be 4.787135539, wh ich m a kes t h e opt im a l

va lu e for y
25
y=
2.611
2 4.787135539
Th er efor e, t h e dim en sion s pr ovidin g t h e lowest cost a r e 4.787 in 3 2.611 in 3 4
in . (By t h e wa y, t h e lowest cost will be n ea r ly $23,000. Do you t h in k I st ill n eed t o
bu y a ca r d?)
TECHNOLOGY: MODELING A PARTICLES MOVEMENT WITH

A GRAPHING CALCULATOR
Th e TI-83 in clu des a n ea t fea t u r e t h a t a llows you t o view pa r t icle m ot ion pr oblem s qu it e
sim ply. If you a r e a n AB st u den t , you ll n eed t o delve in t o t h e wor ld of pa r a m et r ic
equ a t ion s (ju st for a secon d, a n d it won t h u r t a bit I pr om ise). Alt h ou gh a lot of
in for m a t ion ca n be ga t h er ed fr om a pa r t icles posit ion equ a t ion , n ot h in g bea t s seein g
t h e pa r t icle r u n n in g ba ck a n d for t h a cr oss t h e x-a xis, wor kin g u p pa r t icle swea t a n d
ch eckin g it s pa r t icle pu lse. Let s r evisit E xa m ple 6 fr om ou r n ot -t oo-dist a n t pa st t o see
h ow t h is wor ks.
exercises
55,000
5 2,400
x2
2,400x 2 5 55,000
275
x =
12
On ly t h e posit ive a n swer m a kes sen se (you r box ca n n ot h a ve a n ega t ive len gt h
wit h ou t r ippin g a pa r t t im e a n d spa ce, cr ea t in g a bla ck h ole, a n d swa llowin g
ever yon e wit h in 2 ligh t yea r s in it s dia bolica l ga pin g open t op).
a nsw ers
C 5 2,400x 1 4,400y 1 xy(.02)
..............................................................................................
expen sive t h e box will be t o cr ea t e. To do so, fin d t h e a r ea of ea ch side of t h e box,

a n d m u lt iply it by h ow expen sive t h e m a t er ia ls wou ld be for t h a t side. F or
exa m ple, t h e side fa cin g you is m a de of gold a n d h a s a n a r ea of 4x. Th er efor e, t h e
cost of t h e side will be 4x z 300. Th er e a r e t wo of t h ose sides, so you m u lt iply by
t wo t o get 2,400x. F in a lly, a dd in t h e pla t in u m sides a n d t h e bot t om t o get
238
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Ex a m p le 11: If a pa r t icle m oves a lon g t h e x-a xis a ccor din g t o posit ion equ a t ion s(t) 5
t 3 2 10t 2 1 25t, h ow m a n y t im es does t h e pa r t icle ch a n ge dir ect ion for t 0?
S o lu tio n : Swit ch you r ca lcu la t or t o pa r a m et r ic m ode. Th is is don e by pr essin g

[Mode], a r r owin g down t o t h e P a r opt ion , a n d pr essin g [E n t er ]. Not ice t h a t t h e Y5
scr een h a s ch a n ged; ever y equ a t ion n ow r equ ir es a n x a n d a y com pon en t t o gr a ph . In
t h e X1 T 5 lin e, t ype t h e posit ion equ a t ion , pr essin g [x,t,u] for ea ch va r ia ble. In t h e
Y1T 5 lin e, t ype 0t h is en su r es t h a t t h e pa r t icle will a lwa ys h a ve a h eigh t of 0 a n d
n ever lea ve t h e x-a xis. F in a lly, u se t h e a r r ows t o m a ke you r wa y t o t h e lit t le \ sym bol
n ext t o X1T 5. Th is ch ooses wh a t t h e gr a ph will look like. P r essin g [E n t er ] t wice on
t h is sym bol ch a n ges it t o 2O. You r ca lcu la t or scr een sh ou ld look like t h e gr a ph ic
below befor e you con t in u e:
Now, pr ess t h e [Win dow] bu t t on . Ma ke su r e you r Tm in va lu e is 0, sin ce t h e pr oblem

r equ ir es t h a t t 0. A good va lu e for Tm a x is 10. Now, pr ess [Gr a ph ]. Th e lit t le
pa r t icle sh ou ld zip off t o t h e r igh t , t u r n a r ou n d, a n d t h en m ove off t o t h e r igh t
a ga in t h is t im e for ever. Th u s, it ch a n ged dir ect ion t wice. If t h e pa r t icle m oved off t h e
scr een , you ca n a lwa ys in cr ea se t h e Xm in a n d Xm a x va lu es of t h e gr a ph .
You m a y be won der in g h ow m in d-bogglin gly u sefu l t h is t r ick is in t h e gr a n d sch em e of

t h in gs. Th e a n swer is n ot ver y. H owever, if you ve h a d difficu lt y im a gin in g t h e
m ovem en t of a pa r t icle on a h or izon t a l a xis, t h is exer cise ca n be ver y en ligh t en in g. If
t h e pa r t icle is m ovin g on t h e y-a xis, r ever se t h e va lu es you t yped, m a kin g t h e X1T
239
.................................................................
Ex a m p le 12: Clever ly in st r u ct you r ca lcu la t or t o m odel t h e m ot ion of a ca n n on ba ll

wh ose posit ion equ a t ion is s(t) 5 216t 2 1 20t.
S o lu tio n : Set you r ca lcu la t or ba ck t o F u n c m ode by pr essin g t h e [Mode] bu t t on a n d
t ype t h e a bove equ a t ion on t h e Y5 scr een . (Th is t im e, t h e va r ia bles will be xs
in st ea d of ts, bu t t h a t won t a ffect t h e gr a ph on e bit .) Ma ke su r e t o a r r ow over t o t h e
\ sym bol, a n d ch a n ge it t o a 2O. Go a h ea d a n d [Gr a ph ] t h e equ a t ion . You m a y
wa n t t o a dju st t h e win dow a lit t le bit . Th e gr a ph below (wit h t h e ca n n on ba ll in
m id-a ir ) h a s t h e followin g set t in gs: Xm in 5 0, Xm a x 5 1.5, Ym in 5 0, Ym a x 5 7.
..............................................................................................
va lu e 0 a n d t h e Y1T t h e equ a t ion . If t h e pa r t icles m ovem en t is n ot r est r ict ed t o a

lin e, t h e pr ocess is even ea sier, a s dem on st r a t ed in t h e n ext exa m ple.
240
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 8

1. Dr a w t h e gr a ph of a fu n ct ion , g, t h a t sa t isfies t h e followin g con dit ion s: g h a s
dom a in [25,8], g h a s r ela t ive m in im a a t x 5 23 a n d x 5 4, g h a s r ela t ive m a xim a
a t x 5 21 a n d x 5 6, g h a s it s a bsolu t e m a xim u m a t x 5 25, a n d gs a bsolu t e
m in im u m occu r s a t x 5 4.
2. Th e gr a ph s of h (x), h (x), a n d h (x) a r e given below. Det er m in e wh ich gr a ph is
wh ich , a n d ju st ify you r a n swer.
B
C
A
3. Dr a w t h e gr a ph of f(x) ba sed on t h e followin g ch a r t of t h e sign s of fs der iva t ives,

given t h a t f is con t in u ou s, a , b , c , d , e, a n d f(a) 5 f(e) 5 0. (Not e: DNE
m ea n s does n ot exist .)
4. Below is a gr a ph of a ca r s velocity. An swer t h e followin g qu est ion s ba sed on t h e

gr a ph .
241
.................................................................
5. A pa r t icle m oves a lon g t h e y-a xis a ccor din g t o t h e con t in u ou s, differ en t ia ble cu r ve
s(t), wh ich con t a in s t h e va lu es given in t h e t a ble below.
Wh a t is t h e a ppr oxim a t e velocit y of t h e pa r t icle a t t 5 5?

6. Below is a gr a ph of h (x). An swer t h e followin g qu est ion s ba sed on t h e gr a ph .
(a ) On wh a t in t er va ls is h con ca ve u p?
(b) On wh a t in t er va ls is h con ca ve down ?
(c ) Wh a t a r e t h e in flect ion poin t s of h ?
7. If a pa r t icle m oves a lon g t h e x-a xis a ccor din g t o t h e posit ion equ a t ion s(t) 5 t 4 2
4t 2 1 3 (for t 0). If s is m ea su r ed in feet a n d t in secon ds, a n swer t h e followin g
qu est ion s:
(a ) Wh a t is t h e va lu e of t gu a r a n t eed by t h e Mea n Va lu e Th eor em for t h e
in t er va l [0,3]?
(b) Wh a t is t h e pa r t icles velocit y a n d a cceler a t ion wh en t 5 3?
(c ) Wh en is t h e pa r t icle m ovin g for wa r d?
8. (F or fa n s of t h e m ovie Willie Won k a an d th e Ch ocolate Factory): Na u gh t y ch ildr en . No on e will list en t o Mr. Won ka s in st r u ct ion s. Now Violet h a s gon e a n d
ch ewed t h e t h r ee-cou r se-m ea l gu m , a n d sh es begu n t o t u r n blu e. In fa ct , sh es
swellin g t o t h e size of a gia n t blu eber r y! If h er t or so swells su ch t h a t h er r a diu s
is in cr ea sin g a t a con st a n t r a t e of 2 in /sec, a t wh a t r a t e is t h e su r fa ce a r ea of h er
ber r y body in cr ea sin g wh en h er r a diu s is 36 feet ?
9. Wh a t is t h e volu m e of t h e la r gest r igh t cir cu la r cylin der t h a t ca n be in scr ibed in
a sph er e of r a diu s 4 feet ?
exerc ises
(c ) Wh en is t h e ca r deceler a t in g?
..............................................................................................
(a ) On wh a t in t er va ls is t h e ca r m ovin g for wa r d?
(b) Wh en is t h e ca r s speed t h e gr ea t est ?
242
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
10. Two ca r s m ove on st r a igh t r oa ds t h a t a r e a t a 50 a n gle t o ea ch ot h er, a s pict u r ed

below.
If ca r A m oves a t a con st a n t r a t e of 40 m ph , ca r B m oves a t a con st a n t r a t e of 35

m ph , a n d t h ey st a r t ed fr om t h e in t er sect ion a t t h e sa m e t im e, wh a t is t h e r a t e of
ch a n ge of t h e dist a n ce bet ween t h e ca r s on ce ca r A h a s t r a veled 25 m iles? (Hin t:
t h e La w of Cosin es)
*11. A pa r t icle m oves a lon g t h e pa t h defin ed by x 5 cos t, y 5 sin 2t.

(a ) F in d t h e a cceler a t ion vect or for t h e pa r t icle a t t 5
7p
.
6
1
(b) Wh en is t h e speed of t h e pa r t icle ?
2
12. J a m e s D ia bo lic a l Ch a lle n g e : You a r e con t r a ct ed t o bu ild a n a n im a l ca ge for

t h e Discover y Ch a n n el. On e of t h e sides of t h e ca ge will be a r iver, wit h t h e
r em a in in g bou n da r ies bein g con st r u ct ed of fen cin g. You a r e given 400 feet of
fen ce a n d a r e r equ ir ed t o in cor por a t e a t lea st 100 feet of coa st lin e. You ca n bu ild
eit h er a r ect a n gu la r fen ce or a sem icir cu la r on e. F in d t h e dim en sion s of t h e ca ge
t h a t give t h e gr ea t est a r ea , a n d ju st ify you r a n swer m a t h em a t ica lly.
*a B C-on ly problem
243
.................................................................
3. Let s t a ke t h e in t er va l a , x , b a s a n exa m ple. On t h a t in t er va l, bot h f (x) a n d

f (x) a r e n ega t ive. Th er efor e, f(x) will be decr ea sin g a n d con ca ve down . Th er es
on ly on e wa y t o dr a w su ch a cu r ve, a n d it looks like t h e followin g:
You kn ow t h a t f is con t in u ou s, bu t n o der iva t ive exist s a t x 5 b a n d x 5 d . As you

dr a w t h e gr a ph , you ca n t ell t h a t n o der iva t ive exist s beca u se bot h va lu es of x
r esu lt in a cu sp. A cor r ect gr a ph looks som et h in g like t h e followin g:
4. (a ) Th e ca r s m ovin g for wa r d wh en ever it s velocit y is posit ive. We a r e given t h e

gr a ph of velocit y, a n d it is posit ive on (0,8). Th e ca r s velocit y is clea r ly
decr ea sin g on (6,10), bu t t h e velocit y is n ot n ega t ive u n t il t . 8.
exercises
2. Gr a ph B is h (x), gr a ph C is h (x), a n d gr a ph A is h (x). Not ice t h a t C h a s a va lu e

of 0 ea ch t im e B h a s a r ela t ive ext r em a poin t . F u r t h er m or e, C is posit ive wh en ever B is in cr ea sin g a n d n ega t ive wh en B is decr ea sin g. Not ice t h a t A is n ega t ive
wh en ever B is con ca ve down a n d posit ive wh en ever B is con ca ve u p. (Th er efor e,
A h a s a va lu e of 0, or a n x-in t er cept , ea ch t im e B h a s a n in flect ion poin t , a n d ea ch
t im e C h a s a n ext r em a poin t .) You don t n eed t o a pply ever y on e of t h ese
con n ect ion sju st en ou gh t o differ en t ia t e (n o pu n in t en ded) a m on g t h e t h r ee.
a nsw ers
1. Th er e a r e n u m er ou s possible solu t ion s t o t h is pr oblem , bu t t h ey a ll look ver y

sim ila r. Rem em ber, r ela t ive ext r em a a r e lit t le h ills a n d va lleys in t h e gr a ph ,
a n d a bsolu t e ext r em a (gu a r a n t eed by t h e E xt r em e Va lu e Th eor em ) a r e t h e
h igh est a n d lowest poin t s on a closed in t er va l. Also, r em em ber t h a t a bsolu t e
ext r em a m u st occu r eit h er a t a r ela t ive ext r em a (like x 5 4) or a t a n en dpoin t
(like x 5 25).
..............................................................................................
244
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
(b) Beca u se speed is t h e a bsolu t e va lu e of velocit y, t h e dir ect ion of t h e ca r is

ir r eleva n t . Th er efor e, t h e speed of t h e ca r is gr ea t est a t t 5 10. Th e speed
t h er e is a lit t le m or e t h a n 3, wh er ea s t h e t op speed t h e ca r r ea ch ed wh ile
t r a velin g for wa r d wa s a t t 5 6, wh en t h e speed a n d velocit y wer e bot h 3.
(c ) Acceler a t ion is ba sed on t h e secon d der iva t ive. Th e ca r will deceler a t e wh en
t h e posit ion fu n ct ion is con ca ve down a n d wh en t h e velocity fu n ct ion is
decr ea sin g. Th er efor e, t h e ca r is deceler a t in g on (6,10). Th is m a y con fu se
you , sin ce t h e ca r is t r a velin g it s fa st est a t t 5 10. Th e m a gn it u de (a bsolu t e
va lu e) of t h e ca r s a cceler a t ion t h er e is a ct u a lly pr et t y h igh , bu t t h e ca r st ill
is t r a velin g ba ckwa r d, so t h e a cceler a t ion is becom in g m or e a n d m or e
n ega t ive (t ech n ica lly deceler a t in g).
5. Th e qu est ion is a skin g you t o a ppr oxim a t e s(5). To do so, ca lcu la t e t h e slope of
t h e seca n t lin e con n ect in g t h e poin t s (3,9) a n d (5,11)t h is is t h e best a ppr oxim a t ion we ca n u se. Th er efor e, s(5) ' 1.
6. (a ) h is con ca ve u p wh en ever h is posit ive, so t h e a n swer is (b,d ) (f,`).
(b) In or der t o det er m in e t h e con ca vit y of h , you n eed t o m ove down t wo
der iva t ives t o h (sin ce t h e sign s of t h e secon d der iva t ive of a fu n ct ion
descr ibe it s con ca vit y). You a lso kn ow t h a t t h e sign s of h will descr ibe t h e
dir ect ion of h . Th e qu est ion is essen t ia lly a skin g you wh er e h is n ega t ive,
a n d t h a t will h a ppen wh er ever h is decr ea sin g. Th er efor e, t h e a n swer is
(0,a) (c,e).
(c ) Th e in flect ion poin t s of h occu r wh en ever h equ a ls 0 a n d t h e con ca vit y
a ct u a lly ch a n ges (m u ch like a n ext r em a poin t is wh er e t h e der iva t ive
equ a ls 0 a n d t h e dir ect ion ch a n ges). You a lso kn ow t h a t h descr ibes t h e
dir ect ion of h . Th er efor e, wh en ever h ch a n ges dir ect ion , h will h a ve a n
in flect ion poin t : x 5 a, x 5 c, a n d x 5 e.
7. (a ) Th e Mea n Va lu e Th eor em st a t es t h a t t h er e exist s som e c on t h e in t er va l su ch

that
s (3 ) s ( 0 )
s ( c ) =
30
In ot h er wor ds, t h er e exist s a t a n gen t lin e a t som e c t h a t h a s t h e sa m e slope
a s t h e seca n t lin e over t h e en t ir e in t er va l.
48 2 3
4c3 2 8c 5
3
4c3 2 8c 5 15
c ' 1.975
(b) Th e velocit y is t h e fir st der iva t ive of posit ion , a n d a cceler a t ion is t h e
secon d:
v(t) 5 s(t) 5 4t 3 2 8t
v(3) 5 84 ft /sec
a(t) 5 v(t) 5 12t 2 2 8
a(3) 5 100 ft /sec2
245
.................................................................
Accor din g t o t h e wiggle gr a ph , t h e pa r t icle is m ovin g for wa r d on t h e

in t er va l ~=2,`!. Don t for get t h a t t h e or igin a l pr oblem st ipu la t es t 0.
Wit h ou t t h a t r est r ict ion , t h e a n swer wou ld a lso h a ve in clu ded ~2=2,0!.
8. Th is is a r ela t ed r a t es pr oblem . Begin wit h t h e for m u la for su r fa ce a r ea of a
sph er e, a n d t a ke t h e der iva t ive wit h r espect t o t im e:
S 5 4pr 2
dr
dS
5 8pr
dt
dt
Now, plu g in t h e given in for m a t ion t o solve for
dS
:
dt
dS
5 8p(36)(2) 5 576p in 2 /sec
dt
9. You r u lt im a t e goa l is t o m a xim ize t h e volu m e of a cylin der, so you r pr im a r y
equ a t ion sh ou ld be t h e followin g for m u la :
H owever, you h a ve t wo va r ia bles, a n d it s goin g t o r equ ir e som e clever n ess t o
elim in a t e on e of t h em . Below is a dia gr a m of ou r sit u a t ion . On it is dr a wn a
t r ia n gle, wh ich con n ect s t h e cen t er of t h e sph er e t o t h e in t er sect ion poin t of t h e
h
cylin der a n d sph er e t o a poin t on t h e cylin der a t h eigh t .
2
4
2
By t h e P yt h a gor ea n Th eor em , you h a ve

r2 1
h2
5 16
4
exercises
V 5 pr 2 h
a nsw ers
Cr it ica l n u m ber s: t 5 0, 6=2
..............................................................................................
(c ) Th e pa r t icle is m ovin g for wa r d wh en ever it s fir st der iva t ive is posit ive, so
con st r u ct a wiggle gr a ph for v:
v(t) 5 4t 3 2 8t 5 0
4t(t 2 2 2) 5 0
246
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Solve t h is equ a t ion for r 2 t o elim in a t e t h e r 2 in t h e pr im a r y equ a t ion :

h2
4
Su bst it u t e t h is in t o t h e pr im a r y equ a t ion , a n d you ca n u se t h e fa m ilia r m et h ods
t o m a xim ize t h e volu m e:
r 2 5 16 2
h2
)h
4
p
V 5 16ph 2 h 3
4
3p 2
h 50
V 5 16p 2
4
h 5 4.618802154 ft
V 5 p(16 2
Th e wiggle gr a ph ver ifies t h a t 4.618802154 is t h e m a xim u m h eigh t . Th e cor r espon din g r a diu s will be
r=
16
4.6188021542
4
r 5 3.265986324
so t h e m a xim u m volu m e is V 5 pr 2 h ' 154.778 ft 3 .
10. Th e fir st qu est ion t o be a n swer ed in t h is r ela t ed r a t es dilem m a is h ow m u ch t im e

h a s pa ssed if t h e fir st ca r h a s t r a veled 25 m iles. A sim ple pr opor t ion h elps you t o
figu r e t h is ou t . If a ca r t r a vels 40 m iles in a n h ou r (60 m in u t es), t h en h ow m a n y
m in u t es, m , does it r equ ir e t o t r a vel 25 m iles?
40 25
=
60
m
40m 5 1500
m 5 37.5 m in u t es
Now you ca n figu r e ou t h ow fa r ca r B h a s t r a veled u sin g t h e sa m e m et h od:
35
d
=
60 37.5
60d 5 1312.5
d 5 21.875 m iles
Wit h a ll t h is fa bu lou s in for m a t ion , you ca n con st r u ct t h e dia gr a m below.
247
.................................................................
z 5 20.01166352 m iles
To t ie t h is pr oblem u p in t o a n ice bu n dle, you sh ou ld u se t h e La w of Cosin es
(sin ce t h e t r ia n gle is obliqu en ot a r igh t t r ia n gle) a n d der ive wit h r espect t o t:
z 2 5 x 2 1 y 2 2 2xy cos 50
dy
dy
dz
dx
dx
2z
= 2x
+ 2y
2x(cos 50)
( y cos 50)2
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
dz
=
2(20.01166352)
dt
2(25)(40) 1 2(21.875)(35) 2 2(25)(cos 50)(35) 2 (21.875)(cos 50)(2)(40)
dz
' 32.019 m ph
dt
11. (a ) Th e posit ion vect or is given by s 5 (cos t)i 1 (sin 2t)j. Ta ke t wo der iva t ives t o
get t h e a cceler a t ion vect or : a 5 (2cos t)i 1 (24sin 2t)j. Th e a cceler a t ion
7p
will be
vect or a t t 5
6
7p
7p
)i 1 (24sin
)j
a 5 (2cos
6
3
=3 i 2 2 3 j
a 5
=
2
12. Th is pr oblem a sks you t o fin d t h e m a xim u m a r ea , wit h t h e con dit ion t h a t a
n on -fen ced coa st lin e be u sed (ign or e t h e 100 feet of coa st lin e r equ ir em en t for
n ow). Below a r e t h e t wo ca ges wh ose a r ea you wa n t t o m a xim ize:
exercises
(b) F ir st , fin d t h e velocit y vect or by t a kin g t h e der iva t ive of posit ion :
v 5 (2sin t)i 1 (2cos 2t)j
Th e speed of t h e pa r t icle is given by t h e n or m of t h e velocit y vect or, so set
1
it s n or m equ a l t o a n d solve for t:
2
1
v = sin 2 t + 4 cos2 2t =
2
1
2
2
sin t 1 4cos 2t 5
4
If you t r y t o solve t h is equ a t ion by gr a ph in g, you ll see t h a t t h e gr a ph n ever
cr osses t h e x-a xis, so t h er e a r e n o solu t ion s. Th e pa r t icle n ever t r a vels a t a
1
speed of .
2
a nsw ers
z 2 5 25 2 1 21.875 2 2 2(25)(21.875)cos 50
..............................................................................................
It is qu it e ea sy t o figu r e ou t z u sin g t h e La w of Cosin es:
248
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
H er e a r e t h e opt im iza t ion pr oblem s, on e a t a t im e:

R ectan gu lar cage:
You wa n t t o m a xim ize a r ea , so it is you r pr im a r y equ a t ion :
A 5 xy
You a lso kn ow t h a t 2x 1 y 5 400, so u se t h a t in for m a t ion t o elim in a t e a va r ia ble
by solvin g for x or y:
2x 1 y 5 400
y 5 400 2 2x
Now, su bst it u t e ba ck in t o t h e a r ea equ a t ion t o fin d t h e m a xim u m :
A 5 x(400 2 2x)
A 5 400x 2 2x 2
A 5 400 2 4x 5 0
x 5 100
y 5 400 2 2(100) 5 200

Th er efor e, t h e m a xim u m dim en sion s of t h e r ect a n gu la r ca ge a r e 100 ft 3 200 ft ,
for a n a r ea of 20,000 ft 2 . (By t h e wa y, t h is m eet s t h e 100 ft coa st lin e r equ ir em en t
wit h ou t a n y t r ou ble a t a ll. See? I t old you n ot t o wor r y a bou t it !)
S em icircu lar fen ce:
Th is pr oblem does n ot r equ ir e t h e pr ocess of opt im iza t ion a t a ll. If you kn ow t h a t
400
. Th er efor e,
t h e cir cu m fer en ce of t h e sem icir cle is 400, t h en pr 5 400 a n d r 5
p
t h e en closed a r ea will be
r 2
2
160, 000
A=
2 2
A=
A ' 25,464.791 ft 2
You sh ou ld defin it ely go wit h t h e sem icir cu la r fen ce. You get m or e t h a n 5,000 ft 2
ext r a spa ce.
249
.................................................................
If som et h in g is decr ea sin g or becom in g sm a ller, t h e r a t e of ch a n ge will be

n ega t ive.
You ca n on ly in ser t a con st a n t in t o you r pr im a r y equ a t ion in r ela t ed r a t es if t h a t

con st a n t ca n n ot ch a n ge t h r ou gh ou t t h e pr oblem .
Som e st u den t s con fu se t h e Mea n Va lu e Th eor em wit h t h e In t er m edia t e Va lu e

Th eor em . Th ey a r e sim ila r on ly in t h a t t h ey a r e bot h exist en ce t h eor em s, in t h a t
t h ey gu a r a n t ee t h e exist en ce of som et h in g.
Two of t h e m a jor ch a r a ct er ist ics u sed t o descr ibe gr a ph s a r e dir ect ion a n d con ca vit y.
Opt im iza t ion is t h e pr ocess of fin din g a n opt im a l va lu e, eit h er m a xim u m or

m in im u m , u n der st r ict con dit ion s. You m a y be a sked t o m in im ize a r ea , m a xim ize
volu m e, m in im ize cost , or m a xim ize pr ofit , ju st t o n a m e a few a pplica t ion s.
..............................................................................................
SUMMING IT UP
Integ ra tion
....................................................................................
Ba sic a ntideriva tives

Ha nds-On Activity 7.1: Approxima ting a rea with Riema nn
sums
The tra pezoida l rule
The funda menta l theorem of ca lculus
Ha nds-On Activity 7.2: Accumula tion functions
The Mea n Va lue Theorem for Integra tion, a vera ge va lue of
a function
U-Substitution
Integra ting inverse trigonometric functions
Technology: Eva lua ting definite integra ls with your
Summing it up
Now t h a t you kn ow ju st a bou t ever yt h in g t h er e is t o kn ow a bou t t a kin g
der iva t ives, it s t im e t o pu ll t h e r u g ou t fr om u n der you . Th e t h ir d m a jor t opic
of ca lcu lu s (lim it s a n d der iva t ives bein g t h e fir st t wo) is in tegration , or an tid ifferen tiation . Th a t s r igh t , Mr. P r efix; an ti- m ea n s t h e opposit e of, so it s
t im e t o explor e t h e pr ocess of der iva t ives r ever sed. P r eviou sly, you wou ld be
d 3
(x ); clea r ly, t h e a n swer is 3x 2 . Now, you ll be given 3x 2 a n d
a sked t o fin d
dx
r equ ir ed t o com e u p wit h t h e an tid erivative, x 3 .
Bu t , it s n ever t h a t ea sy, is it ? As a m a t t er of fa ct , x 3 1 1 is a lso a n a n t ider iva t ive of 3x 2 ! So is x 3 2 14. Th er efor e, we sa y t h a t t h e a n t ider iva t ive of 3x 2 is x 3
1 C, wh er e C ca n be a n y n u m ber a t a ll. Bu t , wer e get t in g a h ea d of ou r selves.
Let s ju m p r igh t in t h e wa t er s fin e.
BASIC ANTIDERIVATIVES
dy
J u st a s t h e n ot a t ion
or y in dica t ed t o you t h a t differ en t ia t ion wa s n ecesdx
sa r y, t h e n ot a t ion
cos x dx
in dica t es t h e sa m e for in t egr a t ion . Th e a bove is r ea d t h e in t egr a l (or a n t ider iva t ive) of f(x) wit h r espect t o x. Respect in g va r ia bles in differ en t ia t ion
wa s som et im es a com plica t ed pr ocedu r e. Rem em ber im plicit differ en t ia t ion
251
c ha p ter 7
OVERVIEW
252
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
a n d r ela t ed r a t es? Lu ckily, r espect in g va r ia bles is n ot n ea r ly a s difficu lt in in t egr a t ion ; you ju st h a ve t o m a ke su r e t h e d x get s m u lt iplied by ever yt h in g in t h e in t egr a l.
Bu t , en ou gh t a lklet s get down t o bu sin ess.
NOTE
When d eriving xb , you
multip lied b y b a nd
sub tra c ted 1 from the
p ower. When integ ra ting xb ,
you a d d 1 to the p ower
a nd d ivid e. The p roc esses
a re c omp lete op p osites of
ea c h other.
NOTE
It is not a lwa ys imp ossib le to
find C. In fa c t, it is
sometimes inc orrec t to
write 1 C . For now,
however, ma ke it a ha b it to
a utoma tic a lly a d d the
1 C when you integ ra te.
You ll lea rn more a b out the
exc ep tions la ter.
Th in k ba ck for a m om en t : Th e P ower Ru le (on e of you r ea r liest a n d dea r est ca lcu lu s

fr ien ds) dea lt wit h der ivin g sim ple expr ession sa sin gle va r ia ble t o a con st a n t power.
Th er e is a n equ iva len t r u le for in t egr a t in g, so well ca ll it (get t h is) t h e P ower Ru le for
In t egr a t ion . Clever, eh ?
a +1
Th e P o w e r Ru le fo r In te g ra tio n : If a is a con st a n t , x adx = x
+ C.
a +1
Tran slation : In or der t o fin d t h e in t egr a l of x a , a dd 1 t o t h e expon en t a n d divide t h e
t er m by t h e n ew expon en t .
Ex a m p le 1: E va lu a t e
x dx .
3
S o lu tio n : Add on e t o t h e expon en t (1 1 3 5 4), a n d divide by t h e n ew expon en t , 4:

x4
+ C.
4
Mor e a bou t t h a t weir d C n ow. It is ca lled t h e con stan t of in tegration . It is sim ply a r ea l
4
n u m ber, a n d we h a ve n o idea exa ct ly wh a t t h a t n u m ber is (for n ow). H owever, x + 2 ,
4
x 4 1 113.4, a n d x 4 2 p a ll h a ve a der iva t ive of x 3 (sin ce t h e der iva t ive of t h e
4
4
con st a n t is 0). Th er efor e, wh en we wr it e 1 C a t t h e en d of a n a n t ider iva t ive, we a r e
a dm it t in g t h a t t h er e m a y h a ve been a con st a n t t h er e, bu t we do n ot kn ow it .
Now, let s discu ss t h e t wo m a jor pr oper t ies of in t egr a ls; bot h of t h em a r e ver y sim ila r
t o der iva t ives:
1.
2.
a f ( x ) dx = a f ( x ) dx
If a con st a n t or coefficien t is pr esen t in you r in t egr a l, you m a y ign or e it , like you
did wit h der iva t ives. In fa ct , you m a y pu ll t h e con st a n t com plet ely ou t of t h e
in t egr a l.
( f ( x ) g( x ))dx = f ( x )dx g( x )dx

If a n in t egr a l con t a in s n u m er ou s t er m s bein g a dded or su bt r a ct ed, t h en t h ese
t er m s ca n be split a pa r t in t o sepa r a t e in t egr a ls. In differ en t ia t ion , given t h e
d 3
(x 2 5x), you cou ld fin d t h e der iva t ives of t h e t er m s sepa r a t ely:
pr oblem
dx
3x 2 2 5. Th e sa m e goes for in t egr a t ion . F or exa m ple,
3
5
3
5
( x + x )dx = x dx + x dx = x4 + x6 + C
4
Cha pter 7: Integra tion
253
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
In E xa m ple 2, well a pply t h ese pr oper t ies of in t egr a t ion t o som e m or e com plex
in t egr a t ion pr oblem s.
ALERT!
You c a n only p ull
Ex a m p le 2: E va lu a t e t h e followin g a n t ider iva t ives:
c oeffic ients out of integ ra ls.
5
dx
(a )
3x 2
For exa mp le, it would b e

inc orrec t to rewrite *
Th is expr ession ca n be r ewr it t en a s
~x4 + 2x!d x a s x*~x3 + 2!d x.
3x
dx
5
is m er ely a coefficien t , so we ca n a pply t h e fir st r u le of a n t ider iva t ives a n d pu ll
3
it ou t of t h e in t egr a l:
Th e
5
x 2dx
3
Now, a pply t h e power r u le for in t egr a ls, bu t m a ke su r e t o ad d 1 t o t h e or igin a l power

of 22.
(b)
5 x 1 + C
3 1
5 +C
3x
x 3 x 4 dx
Th is in t egr a l m u st fir st be r ewr it t en a s

*(x 1/2 2 3x 4 )d x
Beca u se t h e t wo t er m s a r e bein g a dded, we ca n split t h e a bove in t o t wo sepa r a t e
in t egr a ls (a n d pu ll ou t t h e coefficien t s):
*x 1/2 d x 2 3*x 4 d x
ALERT!
Now, a pply t h e P ower Ru le for In t egr a t ion :
x3
3
2
Onc e you integ ra te, ma ke
5
3x + C
5
2 x3 2 3 x5 + C
3
5
3
Th e power is t h e r esu lt of a ddin g 1 t o t h e or igin a l expon en t
2
sure to stop writing the *

a nd d x symb ols. They only
ha ng a round until you re
d one integ ra ting . When
SD
1
.
2
their work is d one, they

va nish.
254
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
2
(c ) 7x 5+/ 35x dx
x
Aga in , r ewr it in g t h e in t egr a l is t h e fir st or der of bu sin ess. In st ea d of on e fr a ct ion ,
r ewr it e a s t h e su m of t wo fr a ct ion s wit h t h e sa m e den om in a t or. Also, a pply t h e
in t egr a t ion pr oper t ies:
x2
x
dx + 5 5 3 dx
5 3
x
x
Rem em ber wa y ba ck t o a lgebr a a n d expon en t pr oper t ies:
xa
a b. Th er efor e,
b = x
x
x2
x
x1
25 3
13
, and
x
x
=
=
=
= x 1 5 3 = x 2 3. Use t h is t o r ewr it e t h e
x5 3
x5 3 x5 3
pr oblem a s
7*x 1/3 d x 1 5*x 22/3 d x
a n d a pply t h e P ower Ru le for In t egr a ls t o get
7 3 x 4 3 + 5 3 x1 3 + C
4
1
21 x 4 3 + 15x1 3 + C
4
Do you see t h e sh or t cu t for in t egr a t in g fr a ct ion a l expon en t s? Wh en you in t egr a t e x 1/3 ,

x4 3
4
in st ea d of wr it in g t h e st ep
4 , r em em ber t h a t dividin g by 3 is t h e sa m e a s
3
3
4 3
+ C.
m u lt iplyin g by . Th er efor e, t h e a n swer is 43 x
4
Well, t h e P ower Ru le for In t egr a ls is a ll well a n d good, bu t t h er e is on e in st a n ce in
wh ich it is com plet ely u seless. Con sider t h e in t egr a l:
ALERT!
Althoug h the Power Rule for
Integ ra ls is rela tively ea sy, it
is a lso ea sy to ma ke
mista kes when the
exp onents a re fra c tions or
ha ve neg a tive p owers.
Be c a reful.
x dx
Th is ca n be r ewr it t en a s *x 21 d x, bu t if you t r y t o in t egr a t e, you get x0
+ C, a n d t h e
1
zer o in t h e den om in a t or spoils ever yt h in g. H ow, t h en , a r e you t o in t egr a t e ? Believe
x
it or n ot , you a lr ea dy kn ow t h e a n swer t o t h isyou ju st h a ve t o dig it ou t of you r
lon g-t er m m em or y. Rem em ber, in t egr a t ion is t h e opposit e of differ en t ia t ion , so t h e
1
1
expr ession t h a t h a s t h e d erivative of will be t h e in tegral of . You lea r n ed in Ch a pt er
x
x
d
1
4 that
(1n x ) = . Th er efor e,
dx
x dx = 1n
x +C
(You n eed t o u se t h e a bsolu t e va lu e sign s sin ce ln x h a s dom a in (0,`)t h e fu n ct ion

wou ldn t kn ow wh a t t o do wit h n ega t ive in pu t s.)
255
.................................................................
x dx (it s in t egr a l h a s t h a t u n expect ed a bsolu t e va lu e). On e ot h er pr oblem sh ows a

sligh t differ en ce in it s a bsolu t e va lu es:
dx
x2 1
= arc sec x + C
You see a r csec x so in fr equ en t ly on t h e t est , it s h a r dly wor t h m en t ion in g, bu t it is

im por t a n t . In a ddit ion , we will t a ke a closer look a t in ver se t r igon om et r ic a n d expon en t ia l in t egr a ls a lit t le la t er in t h is ch a pt er. H er e a r e a few pr oblem s t o get you
br u sh ed u p on t h e t h r owba ck in t egr a ls.
NOTE
Ex a m p le 3: E va lu a t e t h e followin g in t egr a ls:

(a ) *2sin x d x
You need to lea rn a
Th is pr oblem a sks, Wh a t h a s a der iva t ive of 2sin x? Th e a n swer is, of cou r se, cos x
d
(cos x 1 C) 5 2sin x. If t h e pr oblem h a d been *sin x d x, t h e a n swer
1 C, sin ce
dx
d
wou ld h a ve been 2cos x 1 C, sin ce (2cos x 1 C) 5 2(2sin x) 5 sin x.
dx
(b)
1
sin 2 x dx
F ir st , r ewr it e t h is pr oblem a s *csc2 x d x. Wh a t h a s a der iva t ive of csc2 x? Well,

d
(cot x) 5 2csc2 x, a n d t h a t s on ly off by a n ega t ive sign . Th er efor e, a dd a n ega t ive
dx
(c )
1 x
u-sub stitution b efore we

c a n g et too hot a nd hea vy
into integ ra tion. Tha t s la ter,
thoug h.
TIP
If you re not sure tha t your
d eriva tive to c hec k a nd
*csc2 x d x 5 2cot x 1 C
2
tec hniq ue c a lled
integ ra l is c orrec t, ta ke its
sign t o cot x t o a ccou n t for t h e m issin g sign , a n d t h e a n swer is
..............................................................................................
If you h a ve for got t en t h e la r ge list of der iva t ives you wer e t o h a ve m em or ized, it s
t im e t o r efr esh you r m em or y. On ly t wo of t h e in t egr a ls look a lit t le differ en t fr om t h eir
der iva t ives. We h a ve a lr ea dy looked a t t h e fir st :
see if you g et the orig ina l
dx
p rob lem. Bec a use

integ ra tion a nd
Th is is sim ply t h e der iva t ive of a r csin x, so t h e a n swer is a r csin x 1 C.
d ifferentia tion a re inverses,

they should c a nc el ea c h
(d ) *ex d x
other out.
If t h e der iva t ive of e is e , t h en *e d x 5 e 1 C.
256
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EXERCISE 1

E va lu a t e ea ch of t h e followin g in t egr a ls.
1.
2.
3.
3 x
bx
5 3 2
+ x dx
x7
dx , if a a n d b a r e r ea l n u m ber s
4
dx
7x2 3
4. *(x 2 2 1)(x 1 2)d x
5.
6.
7.
8.
2 m 4 + 3m 2 m + 3
dm
m3
sin x dx
cos 2 x
( tan2
x 1 dx
x x 1 +1
x x2 1

1. Begin by split t in g t h e in t egr a l in t o pieces a n d r ewr it in g it so t h a t you ca n a pply
t h e P ower Ru le for In t egr a ls:
2
x 3 dx 5 x 7 dx + x 2 3 dx
3
It s r ea dy t o be power r u led, so go t o it :
2 x4
x 6 3 5 3
5
+ x +C
3 4
6 5
5
3x 5 3
x4
+
+
+C
6 6x 6
5
2. Beca u se b is a coefficien t , it ca n be pu lled ou t of t h e in t egr a l.
b * xad x
x a +1
+C
a +1
b a +1
x
+C
a +1
257
.................................................................
dx +
4
x 2 3 dx
7
x 2 +1 12 1 3
+ x +C
2 +1 7
4. Befor e you ca n in t egr a t e, you n eed t o m u lt iply t h e bin om ia ls t oget h er. Th er e is n o
P r odu ct Ru le for In t egr a t ion (wh ich m a kes t h in gs t r icky la t er ) bu t for n ow, we
ca n a void t h e pr oblem by m u lt iplyin g.
*(x 3 1 2x 2 2 x 2 2)d x
x 4 2x 3 x 2
+
2x + C
4
3
2
5. You ca n begin by wr it in g ea ch of t h e t er m s of t h e n u m er a t or over t h e den om in a t or. Th is is a lon g st ep, a n d if you ca n do it in you r h ea d, you a r e en cou r a ged t o do
soca r efu lly! So t h a t you ca n see exa ct ly wh a t s h a ppen in g, t h e st ep is in clu ded:
2 m 4 3m 2
m
3
+ 3 3 + 3 dx
3
m
m
m
m
21
22
*(2m 1 3m
2m
1 3m 23 )d x
1
3
+C
m 2m2
6. Th is pr oblem looks pr et t y com plica t ed, bu t if you a r e clever (a n d wh o doesn t like

bein g clever n ow a n d a ga in ?), it becom es qu it e ea sy. Th e t r ick is t o r ewr it e t h e
fr a ct ion a s follows:
sin x
cos x
1
dx
cos x
sin x
, so we h a ven t
cos 2 x
sin x
as tan x
a ct u a lly ch a n ged a n yt h in gs va lu e. H owever, n ow we ca n r ewr it e
cos x
1
a s sec x:
and
cos x
If you m u lt iply t h ose t wo fr a ct ion s t oget h er, you st ill get
* t a n x sec x d x
P er h a ps you ll r em em ber it bet t er if it s wr it t en t h is wa y:
* sec x t a n x d x
You kn ow t h a t is t h e der iva t ive of sec x, so t h e fin a l a n swer is
sec x 1 C
7. Th a t n ega t ive sign looks like it s ju st beggin t o get fa ct or ed ou t , so well oblige it
(a n d br in g it ou t of t h e in t egr a l a s t h e coefficien t 21):
2* (t a n 2 x 1 1)d x
exercises
m 2 + 3 ln x +
a nsw ers
..............................................................................................
3. Rewr it e t h is in t egr a l befor e st a r t in g, a n d r em em ber t h a t 2p is ju st a con st a n t , so

t h e P ower Ru le for In t egr a ls st ill a pplies (ju st like it did t o t h e a expon en t in
pr oblem 2).
258
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Now t h a t looks fa m ilia r. In fa ct , it is m ost of t h e P a ppa Th eor em ! (Rem em ber

you r P a ppa : t a n 2 x 1 1 5 sec2 x.) Th er efor e, well u se a P a ppa su bst it u t ion t o
r ewr it e it :
2* sec2 x d x
Beca u se t a n x h a s a der iva t ive of sec2 x, t h e a n swer is
2t a n x 1 C
8. E ven t h ou gh t h is looks u gly, begin t h e sa m e wa y you did wit h pr oblem 5wr it e

ea ch t er m of t h e n u m er a t or over t h e den om in a t or :
x x2 1
1
+
dx
2
2
x x 1 x x 1
Th e fir st giga n t ic fr a ct ion sim plifies t o 1, m a kin g t h in gs m u ch , m u ch h a ppier in
t h e wor ld:
1 + x
dx
x2 1
d
(x) 5 1), a n d t h e ot h er t er m is t h e der iva t ive
dx
of a r csec x (don t for get t h e a bsolu t e va lu e sign s we discu ssed ea r lier in t h is
sect ion ):
Th e in t egr a l of 1 is sim ply x (sin ce
x + arcsec x + C
HANDS-ON ACTIVITY 7.1: APPROXIMATING AREA WITH

RIEMANN SUMS
Th er e is a n essen t ia l ca lcu lu s t ie bet ween t h e in t egr a l a n d t h e a r ea t h a t is ca pt u r ed
ben ea t h a gr a ph . You m a y, in fa ct , a lr ea dy kn ow wh a t it is. If you do, well, pin a r ose on
you r n ose. Th ose of you wh o don t kn ow will be kept in t h e da r k for a cou ple of sect ion s
so t h a t som e su spen se will bu ild (I a m n ot h in g if n ot a sh owm a n ). F or n ow, let s focu s on
u sin g a r ch a ic a n d sim plist ic m ea n s t o est im a t in g t h e a r ea u n der a cu r ve. (Th e m ea n s
a r e so sim plist ic t h a t som e st u den t s a r e a ct u a lly disa ppoin t ed. Th is is ca lcu lu s? t h ey
a sk, br ows fu r r owed a n d t ea r s for m in g in t h e cor n er s of t h eir eyes. My a dvice: em br a ce
t h e ea sy. J u st beca u se a lot of ca lcu lu s is t r icky, n ot a ll of it h a s t o be.) By t h e wa y, you
m a y u se you r ca lcu la t or fr eely on t h is a ct ivit y.
1 2
1. Dr a w t h e gr a ph of f~x! = 2 x + 3 on t h e a xes below.
10
259
.................................................................
3. Wh a t a r e t h e h eigh t s of ea ch of t h e fou r r ect a n gles? Wh a t is t h e t ot a l a r ea of t h e

r ect a n gles? Th is a r ea , a lt h ou gh n ot t h e sa m e a s t h e a r ea ben ea t h t h e cu r ve, is a n
a ppr oxim a t ion for t h a t a r ea ca lled t h e low er su m .
4. Th e a ct u a l a r ea bet ween f a n d t h e x-a xis on t h e in t er va l [0,4] is
28
. Wh y is on e
3
a r ea gr ea t er ?
5. H ow cou ld you get a bet t er a ppr oxim a t ion for t h e a r ea ben ea t h t h e cu r ve if you
st ill u sed in scr ibed r ect a n gles?
..............................................................................................
2. We a r e goin g t o a ppr oxim a t e t h e a r ea bet ween f a n d t h e x-a xis fr om x 5 0 t o x 5

4 u sin g r ect a n gles (t h e m et h od of Riem a n n su m s). Th is is n ot t h e en t ir e a r ea in
t h e fir st qu a dr a n t , ju st m ost of it . Dr a w fou r in scribed r ect a n gles of widt h 1 on
t h e in t er va l [0,4] on you r gr a ph a bove.
NOTE
We a re not rea lly find ing
the a rea und er a c urve.
For most g ra p hs, there is
6. On t h e a xes below, gr a ph f a ga in . Th is t im e, dr a w fou r r ect a n gles of widt h 1 t h a t

cir cu m scr ibe t h e gr a ph . Use t h e a r ea of t h e cir cu m scr ibed r ect a n gles t o a ppr oxim a t e t h e a r ea ben ea t h t h e cu r ve. Th is a ppr oxim a t ion is ca lled t h e u pper su m .
infinite a rea und er the

c urve. Instea d , we will b e
c a lc ula ting the a rea
b etween the g iven c urve
a nd the x-a xis. Keep tha t in
the b a c k of your mind .
7. Com pa r e t h e a ppr oxim a t ion you got in n u m ber 6 t o t h e a ct u a l a r ea .
8. On t h e a xes below, gr a ph f a ga in , a n d t h is t im e dr a w fou r r ect a n gles of widt h on e

su ch t h a t t h e h eigh t of ea ch r ect a n gle is given by t h e m idpoin t of ea ch in t er va l.
Th e a ppr oxim a t e a r ea is ca lled t h e m id poin t su m .
NOTE
Consid er only the
end p oints heig hts when
d ra wing the insc rib ed a nd
c irc umsc rib ed rec ta ng les
b ec a use you c a n c omp a re
their heig hts very ea sily.
Choose the lower of the
two heig hts for the
insc rib ed a nd the la rg er of
9. Now you h a ve fou n d a n in scr ibed su m , a cir cu m scr ibed su m , a n d a m idpoin t su m .

E xpla in wh a t is likely m ea n t by ea ch of t h e r em a in in g su m s, a n d dr a w a sa m ple
the two heig hts to d ra w

c irc umsc rib ed rec ta ng les.
260
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
r ect a n gle on [a,b] t h a t you wou ld u se wit h t h e t ech n iqu e t o a ppr oxim a t e t h e a r ea
ben ea t h g.
10. Use 5 r ect a n gles of equ a l widt h a n d t h e t ech n iqu e of m idpoin t su m s t o a ppr oxim a t e t h e a r ea ben ea t h t h e cu r ve h (x) 5 x 3 2 2x 2 2 5x 1 7 on [0,4].
Hin t: To figu r e ou t t h e widt h , Dx, of n r ect a n gles on t h e in t er va l [a,b], u se t h e
for m u la x = b n a .
NOTE
Every rec ta ng le b elow
the x-a xis c ounts a s
neg a tive a rea .
2. Th e r ect a n gles ca n n ot cr oss t h e gr a ph sin ce t h ey a r e in scr ibed. Th u s, look a t t h e

en dpoin t s of ea ch in t er va l, a n d ch oose t h e lower of t h e t wo en dpoin t s h eigh t s.
Th a t will be t h e h eigh t of t h e in scr ibed r ect a n gle for t h a t in t er va l.
261
.................................................................
1
4. Th e a ct u a l a r ea is 9 . Ou r a r ea a ppr oxim a t ion is less t h a n t h e a ct u a l a r ea
3
beca u se it exclu des lit t le sliver s of a r ea bet ween t h e cu r ve a n d t h e r ect a n gles.
Th e m ost a r ea is om it t ed on t h e in t er va l [3,4]. Th u s, t h e a ppr oxim a t ion is lower,
h en ce t h e t er m low er su m s.
5. If you u sed m or e r ect a n gles, t h e a ppr oxim a t ion wou ld be m u ch bet t er. In fa ct , t h e
m or e r ect a n gles you u sed, t h e less spa ce wou ld be om it t ed a n d t h e closer t h e
a ppr oxim a t ion .
6. In or der t o dr a w r ect a n gles t h a t cir cu m scr ibe t h e gr a ph , look a t ea ch in t er va l
sepa r a t ely a n d ch oose t h e h igh er en dpoin t h eigh t it will give t h e h eigh t for t h a t
r ect a n gle.
Th e r ect a n gles t ot a l a r ea will be 3 z 1 1 2.9 z 1 1 2.6 z 1 1 2.1 z 1 5 10.6

7. Th is a r ea is t oo la r ge, wh ich wa s expect ed (u pper su m ). Th e r ect a n gles con t a in
m or e a r ea t h a n t h e cu r ve. In fa ct , t h e er r or in t h e cir cu m scr ibed r ect a n gle
m et h od wa s gr ea t er t h a n t h e er r or in t h e in scr ibed r ect a n gle m et h od.
8. In t h is ca se, t h e h eigh t s of t h e r ect a n gles will be given by t h e fu n ct ion va lu es of
t h e m idpoin t s of t h e followin g in t er va ls:
( 12 ) , f ( 23 ) , f ( 25 ) , a n d f ( 27 ) .
Th e widt h s of t h e r ect a n gles a r e st ill 1, so t h e t ot a l Riem a n n m idpoin t su m is 1 z

2.975 1 1 z 2.775 1 1 z 2.375 1 1 z 1.775 5 9.9.
..............................................................................................
3. Th e h eigh t s of t h e fou r r ect a n gles a r e f(1) 5 2.9, f(2) 5 2.6, f(3) 5 2.1, a n d f(4) 5
1.4. Th e a r ea of ea ch r ect a n gle is h eigh t z widt h , a n d ea ch of t h e widt h s is 1.
Th er efor e, t h e t ot a l com bin ed a r ea is 2.9 z 1 1 2.6 z 1 1 2.1 z 1 1 1.4 z 1 5 9.
262
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
TIP
The rig ht-ha nd sum is not
a lwa ys the sa me a s the
lower sum a nd vic e versa .
Tha t is only true if the g ra p h
is monotonic d ec rea sing , a s
g is in p rob lem 9.
9. Th e r ect a n gle in a r igh t -h a n d su m h a s t h e sa m e h eigh t a s t h e fu n ct ion a t t h e

r igh t -h a n d en dpoin t of ea ch in t er va l. Sim ila r ly, a left -h a n d su m r ect a n gle h a s t h e
h eigh t of t h e fu n ct ion a t t h e left -h a n d en dpoin t on ea ch in t er va l.
10. Accor din g t o t h e given for m u la , ea ch r ect a n gle will h a ve widt h x = 4 0 = 4 , a s

5
5
pict u r ed in t h e below gr a ph .
TIP
Bec a use the wid th of ea c h
4
interva l is in p rob lem 10,
5
you c a n fa c tor tha t va lue
out to simp lify your
a rithmetic .
Th e five in t er va ls in t h is gr a ph a r e
S DS DS DS D S D
0,
4
,
5
48
, ,
55
8 12
,
,
5 5
12 16
,
, and
5 5
16
,4 .
5
Beca u se you r e doin g m idpoin t su m s, you sh ou ld dr a w r ect a n gles wh ose h eigh t s

a r e given by t h e fu n ct ion va lu es of t h e m idpoin t s of t h ose in t er va ls: h
h (2), h
SD
SD
SD SD
2
6
,h
,
5
5
14
18
, and h
. Th e t ot a l a r ea of t h ese r ect a n gles (a n d it s n o sin t o u se
5
5
you r ca lcu la t or t o h elp you ou t h er e) is
4
4
4
4
4
4.744 +
.152 +
3 +
.728 +
9.736 = 8.48
5
5
5
5
5
263
.................................................................
YOU MAY USE YOUR GRAPHING CALCULATOR FOR ALL OF THESE PROBLEMS.
1. Wh a t t ype of Riem a n n su m is bein g a pplied in ea ch of t h e followin g dia gr a m s? If
t h er e is m or e t h a n on e cor r ect a n swer, give bot h .
2. Appr oxim a t e t h e a r ea bou n ded by f(x) 5 sin x a n d t h e x-a xis on t h e in t er va l [0,p]

u sin g 4 r ect a n gles a n d u pper su m s.
3. If g(x) is a con t in u ou s fu n ct ion t h a t con t a in s t h e va lu es in t h e followin g t a ble,
a ppr oxim a t e t h e a r ea bou n ded by g(x) a n d t h e x-a xis on [0,8] u sin g

(a ) 8 r ect a n gles a n d r igh t -h a n d su m s
(b) 4 r ect a n gles a n d m idpoin t su m s
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 2
264
.................................................................
..............................................................................................

1. (a ) Upper su m s, cir cu m scr ibed r ect a n gles: On t h e fir st t wo r ect a n gles, t h e r igh t h a n d en dpoin t is u sed t o det er m in e h eigh t , wh er ea s t h e left -h a n d en dpoin t is
bein g u sed for t h e t h ir d a n d fou r t h r ect a n gles. Th u s, it ca n n ot be r igh t - or
left -h a n d su m s.
(b) Lower su m s, r igh t -h a n d su m s, in scr ibed r ect a n gles: All t h ese descr ipt ion s
a pply t o t h is dia gr a m sin ce t h e r igh t -h a n d en dpoin t of ea ch in t er va l for m s
t h e in scr ibed r ect a n gles.
(c ) Lower su m s, in scr ibed r ect a n gles: Th e lower of t h e t wo en dpoin t s h eigh t s
is ch osen ea ch t im e, n ot t h e r igh t - or left -h a n d en dpoin t on a con sist en t
ba sis.
(d ) Midpoin t su m s: Th a t on es pr et t y clea r fr om t h e dia gr a m . Th e fu n ct ion
va lu e a t ea ch in t er va l m idpoin t dict a t es t h e h eigh t of t h e r ect a n gle t h er e.
2. (a ) If 4 r ect a n gles a r e u sed, t h e widt h of ea ch in t er va l will be
NOTE
g (0) is not used in 3(a )
b ec a use it is not the
rig ht-ha nd end p oint of a ny
interva l.
Th er efor e, t h e in t er va ls will be
x =
S DS DS D S D
0,
p
,
4
pp
, ,
4 2
p 3p
,
, and
2 4
0
4
= 4 .
3p
,p . Beca u se
4
u pper su m s (cir cu m scr ibed r ect a n gles) a r e specified, t h e h eigh t s of t h e r ect p

p
3p
p
, a s t h ese a r e
a n gles, fr om left t o r igh t , will be sin , sin , sin , a n d sin
4
2
2
4
t h e h igh er of t h e t wo en dpoin t fu n ct ion va lu es for ea ch in t er va l.
Th e u pper su m is
2
2
+1+1+
2.682 .
4 2
2
3. (a ) If 8 r ect a n gles a r e u sed, t h e widt h of ea ch will be 1. Beca u se r igh t -h a n d su m s

a r e specified, t h e fu n ct ion va lu e a t t h e r igh t en dpoin t of ea ch in t er va l dict a t es
t h e h eigh t . Th u s, t h e r igh t -h a n d su m will be
1 z (g(1) 1 g(2) 1 g(3) 1 g(4) 1 g(5) 1 g(6) 1 g(7) 1 g(8))
3.6 1 5.1 1 6.3 1 6.9 1 7.2 1 7.3 1 4.0 1 3.2 5 43.6
(b) E a ch r ect a n gle will h a ve widt h Dx 5 2, so t h e in t er va ls a r e (0,2), (2,4),
(4,6), a n d (6,8). Th e m idpoin t s of t h ese in t er va ls a r e sim ple, a n d t h e
h eigh t s com e fr om t h eir fu n ct ion va lu es, so t h e m idpoin t su m is
2 z (g(1) 1 g(3) 1 g(5) 1 g(7))
2(3.6 1 6.3 1 7.2 1 4.0) 5 42.2
THE TRAPEZOIDAL RULE

Su r e, Riem a n n su m s give som e a ppr oxim a t ion of t h e a r ea u n der a cu r ve, bu t t h ey su r e
a s h eck don t give a t er r ific a ppr oxim a t ion . In fa ct , t h eyr e a s clu m sy a s you r cou sin
Ir en e t h a t t im e sh e fell down t h e st a ir s a t you r pa r en t sba r bequ e. Th er e a r e ot h er, m or e
a ccu r a t e, m et h ods a n d t h is sect ion focu ses on on e of t h em . (Th e ot h er m a jor m et h od,
265
.................................................................
Con sider t h e followin g gr a ph a n d t h e m et h od of u pper su m s u sed t o a ppr oxim a t e t h e

a r ea it bou n ds.
Th er es n o a voidin g it or ign or in g it a n y lon ger : Th ose r ect a n gles ju st con t a in wa y t oo

m u ch ext r a spa ce. E n t er (t o t h u n der ou s a ppla u se) t h e Tr a pezoida l Ru le. In st ea d of
lit t le r ect a n gles, we will u se lit t le t r a pezoids t o a ppr oxim a t e t h e a r ea .
Th ese t r a pezoids a r e for m ed by m a r kin g t h e fu n ct ion va lu es a t bot h en dpoin t s of a n

in t er va l a n d con n ect in g t h e t wo dot s. See h ow a ll t h a t ext r a a r ea disa ppea r s in ju st
on e a pplica t ion , r et u r n in g t h e or igin a l sh owr oom sh in e t o t h e ca r s fin ish ? You a lso
m a y h a ve n ot iced t h a t t h e t wo t r a pezoids a t t h e edges a r e r ea lly t r ia n gles. Th a t s
oka y. Believe it or n ot , a t r ia n gle is ju st a specia l kin d of t r a pezoid (a t r a pezoid wit h
on e ba se t h a t h a s len gt h 0). Th ese a r en t t h e pr et t y t r a pezoids you r e u sed t o seein g,
bu t r em em ber, a t r a pezoid is a qu a dr ila t er a l wit h exa ct ly on e pa ir of pa r a llel sides,
a n d t h e ver t ica l sides of t h ese t r a pezoids a r e t h eir ba ses.
Accor din g t o geom et r y (a n d t h e voices ech oin g in m y h ea d), t h e a r ea of a t r a pezoid is
A=
1
h(b1 + b2 )
2
wh er e h is t h e h eigh t of t h e t r a pezoid a n d b 1 a n d b 2 a r e t h e len gt h s of it s pa r a llel

sides, or ba ses.
..............................................................................................
Sim pson s r u le, is n o lon ger on t h e AP t est . Doh ! It u sed in t er va ls wit h lit t le pa r a bola s
on t h e en d t o a ppr oxim a t e a r ea .)
266
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Th e ba ses in t h e a bove t r a pezoid h a ve len gt h f(c) a n d f(d ), a n d t h e h eigh t , h (t h e

dist a n ce bet ween t h e ba ses), is d 2 c, or Dx.
Let s r et u r n t o t h e dia gr a m a bove, en t it led, A Cu n n in g Tr a pezoida l Ru le P r oblem ,
a n d det er m in e t h e a r ea a ccor din g t o t h e Tr a pezoida l Ru le. In t h a t pr oblem , we kn ow
t h er e a r e 5 t r a pezoids, bu t let s pr et en d we don t a n d sa y t h a t t h er e a r e n t r a pezoids.
Th is wa y, we ca n develop t h e Tr a pezoida l Ru le fr om scr a t ch .
Th e a r ea of t h e fir st t r a pezoid (con ven ien t ly la beled t r a pezoid 1) will be

5 2h f ( a) + f ( w ) . To fin d t h e h eigh t , r em em ber t h e for m u la fr om t h e sect ion on
Riem a n n su m s:
x = h =
ba
n
t h er efor e,
h ba
=
2
2n
Th e a r ea of t h e secon d t r a pezoid is 12 h f ( w ) + f ( x ) . (Th e h will h a ve t h e sa m e va lu e,

sin ce ou r in t er va ls will a lwa ys be of equ a l m ea su r e.) So fa r, t h e a r ea is
ba
( f ( a ) + f ( w ) + f ( w ) + f ( x ))
2n
267
.................................................................
ba
( f ( a ) + 2 f ( w ) + 2 f ( x ) + 2 f ( y ) + 2 f ( z ) + f ( b ))
2n
Th is, in essen ce, is t h e Tr a pezoida l Ru le, bu t let s defin e it ca r efu lly:
Th e Tra p e zo id a l Ru le : If f is a con t in u ou s fu n ct ion on [a,b] divided in t o n equ a l
in t er va ls of widt h x = b n a , a s pict u r ed in t h e dia gr a m below, t h en t h e a r ea bet ween
t h e cu r ve a n d t h e x-a xis is a ppr oxim a t ely
ba
f ( a ) + 2 f ( x1 ) + 2 f ( x 2 ) + + 2 f ( x n 1 ) + f ( b )
2n
Tran slation : In or der t o a ppr oxim a t e t h e a r ea ben ea t h t h e cu r ve f(x), fin d t h e widt h of

on e in t er va l x =
ba
a n d divide it by 2. Th en m u lt iply by t h e su m of a ll t h e
n
fu n ct ion va lu es dou bled, bu t don t dou ble f(a) or f(b), t h e begin n in g a n d en din g
fu n ct ion va lu es.
Ex a m p le 4: Use t h e Tr a pezoida l Ru le t o a ppr oxim a t e t h e a r ea ben ea t h t h e cu r ve
f(x) 5 x 3 2 2x 1 5 on [22,2] u sin g n 5 8 su bin t er va ls.
S o lu tio n : If 8 su bin t er va ls a r e u sed, t h en t h e widt h of ea ch will be
x =
b a 2 ( 2 ) 4 1
=
= =
n
8
8 2
..............................................................................................
Let s skip a h ea d t o t h e su m of a ll t h e t r a pezoids.

ba
( f ( a ) + f ( w ) + f ( w ) + f ( x ) + f ( x ) + f ( y ) + f ( y ) + f ( z ) + f ( z ) + f ( b ))
2n
ALERT!
Even thoug h the
Tra p ezoid a l Rule c onta ins

b 2a
, the wid th of the
2n
b 2a
tra p ezoid s is still
. Know
n
when to use ea c h
exp ression.
1
1
3
You ca n t h en a pply t h e Tr a pezoida l Ru le, u sin g t h e x va lu es 22, 2 , 21, 2 , 0, , 1,
2
2
2
3
, a n d 2:
2
268
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
2 ( 2)
Area
28
f ( 2) + 2f 3 + 2f ( 1) + 2f 1 +
2
2
1
3
2 f ( 0 ) + 2 f 2 + 2 f (1) + 2 f 2 + f ( 2 )
A
1
( 80 ) = 20
4
In fa ct , t h is is t h e exa ct a r ea ben ea t h t h e cu r ve, a lt h ou gh you don t kn ow h ow t o ver ify

t h is yet t h a t s in t h e n ext sect ion .
269
.................................................................

1. Th e Tr a pezoida l Ru le ca n give t h e exa ct a r ea ben ea t h wh a t t ypes of fu n ct ion s?
2. Use t h e Tr a pezoida l Ru le t o a ppr oxim a t e t h e a r ea ben ea t h t h e cu r ve h (x) 5 x 2 1 1
on t h e in t er va l [0,4] u sin g
(a ) 2 su bin t er va ls
(b) 4 su bin t er va ls
(c ) 3 su bin t er va ls
3. (Ba sed on t h e St eph en Kin g book T h e Girl w h o L oved Tom Gord on ) Nin e-yea r-old
Tr ish a McF a r la n d is h opelessly lost in t h e woods, a n d t h e effor t s of t h ose lookin g
for h er h a ve t u r n ed u p n ot h in g. Th e gr a ph below sh ows t h e woods in wh ich sh e is
lost a n d m ea su r em en t s of t h e widt h of t h e woods (in m iles) a t r egu la r in t er va ls.
(a ) Use t h e Tr a pezoida l Ru le t o a ppr oxim a t e t h e a r ea of t h e woods.
(b) Assu m in g t h a t on e per son ca n sea r ch 15 m i 2 in on e da y, h ow m a n y people

will it t a ke t o scou r t h e en t ir e woods in a sin gle da y?

1. Th e Tr a pezoida l Ru le gives t h e exa ct a r ea ben ea t h lin ea r fu n ct ion s, sin ce t h e t ops
of t h e t r a pezoids u sed t o m a ke t h e a ppr oxim a t ion s a r e lin ea r.
2. (a ) Dx 5 2
4 0 h 0 + 2h 2 + h 4
( ) ( )
22 ( )
1 z (1 1 10 1 17) 5 28
(b) Dx 5 1
(2 4 ) (
4 0 h 0 + 2h 1 + 2h 2 + 2h 3 + h 4
( )
()
( )
( ) ( )
1
(1 + 4 + 10 + 20 + 17) = 26
2
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 3
270
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
TIP
The numb er of terms you
a d d in the Tra p ezoid a l Rule
is a lwa ys one more tha n
the n you a re using .
(c ) Dx 5
40 4
=
3
3
(4 0) h
2 3
( 0 ) + 2h 43 + 2h 83 + h ( 4 )
2
50 146
1+
+
+ 17
3
9
9
2 358 716
=
3 9
27
By t h e wa y,
716
is a ppr oxim a t ely 26.519.
27
3. It m igh t con fu se you t h a t t h e woods wiggle a r ou n d a s t h ey do. If it h elps, you ca n

sm oosh t h e woods a ga in st t h e x-a xis t o look som et h in g like t h is:
E it h er wa y, it is clea r t h a t f(100) 5 87, f(350) 5 133, a n d so on . Th e Tr a pezoida l

Ru le is a ct u a lly qu it e ea sy t o a pply; you don t even h a ve t o plu g in t o a fu n ct ion t o
get it s va lu es, a s you did in n u m ber 2. Th e gr a ph clea r ly is defin ed on t h e in t er va l
[0,500], a n d t h er e a r e 10 su bin t er va ls, ea ch wit h a len gt h 50 m iles.
Ar ea '
500 2 0
[(f(0) 1 2f(50) 1 2f(100) 1 2f(150) 1 2f(200) 1 2f(250) 1 2f(300) 1
2 z 10
2f(350) 1 2f(400) 1 2f(450) 1 f(500))]
Ar ea ' 25(140 1 174 1 252 1 280 1 270 1 284 1 266 1 182 1 226) 5 51,850 m i 2
(b) E ven t h ou gh 15m i 2 is a gen er ou s est im a t e of h ow m u ch a r ea on e per son
ca n sea r ch , it wou ld t a ke
51,850
= 3456.667
15
a t lea st 3,457 people t o con du ct t h e sea r ch sim u lt a n eou sly.
THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS

I on ce h a d a Kor ea n pr ofessor in college n a m ed Dr. Oh . H e on ce sa id som et h in g I
r em em ber t o t h is da y: F u n da m en t a l t h eor em s a r e like t h e begin n in g of t h e wor ld.
Yest er da y, n ot ver y in t er est in g. Toda y, in t er est in g. Th is is qu it e a ccu r a t e, if n ot a lit t le
u n der st a t ed. In t h is t h eor em lies t h e fa bled con n ect ion bet ween t h e a n t ider iva t ive a n d
t h e a r ea ben ea t h a cu r ve. In fa ct , t h e fu n da m en t a l t h eor em h a s t wo m a jor pa r t s.
Ma t h em a t icia n s ca n t seem t o a gr ee wh ich is t h e m or e im por t a n t pa r t a n d, t h er efor e,
n u m ber t h em differ en t ly. Som e even r efer t o on e a s t h e F u n da m en t a l Th eor em a n d t h e
ot h er a s t h e Secon d F u n da m en t a l Th eor em . I love t h em bot h equ a lly, a s I wou ld m y own
ch ildr en .
271
.................................................................
The Funda menta l Theorem, Pa rt One

If f(x) is a con t in u ou s fu n ct ion on [a,b] wit h a n t ider iva t ive g(x), t h en
b
a f ( x )dx = g(b) g(a)

b
Tran slation : In or der t o eva lu a t e t h e defin it e in t egr a l f ( x )dx , fin d t h e a n t ider iva a
t ive of f(x). On ce you ve don e t h a t , plu g t h e u pper bou n d, b, in t o t h e an tider iva t ive.
You sh ou ld get a n u m ber. F r om t h a t n u m ber, su bt r a ct t h e r esu lt of plu ggin g t h e lower
bou n d in t o t h e a n t ider iva t ive.
Wh a t is t h e pu r pose of defin it e in t egr a ls? Th ey give t h e exact a r ea ben ea t h a cu r ve.
Let s r et u r n t o a pr oblem fr om t h e Tr a pezoida l Ru le sect ion . You u sed 2, 3, a n d 4
su bin t er va ls t o a ppr oxim a t e t h e a r ea ben ea t h y 5 x 2 1 1 on [0,4]. Let s fin d ou t wh a t
t h e exa ct a r ea is.
..............................................................................................
Th e fir st pa r t of t h e F u n da m en t a l Th eor em dea ls wit h d efin ite in tegrals. Th ese a r e

sligh t ly differ en t fr om t h e in t egr a ls weve been dea lin g wit h for t wo r ea son s: (1) t h ey
h a ve bou n da r ies, a n d (2) t h eir a n swer s a r e n ot fu n ct ion s wit h a 1 C t a cked on t o t h e
en dt h eir a n swer s a r e n u m ber s. Th ese a r e, in deed, t wo gia n t differ en ces, bu t you ll
be su r pr ised by h ow m u ch t h ey a ct u a lly h a ve in com m on wit h ou r pr eviou s in t egr a ls,
wh ich we will n ow r efer t o by t h eir pr oper n a m e, in d efin ite in tegrals.
NOTE
Rememb er, you c a n t sp ell
Fund a menta l Theorem
without fun !
NOTE
The a a nd b in d efinite
integ ra ls a re c a lled the
limits of integ ra tion.
Ex a m p le 5: F in d t h e exa ct a r ea ben ea t h y 5 x 2 1 1 on [0,4].
However, they ha ve little to
S o lu tio n : Th e specified a r ea is t h e r esu lt of t h e followin g in t egr a l:
d o with the limits of

Cha p ter 3, so d on t worry.
0 ( x
4
+ 1 dx
So, you n eed t o fin d t h e a n t ider iva t ive of x 2 1 1. Wh en you do, dr op t h e in t egr a t ion
sign a n d d x, a s you did befor e.
x3
4
3 + x
0
Th e pr oblem is n ot yet over, a n d you sign ify t h a t t h e bou n da r ies of in t egr a t ion st ill
m u st be eva lu a t ed wit h t h e ver t ica l lin e (or r igh t br a cket , if you pr efer ) a n d t h e
bou n da r ies n ext t o t h e a n t ider iva t ive. To fin ish t h e pr oblem , t h en , you plu g t h e u pper
lim it of in t egr a t ion in t o t h e expr ession (bot h xs!) a n d t h en su bt r a ct t h e lower lim it
plu gged in :
43
03
3 + 4 3 + 0
64
76
+4=
= 25.333 u n it s squ a r ed
3
3
272
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Ex a m p le 6: F in d t h e a r ea ben ea t h sin x on [0,p].

S o lu tio n : Th is a r ea is fou n d by eva lu a t in g t h e defin it e in t egr a l
0 sin x dx
In t egr a t e sin x t o get
cos x
Now, su bst it u t e in p a n d 0 a n d su bt r a ct t h e t wo r esu lt s:
2cos p 2(2cos 0)
2(21) 1 1 5 2 u n it s squ a r ed
cosx d x, a n d expla in t h e a n swer geom et r ica lly.
S o lu tio n : To begin , a pply t h e F u n da m en t a l Th eor em .
sin x
sin p 2 sin 0 5 0 2 0 5 0
H ow ca n a cu r ve h a ve n o a r ea ben ea t h it ? Con sider t h e gr a ph of y 5 cos x on [0,p]:
Th e a r ea is m a de u p of t wo sepa r a t e a r ea s, m a r ked A a n d B on t h e dia gr a m . Let s fin d

t h ose t wo sepa r a t e a r ea s:
Area A =
sin x
cos x dx
/2
= sin sin 0 = 1 0
2
0
Ar ea A = 1
Area B =
2 cos
x dx
sin x
= sin sin = 0 1
2
/2
Ar ea B 5 21
273
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Th ese a n swer s sh ou ld n ot be t oo su r pr isin g. Th ey a r e t h e sa m e, a lt h ou gh on e is

loca t ed u n der t h e x-a xis, so it s sign ed area is t h e opposit e of t h e ot h er. Wh en you a dd
t h ese t wo a r ea s t oget h er, you get 0. So, t h e geom et r ic expla n a t ion is t h a t t h e a r ea s a r e
opposit es, a n d t h e r esu lt in g su m is 0.
NOTE
You ma y a rg ue tha t no
a rea is tec hnic a lly
neg a tive. Tha t s true.
E xa m ple 7 is a gr ea t segu e t o a few defin it e in t egr a l pr oper t ies t h a t a r e essen t ia l t o

kn ow:
a f ( x )dx = a f ( x )dx + b f ( x )dx, if a b c
a void this log ic a l d ilemma ,
f ( x )dx = 0
the a rea b ound ed b y

d efinite integ ra ls is often
referred to a s sig ned
a rea a rea tha t is p ositive
or neg a tive b a sed on its
Tran slation : If you st a r t a n d en d a t t h e sa m e x va lu e, you a r e t ech n ica lly n ot cover in g

a n y a r ea . Th er efor e, if t h e u pper a n d lower lim it s of in t egr a t ion a r e equ a l, t h e
r esu lt in g a r ea a n d defin it e in t egr a l h a ve a va lu e of 0.
b enea th the x-a xis is

c onsid ered neg a tive. To
Tran slation : You ca n split u p a n in t egr a l in t o t wo pa r t s a n d a dd t h em u p sepa r a t ely.

In st ea d of in t egr a t in g fr om a t o c, you ca n in t egr a t e fr om a t o b a n d a dd t h e a r ea fr om
p
b t o c. We did t h is in E xa m ple 7. In t h a t ca se, a 5 0, c 5 p, a n d b 5 .
2
However, a ny a rea tha t fa lls
f ( x )dx = f ( x )dx
b
Tran slation : In a t ypica l defin it e in t egr a l, t h e u pper bou n d, b, is gr ea t er t h a n t h e

lower bou n d, a. If you swit ch t h em , t h e a n swer you get will be t h e opposit e of you r
or igin a l a n swer. F or exa m ple, let s r edo E xa m ple 6 wit h t h e lim it s of in t egr a t ion
swit ch ed:
0
sin x dx = cos x
2cos 0 2(2cos p)
21 21 5 22
In essen ce, swit ch in g t h e bou n da r ies of in t egr a t ion h a s t h e effect of com m u t in g
(swit ch in g t h e or der of) t h e su bt r a ct ion pr oblem dict a t ed by t h e F u n da m en t a l Th eor em , m a kin g it g(a) 2 g(b) in st ea d of g(b) 2 g(a). Th is ca u ses t h e sign ch a n ge.
T h e d efin ite in tegral represen ts accu m u lated ch an ge.
Tran slation : In t h e sa m e wa y t h a t der iva t ives expr essed a r a t e of ch a n ge, t h e in t egr a l
goes in t h e ot h er dir ect ion a n d r epor t s a ccu m u la t ed ch a n ge. F or exa m ple, con sider t h e
gr a ph below of a ca r s velocit y:
p osition with rela tion to

the x-a xis.
274
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At a n y t im e t, t h e gr a ph t ells h ow fa st t h e ca r wa s goin g. (Th is is t h e gr a ph of t h e r a t e

of ch a n ge of posit ion , velocit y.) H owever, defin it e in t egr a ls give a ccu m u la t ed ch a n ge.
Th er efor e,
a v(t )dt a ct u a lly gives t h e dist a n ce t h e ca r t r a veled bet ween t im e a a n d b.
If t h e gr a ph r epr esen t ed t h e r a t e of sa le of socks over t im e, t h en t h e defin it e in t egr a l

r epr esen t s t h e n u m ber of socks sold over t h a t t im e. Mor e a ppr opr ia t e for m e, if t h e
gr a ph r epr esen t s t h e r a t e of h a ir loss over t im e, t h en t h e defin it e in t egr a l r epr esen t s
t h e a ct u a l a m ou n t of h a ir lost over t h e in t er va l of t im e. Get t h e pict u r e? Mor e on t h is
in Ch a pt er 9.
Now t h a t you kn ow qu it e a bit a bou t defin it e in t egr a ls, it s t im e t o spr in g P a r t Two of
t h e F u n da m en t a l Th eor em on you . In essen ce, t h is t h eor em sh ows t h a t differ en t ia t ion
a n d in t egr a t ion a r e opposit es of on e a n ot h er.
The Funda menta l Theorem, Pa rt Two
NOTE
If the up p er b ound is
something other tha n a
sing le va ria b le, a c c ord ing
to the Cha in Rule, you must
multip ly b y its d eriva tive.
If c is a con st a n t a n d t a n d x a r e va r ia bles,
d x
f (t ) dt = f ( x )
dx c
Tran slation : Th is t h eor em is ver y specific in it s focu s a n d pu r pose. It a pplies on ly if (1)

you a r e fin din g t h e der iva t ive of a defin it e in t egr a l, (2) you a r e differ en t ia t in g wit h
r espect t o t h e sa m e va r ia ble t h a t is in t h e u pper lim it of in t egr a t ion , a n d (3) t h e lower
lim it of in t egr a t ion is a con st a n t . If a ll t h ese con dit ion s a r e m et , t h e der iva t ive of t h e
in t egr a l is sim ply t h e fu n ct ion in side t h e in t egr a l (t h e der iva t ive a n d in t egr a l ca n cel
ea ch ot h er ou t ) wit h t h e u pper bou n d plu gged in .
Alt h ou gh t h is pa r t of t h e F u n da m en t a l Th eor em m a y sou n d a wfu lly com plica t ed (a n d
som e books m a ke it sou n d n ea r ly im possible), it is r ea lly qu it e ea sy. Th e followin g
exa m ple will lea d you t h r ou gh t h e pr ocess.
Ex a m p le 8: E va lu a t e t h e followin g der iva t ives:
(a )
NOTE
I will refer to Pa rt Two of the
Fund a menta l Theorem a s
Pa rt Two to a void
rep ea ting myself. However,
refer to it a s merely the
Fund a menta l Theorem if
justifying a n a nswer on the
AP test.
d x
cos t dt
3
dx
You a r e t a kin g t h e der iva t ive of a n in t egr a l wit h r espect t o t h e va r ia ble in t h e u pper
lim it of in t egr a t ion . In a ddit ion , t h e lower lim it is a con st a n t . Beca u se a ll t h ese t h in gs
a r e t r u e, you m a y a pply P a r t Two. In or der t o do so, sim ply plu g t h e u pper bou n d, x,
in t o t h e fu n ct ion t o get cos x. Th a t s a ll t h er e is t o it .
If you for got t h is h a n dy t r ick, you ca n st ill in t egr a t e a s in t h e pa st :
x
d x
d
cos t dt =
sin t
dx 3
3
dx
d
(sin x sin 3)
dx
cos x
Beca u se sin 3 is a con st a n t , it s der iva t ive is 0. Th is is wh y t h e lower bou n da r y m u st

be a con st a n t for t h e t h eor em t o wor k a n d a lso wh y it doesn t m a t t er wh a t t h a t lower
bou n da r y is.
275
.................................................................
Th e u pper bou n d is h 2 r a t h er t h a n ju st h , bu t t h e va r ia ble you a r e der ivin g wit h

r espect t o st ill m a t ch es, so you ca n st ill a pply P a r t Two. Sim ply plu g t h e u pper bou n d
in t o t h e fu n ct ion t o get
(h 2 )2 2 2(h 2 )
H owever, t h is is n ot t h e fin a l a n swer. Beca u se t h e u pper bou n d is n ot m er ely h , you
h a ve t o m u lt iply by it s der iva t ive a ccor din g t o t h e Ch a in Ru le. In t h is ca se, ju st
d h 2 = 2 h:
m u lt iply you r pr eviou s a n swer by dh
( )
(h 4 2 2h 2 ) z 2h
5
2h 2 4h
..............................................................................................
d h 2
x 2x dx
dh 5
2
(b)
NOTE
There is no 1 C on your
a nswer b ec a use you a re
find ing a d eriva tive, even
thoug h it s the d eriva tive of
a n integ ra l.
If you like, you ca n ver ify t h is by u sin g P a r t On e of t h e F u n da m en t a l Th eor em .
d x3
t dt
dx 2 x
Ba d n ews: Th e lower bou n d of t h is in t egr a l is n ot a con st a n t . Th er efor e, we ca n n ot
a pply P a r t Two. So, we defa u lt ba ck t o P a r t On e of t h e F u n da m en t a l Th eor em . It
h elps t o r ewr it e t as t 1 2 befor e you begin .
(c )
d 2 32
t
dx 3
((
d 2
x3
dx 3
3/2
x3
2x
( 2x )
3/2
3/2
d 2 9/2
( 2x )
x
dx 3
Don t for get t o t a ke t h e der iva t ive on ce you r e fin ish ed in t egr a t in g.
2 9 7 / 2 3
x
3 2
2
2x 2
3x 7 / 2 2 2x
276
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EXERCISE 4

1. E va lu a t e t h e followin g defin it e in t egr a ls:
6
(a ) x1 / 3 2x 4 1 dx
2
x
3 4
(b)
(c )
sec x ( sec x tan x ) dx
x dx
2. If f(x) is defin ed by t h e gr a ph below a n d con sist s of a sem icir cle a n d n u m er ou s

lin e segm en t s, eva lu a t e t h e followin g:
(a )
f ( x ) dx
(b)
f ( x ) dx
(c )
(d )
f ( x ) dx
10
f ( x ) dx
3. F in d t h e ver t ica l lin e x 5 c t h a t split s t h e a r ea bou n ded by

x 5 8 exa ct ly in h a lf.
4. E va lu a t e t h e followin g der iva t ives:

9
(a ) d 2 sin t cos t dt
dx 3x
(
(b) d (
dy
3y
y 1
m dm
y = x , y 5 0, a n d
277
.................................................................
2 (2 x
6
13 / 3
2 (2 x
6
x 1/ 3 1/ 2 dx
13 / 3
x 1/ 6 dx
3 16 / 3 6 5 / 6
x
x
8
5
6
2
3 16 / 3 6 5/ 6 3 16 / 3 6 5/ 6
(6 ) 6 ( 2 ) ( 2 )
8
5
8
5
Wit h ou t a ca lcu la t or, t h er es r ea lly n o n eed t o con t in u e sim plifyin g. Wh a t wa s

t h e pu r pose of a pr oblem t h a t doesn t sim plify? Get u sed t o get t in g weir d
a n swer s t h a t don t wor k ou t even ly. H a ve con fiden ce in a n swer s t h a t look a n d
feel weir d.
(b) Dist r ibu t e t h e sec x t o get
3 / 4
(sec
x sec x tan x dx
You ca n in t egr a t e ea ch of t h ose t er m s.
( tan x sec x )
3 / 4
0
2
or 2 , if you rationalize
2
(c ) E ven t h ou gh we n ever discu ssed a bsolu t e va lu e defin it e in t egr a ls, t h e a n swer
is a s sim ple a s lookin g a t t h e gr a ph :
Th e a r ea ben ea t h t h e gr a ph is com posed of t wo r igh t t r ia n gles, a n d a ll you

1
n eed t o fin d t h e a r ea of a t r ia n gle is bh . Th er efor e, t h e a r ea of bot h
2
t r ia n gles is
1
1
1
5
1 1 + 2 2 = + 2 =
2
2
2
2
Not ba d, eh ? Look a t t h e pr oblem s a t t h e en d of t h e ch a pt er t o pr a ct ice
n on lin ea r a bsolu t e va lu e defin it e in t egr a ls.
exercises
2
1 +
( 0 1)
2
a nsw ers
1. (a ) Begin by r ewr it in g t h e expr ession a n d dist r ibu t in g t h e x 1/3 .
..............................................................................................
278
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
2. You r wor k on 1(c) sh ou ld m a ke t h is ea sier. In or der t o ca lcu la t e t h e defin it e

in t egr a ls, u se geom et r ic for m u la s for t r ia n gles a n d sem icir cles.
(a ) 23: Th is is a t r ia n gle wit h ba se 3 a n d h eigh t 2. It is a lso below t h e x-a xis,
so it s sign ed a r ea is n ega t ive.
(b) 0: On e of t h e pr oper t ies of defin it e in t egr a ls st a t ed t h a t a n in t egr a l wit h
equ iva len t u pper a n d lower lim it s of in t egr a t ion h a s zer o va lu e, a s n o a r ea
is a ccu m u la t ed.
(c ) 2p 2 1: Th e a r ea fr om 0 t o 4 is 24. Th e a r ea fr om 4 t o 8 is a sem icir cle of
1
r a diu s 2, wh ich h a s a r ea p(2)2 5 2p. Th e a r ea fr om 8 t o 10 is a r igh t
2
t r ia n gle of a r ea 3. Th e su m is 2p 2 1.
5
(d ) : In or der t o do t h is pr oblem , you fir st n eed t o fin d t h e x-in t er cept of t h e
2
lin e segm en t fr om (24,3) t o (21,21). To do t h is, fin d t h e equ a t ion of t h e
lin e by fin din g t h e slope
slope =
1 3
4
=
1 ( 4)
3
a n d su bst it u t in g a poin t .
4
( x (1))
3
4
4
y +1 = x
3
3
y ( 1) =
3 y + 3 = 4 x 4
Th en , set t h e y equ a l t o 0 in or der t o fin d t h e x-in t er cept :
3 5 24x 2 4
x=
7
4
Th er efor e, t h e a r ea fr om 24 t o 0 con sist s of t wo r igh t t r ia n gles: on e wit h

9
7
posit ive a r ea (h eigh t 5 3 a n d ba se 5 4 2 5 ) a n d on e wit h n ega t ive
4
4
7
a r ea (h eigh t 5 1 a n d ba se 5 ). Th er efor e, t h e t ot a l a r ea will be
4
1 9
1 7
3 1
2 4
2 4
27 7 5
=
8
8 2
279
.................................................................
xdx
2 3/2 8
x
3
0
2
i 83 / 2
3
We a r e lookin g for a c bet ween 0 a n d 8 t h a t h a s exa ct ly h a lf of t h e a r ea , or a n a r ea
of 13 83/ 2 . In ot h er wor ds,
x dx =
1 3/ 2
8
3
2 3/2 c 1
x
= i 83 / 2
3
0 3
2 3/2 1 3/2
c = i8
3
3
2c3/2 5 8 3/2
Squ a r e bot h sides t o solve
4c3 5 8 3
c3 =
512
= 128
4
c=
128 = 4 3 2
exercises
In t egr a t e t h e left side t o get
a nsw ers
a n d t h is a r ea is given by
..............................................................................................
3. Th e r egion bou n ded by a ll t h ose gr a ph s is sim ply
280
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
4. (a ) You ca n n ot a pply P a r t Two r igh t a wa y sin ce t h e lower bou n d isn t a con st a n t .

H owever, on e of t h e pr oper t ies of defin it e in t egr a ls sa ys t h a t you ca n swit ch
t h e or der of t h e bou n ds if you t a ke t h e opposit e of t h e in t egr a l:
TIP
Ever wond er when to
c a lc ula te a rea a nd when
to c a lc ula te sig ned a rea ?
When c omp uting d efinite
integ ra ls, it s a lwa ys
sig ned a rea .
d 3x 2
9 sin t cos t dt
dx
Apply P a r t Two a n d be fin ish ed. Don t for get t o m u lt iply by t h e der iva t ive of
t h e u pper bou n d.
26x(sin 3x 2 cos 3x 2 )
(b) No P a r t Two h er e, a s t h e lower bou n d a ga in isn t a con st a n t , a n d t h is t im e
you ca n t do m u ch a bou t it . J u st u se t h e F u n da m en t a l Th eor em P a r t On e:
d m2
dy 2
3y
y 1
2
d 9 y 2 ( y 1)
dy 2
2
d 9 2 1 2
y y 2y + 1
dy 2
2
Aga in , don t for get t o t a ke t h e der iva t ive t o fin ish !
9y
1
(2 y 2 )
2
9 y ( y 1) = 8 y + 1
281
.................................................................
Accu m u la t ion fu n ct ion s a r e a n ew em ph a sis on t h e AP t est . Not a ll books r efer t o t h em

by t h is n a m e, bu t t h e lea der s in ca lcu lu s r efor m h a ve begu n t o u se t h is t er m in ology.
Th er efor e, I will ben d t o peer pr essu r e a n d u se it a s well. Accu m u la t ion fu n ct ion s a r e
n a t u r a l (a n d n ea t o) ext en sion s t o defin it e in t egr a ls.
1. Given a fu n ct ion
f ( x ) = g(t )dt a n d t h e fu n ct ion g(t) defin ed by t h e gr a ph

0
eva lu a t e f(1). P lu g 1 in t o f(x), even t h ou gh it m a y feel st r a n ge, a n d eva lu a t e t h e

defin it e in t egr a l.
2. H ow did t h e fu n ct ion f get it s va lu e?
3. E va lu a t e f(21). Wh y is you r a n swer posit ive?
4. F or wh a t in t egr a l va lu e(s) of c does f(c) 5 21? Com plet e t h e ch a r t below t o decide.
5. Ba sed on t h e t a ble you cr ea t ed in n u m ber 4, gr a ph f(x).
6. F in d f (x), a n d ju st ify you r a n swer.
7. Wh a t r ela t ion sh ip do you n ot ice bet ween f(x) a n d g(x), a n d wh y?
..............................................................................................
HANDS-ON ACTIVITY 7.2: ACCUMULATION FUNCTIONS
282
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
8. E va lu a t e f (23).

1. f (1) =
g(t)dt . In ot h er wor ds, f(1) is t h e a r ea ben ea t h g(t) on t h e in t er va l [0,1].

0
Th a t a r ea is a sm a ll t r a pezoid wit h h eigh t 1 a n d ba ses of len gt h 1 a n d 2. (You

cou ld a lso ca lcu la t e t h e a r ea a s t h e su m of t h e squ a r e a n d t r ia n gle t h a t m a ke u p
3
t h e t r a pezoid.) E it h er wa y, t h e sign ed a r ea is 2 (n ega t ive beca u se it is below t h e
2
x-a xis).
2. f got it s va lu e fr om t h e a m ou n t of a r ea a bove g(t) on t h e in t er va l 0 t o wh a t ever

t h e in pu t wa s (in t h is ca se, 1). In ot h er wor ds, by a ccu m u la t in g sign ed a r ea , f is
a n a ccu m u la t ion fu n ct ion .
3.
f ( 1) = g(t )dt. Not ice t h a t t h e lower n u m ber is on t op, wh ich is weir d, sin ce
0
it is u su a lly on t h e bot t om . Th er efor e, you sh ou ld ch a n ge it so t h a t t h e lower lim it

of in t egr a t ion is on t h e bot t om , bu t r em em ber t h a t doin g so m a kes t h e defin it e
in t egr a l it s opposit e, sin ce
a f ( x )dx = b f ( x )dx.
0
g(t )dt
1
1
Th e t r ia n gle bet ween 21 a n d 0 is below t h e x-a xis, so it sh ou ld h a ve a r ea 2 so
2
t h e in t egr a l equ a ls:
1
1
=
2 2
4. Use geom et r ic for m u la s t o ca lcu la t e t h e a r ea s. Don t for get t h a t

4
f ( 4) = g(t )dt , wh ich is all of t h e a ccu m u la t ed a r ea fr om x 5 0 t o x 5 4. Th e

0
3
a r ea fr om x 5 0 t o x 5 1 is 2 , a s weve sa id. Th e a r ea fr om x 5 1 t o x 5 2 is a
2
r igh t t r ia n gle of a r ea 21. Th e a r ea fr om x 5 2 t o x 5 4 is a r igh t t r ia n gle wit h
1
2
ba se 2 a n d h eigh t (sin ce t h e slope of t h e lin e fr om x 5 2 t o x 5 5 is ). Th er efor e,
3
3
1
2
11
3
a ll of t h e a ccu m u la t ed a r ea fr om x 5 0 t o x 5 4 is 2 2 1 1 z 2 z 5 2 .
2
2
3
6
Th e cor r ect a n swer s a r e c 5 24 a n d 5.
283
.................................................................
6.
d x
dx 0 g(t )dt
= g( x ) , a ccor din g t o F u n da m en t a l Th eor em P a r t Two. Don t m iss
t h e im por t a n ce of t h is: t h e gr a ph of f (x) is t h e gr a ph you wer e given in t h e fir st

pla ce, g(t). (Th e fa ct t h a t t h er es a t in st ea d of a n x m a kes n o differ en ce in t h e
gr a ph , bu t you sh ou ld u se g(x) t o keep you r n ot a t ion con sist en t .)
7. Th e gr a ph of g(x) a ct s like a n y fir st der iva t ive gr a ph . g(x) is posit ive wh en f(x) is
in cr ea sin g (look a t t h e in t er va l (24,21) on ea ch ). g(x) is 0 wh en ever f(x) h a s a
r ela t ive ext r em a poin t (look a t x 5 21 a n d 22).
8. f (23) is t h e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e t o f (x) a t x 5 23. Sin ce g(x) is f (x), you a r e
t r yin g t o fin d t h e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e t o g(x) a t x 5 23. Lu ckily, g(x) is lin ea r
1
a t x 5 23, a n d t h e slope of t h e lin e segm en t is . Rem em ber, t h e slope of a
2
t a n gen t lin e t o a lin ea r gr a ph is sim ply t h e slope of t h a t lin ea r gr a ph . Th er efor e,
1
f (23) 5 .
2
..............................................................................................
5.
284
.................................................................
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EXERCISE 5

1. If
f ( x ) = g( x )dx , wh y is f n ot a n a ccu m u la t ion fu n ct ion ?

0
2. On e fa m ou s fu n ct ion get s it s va lu e by a ccu m u la t in g a r ea ben ea t h t h e gr a ph of

1
y5 .
x
(a ) If we ca ll t h e fa m ou s fu n ct ion f(x) a n d defin e it a s
(b) Wh a t is t h e n a m e of t h e fa m ou s fu n ct ion ?
f ( x ) = 1t dt, fin d f(2).

1
(c ) E va lu a t e f(10), a n d ver ify t h a t t h e r esu lt m a t ch es t h e ou t pu t of t h e fa m ou s

fu n ct ion .
3. If g ( x ) =
x/4
sec 2 t dt , eva lu a t e g(3p), g(3p), a n d g(3p).
4. If h (t) is defin ed by t h e below gr a ph a n d m ( x ) =
(a ) Appr oxim a t e m
1/2
h (t ) dt ,
SD
3
.
2
(b) E va lu a t e m (2).
(c ) Descr ibe t h e con ca vit y of m (x) for [0,2].
(d ) Wr it e t h e followin g fu n ct ion va lu es in or der fr om lea st t o gr ea t est : m
m (1), a n d m (2).
SD
1
,
2
285
.................................................................
2. (a )
21
1
dt . You kn ow t h a t t h e in t egr a l of is ln t , so you get
t
t
1
f (2 ) =
2
1
ln 2 2 ln 1
ln t
a n d sin ce ln 1 5 0, t h e a n swer is ln 2. Not ice, f(2) 5 ln 2.

(b) Th e n a m e of t h is fa m ou s fu n ct ion is t h e n atu ral logarith m ! f(x) 5 ln x. It
1
m a kes sen se sin ce f (x) 5 .
x
(c )
f (10) =
10 1
dt . So,
f(10) 5 ln 10 2 ln 1 5 ln 10
Th is wor ks ever y t im e, sin ce t h e lower lim it of in t egr a t ion is a lwa ys 1 a n d

ln 1 is 0.
3. Let s do on e a t a t im e a n d st a r t wit h g(3p).
g (3 ) =
3 / 4
sec 2 t dt
3 / 4
0
3
tan 0 = 1 0 = 1
4
1
x
Accor din g t o F u n da m en t a l Th eor em P a r t Two, g(x) 5 sec2
. (Don t for get t o
4
4
1
m u lt iply by t h e der iva t ive of t h e u pper lim it of in t egr a t ion , wh ich is .) Th er efor e,
4
g (3 ) = tan
SD
g (3 ) =
1
3
sec 2
4
4
g (3 ) =
1 2
i
4 2
g (3 ) =
1
2
F in a lly, u se t h e Ch a in Ru le t o fin d g(x):

g ( x ) =
1
x
x
x 1
sec sec tan
2
4
4
4 4
g ( x ) =
1
x
x
sec 2 tan
8
4
4
exercises
g (3 ) = tan t
a nsw ers
1. An a ccu m u la t ion fu n ct ion h a s a n x in it s lim it s of in t egr a t ion .
..............................................................................................
286
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
NOTE
Counting b oxes to
a p p roxima te a rea ma y feel
ina c c ura te, b ut it s often
more a c c ura te tha n
Riema nn sums a nd , sinc e
you d b e a p p roxima ting
func tion va lues to use the
Tra p ezoid a l Rule in this c a se
a nywa y, why b other? Sure
it s a g uess, b ut the
d irec tions d o sa y
a p p roxima te.
g ( 3 ) =
1
3
3
sec 2
tan
4
4
8
1
1
2 1 =
8
4
g (3 ) =
4. (a ) m 3 =
4
3/2
h(t )dt . Beca u se t h er e is n o fu n ct ion , you ca n n ot fin d t h is exa ct

1
a r ea . H owever, you do kn ow t h a t t h e a r ea fr om x 5 t o x 5 1 is n ega t ive, a n d
2
3
t h e a r ea fr om x 5 1 t o x 5 is posit ive. You cou ld u se Riem a n n su m s or t h e
2
Tr a pezoida l Ru le t o a ppr oxim a t e; h owever, t h ese m et h ods a r e m ost ly u sed
wh en you h a ppen t o kn ow t h e fu n ct ion . Sin ce t h er e is n o fu n ct ion , wh y n ot
m a ke it a t ot a l a ppr oxim a t ion a n d cou n t boxes of area? E a ch box on t h e gr a ph
of t h e fu n ct ion is on e squ a r e u n it . Th er efor e, t h e n ega t ive a r ea is a ppr oxim a t ely 21.9 (you r a n swer m a y be differ en t bu t sh ou ld be r ela t ively close),
a n d t h e posit ive a r ea sh ou ld be 2.
1/2
3
Th er efor e, m 0.3
2
(b) Accor din g t o F u n da m en t a l Th eor em P a r t Two, m (x) 5 h (x). Th er efor e,
3
m (2) 5 h (2) 5 , a ccor din g t o it s gr a ph .
2
(c ) Th e con ca vit y of m (x) is descr ibed by t h e sign s of m (x). In a ddit ion , m (x)s
sign s descr ibe t h e dir ect ion of m (x), or h (x). Th er efor e, wh en ever h (x) is
in cr ea sin g, m (x) will be posit ive a n d vice ver sa . To su m m a r ize, m (x) will be
1
con ca ve u p wh en ever h (x) is in cr ea sin g: ,2 , a n d m (x) will be con ca ve down
2
1
wh er ever h (x) is decr ea sin g: 0, .
2
S D
S D
SD
(d ) Usin g t h e m et h od of cou n t in g boxes, we h a ve a lr ea dy det er m in ed t h a t m (1) '

3
' .3, so it m a kes sen se t o sa y t h a t m (2) . m
21.9. We a lso sa id t h a t m
2
3
3
, sin ce m a ccu m u la t es a lot of a ddit ion a l positive a r ea fr om x 5 t o x 5 2.
2
2
SD
Th er efor e, we kn ow t h a t m (2) is posit ive (if you cou n t boxes, m (2) ' 4).
F in a lly, m
SD
1
2
1
is 0, sin ce m =
2
1/2
1/2
h(t ) (a ccor din g t o a pr oper t y of defin it e
in t egr a ls). Wit h a ll t h is in m in d, we kn ow t h a t m (1) , m
SD
1
2
, m (2).
287
.................................................................
Th e Mea n Va lu e Th eor em for In t egr a t ion (MVTI) is a n exist en ce t h eor em , ju st like t h e

Mea n Va lu e Th eor em (MVT) wa s for differ en t ia t ion . Th e MVT gu a r a n t eed t h e exist en ce
of a t a n gen t lin e pa r a llel t o a seca n t lin e. Th e MVTI gu a r a n t ees som et h in g com plet ely
differ en t , bu t beca u se it in volves in t egr a t ion , you ca n gu ess t h a t t h e t h eor em in volves
a r ea a n d, t h er efor e, defin it e in t egr a ls.
Alt h ou gh t h e MVTI is a ver y in t er est in g t h eor em (a n d Im n ot lyin g ju st t o t r y t o keep
you in t er est ed), it is n ot widely u sed. I ca ll t h e MVTI t h e flou r t h eor em , beca u se it h a s
ever yt h in g t o do wit h m a kin g cookies, a n ecessa r y pr ecu r sor t o on e of m y fa vor it e
h obbies, ea t in g cookies.
Th e Me a n Va lu e Th e o re m fo r In te g ra tio n : If f(x) is a con t in u ou s fu n ct ion on t h e
in t er va l [a,b], t h en t h er e exist s a r ea l n u m ber c on t h a t in t er va l su ch t h a t
b
a f ( x )dx = f (c)(b a).

Tran slation : You ca n cr ea t e a r ect a n gle wh ose ba se is t h e in t er va l a n d wh ose h eigh t is
on e of t h e fu n ct ion va lu es in t h a t in t er va l. Th is is a ver y specia l r ect a n gle beca u se it s
a r ea is exa ct ly t h e sa m e a s t h e a r ea ben ea t h t h e cu r ve on t h a t in t er va l.
Look a t t h e gr a ph of f(x) below. If you cou n t t h e boxes of a r ea ben ea t h it on t h e
in t er va l [1,9], you will get a ppr oxim a t ely 36.
Also on t h e gr a ph is a r ect a n gle wit h len gt h 9 2 1 5 8. It st r et ch es a cr oss t h e in t er va l

a t a h eigh t of 4.5, a n d it s a r ea is 36. Not ice t h a t f(c) 5 4.5; t h is is t h e va lu e pr om ised
by t h e MVTI. Let s br ea k down t h e pa r t s of t h e t h eor em :
..............................................................................................
THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM FOR INTEGRATION, AVERAGE

VALUE OF A FUNCTION
288
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
ALERT!
Althoug h the a vera g e
va lue oc c urs a t x 5 5 in this
exa mp le (a nd 5 is the
mid p oint of [1,9]), the
a vera g e va lue d oes not
a lwa ys oc c ur a t the
mid p oint of the interva l.
Th e h eigh t of t h e r ect a n gle, f(c), is a lso ca lled t h e average valu e of f(x). In t h e exa m ple
a bove, t h e a ver a ge va lu e is f(c) 5 4.5. Im a gin e t h a t t h e gr a ph of f(x) r epr esen t s t h e
flou r in a m ea su r in g cu p wh ose widt h is t h e in t er va l [a,b]:
If you sh a ke t h e m ea su r in g cu p ba ck a n d for t h , t h e flou r will level ou t t o it s a ver a ge

h eigh t or a ver a ge va lu e. Th e r esu lt in g flou r will h a ve t h e sa m e volu m e a s t h e h illier
ver sion of it it s ju st fla t t en ed ou t . Th e sa m e t h in g h a ppen s in t wo dim en sion s wit h
t h e MVTI.
TIP
Ma ke sure you memorize
the a vera g e va lue formula .
It is g ua ra nteed to b e on
the test a t lea st two or
three times.
ALERT!
271
is a tiny b it more tha n
30
270
5 9, so in this c a se
30
(a lthoug h it wa s c lose), the
a vera g e va lue is not
ha lfwa y b etween the
a b solute ma ximum (12)
a nd a b solute minimum (6)
for the c losed interva l.
Some stud ents a ssume tha t
the a vera g e va lue a lwa ys
fa lls exa c tly in the mid d le.
Th e AP t est loves t o a sk qu est ion s a bou t t h e a ver a ge va lu e of a fu n ct ion . Beca u se of

t h is, it h elps t o h a ve t h e MVTI wr it t en in a differ en t wa ya wa y t h a t let s you get
r igh t a t t h e a ver a ge va lu e wit h n o h a ssle. You get t h is for m u la qu it e ea sily; ju st
1
, a n d you ve got it .
m u lt iply bot h sides of t h e MVTI by
b2a
Th e Av e ra g e Va lu e o f a F u n c tio n : If f(x) is con t in u ou s on [a,b], t h e a ver a ge va lu e of

t h e fu n ct ion , f(c), is given by
f (c) =
ba
a f ( x )dx
Ex a m p le 9: F in d t h e a ver a ge va lu e of t h e fu n ct ion
g( x ) = x + x on [4,9].
S o lu tio n : Th e a ver a ge va lu e, g(c), will be given by
g(c ) =
ba
g(c ) =
1
5
(x
9
a g ( x )dx
1 2
+ x dx
12
x2
g(c ) = x 3 2 +
5 3
2
9
4
1 2
81 2
g ( c ) = 27 + 8 + 8
5 3
2 3
1 36 81 16 24
g(c ) =
+ +
5 2
2 3
3
1 117 40 271
g(c ) =
=
5 2
3 30
289
.................................................................
Ex a m p le 10: (a ) Use you r gr a ph in g ca lcu la t or t o fin d t h e a ver a ge va lu e of h (x) 5 x cos x

on t h e in t er va l [0,p].
We h a ve n o good t ech n iqu es for in t egr a t in g x cos x, a n d well n eed t o do so t o fin d t h e
a ver a ge va lu e of t h e fu n ct ion . Th e m et h od is t h e sa m e, bu t t h e m ea n s will be
differ en t :
h (c ) =
1
x cos x dx
0
0
Type t h e a bove dir ect ly in t o you r ca lcu la t or, u sin g t h e fn In t fu n ct ion fou n d u n der
t h e [Ma t h ] m en u . If you do n ot kn ow h ow t o u se you r ca lcu la t or t o eva lu a t e defin it e
in t egr a ls, im m edia t ely r ea d t h e t ech n ology sect ion a t t h e en d of t h is ch a pt er. Th e
a ver a ge va lu e t u r n s ou t t o be h (c) 5 2.6366197724. In fa ct , t h e a ct u a l a n swer is
2
2 .
p
(b) F in d t h e c va lu e gu a r a n t eed by t h e Mea n Va lu e Th eor em for In t egr a t ion .
Th e MVTI gu a r a n t ees t h e exist en ce of a c wh ose fu n ct ion va lu e is t h e a ver a ge va lu e.
2
In t h is pr oblem , t h er e is on e in pu t c wh ose ou t pu t is 2 ; in ot h er wor ds, t h e poin t
p
2
c,2
is on t h e gr a ph of h (x). To fin d t h e c, plu g t h e poin t in t o h (x):
p
S D
h (c) 5 c cos c
2
2 5 c cos c
p
Solve t h is u sin g you r ca lcu la t or, a n d you get : c 5 1.911.
..............................................................................................
On e fin a l n ot e befor e a pa r t in g exa m ple: St u den t s som et im es get t h e a ver a ge va lu e of

a fu n ct ion con fu sed wit h t h e a ver a ge r a t e of ch a n ge of a fu n ct ion . Rem em ber, t h e
a ver a ge va lu e is ba sed on defin it e in t egr a ls a n d is t h e flou r fla t t en in g h eigh t of a
fu n ct ion . Th e average rate of ch an ge is t h e slope of a seca n t lin e a n d descr ibes r a t e
over a per iod of t im e. P r oblem 4 followin g t h is sect ion a ddr esses t h is poin t of con fu sion .
290
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
NOTE
We ha ve to integ ra te
* x c os x d x b y p a rts. This is
a BC-only top ic .
EXERCISE 6
YOU MAY USE YOUR CALCULATOR FOR PROBLEMS 3 AND 4 ONLY.

3 5
2
1. F in d t h e a ver a ge va lu e of g ( x ) = sec x on t h e closed in t er va l , .
4 4
2. If
NOTE
The MVTI g ua ra ntees tha t
a t lea st one suc h c will
exist, b ut multip le c s c ould
b e lurking a round .
2 f ( x )dx = 10 a n d 14 f ( x )dx = 29 , wh a t is t h e a ver a ge va lu e of f(x) on t h e
in t er va l [5,14]?
3. F in d t h e va lu e c gu a r a n t eed by t h e Mea n Va lu e Th eor em for In t egr a ls for t h e

1
fu n ct ion h (x) 5 x 2 2 on t h e in t er va l [2,6].
x
4. A pa r t icle t r a vels a lon g t h e x-a xis a ccor din g t o t h e posit ion fu n ct ion
s (t ) = sin 3t cos t .
p
t o t 5 2p?
2
(b) Wh a t is t h e velocit y of t h e pa r t icle a t a n y t im e t?
(c ) F in d t h e a ver a ge va lu e of t h e velocit y fu n ct ion you fou n d in pa r t (b) on t h e
in t er va l , 2 , a n d ver ify t h a t you get t h e sa m e r esu lt you did in

2
pa r t (a ).
(a ) Wh a t is t h e pa r t icles a ver a ge velocit y fr om t 5

1. Th e a ver a ge va lu e, g(c), is given by
5 / 4
g ( c ) = 1 3 / 4 sec2 x dx
g (c ) =
5 / 4
2
tan x )
(
3 / 4
g (c ) =
2
(1 ( 1)) = 4
2. F ir st of a ll, you ca n r ewr it e t h e secon d defin it e in t egr a l a s

14
2 f ( x ) dx = 29
Usin g a n ot h er pr oper t y of defin it e in t egr a ls, you kn ow t h a t
f ( x ) dx + f ( x ) dx = f ( x ) dx
10 + f ( x ) dx = 29
5
14
14
14
291
.................................................................
1
14 5
f (c) =
14
f ( x )dx
1
19
19 =
9
9
3. F ir st , you sh ou ld fin d t h e a ver a ge va lu e of t h e fu n ct ion :
h(c ) =
1 6 2 1
x dx
x
6 2 2
h(c ) =
1 x3
ln x
4 3
h(c ) =
6
2
8
1
( 72 ln 6 )
ln 2
4
Alt h ou gh t h is is t h e a ver a ge va lu e of t h e fu n ct ion , it is n ot t h e c gu a r a n t eed by

t h e MVTI. H owever, if you plu g c in t o h (x), you sh ou ld get t h a t r esu lt . Th er efor e,
c2
1
= 17.05868026
c
4. (a ) Th e a ver a ge velocit y is given by t h e slope of t h e seca n t lin e t o a position

fu n ction , ju st a s t h e t a n gen t lin es t o position fu n ction s give in st a n t a n eou s
velocit y. Th e slope of t h e seca n t lin e is
3
2
2
= .1837762985
(b) Sin ce s is t h e posit ion fu n ct ion , t h e velocit y, v(t), is t h e der iva t ive. Use t h e
P r odu ct Ru le (a n d t h e Ch a in Ru le) t o get
1
t
t
v(t) 5 2sin sin t 1 cos t cos
3
3
3
(c ) Use you r ca lcu la t or s fn In t fu n ct ion t o fin d t h e a ver a ge va lu e of v(t):
2
1
1
t
t
sin sin t + cos t cos dt 5 .1837762985

3 2
3
3
3
2
Th er efor e, you ca n fin d t h e a ver a ge r a t e of ch a n ge of a fu n ct ion t wo wa ys:
(1) ca lcu la t e t h e slope of t h e seca n t lin e of it s or igin a l fu n ct ion , or (2) fin d a
fu n ct ion t h a t r epr esen t s t h e r a t e of ch a n ge a n d t h en ca lcu la t e t h e a ver a ge
va lu e of it . P ick you r fa vor it e t ech n iqu e. Collect em a n d t r a de em wit h you r
fr ien ds!
exercises
Solve t h is wit h you r gr a ph in g ca lcu la t or t o fin d t h a t c ' 4.159.
a nsw ers
f (c) =
..............................................................................................
14
Th er efor e, f ( x ) dx = 19 . Wit h t h is va lu e, you ca n com plet e t h e a ver a ge va lu e

5
for m u la :
292
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
NOTE
Rememb er, there is no
u-sub stitution without you.
Isn t tha t nic e? Do you feel
a ll fuzzy insid e? No? Me
neither, so g et used to it.
U-SUBSTITUTION
Un t il t h is poin t , you h a ve been a ble t o in t egr a t e pa in fu lly few t h in gs. F or exa m ple, you
ca n solve
cos x dx , bu t n ot cos 5x dx . If you t h ou gh t cos 5x dx
sin 5x dx , a ll you
h a ve t o do is t a ke t h e der iva t ive (t o ch eck):
d
( sin 5 x + C ) = 15 cos 5 x
dx
Sin ce t h e r esu lt wa s n ot cos 5x, ou r a n t ider iva t ive of sin 5x doesn t ch eck ou t . H owever, we wer e pr et t y close.
In or der t o in t egr a t e t h in gs like cos 5x or e2 x, you n eed t o em ploy a m et h od ca lled

u -su bstitu tion . Th is m et h od a llows you t o in t egr a t e com posit e fu n ct ion s, sor t of like
t h e Ch a in Ru le a llowed you t o differ en t ia t e com posit e fu n ct ion s. H er es a good r u le of
t h u m b: If you wou ld u se t h e Ch a in Ru le t o t a ke t h e der iva t ive of a n expr ession , you
sh ou ld u se u -su bst it u t ion t o in t egr a t e it . H ow im por t a n t is u -su bst it u t ion ? It is a ll
over t h e AP t est , a n d it is a n essen t ia l skill you ll u se for t h e r em a in der of t h e yea r.
Let s begin by in t egr a t in g t h e a bove exa m ples u sin g u -su bst it u t ion .
Ex a m p le 11: In t egr a t e t h e followin g:
(a )
cos 5 x dx
If t h is wer e cos x, you cou ld in t egr a t e it . Th er efor e, we will in t r odu ce a n ew va r ia ble,

u , like so: u 5 5x. Th is wa y, t h e expr ession will becom e cos u , a n d we kn ow t h e
in t egr a l of cos u it is sin u . H owever, befor e we get a h ea d of ou r selves, we n eed t o
fin d t h e der iva t ive of u (wit h r espect t o x); t h is is t h e a ll-im por t a n t secon d st ep.
du 5 5 dx
We wa n t t o solve t h is for d x. Wh y? We will be r epla cin g xs wit h u s in t h e in t egr a l, so

we wa n t t o r epla ce d xs wit h d u s so a ll t h e va r ia bles m a t ch . Solvin g for d x is ver y
ea sy:
Now, su bst it u t e u 5 5x a n d
du
= dx
5
du
= dx in t o t h e or igin a l in t egr a l t o get
5
At t h is poin t , you ca n pu ll t h e
cosu
du
5
1
ou t of t h e in t egr a l sin ce it s ju st a con st a n t a n d t h e
5
r esu lt is bea u t ifu l:
1
cosu du
5
Th e in t egr a l of cos u is sin u , so you get
293
.................................................................
H owever, you r fin a l a n swer ca n t in clu de u s sin ce t h e or igin a l pr oblem didn t in clu de
u s. To fin ish , su bst it u t e in t h e or igin a l va lu e for u , u 5 5x.
1
sin 5x 1 C
5
(b)
2x
dx
We ca n in t egr a t e ex , bu t n ot e2x . Beca u se t h e 2x is n ot a sin gle va r ia ble (wh ich we

wa n t ), we r epla ce it wit h a sin gle va r ia ble, u :
u 5 2x
d u 5 2d x
Aga in , solve for d x so we ca n r epla ce it in t h e in t egr a l a n d m a ke t h e va r ia bles m a t ch .
du
= dx
2
1
Now, su bst it u t e in t o t h e in t egr a l, m a ke t h ose xs a ba d m em or y, a n d fa ct or ou t t h a t .
2
du
2
1 u
e du
2
Not h in g is ea sier t o in t egr a t e t h a n eu !
= eu + C .
1 u
e 1C
2
Get ever yt h in g ba ck t o xs a n d you r e fin ish ed.
1 2x
e 1C
2
If you don t feel con fiden t t h a t t h ese a n swer s a r e cor r ect , t a ke t h eir der iva t ives a n d
ch eck t h em .
So fa r, you ve seen t h a t u -su bst it u t ion ca n t a ke t h e pla ce of t h e in n er fu n ct ion of a
com posit e fu n ct ion a n d m a ke t h e in t egr a l sim pler by r epla cin g t h a t t r ou blesom e in n er
fu n ct ion wit h a sin gle va r ia ble. Bu t , t h is is on ly on e good u se of u -su bst it u t ion . Oft en ,
you ll see a com plex in t egr a l pr oblem wit h t h is specific ch a r a ct er ist ic: pa r t of t h e
in t egr a ls der iva t ive is a lso in t h e pr oblem . F or exa m ple, con sider t h is in t egr a l:
ln x
x dx . Of t h e t wo pieces in t h e in t egr a l, wh ose der iva t ive is pr esen t ? Th e a n swer is
ln x. We ca n r ewr it e t h e in t egr a l t o look like t h is:
ln x x dx
..............................................................................................
1
sin u 1 C
5
294
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Th e der iva t ive of ln x is
1
, a n d it s in t h e in t egr a l! Wh y is t h is im por t a n t ? Wa t ch
x
a n d see.
ln x
dx
x
S o lu tio n : Beca u se, a s we sa id a bove, ln x h a s it s der iva t ive in t h e in t egr a l, we set it
equ a l t o u (a n d t a ke t h e der iva t ive a s we did ea ch t im e in E xa m ple 11).
u 5 ln x
du =
1
dx
x
Th a t s wh y it s im por t a n t t h a t t h e der iva t ive wa s a lso pr esen t . Beca u se we cou ld

r ewr it e t h e or igin a l in t egr a l expr ession a s
ln x x dx
1
(a s we sh owed a bove), we ca n n ow r epla ce d x wit h d u . Wh y? Beca u se we fou n d ou t
x
t h ey wer e equ a l wh en we differ en t ia t ed t h e st a t em en t u 5 ln x. By su bst it u t ion , ou r
or igin a l in t egr a l becom es
NOTE
If you c a n t integ ra te b y
simp le mea ns (like the
Power Rule for Integ ra tion),
immed ia tely try
u-sub stitution. Ma ke it your
on-d ec k b a tter.
u du
Th is is r ea lly ea sy t o in t egr a t e:
u2
+C
2
Sim ply r epla ce t h e u s wit h xs, a n d you r e fin ish ed. Th e fin a l a n swer is
(ln x )2
2
+C
Th e h a r dest pa r t of u -su bst it u t ion is decidin g wh a t t h e u sh ou ld be. If you t r y a few

t h in gs a n d t h ey don t wor k, don t get discou r a ged. Tr y ot h er t h in gs. E ven t u a lly, you ll
fin d som et h in g t h a t wor ks.
5 Steps to Success with U-Substitution

Ch oose pa r t of t h e in t egr a l expr ession t o be you r u . Th is is t h e dia bolica l pa r t . If
you r e dea lin g wit h a com posit e fu n ct ion , you m igh t wa n t t o set u equ a l t o t h e
in n er fu n ct ion . If a n expr ession f(x) a n d it s der iva t ive f(x) a r e bot h in a fu n ct ion ,
set u equ a l t o f(x). Th er e a r e n o h a r d a n d fa st r u les. P r a ct ice is t h e key.
F in d t h e der iva t ive of t h e u expr ession wit h r espect t o x (or wh a t ever t h e va r ia ble
pr esen t is).
If n ecessa r y, solve t h e der iva t ive you fou n d in st ep 2 for d x.
295
.................................................................
Repla ce you r u s u sin g you r or igin a l u st a t em en t fr om n u m ber 1.

Ex a m p le 13: Solve t h e followin g in t egr a ls u sin g u -su bst it u t ion .
(a )
x 2 +1
dx
x3 + 3x
Th is looks com plica t ed. You m igh t t r y a cou ple of t h in gs for u , bu t if you set u 5 x 3 1
3x, wa t ch wh a t h a ppen s:
du = 3 x 2 + 3 dx
du
= x 2 + 1 dx
3
Th e en t ir e n u m er a t or a n d t h e d x get r epla ced wit h
du
, a n d t h e or igin a l in t egr a l
3
expr ession becom es
..............................................................................................
Su bst it u t e ba ck in t o t h e or igin a l in t egr a l a n d in t egr a t e.
TIP
If you c a nnot fig ure out
1 1
du
3 u
wha t u should b e a nd the

integ ra l exp ression is a
fra c tion, try to set u eq ua l
a n d you ca n in t egr a t e t h is qu it e ea sily.
to the d enomina tor, a s in

Exa mp le 13(a ).
1
ln u + C
3
(b)
tan x
dx
2
x
1
ln x 3 + 3 x + C
3
cos
Th er e a r e a t lea st t wo good wa ys t o solve t h is, bot h u sin g u -su bst it u t ion .

M eth od On e: Rewr it e t a n x a s
sin x .
cos x
sin x
3
x
cos
u 5 cos x
du 5 2sin x d x
2d u 5 sin x d x
1
du
u3
u 3du
296
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
M eth od Tw o: Rewr it e
1 2
u +C
2
1
+C
2 cos 2 x
1
a s sec2 x.
cos 2 x
tan x sec
x dx
u 5 tan x
d u 5 sec2 x d x
u du
u2
+C
2
tan 2 x
+C
2
Alt h ou gh t h ose a n swer s do n ot im m edia t ely look t h e sa m e, t h ey a r e equ iva len t . If you
n eed pr oof, h er e it is:
1
+C
2 cos 2 x
1 2
sec x + C
2
Use P a ppa t o su bst it u t e 1 1 t a n 2 x for sec2 x.
1
1 + tan 2 x + C
2
1 tan 2 x
+
+C
2
2
1
Rea lize t h a t 1 C is sim ply a n ot h er con st a n t , or a differ en t C, a n d t h e expr ession s a r e
2
equ a l. Th er e is n ever a gu a r a n t ee t h a t t wo Cs a r e equ a l, even t h ou gh we u se t h e
sa m e va r ia ble t o r epr esen t t h em C is a n a r bit r a r y con st a n t .
297
.................................................................
You ca n a lso u se u -su bst it u t ion in defin it e in t egr a ls. Th e on ly a dju st m en t you m u st
m a ke is t h a t you r lim it s of in t egr a t ion (wh ich a r e x lim it s) m u st becom e u lim it s. It s
ver y ea sy t o a ccom plish t h is.
3
Ex a m p le 14: E va lu a t e 4x 2 3x 3 5dx
2
S o lu tio n : Begin by pu llin g t h e con st a n t 4 ou t of t h e in t egr a l t o get
2 x 2
3 x 3 5 dx . Now, set u equ a l t o t h e va lu e in side t h e r a dica l.

u 5 3x 3 2 5
d u 5 9x 2 d x
du
= x 2 dx
9
4
9
At t h is poin t , it is in cor r ect t o wr it e
12
. Th e bou n da r ies 2 a n d 3 a r e x bou n d-
a r ies. We h a ve t o m a ke a ll t h e va r ia bles m a t ch (wh ich is wh y d x h a s t o becom e d u .)

Th er efor e, plu g ea ch of t h ese x va lu es in t o t h e u expr ession u 5 3x 3 2 5 t o get t h e
cor r espon din g u bou n da r y:
..............................................................................................
tan 2 x
+C
2
ALERT!
When you c ha ng e the x
b ound a ries to u
b ound a ries, the lower
b ound mig ht end up hig her
u 5 3(2) 2 5 5 19
tha n the up p er b ound . If
u 5 3(3)3 2 5 5 76
this ha p p ens, d on t p a nic
Th er efor e, we ca n r ewr it e t h e or igin a l in t egr a l a s
a nd d on t c ha ng e them!
Lea ve them a s is, a nd
4
9
76
19
c omp lete the p rob lem.
u 1 2 du
In t egr a t e a n d a pply t h e F u n da m en t a l Th eor em t o fin ish .
4 2 3
u
9 3
8 3
76
27
19
76
19
3 2
171.773
Th e la st im por t a n t t opic of t h is sect ion (a n d it wa s a lon g on e, wa sn t it ?) is in t egr a t in g t r igon om et r ic fu n ct ion s. You a lr ea dy kn ow t h e in t egr a ls of sin x a n d cos x, bu t you
don t kn ow t h e ot h er fou r, a n d it s im por t a n t t h a t you kn ow a ll six. It is a ct u a lly qu it e
ea sy t o fin d * t a n x d x. If you r ewr it e it in t er m s of sin e a n d cosin e, you ca n in t egr a t e
u sin g u -su bst it u t ion :
tan x dx =
TIP
It sometimes is useful to set
u eq ua l to the p a rt of your
integ ra l tha t is ra ised to a
p ower. In Exa mp le 14, 3x3 2

1
5 is ra ised to the p ower.
2
sin x
dx
cos x
u 5 cos x, d u 5 2sin x d x
298
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
2d u 5 sin x d x
1
du
u
ln cos x + C
You ca n in t egr a t e cot a n gen t in a sim ila r wa y t o get
cot x dx = ln
sin x + C
In t egr a t in g sec x a n d csc x a r e a lit t le m or e difficu lt a n d r equ ir e a t r ick or t wo, so we

won t get in t o t h a t . H owever, it is im por t a n t t h a t you kn ow wh a t t h eir in t egr a ls a r e,
if n ot wh er e t h ey ca m e fr om :
sec x dx = ln sec x + tan x
+C
csc x dx = ln csc x + cot x
+C
J u st like you m em or ized t h e der iva t ives of t h ese fu n ct ion s, it s equ a lly im por t a n t t o
m em or ize t h eir in t egr a ls. E xcept for sin e a n d cosin e, a ll of t h e t r ig in t egr a ls con t a in
ln . To h elp m em or ize
and
sec x dx, r em em ber it s der iva t ive.
sec x dx = ln sec x + tan x
+ C.
d
dx (sec x ) =
sec x tan x,
On e m u lt iplies t h e t er m s, a n d t h e ot h er a dds t h em . Th e sa m e goes for csc x. You r ea lly

sh ou ldn t n eed a t r ick t o m em or ize t h e in t egr a ls for t a n x a n d cot x; a s you ve seen
wit h t a n x, t h ey a r e ver y ea sy t o fin d wit h u -su bst it u t ion .
299
.................................................................

E va lu a t e t h e followin g in t egr a ls.
2.
sin e x
dx
ex
3.
cos
1.
3 x + 14 dx
5 x sin 5 x dx
x
x
csc cot dx
2
2
4
4.
5.
6.
( ln 3)( x 2 + 4 )dx
sin 3 x
cos 3 x dx
x

1. Th is is a com posit e fu n ct ion , so set u 5 3x 1 14, t h e in n er fu n ct ion . (Th is a lso
follows t h e ea r lier t ip t h a t som et h in g t o a power ca n be t h e u .)
u 5 3x 1 14
du
5 d x. Th e n ew u bou n da r ies will be
3
u 5 3(0) 1 14 5 14 a n d
Th er efor e, t h e der iva t ive is d u 5 3d x a n d
u 5 3(3) 1 14 5 23
Th e in t egr a l t h en becom es
1 23 1 2
u du
3 14
1 2 3 2 23
u
14
3 3
2
23 3
9
14 3
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 7
300
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
2. Th is is a fr a ct ion t h a t con t a in s a com posit e fu n ct ion . Th e in n er fu n ct ion is e2x , so

m a ke t h a t you r u :
u 5 e2x
2d u 5 e2x d x
dx
ex
du =
Th e 2d u will r epla ce t h e den om in a t or a s well a s d x so you ca n in t egr a t e.
sin u du
2(2cos u ) 1 C
cos e2x 1 C
1
3. Th e best u in t h is pr oblem is u 5 cos 5x. Th er efor e, d u 5 25 sin 5x d x, a n d 2 d u
5
5 sin 5x d x.
1 2
u du
5
1
u3 + C
15
1
cos3 5 x + C
15
4. An ot h er com posit e fu n ct ion : Set
u=
u -bou n da r ies will be
x
1
, so d u 5 d x a n d 2d u 5 d x. Th e n ew
2
2
u=
u=
a n d t h e n ew in t egr a l will be
8 csc u cot u du
2 csc u
2 csc
6
8
+ 2 csc .
6
8
301
.................................................................
d u 5 3e
, wa t ch wh a t h a ppen s:
z cos 3 x d x
du = esin 3x cos 3x dx
3
All of t h e in t egr a l disa ppea r s, t o be r epla ced wit h
du
.
3
1
du
3
Of cou r se, t h e in t egr a l of d u is u , so t h e a n swer is
1
1
u + C = esin 3 x + C
3
3
Th is is a gr ea t t ech n iqu e for in t egr a t in g an y kin d of expon en t ia l fu n ct ion ; it
wor ks like m a gic.
6. Th e
1
is m er ely a con st a n t we ca n pu ll ou t of t h e in t egr a l; n ext , set u 5 x 2 1 4.
ln 3
Th is r esu lt s in d u 5 2x d x, a n d
du
= x d x. Wh en you su bst it u t e ba ck you get
2
du
1
2 ln 3 u
1 ln x 2 + 4 + C
2 ln 3
1
ln x 2 + 4 + C
ln 9
INTEGRATING INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

You a lr ea dy kn ow a lot a bou t in t egr a t in g in ver se t r igon om et r ic fu n ct ion s. In fa ct , you
kn ow so m u ch t h a t you r pa r en t s pu ll pict u r es of you fr om t h eir wa llet a n d dr on e on a n d
on a bou t you r in t im a t e kn owledge of a r csin . In fa ct , t h ey wish you wer e goin g ou t wit h
a r csin in st ea d of t h a t n o-good you r e cu r r en t ly da t in g. Well, it s t im e t o give t h em even
m or e t o br a g a bou t .
You a lr ea dy kn ow t h a t
1 x
dx = arcsin x + C. H owever, a r a dica l in t h e den om i -
n a t or does n ot h a ve t o con t a in a 1, a n d t h e squ a r ed t er m does n ot h a ve t o be x 2 . You

ca n in t egr a t e a n y expr ession of t h e for m
1
a2 u2
t o get a r csin
u
(wh er e a is a con st a n t a n d u is a fu n ct ion of x).
a
exercises
Th er es n o n eed t o u se a bsolu t e va lu es for t h e n a t u r a l log, sin ce x 2 1 4 will a lwa ys

be posit ive. You m igh t a lso a pply log pr oper t ies a n d wr it e t h e a n swer a s
a nsw ers
sin 3x
3x
..............................................................................................
5. You cou ld set u 5 sin 3x, bu t if you set u 5 esin
302
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
5x
dx
9 x4
S o lu tio n : F ir st of a ll, pu ll t h a t 5 ou t of t h e n u m er a t or. Th e n u m er a t or h as t o be 1,
a ccor din g t o t h e for m u la a bove. Don t wor r y a bou t t h e pr esen ce of t h e x for n ow. . . .
Th a t will t a ke ca r e of it self la t er.
x
9 x4
dx
2
2
4
a 2 u 2 in t h e den om in a t or ; a 5 9 a n d u 5 x .
We st ill h a ve t h e a r csin for m

2
Th er efor e, a 5 3 a n d u 5 x . Th e pr esen ce of a u r em in ds you t o do u su bst it u t ion .

u 5 x2
d u 5 2x d x
du
will r epla ce t h e xd x in t h e den om in a t or wh en we su bst it u t e. (See? I t old
2
you t h e x wou ld t a ke ca r e of it self.)
Th er efor e,
5
du
2
a2 u2
Accor din g t o t h e for m u la a bove, t h is equ a ls a r csin
NOTE
You d on t ha ve to
memorize a p a ttern for
a rc c os x, a rc c ot x, or
a rc c sc x, sinc e their
p a tterns d iffer only b y a
neg a tive sig n (rememb er
from the d eriva tives
sec tion?). Don t even worry
a b out using them.
u
, wh ich is
a
5
x2
arcsin
+C
2
3
2
number variable in t h e
Th a t s a ll t h er e is t o it . Recogn ize t h e pa t t er n of
den om in a t or, a n d it s a good clu e t o t r y t o in t egr a t e u sin g a r csin x. H owever, t h er e a r e
t wo ot h er pa t t er n s you wa n t t o m em or ize a s well (n ot five, a s you m igh t h a ve fea r ed).
H er e a r e t h e r em a in in g t wo (a n d t h ey look r em a r ka bly sim ila r t o t h e der iva t ives you
fou n d ea r lier in t h e book).
1
a 2 + u 2 du = a arctan a + C
Pattern to look for: Th e su m of a n u m ber a n d a va r ia ble t o a power in t h e den om in a t or.
1
2
u a
du =
u
1
arcsec + C
a
a
Pattern to look for: A r a dica l in t h e den om in a t or a n d t h e differ en ce of a va r ia ble t o a

power a n d a n u m ber. Ar csec is ver y close t o a r csin , bu t t h e or der of t h e su bt r a ct ion is
r ever sedn ot t o m en t ion t h e pr esen ce of t h a t ext r a x in t h e a r csec for m u la .
1
in fr on t of t h e in ver se t r igon om et r ic for m u la ,
Bot h of t h ese for m u la s h a ve a
a
wh er ea s a r csin x does n ot . It does n ot ch a n ge t h e pr ocedu r e a t a ll; ju st don t for get it .
303
.................................................................
(a )
x3
2x 2
x6 4
dx
2
Th is is a job for a r csec. Th e u u a pa t t er n is eviden t in t h e den om in a t or : u 5 x

a n d a 5 2. Don t for get t h e u r em in ds you t o do u -su bst it u t ion . If u 5 x 3 , t h en d u 5
du
5 x 2 . Th is gives you
3x 2 a n d
3
3
2
du
3 u u2 a 2
2 1 arc sec u + C
3 a
a
(b)
3
1 arc sec x + C
3
2
((sin x ))
cos
dx
x+3
Th is on e m a y n ot look like a r ct a n , bu t it is. Th e den om in a t or h a s t h e for m u 2 1 a 2 ,
wh er e u 5 cos x a n d a = 3 . Th e con st a n t does n ot h a ve t o be a per fect squ a r e. Th is
wor ks exa ct ly t h e sa m e wa y. Don t for get a bou t u -su bst it u t ion , t h ou gh . If u 5 cos x,
d u 5 2sin x, a n d 2d u 5 sin x.
2
du
u2 + a2
1
u
arctan + C
a
a
1
cos x
arctan
+C
3
3
You ca n r a t ion a lize t h is, if you wish , t o get
3
3 cos x
arctan
+C
3
3
..............................................................................................
Ex a m p le 16: In t egr a t e t h e followin g:
304
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 8
EVALUATE EACH OF THE FOLLOWING WITHOUT A CALCULATOR.

1.
1
4x + 7
2
dx
2.
x+7
3.
4.
sin
4 dx
64 16 x 2
tan x
2
x cot 2 x 16
dx

1. Th is is a clea r a r ct a n pr oblem wit h u 5 2x a n d a 5 =7. Th er efor e, d u 5 2d x a n d
du
5 d x.
2
1
2
du
u2 + a2
1
u
arctan
7
2 7
1
2 7
arctan
3
0
3 7
2. You ca n n ot u se in ver se t r ig for m u la s t o solve t h is. If you t r ied, you wou ld h a ve set
1
, bu t t h e r esu lt in g u -su bst it u t ion wou ld h a ve been im possibleyou d
u 5
=x
1
in t h e pr oblem . In st ea d, t h is is a sim ple u -su bst it u t ion pr obn eed a n ot h er
=x
lem . Set u 5 x 1 7 a n d d u 5 d x. You ca n t h en r ewr it e t h e in t egr a l a s
du
u
wh ich is sim ply
ln u + C
ln x + 7 + C
305
.................................................................
dx
16 4 x 2
dx
4 x2
Th is cou ld h a r dly be m or e st r a igh t for wa r d n ow. Set u 5 x a n d a 5 2, so d u 5 d x

a n d t h e in t egr a l becom es
du
2
a u2
x
arcsin + C
2
4. You r in st in ct sh ou ld t ell you t h a t t h is is a n a r csec pr oblem , sin ce t h er e is a
r a dica l in t h e den om in a t or a n d t h e or der of su bt r a ct ion is variable 2 con stan t.
H owever, if u 5 cot x, sh ou ldn t t h er e be a cot x in fr on t of t h e r a dica l t o m a t ch t h e
cor r ect den om in a t or for m of x x 2 u 2 ? Wa t ch wh a t h a ppen s wh en you r ewr it e
t h e t r ig fu n ct ion s u sin g t h e r ecipr oca l iden t it ies:
Now, if u 5 cot x (a n d a 5 4), d u 5 2csc2 x d x, so 2d u 5 csc2 x d x. Rewr it e t h e

in t egr a l t o get
du
u2 a2
wh ich is t h e exa ct for m u la for a r csec, a n d ever ybodys h a ppy.
cot x
1
arc sec
+C
4
4
TECHNOLOGY: EVALUATING DEFINITE INTEGRALS WITH

YOUR GRAPHING CALCULATOR
Th e fin a l of t h e fou r ca lcu la t or skills (a lso kn own a s t h e fou r skills of t h e a poca lypse by
t h ose la ckin g t ech n ologica l kn ow-h ow) you a r e r equ ir ed t o kn ow for t h e AP t est is h ow t o
ca lcu la t e a defin it e in t egr a l. As wa s t h e ca se wit h der iva t ives, t h e TI-83 ca n n ot fin d
sym bolic in t egr a ls. In ot h er wor ds, it does n ot kn ow t h a t
2
x dx =
x3
+ C . H owever, it
3
ca n fin d a da r n good a ppr oxim a t ion for t h e a r ea ben ea t h a cu r ve. Alwa ys r em em ber a n d
n ever for get t h a t you ll h a ve t o be a ble t o solve defin it e in t egr a ls wit h ou t you r gr a ph in g
ca lcu la t or, so don t com e t o r ely so m u ch on t h e t ool t h a t you for get t h e F u n da m en t a l
Th eor em in a ll it s glor y.
exercises
csc 2 x dx
cot x cot 2 x 16
a nsw ers
..............................................................................................
3. Th is is defin it ely a n a r csin pr oblem , bu t it s m u ch ea sier if you fa ct or ou t a 16

fr om t h e den om in a t or a n d sim plify fir st .
306
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
6
1
1/3
4
Ex a m p le 17: E va lu a t e 2 x 2x
dx
x
S o lu tio n : Th is wa s pr oblem 1(a ) fr om t h e F u n da m en t a l Th eor em pr oblem set ; a lt h ou gh it wa sn t ver y h a r d, t h er e a r e lot s of pla ces t o m a ke a m ist a ke. To u se you r
ca lcu la t or, pr ess [Ma t h ], [9], or ju st pr ess [Ma t h ] a n d a r r ow down t o t h e 9 t h opt ion ,
fn In t . Th e cor r ect syn t a x for eva lu a t in g defin it e in t egr a ls on t h e TI-83 is
fn In t (in tegral,x,low er lim it,u pper lim it)
Type t h is in t o you r ca lcu la t or,
a n d you get 5,280.402. Ar e you con vin ced t h a t t h is is t h e sa m e t h in g a s t h e a n swer we

got ba ck in t h e pr e-ca lcu la t or da y?
3 16 / 3 6 5/ 6 3 16 / 3 6 5/ 6
(6 ) 6 ( 2 ) ( 2 )
8
8
5
5
To m a ke su r e t h ey a r e t h e sa m e (if you feel t h e n eed, a r e m a soch ist ic, or a r e, by

n a t u r e, du biou s of ot h er s), you ca n t ype t h e a bove n u m ber in t o you r ca lcu la t or, a n d
see wh a t h a ppen s.
Oh , ye of lit t le fa it h t h eyr e t h e sa m e.
307
.................................................................
YOU MAY USE A GRAPHING CALCULATOR FOR PROBLEMS 11 THROUGH 13 ONLY.

1.
2.
3.
tan tanxxdx
2
1 sin 2 x dx
3
0 f ( x )dx = 10 a n d 3 g( x )dx = 12 , eva lu a t e t h e followin g:

3
(a )
0 (g( x ) 3 f ( x ))dx
3
(b)
0 ( f ( x ) + 2)dx
4. E va lu a t e
sin
x4
5
dx .
5. Wh a t is t h e a ver a ge va lu e of t h e fu n ct ion v(x) 5 4 2sec

6. Set u p, bu t do n ot eva lu a t e,
7. If
j( x ) =
cos x
10
3
p
sin x
on [0, ]?
2
3
cos x
x 2 4 x 5 dx .
ln y3dy , j = ?
4
8. Wh a t expr ession h a s a n in t egr a l of 3 ln m ( 3 x ) + C , if m is a fu n ct ion of x?

9.
tan x sec ( ln cos x ) dx
10. Th e followin g gr a ph , r(t), r epr esen t s t h e r a t e of sa les of t h e F u r by t oy (in

h u n dr eds of t h ou sa n ds of t oys per m on t h ) fr om J a n u a r y 1998 t o J u n e 1999.
(a ) Wr it e a defin it e in t egr a l t h a t r epr esen t s t ot a l sa les fr om F ebr u a r y 1998 t o

Ma r ch 1999.
(b) Wr it e, bu t do n ot eva lu a t e, a n expr ession t h a t r epr esen t s t h e a ver a ge r a t e
of sa les over t h e en t ir e per iod of t im e.
(c ) Wh er e will t h e gr a ph of t ot a l sa les be con ca ve u p?
11. If
2 x
1 3
a
dx = 11 (a a n d b a r e r ea l n u m ber s), fin d a in t er m s of b.
x2
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 9
308
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
12. If it t a kes NASCAR dr iver Da le J a r r et t 1 m in u t e t o com plet e a la p a r ou n d a t r a ck

a n d h is speed is m ea su r ed ever y 10 secon ds (in m ph ) a s in dica t ed below, a n swer
t h e followin g.
(a ) Accor din g t o m idpoin t su m s a n d n 5 3 r ect a n gles, a ppr oxim a t ely h ow lon g

is on e la p on t h e t r a ck?
(b) Wh a t est im a t ion of Da les dist a n ce t r a veled is given by t h e Tr a pezoida l
Ru le wit h n 5 6 t r a pezoids?
(c ) Usin g you r r esu lt s fr om pa r t (b), a ppr oxim a t e Da les a ver a ge speed.
13. J a m e s D ia bo lic a l Ch a lle n g e : A pa r t icles velocit y over t im e (in in ch es/sec) a s it

m oves a lon g t h e x-a xis is gover n ed by t h e fu n ct ion v(t) 5 3t 2 2 10t 1 15.
(a ) If t h e pa r t icles posit ion a t t 5 1 secon d is 8 in ch es, fin d t h e exa ct posit ion
equ a t ion of t h e pa r t icle, s(t).
(b) Wh a t is t h e dist a n ce t r a veled by t h e pa r t icle fr om t 5 0 sec t o t 5 5 sec?
(c ) At wh a t t im e(s) fr om t 5 0 sec t o t 5 5 sec is t h e pa r t icle t r a velin g it s
a ver a ge velocit y?

1. If you u se t h e P a ppa Th eor em t o r ewr it e t a n 2 x a s sec2 x 2 1, you ca n ea sily
in t egr a t e:
(sec
x 1 dx = sec 2 x dx dx
tan x x + C
2. An ot h er t r igon om et r ic su bst it u t ion is n eeded in t h is pr oblem . Accor din g t o t h e

Ma m m a Th eor em , 1 2 sin 2 x 5 cos 2 x. Th er efor e, t h e in t egr a l ca n be r ewr it t en a s
sec
x e tan x dx
Th is is especia lly u sefu l sin ce t h e der iva t ive of t a n x is sec2 x, wh ich pr ods you t o
u se u -su bst it u t ion . If u 5 t a n x, d u 5 sec2 x d x:
e du = e
u
+C
e tan x + C
3. F ir st of a ll, get t h e bou n da r ies t o m a t ch u p. Accor din g t o defin it e in t egr a l pr oper t ies,
0 g( x )dx = 12 .
309
.................................................................
3
0 (g( x) 3 f ( x))dx = 0 g( x)dx 30 f ( x) dx = 12 3 10 = 42
(b) Th in k a bou t t h e gr a ph of f(x) 1 2 wh en com pa r ed t o f(x). Th e gr a ph is t h e

sa m e, on ly m oved u p t wo u n it s. Th e effect is dem on st r a t ed by t h e dia gr a m
below:
Th e n ew gr a ph h a s a n a ddit ion a l r ect a n gle of a r ea 6 (len gt h 3 a n d h eigh t

3
2) ben ea t h t h e or igin a l a r ea of 10. Th er efor e,

4. If u 5 x 24 , t h en d u 5 24x 25 d x, so
in t egr a l
(f(x) 1 2)d x 5 16.
du 1
= 5 dx . Th is u -su bst it u t ion m a kes t h e
4
x
5. In or der t o fin d t h e a ver a ge va lu e, you ll n eed
v ( x )dx . H opefu lly, you r
in st in ct is pu sh in g you t owa r d u -su bst it u t ion . Wh en in t egr a t in g expon en t ia l

fu n ct ion s, it s best t o set u equ a l t o t h e en t ir e expon en t ia l fu n ct ion , so
u = 42 sec x
du = 42 sec x 2 sec x tan x ln 4 dx
du = 42 sec x sec x tan x dx
2 ln 4
Th a t seem s a ll well a n d good, bu t wh er e is t h e sec x t a n x in t h e or igin a l

pr oblem ? Do you see it ? Rewr it e
sin x
sin x
1
as
, a n d t h e or igin a l fu n ccos x cos x
cos 2 x
t ion becom es
v(x) 5 4 2sec
sec x t a n x
exercises
1 sin u du
4
1 cos u + C = 1 cos 1 + C
4
4
x4
a nsw ers
..............................................................................................
(a )
310
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
NOTE
If numb er 6 ha d a sked for
*310~x2 2 4x 2 5!d x, you
would not ha ve ta ken the
op p osite of the neg a tive
sig ned a rea b etween x 5
21 a nd x 5 5. The a b solute
va lue sig ns ma nd a te tha t
a ll of the sig ned a rea must
b e turned p ositive.
Now it s t im e t o a ct u a lly fin d t h e a ver a ge va lu e of v:

b
1
v ( x )dx
ba a
1 3 2 sec x
v(c) =
4
sec x tan x dx
0
3
v(c) =
Now, do t h e u -su bst it u t ion , a s ou t lin ed a bove, t o get
v( c ) =
256
3
1
du
16
2 ln 4
Don t for get t o get t h e n ew bou n da r ies of 16 a n d 256 by plu ggin g 0 a n d
p
in t o t h e
3
u st a t em en t .
256
3
u
16
ln 16
3
v(c) =
( 240 )
ln 16
v(c) =
6. Th e gr a ph of x 2 2 4x 2 5 wit h ou t t h e a bsolu t e va lu es is a con ca ve-u p pa r a bola . To

fin d t h e r oot s, fa ct or a n d set ea ch equ a l t o zer o. Th e r oot s a r e, t h er efor e, 21
a n d 5.
Th e gr a ph of x 4 x 5 is t h e sa m e, except t h a t it s n ega t ive por t ion flips

a bove t h e x-a xis, a s t h e a bsolu t e va lu e ca n n ot h a ve a n ega t ive ou t pu t . Th er efor e,
t o fin d t h e a r ea ben ea t h t h e r igh t gr a ph a bove, we will fin d t h e a r ea ben ea t h t h e
left gr a ph a n d t a ke t h e opposit e of t h e a r ea bet ween 21 a n d 5 (sin ce t h a t a r ea
will be n ega t ive a s it is below t h e x-a xis).
2
10
3
x 2 4 x 5 dx =
(x
1
4 x 5 dx
(x
5
4 x 5 dx +
(x
10
4 x 5 dx
311
.................................................................
( sin x )
j = 2 ln 2
4
2
2
8. F in d d 3 ln m ( 3 x ) + C ; wh a t ever you get m u st in t egr a t e t o get t h e or igin a l

dx
expr ession . You don t h a ve t o wor r y a bou t t h e a bsolu t e va lu e sign s a t a llt h eyr e
on ly t h er e for t h e ben efit of t h e ln fu n ct ion .
1
m (3 x ) 3
m(3 x )
9 m (3 x )
m(3 x )
9. Th is pr oblem wa s m u ch ea sier if you m em or ized you r t r ig in t egr a ls. F ir st of a ll,

you d n ot ice t h a t t a n x a n d it s in t egr a ls opposit e, ln cos x , a r e bot h in t h e
expr ession . Th er efor e, you sh ou ld do a u -su bst it u t ion wit h u 5 ln cos x . Th a t
m a kes d u 5 2t a n x d x, a n d 2d u 5 t a n x d x. Th e in t egr a l n ow becom es
You r e n ot ou t of t h e woods yet ! You st ill h a ve t o r em em ber wh a t t h e in t egr a l of

sec u is. Ar e you t h in kin g t h a t you sh ou ld h a ve m em or ized t h ose silly t h in gs? Do
it n ow!
ln sec u + tan u + C
ln sec ln cos x + tan ln cos x
) +C
10. (a ) Beca u se t h e defin it e in t egr a l r epr esen t s a ccu m u la t ed ch a n ge, it gives you
t ot a l sa les (n ot t ot a l r a t e of sa les or a n yt h in g weir d like t h a t ). If J a n u a r y 1998 5
0, t h en F ebr u a r y 1998 5 1 a n d Ma r ch 1999 5 15, a n d t h e cor r ect defin it e in t egr a l
is
15
r ( t )dt .
(b) Th e a ver a ge r a t e of ch a n ge over t h e in t er va l [0,18] is
18
18
r ( t ) dt.
(c) r(t) is t h e r a t e of ch a n ge, or der iva t ive, of t h e t ot a l sa les fu n ct ion . Th er efor e,

t h e t ot a l sa les fu n ct ion will be con ca ve u p wh en ever r(t) is in cr ea sin g, wh ich is on
t h e in t er va l [0,12].
exercises
secu du
a nsw ers
j ( x ) = ln ( cos x )
..............................................................................................
7. You sh ou ld u se F u n da m en t a l Th eor em P a r t Two. P lu g in t h e u pper bou n d, a n d

m u lt iply by it s der iva t ive t o get j(x):
312
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
11. Use t h e F u n da m en t a l Th eor em in or der t o eva lu a t e t h e defin it e in t egr a l:
NOTE
Even thoug h you a re only
g iven veloc ity va lues a nd
not the a c tua l veloc ity
func tion, you a re still
a p p roxima ting the a rea
b enea th the veloc ity
func tion in 12(a ) a nd (b ).
Therefore, we c a ll tha t
mystery func tion v(t) in
12(c ), even thoug h we
d on t know wha t it is.
2 ( x
b
1 3
3 4
x
4
3 4
b
4
ax 2 dx = 11
a
+
x
b
2
= 11
a 3
a
+ 2 4 3 + = 11
b 4
2
All t h a t r em a in s is t o solve t h e equ a t ion for a:
1 1
3
a = 11 (b 4 3 2 4 3 )
4
b 2
11 43 (b 4 3 2 4 3 )
a=
11
2
b
12. (a ) We ca n a ssu m e t h a t Da le st u ck t o t h e in n er la n es a s m u ch a s possible t o cu t

down on h is t im e, so you a r e ba sica lly fin din g t h e len gt h of t h e in n er m ost
la n e of t h e t r a ck, sin ce t h e defin it e in t egr a l of velocit y is dist a n ce t r a veled.
Befor e you begin , you m u st st a n da r dize t h e u n it s. Sin ce t h e speed is in m ph ,
you sh ou ld t r a n sfor m t h e secon ds in t o h ou r s t o m a t ch . F or exa m ple, sin ce
1
10
=
t h er e a r e 60 2 5 3,600 secon ds in a n h ou r, 10 secon ds a r e equ a l t o
3,600 360
h ou r s. If you con ver t a ll t h e t im es, t h e ch a r t becom es
Usin g m idpoin t su m s, t h e widt h of ea ch in t er va l will be

1
ba
1 . Th e m idpoin t s of t h e in t er va ls occu r a t t 5 10, 30,
60
x =
=
=
n
3
180
1
1 1
,
, and
h ou r s. Th er efor e, t h e m idpoin t su m is
a n d 50 secon ds, or
360 120
72
given by
1
(98 + 225 + 228) 3.061 miles.
180
(b) Th e Tr a pezoida l Ru le est im a t ion for t h is pr oblem is
1
60
12
(0 + 2
98 + 2 117 + 2 225 + 2 233 + 2 228 + 241)

1
2043 = 2.8375 miles.
720
313
.................................................................
s(t ) = t 3 5t 2 + 15t 3
4
0 v(t )dt ! Th a t gives you t h e t ot a l d isplace-
(b) Th e dist a n ce t r a veled is n ot ju st
( 3t
5
10 t + 15 dt = 75 inches
In fa ct , beca u se t h e pa r t icle n ever t u r n s a r ou n d, you cou ld sa y t h a t t h e t ot a l

dist a n ce t r a veled is s(5) 2 s(0), wh er e it st opped m in u s wh er e it st a r t ed,
wh ich is 78 2 3 5 75.
(c ) Th e a ver a ge velocit y is t h e a ver a ge va lu e of t h e velocit y fu n ct ion (m ost of
wh ich you ve a lr ea dy figu r ed ou t ):
1 5 3t 2 10t + 15 dt
5 0
1 75 = 15 in/ sec
5
Wh en is t h e pa r t icle a ct u a lly t r a velin g a t a r a t e of 15 in /sec? Set t h e velocit y
equ a t ion equ a l t o 15, a n d solve.
3t 2 10t + 15 = 15
3t 2 10t = 0
t = 0,
10
3
exercises
m en t of t h e fu n ct ion . If t h e pa r t icle ch a n ges dir ect ion a n d com es ba ck t owa r d

t h e or igin , you r a n swer will be wr on g. F or exa m ple, if t h e pa r t icle m oves
r igh t 15 in ch es u n t il t 5 3 a n d t h en m oves left 8 in ch es fr om t 5 3 t o t 5 5, t h e
defin it e in t egr a l a bove will give a r esu lt of 7 in ch es, wh er ea s t h e pa r t icle
r ea lly m oved 15 1 8 5 23 in ch es. So, you h a ve t o m a ke su r e t h e pa r t icle does
n ot ch a n ge dir ect ion on [0,5]. H ow do you do t h a t ? Du st off t h e wiggle gr a ph .
s(t) 5 v(t) 5 3t 2 2 10t 1 15 5 0
Lu ckily, v(t) .0, a n d t h e pa r t icle n ever st ops or t u r n s ba ckwa r d (a ccor din g t o
it s gr a ph ). Th er efor e, t h e t ot a l dist a n ce t r a veled will be
a nsw ers
13. (a ) Sin ce posit ion is t h e in t egr a l of velocit y, you kn ow t h a t

s(t) 5 t 3 2 5t 2 1 15t 1 C
Bu t , you a lso kn ow t h a t s(1) 5 8, so plu g t h a t in t o t h e fu n ct ion t o fin d C.
s(1) 5 1 3 2 5 z 1 2 1 15 z 1 1 C 5 8
1 2 5 1 15 1 C 5 8
C 5 23
Th er efor e, t h e exa ct posit ion equ a t ion is
..............................................................................................
(c ) Da les a ver a ge speed is t h e a ver a ge va lu e of t h e velocit y fu n ct ion . Th e fa ct

t h a t speed is t h e a bsolu t e va lu e of velocit y is ir r eleva n t in t h is pr oblem , a s
Da les velocit y is a lwa ys posit ive.
1 1 / 60
v (t ) dt
Average speed = 1 0
60
1 / 60
In pa r t (b), you fou n d t h a t
v(t )dt 2.8375 . P lu g t h is va lu e in t o t h e
0
a ver a ge speed for m u la .
Average speed 5 60 z 2.8375 ' 170.250 m ph
314
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
SUMMING IT UP
Th e t h ir d m a jor t opic of ca lcu lu s (lim it s a n d der iva t ives a r e t h e t wo) is in tegration or an tid ifferen tiation .
You ca n on ly pu ll coefficien t s ou t of in t egr a ls.
Alt h ou gh t h e P ower Ru le for In t egr a ls is r ela t ively ea sy, it is a lso ea sy t o m a ke

m ist a kes wh en t h e expon en t s a r e fr a ct ion s or h a ve n ega t ive power s. Be ca r efu l.
If you ever won der wh en t o ca lcu la t e a r ea a n d wh en t o ca lcu la t e sign ed a r ea ,

wh en com pu t in g defin it e in t egr a ls, it s alw ays sign ed a r ea .
Ad va nc ed Method s of
Integ ra tion
....................................................................................
Miscella neous methods of integra tion

Pa rts (BC topic only)
Powers of trigonometric functions (BC topic only)
Pa rtia l fra ctions (BC topic only)
Improper integra ls (BC topic only)
Technology: Dra wing deriva tive a nd integra l gra phs with
your ca lcula tor
Summing it up
Occa sion a lly, you ll en cou n t er a n in t egr a t ion pr oblem t h a t sm ells like t r ou ble.
AB st u den t s n eed on ly com plet e t h e fir st sect ion of t h is ch a pt er, wh er ea s BC
st u den t s h a ve t o plod a ll t h e wa y t h r ou gh it . H a ppy t r a ils.
MISCELLANEOUS METHODS OF INTEGRATION

Most of t h e in t egr a t ion on t h e AP t est is don e u sin g t h e P ower Ru le a n d
u -su bst it u t ion . Occa sion a lly, t h e t est wr it er s (wh ile deviou sly t wist in g t h eir
t h in m ou st a ch es) will t h r ow in a t r icky in t egr a l or t wo a n d ca ckle u pr oa r iou sly.
In t egr a t ion is u n like differ en t ia t ion in a fu n da m en t a l wa y: Usin g t h e P ower,
P r odu ct , Qu ot ien t , a n d Ch a in Ru les, you ca n differ en t ia t e ju st a bou t a n yt h in g
t h a t com es you r wa y. In t egr a t ion r equ ir es m a n y m or e m et h ods, som e of wh ich
on ly wor k in ver y specific cir cu m st a n ces. H owever, don t be discou r a ged. Below
a r e five t h in gs you ca n t r y if a ll else h a s fa iled a n d you sim ply ca n n ot in t egr a t e
t h e pr oblem a t h a n d. On e of t h ese will h elp you if n ot h in g else ca n .
U s e a trig o n o m e tric s u bs titu tio n
Alt h ou gh t h e pr oblem cot x dx looks ju st a bou t a s im possible a s ca n be,

you ca n u se t h e Ba by Th eor em t o r ewr it e cot 2 x a n d ch a n ge t h e in t egr a l t o
csc2 x 1 dx . Th is is su bst a n t ia lly ea sier beca u se it is n ow possible. In t h e
sa m e wa y,
sin x dx a n d u sed
tan x dx wa s im possible u n t il we r ewr ot e it a s cos
x
u -su bst it u t ion . If t h e pr oblem is t r igon om et r ic, you ve got opt ion s.
S p lit u p th e in te g ra l
If a n in t egr a l looks t oo com plica t ed, r ewr it e it in pieces, if possible. In t h e ca se

of a fr a ct ion , r ewr it e ea ch t er m of t h e n u m er a t or over t h e den om in a t or, a s in
t h e followin g exa m ple.
315
c ha p ter 8
OVERVIEW
316
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
x 2
dx
9 x2
S o lu tio n : Alt h ou gh t h e den om in a t or cer t a in ly looks like a n a r csin is in you r fu t u r e,
t h e n u m er a t or m a kes t h in gs t oo com plica t ed. H owever, split t h is in t o t wo sepa r a t e
fr a ct ion s, a n d t h e wor k is h a lf don e.
x
9 x
dx 2
dx
9 x2
Let s do t h e left in t egr a l fir st by u -su bst it u t ion . If u 5 9 2 x 2 , d u 5 22xd x, a n d

du
= xdx .
2
1
u 1 2 du
2
1
12
2u
+C
2
9 x2 + C
Th e secon d in t egr a l is a n a r csin pr oblem wit h a 5 3 a n d u 5 x. Sin ce d u 5 d x, you

h a ve
TIP
If none of these tec hniq ues
works, there s a lwa ys
weep ing , c ursing , a nd
b rea king thing s. Althoug h
they won t help you solve
the p rob lem, you ll feel a
whole lot b etter when
you re throug h.
2 arcsin
x
+C
3
Th er efor e, t h e fin a l a n swer is
x
9 x 2 + 2 arcsin + C
3
Lo n g d iv is io n
If t h e in t egr a l a t h a n d is a fr a ct ion m a de u p of polyn om ia ls, an d th e d egree of th e

n u m erator is greater th an or equ al to th e d egree of th e d en om in ator, you ca n u se lon g
division on t h e pr oblem befor e you begin t o sim plify t h e in t egr a l:
Cha pter 8: Adva nced Methods of Integra tion
317
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
3
Ex a m p le 2: E va lu a t e x 2 x 1
x +1
S o lu tio n : Beca u se t h e degr ee of t h e n u m er a t or is gr ea t er t h a n (or equ a l t o) t h e
degr ee of t h e den om in a t or, you ca n sim plify t h e pr oblem by lon g division fir st :
NOTE
Don t forg et you a re
sub tra c ting the entire
sec ond integ ra l. Tha t s why
it is neg a tive.
We a r e n ot fin ish ed by a n y m ea n s, bu t ou r in t egr a l ca n n ow be r ewr it t en a s

x 2 x + 1 dx . In or der t o fin ish t h is pr oblem , you ll h a ve t o sepa r a t e it in t o pieces,
x 2 + 1
ju st a s you did in E xa m ple 1. On ce sepa r a t ed, you get
NOTE
When you a d d C 1 C, you
d o not g et 2C. Sinc e ea c h
C is some numb er, when
xdx 2
x
dx
x2 + 1
you a d d them, you ll g et
1
dx
x2 + 1
some other numb er, whic h

we a lso c a ll C. Ha nd y, eh?
You ll u se t h e P ower Ru le for In t egr a ls, u -su bst it u t ion , a n d a r ct a n , r espect ively, t o
solve t h is, a n d t h e fin a l a n swer will be
x2
ln x 2 + 1 arctan x + C
2
Co m p le te th e s qu a re
Th is t ech n iqu e is u sefu l wh en you h a ve qu a dr a t ic polyn om ia ls in t h e den om in a t or of
you r in t egr a l a n d, t ypica lly, on ly a con st a n t in t h e n u m er a t or. On ce you com plet e t h e
squ a r e, you a r e a ble t o defa u lt ba ck t o a n in ver se t r ig for m u la .
3
dx
Ex a m p le 3: E va lu a t e 2
2x + 8x + 10
S o lu tio n : Th e qu a dr a t ic in t h e den om in a t or a n d n o va r ia bles in t h e n u m er a t or a ler t
u s t o com plet e t h e squ a r e. To do so, you ll h a ve t o fa ct or 2 ou t of t h e t er m s in t h e
den om in a t or (sin ce t h e x 2 m u st h a ve a coefficien t of 1).
3
2
1
dx
+ 4x + 5
)2
Wh en you com plet e t h e squ a r e, you ll a dd 12 4 a n d su bt r a ct it in t h e den om in a t or

t o en su r e t h a t t h e va lu e of t h e fr a ct ion does n ot ch a n ge.
3
2
1
dx
+ 4x + 4 + 5 4
3
1
dx
2 ( x + 2)2 + 1
ALERT!
When using long d ivision,
rememb er to use p la c e
hold ers of 0 for terms tha t
a re not p resent, like 0x2
or 0x.
318
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Th is is n ow a pr et t y ea sy a r ct a n fu n ct ion wit h u 5 x 1 2, d u 5 d x, a n d a 5 1. Th e fin a l

a n swer is
3
arctan( x + 2) + C
2
Ad d a n d s u btra c t (o r m u ltip ly a n d d iv id e ) th e s a m e th in g
Th is exer cise m igh t sou n d fr u it less. If you a dd a n d su bt r a ct t h e sa m e t h in g, you get

zer o. Wh a t s t h e poin t ? In t h e a bove exa m ple, you sa w h ow a ddin g a n d su bt r a ct in g 4
a llowed you t o com plet e t h e squ a r e. So, it s n ot a com plet e wa st e of t im e. Th is m et h od
is u sed m ost oft en wh en you a r e t r yin g t o do a u -su bst it u t ion a n d t h e pr oblem won t
cooper a t e wit h you . If you n eed som et h in g in t h e pr oblem t h a t isn t t h er e t o fin ish a
u -su bst it u t ion , wh y n ot ju st a dd it r igh t in (a s lon g a s you r em em ber t o su bt r a ct it a s
well).
dx
ex + 1
S o lu tio n : We ca n t com plet e t h e squ a r e (n ot a qu a dr a t ic den om in a t or ), we ca n t lon g
divide (t h a t s ju st cr a zy), we ca n t do a t r ig su bst it u t ion , we ca n t sepa r a t e (we ca n
1
1
on ly sepa r a t e t er m s in t h e n u m er a t or t h e expr ession x + 1 is n ot t h e sa m e a s
e
1
), a n d u -su bst it u t ion com es u p sh or t . Wh a t a r e we t o do? Tr y u -su bst it u t ion
e +1
x
a ga in , a n d for ce it .
Let s set u 5 ex 1 1, so d u 5 ex d x. Weve got a pr oblem : Th er e is n o ex d x pr esen t in t h e

n u m er a t or on ly t h e d x is t h er e. So, we will a dd a n d su bt r a ct ex in t h e n u m er a t or
like so:
1 + ex ex
dx
ex + 1
(Don t for get t h a t t h er e wa s a 1 in t h e den om in a t or t o st a r t wit h . It wa sn t 0d x u p

t h er e.) If we split t h is in t egr a l u p, som et h in g m a gica l t r a n spir es.
TIP
You should lea ve off the
a b solute va lue sig ns a round
the ~e x 1 1! sinc e e x ha s to
b e p ositive, a nd tha t va lue
only b ec omes more
p ositive when you a d d 1.
1 + ex
dx
ex + 1
ex
dx
ex + 1
Th e fir st fr a ct ion ca n cels ou t , sin ce t h e n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or a r e equ a l. Th e

secon d fr a ct ion is in t egr a t ed wit h a sim ple u -su bst it u t ion of u 5 ex 1 1. Aft er t a kin g
t h ese st eps, you get
1dx
du
u
a n d t h e fin a l a n swer will be
x ln e x + 1 + C
319
.................................................................
DO NOT USE A GRAPHING CALCULATOR TO INTEGRATE THE FOLLOWING.

1.
2.
x
dx
+ 5x + 9
4
x 2 6 x + 12
dx
x3 + 4x + 3
dx
x2
4. E a ch of t h e followin g in t egr a ls va r ies ju st sligh t ly fr om t h e ot h er s. H owever, ea ch
r equ ir es a com plet ely differ en t in t egr a t ion m et h od. Discu ss t h e m et h od you
wou ld u se t o begin ea ch .
1
(a )
dx
2
x + 3 x + 10
3.
(b)
(c )
x
dx
+ 3 x + 10
x3
dx
x + 3 x + 10
2

1. (Th is on es pr et t y t ou gh .) If you set u 5 x 2 1 5x 1 9, d u 5 (2x 1 5)d x. In or der t o
u se u -su bst it u t ion , t h e n u m er a t or n eeds t o be 2x 1 5. F ir st , get t h e 2x u p t h er e by
1
m u lt iplyin g by 2 a n d a t t h e sa m e t im e:
2
1
2
2x
dx
+ 5x + 9
Now, you ca n a dd a n d su bt r a ct 5 t o get t h a t r equ ir ed 2x 1 5:
1
2
2x + 5 5
dx
2
+ 5x + 9
Split t h e in t egr a l u p n ow
1
2
2x + 5
5
dx
2
+ 5x + 9
1
dx
+ 5x + 9
a n d t h e fir st piece ca n be solved by u -su bst it u t ion (n ow t h a t you h a ve a r r a n ged

it ). Th e secon d in t egr a l r equ ir es you t o com plet e t h e squ a r e.
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 1
320
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
1 1
5
1
du 2
2u
2 x + 5x + 254 + 9
1
5
ln x 2 + 5 x + 9 + C
2
2
ln x 2 + 5 x + 9
25
4
dx
(x + )
5 2
2
+ 11
4
dx
2 x + 25
5
arctan
+C
11
11
2. Th is is a com plet in g-t h e-squ a r e qu est ion . Begin by fa ct or in g t h e n ega t ive ou t of

t h e fir st t wo t er m s in t h e den om in a t or so t h a t t h e coefficien t of x 2 is 1:
(1)( x + 6 x ) + 12
2
dx
Now, com plet e t h e squ a r e in t h e den om in a t or :
(1)( x 2 + 6 x + 9) + 12 + 9
dx
E ven t h ou gh it looks like you a r e a ddin g 9 t wice, r em em ber t h a t t h e 9 in

pa r en t h eses get s m u lt iplied by t h a t 21, so it s r ea lly 29.
Th is is t h e a r csin for m wit h

r ewr it e t h e in t egr a l a s
21 ( x + 3)2
dx
a = 21 a n d u 5 x 1 3. Sin ce d u 5 d x, you ca n
4
1
2
a u2
du
a n d t h e a n swer is
4 arcsin
x+3
+C
21
321
.................................................................
(x
19
x 2.
So, t h e in t egr a l ca n be r ewr it t en a s
+ 2 x + 8 dx + 19
x 2 dx
wh ich you ca n in t egr a t e u sin g t h e P ower Ru le a n d a u -su bst it u t ion of u 5 x 2 2

t o get
x3
+ x 2 + 8 x + 19 ln x 2 + C
3
4. (a ) Beca u se t h e den om in a t or is a qu a dr a t ic wit h a con st a n t n u m er a t or, you will
com plet e t h e squ a r e in t h e den om in a t or t o in t egr a t e.
(c ) Beca u se t h e degr ee of t h e n u m er a t or is gr ea t er t h a n t h a t of t h e den om in a t or,

lon g division will be you r fir st st ep. I h a ve a sin kin g feelin g t h a t t h er e will be
ot h er m et h ods r equ ir ed befor e t h a t on e is don e, t h ou gh .
PARTS (BC TOPIC ONLY)

In t egr a t ion by pa r t s is a t ech n iqu e ba sed com plet ely on t h e P r odu ct Ru le. H owever, it s
u n likely t h a t you ll r ecogn ize t h a t fa m ilia r a n d h a ppy r u le on ce wer e don e m a n glin g it .
Th is in t egr a t in g m et h od wa s m a de fa m ou s in t h e m ovie S tan d an d Deliver, wh en J a im e
E sca la n t e st a n ds in fr on t of t h e ch a lkboa r d a n d ch a n t s Com e on , it s t ic-t a c-t oe. Th a t
sm a ll ca m eo r ole ca t a pu lt ed in t egr a t ion by pa r t s t o fa m e, a n d it even t u a lly en ded u p on
Gen eral H ospital pla yin g a h a n dsom e ga n gst er doct or. H owever, on e da y, ever yon e
n ot iced it wa s ju st a m a t h for m u la , a n d it wa s im m edia t ely fir ed. Th e for m u la is st ill
ver y bit t er.
Well begin by u sin g t h e P r odu ct Ru le t o fin d t h e der iva t ive of t h e expr ession u v,
wh er e bot h u a n d v a r e fu n ct ion s:
d (uv) = u v + v u , or
d (uv) = u dv + v du
exercises
(b) You will u se u -su bst it u t ion t o in t egr a t e, wit h u 5 x 2 1 3x 1 10. Sin ce d u 5
(2x 1 3)d x, you ll h a ve t o m a ke t h e n u m er a t or m a t ch it , a s you did in
n u m ber 1.
a nsw ers
E it h er wa y, t h e qu ot ien t is x 2 + 2 x + 8 +
..............................................................................................
3. Th e n u m er a t or degr ee is la r ger, so u se lon g division (or even syn t h et ic division

sin ce t h e den om in a t or is a lin ea r bin om ia l).
322
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
If you in t egr a t e bot h sides of t h e equ a t ion , you get
uv = u dv + v du
F in a lly, solve t h is for
u dv a n d you get t h e for m u la for in t egr a t ion by pa r t s:

u dv = uv v du
Th e focu s of t h is m et h od is split t in g you r difficu lt in t egr a l in t o t wo pa r t s: a u a n d a d v

like t h e left side of t h e a bove equ a t ion . Th e u por t ion m u st be som et h in g you ca n
differ en t ia t e, wh er ea s t h e d v m u st be som et h in g you ca n in t egr a t e. Aft er t h a t , it s a ll
down h ill.
x cos x dx
S o lu tio n : Non e of t h e m et h ods weve discu ssed so fa r ca n h a n dle t h is ba by. Well u se

pa r t s in st ea d. F ir st of a ll, set u 5 x (beca u se you ca n ea sily fin d it s der iva t ive) a n d
d v 5 cos x d x (beca u se you ca n ea sily fin d it s in t egr a l). It s t r u e t h a t you cou ld h a ve
set u 5 cos x a n d d v 5 x d x, bu t if a t a ll possible, you sh ou ld ch oose a u wh ose
der iva t ive, if you kept t a kin g it a ga in a n d a ga in , wou ld even t u a lly equ a l 0. Th e
der iva t ive of cos x will ju m p ba ck a n d for t h bet ween cos x a n d sin x wit h ou t ever
becom in g 0.
Sin ce u 5 x, d u 5 d x, a n d if d v 5 cos x d x, v = cos x dx = sin x. (Don t wor r y a bou t

1 Cs for n owwell t a ke ca r e of t h em la t er.) Accor din g t o t h e pa r t s for m u la ,
u dv = uv v du
a n d we kn ow wh a t u , d u , v, a n d d v a r e, so plu g t h em in .
NOTE
You ll see why it s imp orta nt
to p ic k a u tha t, throug h
d ifferentia tion, eventua lly
b ec omes 0 in Exa mp le 6.
x cos x dx = x sin x sin x dx
Ou r or igin a l in t egr a l, on t h e left , equ a ls (a n d ca n be r ewr it t en a s) t h e expr ession on

t h e left , wh ich con t a in s a ver y sim ple in t egr a l in sin x dx . Th e fin a l a n swer is
x sin x 1 cos x 1 C
If you don t believe t h a t t h is is t h e a n swer, t a ke it s der iva t ive, a n d you get

x cos x 1 sin x 2 sin x 5 x cos x
wh ich is t h e or igin a l in t egr a l.

Th a t wa sn t so ba d, wa s it ? Som et im es, h owever, it s less t idy. F or exa m ple, if you
2
a r e in t egr a t in g x cos x dx by pa r t s, you d set u 5 x 2 a n d d v 5 cos x d x. Th er efor e,
d u 5 2xd x a n d v 5 sin x. Accor din g t o t h e for m u la ,
323
.................................................................
2
cos x dx = x 2 sin x 2 x sin x dx
Do you see wh a t s t r ou blin g in t h is equ a t ion ? You ca n n ot in t egr a t e x sin x d x ea sily. In

fa ct , gu ess wh a t m et h od you ll h a ve t o u se? P a r t s! You ll h a ve t o set a side t h e x 2 sin x
por t ion for n ow a n d expa n d t h e in t egr a l u sin g t h e pa r t s for m u la a ga in , t h is t im e
set t in g u 5 x a n d d v 5 sin x d x. Th ese sor t s of t h in gs h a ppen wh en t h e d u t er m isn t
som et h in g pr et t y a n d fr illy like 1, a s it wa s in E xa m ple 5. Bu t don t give u p h ope
t h er es a h a n dy ch a r t you ca n u se t o in t egr a t e by pa r t s t h a t feels like n o wor k a t a ll.
Th e on ly lim it a t ion it h a s is t h a t t h e u t er m m u st even t u a lly differ en t ia t e t o 0.
cos x dx
S o lu tio n : To set u p t h e ch a r t , m a ke a u colu m n , a d v colu m n , a n d a colu m n la beled

1/2 1. In t h e fir st r ow, list you r u , you r d v, a n d a 11. In t h e secon d r ow, list d u , v,
a n d a 21. In t h e t h ir d r ow, t a ke a n ot h er der iva t ive, a n ot h er in t egr a l, a n d ch a n ge
t h e sign a ga in . Con t in u e u n t il t h e u colu m n becom es 0, bu t t a ke t h e sign s colu m n on e
r ow fu r t h er t h a n t h a t . (You ll see wh y in a secon d).
Now dr a w dia gon a l a r r ows begin n in g a t t h e x 2 a n d con t in u in g down a n d t o t h e r igh t .

Do t h is u n t il you get t o t h e 0 t er m . Mu lt iply ea ch of t h e t er m s a lon g t h e a r r ow (for
exa m ple, in t h e fir st a r r ow, you m u lt iply x 2 sin x 11) t o get a t er m in t h e a n swer
(x 2 sin x). You will m a ke t h r ee a r r ows in t h is ch a r t , so t h e a n swer h a s t h r ee t er m s.
(Mu lt iplyin g a n yt h in g by 0 r esu lt s in 0, so t h er es n o n eed for a fou r t h a r r ow.) Th e
fin a l a n swer is
x 2 sin x 1 2x cos x 2 2 sin x 1 C
Th is m et h od is pr efer r ed by st u den t s. In fa ct , look h ow ea sy E xa m ple 5 is if you u se
t h e ch a r t :
..............................................................................................
TIP
You a lwa ys sta rt the sig ns
c olumn with a 11 sig n.
x sin x 1 cos x 1 C
324
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
H owever, a s won der fu l a s t h e ch a r t is, it s n ot so h a n dy wh en t h e u t er m s der iva t ive

does n ot even t u a lly becom e 0. Th e fin a l exa m ple is a bou t a s com plica t ed a s in t egr a t ion by pa r t s get s.
sin x dx .
S o lu tio n : It s wise t o ch oose u 5 sin x a n d d v 5 ex d x, sin ce t h e in t egr a l of d v is ver y

ea sy. If you do so, d u 5 cos x d x a n d v 5 ex .
sin x dx = e x sin x e x cos x dx
Th is is u n for t u n a t e. We h a ve t o u se pa r t s a ga in t o eva lu a t e t h e n ew in t egr a l. St ick

wit h it , t h ou gh it will pa y off. F or n ow, well ign or e t h e ex sin x (even t h ou gh it will
be pa r t of ou r even t u a l a n swer ) a n d focu s on e x cos x dx . As befor e, we set u 5 cos x
a n d d v 5 ex d x; so, d u 5 2sin x d x a n d v 5 ex .
cos x dx = e x cos x + e x sin x dx
Wa t ch ca r efu lly n ow. Th e or igin a l in t egr a l,
wh a t we ju st fou n d
cos x dx t o be:
sin x dx , is equ a l t o ex sin x m in u s
sin x dx = e x sin x e x cos x + e x sin x dx
It looks h opeless. Th e or igin a l pr oblem wa s e sin x dx , a n d t h a t sa m e expr ession

a ppea r s again on t h e r igh t side of t h e equ a t ion ! H er es wh a t you do: dist r ibu t e t h a t
e x sin x dx t o bot h sides of t h e
n ega t ive sign on t h e r igh t -h a n d side a n d a dd
equ a t ion .
2 e x sin x dx = e x sin x e x cos x
To get you r fin a l a n swer, ju st divide by 2.
e x sin x dx =
e x sin x e x cos x
2
325
.................................................................

1.
2.
10x
3.
4.
x e dx
5.
ln x dx
sin 4x dx
sec x tan x dx
cos x dx
3 x
(Hin t: So fa r, you kn ow of n o ea sy in t egr a l for ln x.)

1. If u 5 x 2 a n d d v 5 sin 4x d x, t h e der iva t ive of u will even t u a lly becom e 0, so you
ca n u se a ch a r t t o fin d t h e in t egr a l.
1 2
1
1
x cos 4 x + x sin 4 x +
cos 4 x + C
4
8
64
2. It s sm a r t t o pu t d v 5 sec x t a n x d x, sin ce t h e r esu lt in g v is sec x. Th er efor e,

u 5 10x a n d d u 5 10d x. Use a ch a r t or t h e for m u la ; eit h er wor ks fin e.
10 x sec x tan x dx = 10 x sec x 10 sec x dx

= 10 x sec x 10 ln
sec x + tan x + C
3. Th is on e is t r icky, like E xa m ple 7. Let u 5 cos x a n d d v 5 ex d x; t h er efor e,

d u 5 2sin x d x a n d v 5 ex .
cos x dx = e x cos x + e x sin x dx
Th e r igh t m ost in t egr a l m u st be eva lu a t ed u sin g pa r t s a ga in , t h is t im e wit h

u 5 sin x (d u 5 cos x d x) a n d d v 5 ex d x (v 5 ex ).
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 2
326
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Th er efor e, t h e or igin a l in t egr a l becom es
e
Add
cos x dx = e x cos x + e x sin x e x cos x dx
cos x dx t o bot h sides of t h e equ a t ion t o get
2 e x cos x dx = e x cos x + e x sin x
cos x dx
e x cos x + e x sin x
2
4. Th is ba by is a pr im e ca n dida t e for t h e ch a r t , wit h u 5 x 3 a n d d v 5 ex d x.
ex (x 3 23x 2 1 6x 26) 1 C
5. If you don t kn ow a n in t egr a l for ln x, t h en you ca n n ot set it equ a l t o d v. So,

1
u 5 ln x a n d d u 5 d x. Th er efor e, t h e d v m u st be d x; it s t h e on ly t h in g left ! If
x
d v 5 d x, t h en v 5 x.
ln x dx = x
ln x x
1
dx
x
= x ln x dx
= x ln x x + C
POWERS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (BC TOPIC ONLY)
NOTE
This is not universa lly c a lled
the Od d Ma n Out Rule,
so d on t refer to it a s suc h
on the test; this rule ha s no
universa lly a c c ep ted na me.
If weve don e a n yt h in g, weve don e a lot of t r igon om et r ic in t egr a t ion , so h er es a lit t le

m or e t o t h r ow on t h e t op of t h e pile. In t h is sect ion , you lea r n a few m or e copin g
st r a t egies for wh en a ll of ou r ot h er m et h ods fa il. Th ese m et h ods, like ot h er s weve
cover ed, oft en h elp ou t wh en u -su bst it u t ion does n ot qu ite wor k ou t . Th e fir st of t h ese is
som et h in g I ca ll t h e Od d M an Ou t R u le, a n d it wor ks for sin e a n d cosin e.
Od d Ma n Ou t Ru le : If a n in t egr a l con t a in s posit ive power s of sin e a n d cosin e, a n d
on ly on e of t h e power s is odd, keep on e of t h e odd-power ed fa ct or s a n d con ver t t h e r est
t o t h e ot h er t r igon om et r ic expr ession u sin g t h e Ma m m a Th eor em . Is t h er e a n yt h in g
you r Ma m m a ca n t do?
327
.................................................................
sin
x cos3 x dx.
S o lu tio n : In t h is in t egr a l, cos x is t h e odd m a n ou t , sin ce it h a s t h e odd power of t h e

t wo fa ct or s. Th er efor e, we wa n t t o lea ve beh in d on ly on e cos x a n d con ver t t h e ot h er
cosin es t o sin es (t r u ly m a kin g cos x t h e odd m a n ou t ).
sin
x cos2 x cos x dx
Th e Ma m m a Th eor em t ells you t h a t cos 2 x 5 1 2 sin 2 x, so r epla ce t h e cos 2 x t o get
sin
x 1 sin 2 x cos x dx
Dist r ibu t e t h e sin 2 x a n d t h e cos x t o bot h t er m s, a n d split t h e in t egr a l t o get
sin
x cos x dx sin 4 x cos x dx
Now, you ca n per for m u -su bst it u t ion in ea ch expr ession wit h u 5 sin x t o get
u3 u5
+C
3
5
sin3 x sin5 x
+C
3
5
Wh a t if you h a ve on ly sin es or cosin es in t h e pr oblem a n d n ot bot h ? In t h is ca se, you
ca n n ot cou n t on t h e odd m a n ou t t o h elp wit h u -su bst it u t ion . If t h is occu r s, you will
h a ve t o r esor t ba ck t o t h e power-r edu cin g for m u la s fr om wa y ba ck in Ch a pt er 2. On ce
a pplied, t h ey m a ke t h e pr oblem a lm ost a t r ivia l pu r su it .
sin
x dx .
S o lu tio n : Th e power-r edu cin g for m u la for sin 2 x is

1
t h a t in t o t h e in t egr a l a n d fa ct or ou t .
2
1 cos 2x
so you ca n su bst it u t e
2
1
(1 cos 2 x )dx
2
Split t h e in t egr a l u p,
1
1
dx cos 2 x dx
2
2
a n d u se u -su bst it u t ion (wit h u 5 2x) t o in t egr a t e cos 2x.
..............................................................................................
328
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
TIP
If the p rob lem ha d
c onta ined sin x to a n od d
p ower, you would ha ve left
a sin x b ehind a nd
c onverted the rema ining
sines to c osines using
Ma mma the sa me
p roc ed ure.
1
1
x sin 2 x + C
2
4
Th e fin a l r u le for t r igon om et r ic power s wor ks for seca n t s a n d t a n gen t s in t h e sa m e

in t egr a l. I ca ll it t h e S teven an d Tod d R u le, sin ce it h a s t o do wit h seca n ts bein g even
a n d ta n gen t s bein g od d .
S te v e n a n d To d d Ru le : If a n in t egr a l con t a in s posit ive power s of seca n t a n d t a n gen t

a n d t h e power of seca n t is even , sa ve a sec2 x a n d con ver t t h e r em a in in g seca n t s t o
t a n gen t s u sin g P a ppa . If, h owever, t h e power of t a n gen t is odd, sa ve a sec x t a n x a n d
con ver t t h e r em a in in g t a n gen t s t o seca n t s u sin g P a ppa .
Th is m igh t be t h e opposit e of you r fir st in st in ct s. If you a r e focu sin g on a n even power

of seca n t , you a r e pr epa r in g a sec2 x t er m , wh ich is t h e der iva t ive of t a n gen t . If you a r e
focu sin g on t h e odd power of t a n gen t , t h en you a r e pr epa r in g a sec x t a n x t er m , t h e
der iva t ive of seca n t . H owever ba ckwa r d it m a y seem , it wor ks like a ch a r m .
tan
x sec 4 x dx.
S o lu tio n : St even is in t h is pr oblem , wa vin g t o you , ea t in g a h ot dog, a n d wa it in g u n t il

you see h im (sin ce seca n t is even ). Th er efor e, you pr epa r e a sec2 x t er m a n d con ver t
t h e r em a in in g sec2 x t er m t o 1 1 t a n 2 x u sin g P a ppa .
tan
tan
x sec2 x sec2 x dx
x 1 + tan 2 x sec2 dx
Dist r ibu t e t h e t a n 2 x sec2 x, a n d split t h e in t egr a l t o get
tan
x sec2 x dx + tan 4 x sec2 x dx
Use u -su bst it u t ion wit h u 5 t a n x t o fin ish .
u3 u 5
+
+C
3
5
tan 3 x tan 5 x
+
+C
3
5
Th is a n swer looks h a u n t in gly sim ila r t o E xa m ple 8, a n d t h a t s n o r ea l coin ciden ce.

Odd Ma n Ou t a n d St even -Todd a r e t ech n iqu es t h a t set you u p for a sim ple
u -su bst it u t ion a n d differ on ly in ver y m in or wa ys.
Th er e m a y be in st a n ces in wh ich you ca n n ot u se a n y of t h e t ech n iqu es ou t lin ed h er e.
Do n ot pa n ic. Tr y som e old-fa sh ion ed elbow gr ea se, a n d exper im en t u n t il som et h in g
wor ks. Br ea k t h e in t egr a l in t o sm a ller pieces, a n d br in g Ma m m a , P a pa , a n d Ba by in t o
t h e pict u r e.
329
.................................................................
cos
x dx .
S o lu tio n : No u -su bst it u t ion is possible yet . If you set u 5 cos x, t h er es n o sin e t o h elp
ou t on t h e d u . So, let s in t r odu ce a sin e (or t wo) in t o t h e pr oblem wit h Ma m m a .
cos x dx = cos x cos x dx

(1 sin x ) cos x dx
cos x dx sin x cos x dx
3
Th e left in t egr a l is ea sy, a n d t h e r igh t in t egr a l is a sim ple u -su bst it u t ion (u 5 sin x).
sin x
sin 3 x
+C
3
..............................................................................................
330
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 3
EVALUATE THE FOLLOWING WITHOUT A GRAPHING CALCULATOR.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
cos x sin x dx
3
5
tan x sec x dx
6
tan x sec x dx
4
cos x dx
3
3
csc x cos x dx
2

1. You n eed t o u se t h e Odd Ma n Ou t Ru le for t h is in t egr a l (even t h ou gh t h e cosin e
is t o a weir d power ). Sa ve a sin x, a n d t r a n sfor m t h e r em a in in g sin 2 x t o
(1 2 cos 2 x):
cos
cos
2/3
2/3
x 1 cos 2 x sin x dx
x sin x dx cos 8 / 3 x sin x dx .
Bot h of t h ese in t egr a ls r equ ir e u -su bst it u t ion wit h u 5 cos x (don t for get t h a t
d u 5 2sin d x).
3
3
cos 5 / 3 x + cos 11 / 3 x + C
5
11
2. It s Todd (t a n gen t is odd), so sa ve a sec x t a n x t er m a n d t r a n sfor m a ll t h e

t a n gen t s t o seca n t s u sin g P a ppa .
(sec x tan x ) tan
(sec x tan x )(sec

sec
x sec 4 x dx
x 1 sec 4 x dx
x sec x tan x dx sec 4 x sec x tan x dx
Now, u se u -su bst it u t ion wit h u 5 sec x t o fin ish .
sec 7 x sec 5 x
+C
7
5
331
.................................................................
x sec x tan x dx
Use u -su bst it u t ion wit h u 5 sec x (ju st a s in n u m ber 2).
sec 6 x
+C
6
4. Th er e is n o sin e in t h is pr oblem t o h elp wit h u -su bst it u t ion . So, do we u se t h e
t ech n iqu e of E xa m ple 9 or E xa m ple 11? Beca u se t h e power is even , well u se t h e
t ech n iqu e of E xa m ple 9, wh er e t h e power a lso wa s even .
cos
x dx = cos2 x dx
Now, u se t h e power-r edu cin g for m u la for cos 2 x.
(1 + cos 2x )2 dx
22
1
(1 + cos 2x )2 dx
4
Th e fir st t wo in t egr a ls a r e ea sy, bu t you h a ve t o u se an oth er power-r edu cin g

1
that
for m u la for cos 2 2x. Let s focu s on t h a t for a m om en t . (Don t for get t h e
4
n eeds t o be dist r ibu t ed t o ea ch in t egr a lea sy a n d h a r d a like.)
1
cos 2 2 xdx
4
1 1 + cos 2 ( 2 x )
dx
4
2
1
(1 + cos 4 x ) dx
8
All t oget h er (don t for get t h e t wo ea sy in t egr a t ion t er m s a bove), t h e a n swer is
1
1
1
1
x + sin 2x + x +
sin 4x + C
4
4
8
32
3
1
1
x + sin 2x +
sin 4x + C
8
4
32
exercises
1
1 + 2 cos 2x + cos2 2x dx
4
a nsw ers
sec
..............................................................................................
3. Bot h St even a n d Todd a r e in t h is pr oblem , so you ca n do t h e pr oblem eit h er wa y.

H owever, Todd pr ovides t h e ea sier wa y (sin ce sa vin g a sec x t a n x t er m lea ves n o
ot h er t a n gen t s t o t r a n sfor m t o seca n t s). Br in g it h om e, Todd.
332
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
5. H oly sm okes, t h is doesn t m a t ch a sin gle on e of t h e t ech n iqu es weve cover ed! To
begin , r ewr it e a s sin e a n d cosin e t o see if t h in gs get a n y ea sier.
cos 3 x
dx
sin 3 x
cot 3 x dx
Th a t looks a lit t le m or e com pa ct , if n ot h in g else. Th is, h owever, looks a lot like
E xa m ple 11; in fa ct , it differ s by on ly a sin gle let t er. Tr y t h a t t ech n iqu e on a
wh im , a n d see wh a t pa n s ou t .
cot x cot
cot x(csc
cot x csc
x dx
x 1 dx
x dx cot x dx
Th e left in t egr a l is a u -su bst it u t ion , a n d you sh ou ld h a ve t h e r igh t in t egr a l

m em or ized.
cot 2 x
ln sin x + C
2
PARTIAL FRACTIONS (BC TOPIC ONLY)

In t egr a t ion by pa r t ia l fr a ct ion s is a m et h od u sed t o sim plify in t egr a ls ba sed on a ver y
cool t r ick. Th e t r ick is so u n iqu e t h a t it t en ds t o st ick wit h you , so you sh ou ldn t h a ve a n y
t r ou ble r em em ber in g h ow it s don e com e t est t im e. Th a t s good n ews, especia lly sin ce
t h e t est is su ch a h igh -pr essu r e sit u a t ion t h a t m ost people for get im por t a n t t h in gs, su ch
a s wh a t t h eir n a m e is, wh en t h e Ma gn a Ca r t a wa s sign ed, wh a t t h e cu r r en t exch a n ge
r a t e is bet ween m a jor wor ld cu r r en cies, a n d wh a t exa ct ly t h a t lit t le sym bol is t h a t
beca m e Th e Ar t ist F or m er ly Kn own a s P r in ces n ew n a m e.
P a r t ia l fr a ct ion decom posit ion a llows you t o br ea k a r a t ion a l (fr a ct ion a l) expr ession
in t o t h e su m of a cou ple of sm a ller fr a ct ion s. H er es t h e gr ea t t h in g: Th e den om in a t or s
of t h e sm a ller fr a ct ion s a r e t h e fa ct or s of t h e or igin a l den om in a t or. Th e n u m er a t or s of
t h ose sm a ller fr a ct ion s a r e ju st con st a n t s. It s you r job t o fin d ou t wh a t t h ey a r e
exa ct ly.
2x
x+3
dx .
9x 5
S o lu tio n : You m a y be t em pt ed t o t r y a u -su bst it u t ion wit h u 5 2x 2 2 9x 2 5 a n d t o t r y

a n d for ce t h e n u m er a t or in t o d u 5 (4x 2 9)d x (a s we did ea r lier in t h is ch a pt er ).
H owever, you sh ou ld u se pa r t ia l fr a ct ion s becau se th e d en om in ator is factorable.
x+3
( 2 x + 1)( x 5) dx
333
.................................................................
x+3
A
B
=
+
( 2 x + 1) ( x 5 ) 2 x + 1 x 5
In ot h er wor ds, we ca n fin d t wo con st a n t s A a n d B su ch t h a t t h e su m of t h e t wo r igh t
fr a ct ion s equ a ls t h e la r ger fr a ct ion on t h e left . H ow do you do t h a t ? F ir st , elim in a t e
t h e fr a ct ion s by m u lt iplyin g bot h sides of t h e a bove equ a t ion by (2x 1 1)(x 2 5).
x 1 3 5 A(x 2 5) 1 B (2x 1 1)
Now, dist r ibu t e t h e con st a n t s.
x 1 3 5 Ax 2 5A 1 2B x 1 B
You r e a lm ost fin ish ed; fa ct or t h e x ou t of t h e Ax a n d 2B x t er m s.
x 1 3 5 (A 1 2B )x 2 5A 1 B
St op a n d look a t t h a t for a secon d. If t h e t wo sides a r e equ a l, t h en A 1 2B (t h e
coefficien t of t h e x on t h e r igh t side) m u st be equ a l t o 1 (t h e coefficien t of t h e x on t h e
left side). Sim ila r ly, 25A 1 B m u st equ a l 3. Th er efor e, you get t h e syst em of equ a t ion s:
A 1 2B 5 1
25A 1 B 5 3
Use wh a t ever t ech n iqu e you wa n t t o sim u lt a n eou sly solve t h ese equ a t ion s (lin ea r
com bin a t ion , su bst it u t ion , m a t r ices, et c.) t o figu r e ou t t h a t
5 and B = 8 .
A = 11
11
Th er efor e,
..............................................................................................
P a r t ia l fr a ct ion decom posit ion t ells u s t h a t
NOTE
When you integ ra te b y
p a rtia l fra c tions on the AP
5
11
test, the d enomina tors will
8
11
x +3
=
+
( 2 x + 1)( x 5) 2 x + 1 x 5
a lwa ys ha ve linea r fa c tors.

This tec hniq ue is slig htly
mod ified when the fa c tors
a n d in st ea d of in t egr a t in g t h e u gly left side, we ca n in t egr a t e t h e sligh t ly less u gly

r igh t side.
5
1
8
1
dx +
dx
11 2 x + 1
11 x 5
ha ve hig her d eg rees, b ut

you d on t ha ve to worry
a b out tha t for the AP test.
334
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Use u -su bst it u t ion in ea ch in t egr a l wit h u 5 t h e den om in a t or of ea ch a n d t h e r esu lt is
TIP
Even thoug h the A a nd B
end ed up looking kind of
g ross, integ ra ting wa s still
q uite ea sy. Tha t s why
integ ra ting b y p a rtia l
fra c tions is so g rea t.
5
8
ln 2 x + 1 + ln x 5 + C
22
11
or if you feel like get t in g com m on den om in a t or s a n d goin g n u t s wit h log pr oper t ies,
you ca n r ewr it e a s
x 516
5
2 x +1
ln
22
+C
I h a ve n o idea wh y you wou ld ever wa n t t o do t h a t , bu t h ey, wh a t ever floa t s you r boa t .

In con clu sion , you sh ou ld in t egr a t e by pa r t ia l fr a ct ion s if you ca n fa ct or t h e den om in a t or. Cr ea t e a su m of n ew fr a ct ion s su ch t h a t t h e den om in a t or s of t h e n ew fr a ct ion s
a r e t h e fa ct or s of t h e or igin a l den om in a t or a n d t h e n u m er a t or s of t h e n ew fr a ct ion s
a r e con st a n t s. On ce you det er m in e wh a t t h ose con st a n t s m u st be, a ll t h a t r em a in s is
t o in t egr a t e t h e st r in g of sm a ller fr a ct ion s, wh ich is t ypica lly ver y ea sy.
335
.................................................................
DO NOT USE A CALCULATOR WHEN YOU INTEGRATE THE FOLLOWING.
x 3
dx
+ 9x + 20
1.
2.
3.
3x
4.
2x + 1 dx
+ x 2 6x
x + 2 dx
2x 8
4
dx
+ x 14

1. Th e den om in a t or fa ct or s t o (x 1 4)(x 1 5); t o begin pa r t ia l fr a ct ion s, you set u p
t h e followin g equ a t ion :
x 3
A
B
=
+
x + 9 x + 20 x + 4 x + 5
2
Mu lt iply t h r ou gh by (x 1 4)(x 1 5) t o elim in a t e fr a ct ion s, a n d t h en fin d A a n d B .

x 2 3 5 A(x 1 5) 1 B (x 1 4)
x 2 3 5 (A 1 B )x 1 5A 1 4B
Th is r esu lt s in t h e syst em of equ a t ion s:
A 1 B 5 1 a n d 5A 1 4B 5 23
A 5 27, B 5 8
Th e or igin a l in t egr a l n ow becom es
x + 4 dx + 8 x + 5 dx
7 ln x + 4 + 8 ln x + 5 + C
2. Th is pr oblem does n ot r equ ir e pa r t ia l fr a ct ion s. If you fa ct or t h e den om in a t or, t h e
fr a ct ion sim plifies.
x+2
( x 4 )( x + 2 ) dx
1
x 4 dx
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 4
336
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Th is is a n ea sy u -su bst it u t ion pr oblem if u 5 x 2 4.
ln x 4 + C
3. You ca n pu ll t h e 4 ou t of t h e in t egr a l if you wa n t (a n d r epla ce it wit h a 1), bu t t h a t

doesn t m a ke t h e pr oblem sign ifica n t ly ea sier. Beca u se t h er e is n o x in t h e
n u m er a t or, it s coefficien t m u st be 0 (t h a t ll be im por t a n t in a few secon ds).
F a ct or in g t h e den om in a t or m a y be t h e h a r dest pa r t of t h is pr oblem .
A
B
4
=
+
3 x 2 + x 14 3 x + 7 x 2
4 = A( x 2 ) + B( 3 x + 7 )
4 = ( A + 3 B ) x + ( 2 A + 7 B )
Th is lea ds t o t h e syst em A 1 3B 5 0 a n d 22A 1 7B 5 4, wh ose solu t ion is

4
A = 12
13 a n d B = 13 .
12
1
4
dx +
13 3 x + 7
13
x 2 dx
4 ln 3x + 7 + 4 ln x 2 + C
13
13
4. Th e den om in a t or h a s t h r ee fa ct or s t h is t im e, bu t t h e t ech n iqu e st a ys exa ct ly

t h e sa m e.
2x + 1
A
B
C
= +
+
x3 + x2 6x x x + 3 x 2
2 x + 1 = A( x + 3)( x 2) + Bx ( x 2) + Cx ( x + 3)
2 x + 1 = A( x 2 + x 6) + B( x 2 2 x ) + C( x 2 + 3x )
2 x + 1 = ( A + B + C) x 2 + ( A 2 B + 3C) x 6 A
1
Th e on ly con st a n t t er m on t h e r igh t is 26A, so 26A 5 1 a n d A 5 2 . Th er e is n o
6
squ a r ed t er m on t h e left , so (a ft er su bst it u t in g in t h e va lu e of A) you h a ve t h e
syst em
1
1
+ B + C = 0 and 2 B + 3 C = 2
6
6
1
13
B + C = and 2 B + 3 C =
6
6
337
.................................................................
IMPROPER INTEGRALS (BC TOPIC ONLY)

Im proper in tegrals a r e biza r r e in t egr a ls t h a t h a ve a t lea st on e of t h e t h r ee followin g
qu a lit ies: (1) on e of t h e lim it s of in t egr a t ion is in fin it y, (2) t h e cu r ve bein g in t egr a t ed h a s
a n in fin it e discon t in u it y bet ween t h e lim it s of in t egr a t ion , or (3) t h e in t egr a l h a s a n
obsession for fr u it -scen t ed ca n dles. As t h e fin a l con dit ion is oft en difficu lt t o m ea su r e,
m ost m a t h em a t icia n s a r e sa t isfied wit h t h e fir st t wo.
3
Con sider t h e in t egr a l
1 . Th e u pper lim it of in t egr a t ion ca u ses t h e expr ession

9 x 2
lim
b3
1
9 x2
F or n ow, ign or e t h e lim it a n d eva lu a t e t h e in t egr a l.
lim arcsin
b3
x b
3 0
0
b
lim arcsin arcsin
3
3
b3
b
. It s t im e t o br in g t h a t lim it ba ck
3
in t o t h e pict u r e (t o eva lu a t e it , you ju st su bst it u t e 3 in for b).
Sin ce a r csin 0 5 0, t h e in t egr a l is sim ply a r csin
b
3
= arcsin
3
3
arcsin 1 =
2
lim arcsin
b3
exercises
t o be u n defin ed. H ow ca n you fin d t h e a r ea ben ea t h a cu r ve wh en x 5 3 if t h e cu r ve

doesn t exist a t 3? Th is is a n in t er est in g qu est ion . To cou n t er t h e dilem m a , we will
eva lu a t e t h e lim it as x approach es 3. To be com plet ely m a t h em a t ica lly a ccu r a t e, we
will eva lu a t e t h e lim it a s x a ppr oa ch es 3 from th e left (sin ce t h ose left -h a n d va lu es a r e
in ou r in t er va l of [0,3] bu t t h e r igh t -h a n d va lu es a r e n ot ).
3
1
dx
Ex a m p le 13: E va lu a t e 0
9 x2
S o lu tio n : Sin ce t h e in t egr a t ion lim it of 3 ca u ses t r ou ble, you su bst it u t e a con st a n t
(we will u se b sin ce it is t h e u pper lim it ) for it a n d r ewr it e t h e in t egr a l a s follows:
a nsw ers
1 1
1
1
1
1
dx
+
6 x
3 x+3 2 x2
1
1
1
ln x ln x + 3 + ln x 2 + C
6
3
2
..............................................................................................
1
1
1
Aft er solvin g t h e syst em , you get A 5 2 , B 5 2 , a n d C 5 , m a kin g t h e in t egr a l
6
3
2
338
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
As you ca n see, t h e m et h od wa s qu it e ea sy. Th e pr oblem lim it is r epla ced by a

con st a n t , a n d you let t h a t con st a n t a ppr oa ch t h e pr oblem lim it . Th e n ext exa m ple
in volves a n ot h er t r icky in t egr a t ion bou n da r y, bu t t h e r esu lt in g lim it is a lit t le m or e
com plica t ed.
ln x dx .
S o lu tio n : Th is is a n im pr oper in t egr a l beca u se ln x h a s a n in fin it e discon t in u it y

wh en x 5 0. Th er efor e, we r epla ce t h e 0 bou n da r y wit h a con st a n t a s follows:
1
lim+ ln x dx
a 0 a
We kn ow t h e in t egr a l of ln x fr om pr oblem 5 of t h e in t egr a t ion by pa r t s sect ion .
NOTE
The fa c t tha t we were
find ing the limit from the left
rea lly d id n t a ffec t the
integ ra l a t a ll.
ln x dx = x ln x x + C
lim ( x ln x x )
a 0 +
lim
a 0 +
1
a
( (1 0 1) ( a ln a a ) )
lim ( 1 a ln a + a )
a 0 +
Now it s t im e t o let a a ppr oa ch 0. Th e on ly difficu lt pa r t of t h e a bove is
lim a ln a.
a 0 +
Did you n ot ice t h a t t h is is t h e in det er m in a t e for m of 0 ? You ca n r ewr it e t h e

lim it a s
lim
a 0 +
ln a
1
a
a n d a pply LH pit a ls Ru le. Th is is t h e on ly difficu lt st ep in t h e pr oblem , bu t it s a

doozy. If you fin d t h e der iva t ive of t h e n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or, you get
wh ich is defin it ely 0. Th a t elim in a t es t h e h a r dest pa r t of t h e expr ession .
lim ( 1 a ln a + a )
a 0+
lim ( 1 0 0 ) = 1
a 0+
Th e fin a l a n swer is 21. If t h is seem ed like a bu n ch of sm oke a n d m ir r or s r a t h er t h a n

a r ea l m a gic t r ick, eva lu a t e t h e in t egr a l wit h you r gr a ph in g ca lcu la t or t o see t h a t
wer e r igh t r em em ber t h a t t h e ca lcu la t or on ly gives you a n a ppr oxim a t ion !
339
.................................................................
1
dx .
x4
S o lu tio n : You m a y t h in k t h a t t h e a n swer is a u t om a t ica lly `. We a r e in t egr a t in g fr om

x 5 1 a ll t h e wa y t o x 5 `, for goodn ess sa kes! Ca n a sh a pe wit h a n in fin it e bou n da r y
h a ve a fin it e a r ea ? Th is on e will. (I h ope I didn t r u in t h e su spen se. If you t h in k I did,
1
t h e a n swer is so t h er e, I r u in ed even m or e of t h e su spen se.)
3
Th e fir st st ep t o solvin g t h is pr oblem is t o in t r odu ce a con st a n t in pla ce of t h e
t r ou blesom e bou n da r y.
b
lim x 4 dx
b 1
In t egr a t e a s u su a l a n d t h en a pply t h e lim it .
1 b
b 3 x 3 1
lim
1
1
+
3
b 3 b
3
lim
As b goes t o in fin it y, 3b 3 will becom e m ega -giga n t ic, wh ich m a kes

essen t ia lly 0.
1
r ea lly t in y, or
3b3
1
01
3
1
Th er efor e, t h e defin it e in t egr a l is equ a l t o , a n d Im sor r y I r u in ed t h e su r pr ise.
3
E xa m ple 15 h igh ligh t s a ver y im por t a n t ch a r a ct er ist ic of im pr oper in t egr a ls. An y
im pr oper in t egr a l of t h e for m
..............................................................................................
We h a ve yet t o discu ss t h e ot h er m a jor t ype of im pr oper in t egr a la n in t egr a l t h a t

a ct u a lly h a s ` a s on e of t h e lim it s of in t egr a t ion . You ll be gla d t o h ea r t h a t t h e pr ocess
u sed t o solve t h ose in t egr a ls is iden t ica l t o t h e pr ocess we h a ve u sed in t h e pr eviou s
t wo exa m ples.
TIP
Not a ll sha p es with infinite
b ound a ries ha ve finite
1
dx
xp
a rea . If the a rea is not

finite, the integ ra l is sa id to
(wh er e t h e expon en t p is a r ea l n u m ber ) will a lwa ys con ver ge (r esu lt in a fin it e or

n u m er ica l a n swer ) if p . 1. If, h owever, p 1, t h e in t egr a l will n ot h a ve a n u m er ica l
a n swer (t h e cor r espon din g a r ea is in fin it e), a n d t h e in t egr a l is t er m ed d ivergen t.
Th er efor e, you ca n t ell wit h ou t a n y wor k t h a t
1
x2
dx con ver ges (a lt h ou gh you ll
h a ve t o wor k it ou t t o det er m in e t h e a ct u a l va lu e), wh er ea s

Th is is som et im es ca lled t h e p-test.
1
x
dx will diver ge.
d iverg e, wherea s a finite

integ ra l is sa id to c onverg e.
340
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Th e fin a l t h in g t h e AP t est expect s you t o do wit h im pr oper in t egr a ls is t o com pa r e

t h em wit h ot h er im pr oper in t egr a ls. In su ch ca ses, t h e t est will n ot a sk you t o
eva lu a t e a n in t egr a l bu t r a t h er a sk you t o det er m in e it s con ver gen ce or diver gen ce.
Ra t h er t h a n spen din g t h e t im e t o in t egr a t e t h ese, it s best t o fin d a n in t egr a l t h a t is
ext r em ely sim ila r t o t h ose t h a t a r e m u ch ea sier t o wor k wit h .
Ex a m p le 16: Does
x
e sin x dx con ver ge or diver ge?
0
x
S o lu tio n : Com pa r e t h is t o
0 e
dx (wh ich is sim ila r bu t m u ch ea sier t o in t egr a t e).
Beca u se t h e r a n ge of sin x is [21,1], m u lt iplyin g e2x by sin x will n ever give you a
r esu lt la r ger t h a n e2x . Th e m ost you a r e m u lt iplyin g e2x by is 1, a n d t h a t will r et u r n
t h e sa m e va lu e (of cou r se). Ot h er wise, you a r e m u lt iplyin g e2x by a n u m ber sm a ller
t h a n on e, a n d t h e r esu lt will be less t h a n e2x . Th er efor e, we ca n u n equ ivoca lly
sa y t h a t
NOTE
For fa ns of b a throom
humor, it should c ome a s
no surp rise tha t the p -test
relies so hea vily on numb er
one. I will not ela b ora te...
x
e sin x
0
dx e x dx
0
Wh y is t h is im por t a n t ? We ca n sh ow t h a t
x
e is a fin it e a r ea , so if t h e or igin a l
0
a r ea is less t h a n a fin it e a r ea , it m u st a lso be a fin it e a r ea a n d, t h er efor e, con ver ge.

x
0 e
All t h a t r em a in s is t o a ct u a lly sh ow t h a t
in t egr a t ion .
b x
e
b 0
lim
dx
lim e x |b0
lim e b + e 0
is fin it e t h r ou gh im pr oper
2e2` is essen t ia lly 0 (t o visu a lize t h is, gr a ph 2ex a n d let x a ppr oa ch 2`), bu t e0
equ a ls 1, so t h e lim it is
Beca u se
01151
x
e dx con ver ges, t h en
0
x
e sin x
0
dx (bein g sm a ller ) m u st con ver ge.
341
.................................................................
USE A GRAPHING CALCULATOR TO CHECK YOUR WORK ON THESE PROBLEMS

ONLY.
F or pr oblem s 1 t h r ou gh 4, det er m in e wh et h er or n ot t h e im pr oper in t egr a ls con ver ge; if
t h ey do, eva lu a t e t h em .
1.
1 3
1
dx
x +1
1
dx
2 x + 6 x + 8
3
1
dx
2 x + 1
dx
2 3
0 x
2.
3.
4.
5. Det er m in e wh et h er or n ot
sim pler im pr oper in t egr a l.
dx
con ver ges by com pa r in g it t o a n ot h er,
x
+6
1 e

1. Th e lower lim it of in t egr a t ion , 21, is t h e t r ou blem a ker h er e. Repla ce it wit h a
con st a n t a n d eva lu a t e t h e lim it :
lim
a 1+
a 3
1
dx
x +1
To in t egr a t e, u se u -su bst it u t ion wit h u 5 (x 1 1):

1
lim+ u 1 3du
a 1
a +1
1
lim 3 u2 3 a +1
a 1+ 2
Don t for get t h e u bou n da r ies.

2/3
3 3
lim ( a + 1)
2 2
a 1+
Wh en you eva lu a t e t h e lim it , you essen t ia lly plu g 21 in for a t o get

3
3
205
2
2
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 5
342
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
2. If you fa ct or t h e den om in a t or in t o (x 1 4)(x 1 2), you ca n see t h a t t h e in t egr a t ion

lim it of 22 will ca u se t h e fr a ct ion t o be u n defin ed, m a kin g t h e in t egr a l im pr oper.
lim+
a 2
( x + 4 )( x + 2)
dx
You ll h a ve t o u se pa r t ia l fr a ct ion s t o in t egr a t e.
1
A
B
=
+
x
+
4
x
+2
x
+
4
x
+
2
(
)(
)
A( x + 2 ) + B( x + 4 ) = 1
x ( A + B) + 2 A + 4 B = 1
Th is cr ea t es t h e syst em A 1 B 5 0 a n d 2A 1 4B 5 1. Th e solu t ion t o t h e syst em
1
1
is A 5 2 a n d B 5 . Su bst it u t e t h ese in t o t h e expa n ded in t egr a l a n d solve t o get
2
2
lim 1 ln x + 2 1 ln x + 4
a 2+ 2
2
|
0
Th er e is st ill a pr oblem , h owever. Wh en you su bst it u t e 22 in t o ln x + 2 , t h e

expr ession is st ill u n defin ed. Ou r m et h od cou ld n ot cor r ect t h e pr oblem s in h er en t
in t h e in t egr a l, so t h e in t egr a l is diver gen t .
3. Th e in fin it e discon t in u it y in t h is in t egr a l does n ot occu r a t t h e en dpoin t s bu t

r a t h er wh en x 5 21. H owever, you n eed t h e discon t in u it y t o exist a t a n en dpoin t
t o u se t h e m et h od you ve pr a ct iced a n d kn ow so well. Th er efor e, you ca n r ewr it e
t h e in t egr a l (u sin g a pr oper t y of defin it e in t egr a ls) a s a su m of sm a ller in t egr a ls,
ea ch wit h 21 a s a lim it of in t egr a t ion :
3
2 x + 1 dx = 2 x + 1 dx + 1 x + 1 dx
E a ch of t h ese in t egr a ls n eeds t o be don e sepa r a t ely.
1
2
lim
b 1
1
dx
x +1
b
1
dx
2 x + 1
lim ln x + 1
b 1
b
2
As you con t in u e t o solve t h is, you will en d u p wit h ln (21 1 1) 5 ln 0, wh ich is

u n defin ed. Th er efor e, t h is in t egr a l is diver gen t . (Th e sa m e pr oblem will occu r a s
you in t egr a t e t h e secon d in t egr a l.)
343
.................................................................
b
b 0
x 2 3 dx
b
lim 3 x 1 3 0
lim 3 b 1 3 0
Th e fu n ct ion 3b 1/3 (t h r ee t im es t h e cu be r oot fu n ct ion ) will gr ow in fin it ely la r ge

a s b`, so t h is in t egr a l diver ges.
dx
1 < 1
x
x
. Th er efor e, if
5. Com pa r e t h is in t egr a l t o
x . Beca u se e 1 6 . e ,
x
e
e
+ 6 ex
1
dx
you ca n pr ove 1 x h a s a fin it e a r ea (a n d is t h u s con ver gen t ), ou r or igin a l
e
in t egr a l m u st a lso be con ver gen t .
b x
e
b 1
lim
(
b
lim e x
dx
)|1b
lim e b + e 1
You kn ow fr om E xa m ple 16 t h a t
lim e b = 0
Th er efor e, t h e or igin a l in t egr a l
1
e
dx
m u st a lso con ver ge.
e x +6
TECHNOLOGY: DRAWING DERIVATIVE AND INTEGRAL

GRAPHS WITH YOUR CALCULATOR
In pa st ch a pt er s, you wer e a sked t o descr ibe ch a r a ct er ist ics of fu n ct ion s ba sed on t h e
gr a ph s of t h eir fir st a n d secon d der iva t ives. You r ca lcu la t or (a lt h ou gh slow) is a ble t o
dr a w a fu n ct ion s der iva t ive or in t egr a l gr a ph , even if you ca n n ot figu r e ou t wh a t it is.
Th is is n ot a n ext r a or din a r ily u sefu l t ool for t h e AP t est , bu t it gives you a n in fin it e
a m ou n t of pr a ct ice dr a win g t h e gr a ph s of der iva t ives a n d in t egr a ls (a n d solvin g ea ch
on e for you ).
d cos x .
Ex a m p le 17: Dr a w t h e gr a ph s of *cos x d x a n d dx
(
)
S o lu tio n : You a lr ea dy kn ow wh a t t h e in t egr a l of cos x isit s sin x. H owever, t h e

pr ocess you u se wit h a n y fu n ct ion will be t h e sa m e. Befor e we begin , let s set u p a good
[Win dow] for t h is pr oblem . P r ess [Zoom ]Zt r ig, a n d t h en a dju st t h e [Win dow] so
t h a t Xm in is 0 a n d Xm a x is 4p. Th is will set u p a ver y pr et t y win dow for cos x.
Now, go t o t h e [Y5] scr een a n d a ssign Y1 5 cos (x). We wa n t Y2 t o be t h e gr a ph of t h e
in t egr a l, so it s equ a t ion is
Y2 5 fn In t (Y1 ,x,0,x)
exercises
lim e 1 =
a nsw ers
lim
..............................................................................................
4. Repla ce t h a t in fin it e bou n da r y wit h a con st a n t a n d in t egr a t e.
344
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
NOTE
This c ha p ter d oesn t need
a sp ec ific tec hnolog y
c omp onent, so a n
unrela ted b ut imp orta nt
c a lc ula tor top ic is inc lud ed .
Th is is t h e a r ea ben ea t h t h e Y1 cu r ve wit h r espect t o x fr om x 5 0 t o x 5 wh a t ever t h e

cu r r en t x is. In ot h er pr oblem s, you m a y wa n t t o a dju st t h e lower lim it of in t egr a t ion
(in t h is exa m ple 0) t o m a t ch t h e Xm in va lu e on you r gr a ph .
It s a lso a good idea t o da r ken t h e gr a ph of t h e in t egr a l so you ca n t ell t h em a pa r t .

P r ess [Gr a ph ], wa it a bit , a n d t h e gr a ph of t h e in t egr a l slowly scr a wls it self a cr oss t h e
a xes. No big su r pr ise h er e; it s t h e gr a ph of sin x, t h e in t egr a l of cos x.
NOTE
In ord er to g et Y1 into the
eq ua tion of Ysb 2, p ress
[Va rs] Y-va rs
Func tion... Y1 .
If you wa n t t o dr a w t h e der iva t ive of cos x, en t er

Y2 5 n Der iv(Y1 ,x,x)
J u st a s we su spect ed, t h e gr a ph of t h e der iva t ive of cos x is t h e h or izon t a l r eflect ion of

sin x, or 2sin x.
345
.................................................................
1
Ex a m p le 18: Sh ow t h a t ln x get s it s va lu e by a ccu m u la t in g a r ea ben ea t h .
x
1
S o lu tio n : E n t er Y1 5 . Rem em ber t h a t ln x get s it s va lu e fr om t h e a ccu m u la t ion
x
fu n ct ion
x 1
ln x = dx
1 x
So, Y2 5 fn In t (Y1 ,x,1,x). Ma ke su r e t o set you r Xm in t o a n u m ber sligh t ly la r ger t h a n

1
0 (sin ce 0 is u n defin ed for ). I ch ose a va lu e of .001 for Xm in .
x
Th is a ct ivit y sh eds a wh ole n ew ligh t on wh y ln x is n ega t ive fr om x 5 0 t o x 5 1: ln x

is ba sed on a n in t egr a l wit h in ver t ed lim it s of in t egr a t ion on t h a t in t er va l. F or exa m ple,
ln
1
=
2
1 2
1
dx
x
Beca u se t h ose lim it s a r e ba ckwa r d (wit h t h e la r ger lim it in t h e lower posit ion ), t h e
r esu lt is n ega t ive (ba sed on a pr oper t y of defin it e in t egr a ls).
..............................................................................................
If you a r e st ill con fu sed a bou t t h e r ela t ion sh ip bet ween a gr a ph a n d it s der iva t ives,
t h is t ech n iqu e ca n give you a ll t h e pr a ct ice you n eed. Ma ke u p a n y fu n ct ion a t a ll, a n d
en t er it a s Y1 . P r edict , ba sed on t h a t gr a ph , wh a t it s in t egr a l a n d der iva t ive gr a ph s
look like, a n d u se t h e a bove com m a n ds t o ch eck you r self.
346
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 6
DO NOT USE A GRAPHING CALCULATOR ON A SINGLE, SOLITARY ONE OF THESE

PROBLEMS.
E va lu a t e ea ch of t h e followin g in t egr a ls, if possible.
1.
*2.
1+ cos x dx
x 1
x 7 x + 6 x dx
2
*3.
x ln x dx
*4.
6+x
dx
6x
5.
sec
6.
x +3
7.
*8.
*9.
x tan 5 x dx
x dx
x3 + 6x2 + 2x 4
dx
x+7
cos
(3 x ) sin 3 (3 x ) dx
x sin x dx
*10. J a m e s D ia bo lic a l Ch a lle n g e :
cos 3 x dx
*a B C-on ly qu estion .
TIP
Althoug h no one
integ ra tion method is
extremely d iffic ult, it c a n b e
tric ky trying to d ec id e
whic h one to use. Ma ke
sure you know why a nd
when to use the method s
you re using .

1. Th e best wa y t o in t egr a t e t h is is u sin g a m et h od ca lled t h e con ju gate. It h a sn t
been in clu ded u n t il n ow beca u se it is m u ch ea sier t h a n t h e ot h er m et h ods. To
a pply it , m u lt iply t h e n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or by t h e con ju ga t e of t h e den om in a t or (1 2 cos x); you will get
1 cos x
dx
2
x
1 cos
Use Ma m m a t o ch a n ge t h e den om in a t or a n d split t h e in t egr a l in t o t wo pa r t s.
sin
csc
2
2
cos x
sin x dx
cos x
xdx
dx
sin x
dx
347
.................................................................
1
+C
u
cot x + csc x + C
cot x +
2. Th is is n ot a lon g-division pr oblem beca u se t h e degr ee of t h e den om in a t or is

gr ea t er t h a n t h e degr ee of t h e n u m er a t or. In st ea d, beca u se t h e den om in a t or is
fa ct or a ble, you sh ou ld u se pa r t ia l fr a ct ion s.
x 2 1
A
B
C
= +
+
x
x
1
x
6
x ( x 1) ( x 6 )
x 2 1 = A x 2 7 x + 6 + Bx ( x 6 ) + Cx ( x 1)
x 2 1 = x 2 ( A + B + C ) + x ( 7 A 6 B C ) + 6 A
7
1
Th er efor e, A 5 2 , B 5 0, a n d C 5 . Th e in t egr a l is n ow wr it t en a s
6
6
3. In t egr a t ion by pa r t s is t h e wa y t o go h er e. It s best t o set u 5 ln x; a lt h ou gh you

pr oba bly h a ve m em or ized it s in t egr a l, you d h a ve t o in t egr a t e t wice if you set
d v 5 ln x, so t h a t r u les ou t t h e ch a r t . In st ea d, set u 5 ln x a n d d v 5 xd x, wh ich
x2
1
m a kes d u = d x a n d v = .
x
2
x 2 ln x 1
xdx
2
2
x 2 ln x x 2
x ln xdx =
+C
2
4
x ln x dx =
4. (Th is is a t ou gh ie.) Th is is a n im pr oper in t egr a l sin ce t h e bou n da r y of 6 wr ea ks

h a voc in t h e den om in a t or.
lim
b 6
6+x
dx
6x
exercises
1 1
7
1
dx +
dx
6 x
6 x6
1
7
ln x + ln x 6 + C
6
6
a nsw ers
cot x u 2 du + C
..............................................................................................
Th e fir st in t egr a l is ea sy, a n d t h e secon d is a sim ple u -su bst it u t ion (wit h u 5
sin x).
348
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Th e best m et h od t o u se is t h e con ju ga t e m et h od (sin ce t h e den om in a t or is a

r a dica l su r r ou n din g a bin om ia l). Mu lt iply t h e t op a n d bot t om of t h e fr a ct ion by
6 + x t o get
lim
b 6
6 + x dx
36 x 2
Th is in t egr a l m u st be br oken in t o t wo pa r t s. Well solve t h em on e a t a t im e. Th e

fir st is
lim 62
b6
1
dx
2
36 x
lim 6 arcsin x
6 2
b6
6 arcsin 1 6 arcsin
1
3
1
6 arcsin
2
3
1
3 6 arcsin
3
Th e secon d in t egr a l is com plet ed u sin g u -su bst it u t ion .
x
dx
2
36 x
u = 36 x 2 , du = 2xdx , du = xdx
2
lim
b 6
36 b2
lim 1
b 6
2 32
u 1 2du
36 b2
2
lim u1 |
32
b 6
lim 36 b2 + 32
b 6
32
Th e fin a l a n swer is t h e su m of t h e t wo in t egr a ls:
1
3 6 arcsin + 32
3
349
.................................................................
u du
5
tan 6 x
+C
6
6. Th er e a r e t wo good wa ys t o do t h is. If you u se lon g division (sin ce t h e degr ees of
t op a n d bot t om a r e equ a l), you get
1 x + 3 dx
x 3 ln x + 3 + C
wh ich is qu it e ea sy. You ca n a lso do a biza r r e u -su bst it u t ion . If you set u 5 x 1 3,
d u 5 d x a n d t h e in t egr a l becom es
x du
u
u3
du
u
wh ich ca n be split u p, r esu lt in g in
du 3 u du
u 3 ln u + C
x + 3 3 ln x + 3 + C , or
x ln ( x + 3 ) + C
3
(sin ce t h e 3 is ju st a con st a n t a n d ca n be a dded t o t h e C). Bot h m et h ods r esu lt in

t h e sa m e a n swer.
7. You n eed t o begin t h is pr oblem wit h lon g or syn t h et ic division (syn t h et ic division
is sh own below).
exercises
H ow do you get r id of t h a t pesky x in t h e n u m er a t or ? Rem em ber t h a t you ju st set

u 5 x 1 3. Th er efor e, x 5 u 2 3. If you su bst it u t e t h a t va lu e in for x, you get
a nsw ers
u = tan x, du = sec2 xdx
..............................................................................................
5. Th is is a sim ple u -su bst it u t ion pr oblem ; BC st u den t s ca n a lso u se St even or Todd
(a lt h ou gh St even , in t h is ca se, is essen t ia lly u -su bst it u t ion ).
350
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Th e in t egr a l ca n be r ewr it t en a s
x + 9 67 dx
x +7
x 3 x 2 + 9x 67 ln x + 7 + C
3
2
8. Th e odd m a n ou t in t h is pr oblem is sin (3x). Th er efor e, sa ve on e sin (3x), a n d

ch a n ge t h e ot h er s t o cosin es.
cos
cos
cos
(3 x ) sin 2 (3 x ) sin(3 x ) dx
(3 x ) (1 cos2 (3 x )) sin(3 x ) dx
(3 x ) sin(3 x ) dx cos6 (3 x ) sin(3 x ) dx
Bot h in t egr a ls r equ ir e u -su bst it u t ion wit h u 5 cos (3x) a n d 2
du
5 sin (3x)d x.
3
1 cos5 (3 x ) cos7 (3 x )

+C
3
5
7
9. Th is is a n im pr oper in t egr a l du e t o t h e in fin it e u pper lim it .
lim
b 1
x sin x dx
You sh ou ld in t egr a t e x sin x by pa r t s wit h u 5 x a n d d v 5 sin x d x. In fa ct , you ca n

u se t h e pa r t s ch a r t .
lim ( x cos x + sin x )|1b
lim b cos b + sin b ( cos1 + sin 1)
As b a ppr oa ch es in fin it y, n eit h er cos b n or sin b a ppr oa ch es a n y on e h eigh t . Th ey

bot h oscilla t e in fin it ely bet ween 21 a n d 1. Th er efor e, t h er e is n o lim it a s b
a ppr oa ch es in fin it y, a n d t h is in t egr a l diver ges.
351
.................................................................
1 4
4
4
8
8
x sin 3 x + x 3 cos 3 x x 2 sin 3 x
x cos 3 x sin 3 x + C
3
9
9
27
81
exercises
a nsw ers
Mu lt iply a lon g t h e dia bolica l dia gon a ls (a n d sim plify fr a ct ion s, if you feel t h e
u r ge) t o get t h e fin a l a n swer :
..............................................................................................
10. Th is is on e m ot h er of a n in t egr a t ion by pa r t s pr oblem . If you don t u se t h e ch a r t ,

you a r e ju st m a soch ist ic.
352
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
SUMMING IT UP
Most of in t egr a t ion on t h e AP t est is don e u sin g t h e P ower Ru le a n d

u -su bst it u t ion .
In t egr a t ion by pa r t s is a t ech n iqu e ba sed on t h e P r odu ct Ru le (BC t opic on ly).
Wh en you in t egr a t e by pa r t ia l fr a ct ion s on t h e AP t est , t h e den om in a t or s will

a lwa ys h a ve lin ea r fa ct or s. Th is t ech n iqu e is sligh t ly m odified wh en t h e fa ct or s
h a ve h igh er degr ees, bu t you don t h a ve t o wor r y a bou t t h a t for t h e AP t est .
Im proper in tegrals a r e in t egr a ls t h a t h a ve t h e followin g qu a lit ies: on e of t h e

lim it s of in t egr a t ion is in fin it y a n d t h e cu r ve bein g in t egr a t ed h a s a n in fin it e
discon t in u it y bet ween t h e lim it s of in t egr a t ion (BC t opic).
Not a ll sh a pes wit h in fin it e bou n da r ies h a ve fin it e a r ea . If t h e a r ea is n ot fin it e,

t h e in t egr a l is sa id t o d iverge, wh er ea s a fin it e in t egr a l is sa id t o con verge.
Ap p lic a tions of
Integ ra tion
....................................................................................
Ha nds-On Activity 9.1: Area between curves

The disk a nd wa sher methods
The shell method
Finding the volume of regions with known cross sections
Arc length (BC topic only)
Pola r a rea (BC topic only)
Technology: Using your ca lcula tor efficiently
Summing it up
Lea r n in g h ow t o in t egr a t e, a lt h ou gh a fu n a dven t u r e in a n d of it self (yea h

r igh t ), is ju st t h e begin n in g. J u st a s der iva t ives h a d keen a pplica t ion s su ch a s
r ela t ed r a t es a n d opt im iza t ion , in t egr a t in g h a s it s own a pplica t ion s, wh ich
a r e pr im a r ily con cer n ed wit h fin din g a r ea a n d volu m e gen er a t ed by gr a ph s.
Th ese t opics a lwa ys r em in d m e of on e t h in gget t in g close t o t h e AP t est !
Alt h ou gh BC st u den t s h a ve a n ext r a ch a pt er (a n d wh a t a fu n ch a pt er t h a t is),
AB st u den t s a r e n ea r in g t h e h om e st r et ch for t h e AP t est . Don t give u p, a n d
keep you r focu syou r e a lm ost don e.
HANDS-ON ACTIVITY 9.1: AREA BETWEEN CURVES

You ca n a lr ea dy fin d t h e a r ea bet ween a cu r ve a n d t h e x-a xis (t h a n ks t o t h e
F u n da m en t a l Th eor em ). Now, you will lea r n h ow t o fin d t h e a r ea bet ween a n y
t wo in t egr a ble cu r ves. I ca n t ell t h a t you r e excit ed. Let s get r igh t t o it .
1. If a cir cle is in scr ibed in a squ a r e wh ose side len gt h is 9, fin d t h e a r ea of
t h e sh a ded r egion .
353
c ha p ter 9
OVERVIEW
354
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..............................................................................................
2. Descr ibe t h e t ech n iqu e you u sed t o com plet e pr oblem 1.
3. Below a r e t h e gr a ph s of y 5 4 a n d y 5 x 2 in t h e fir st qu a dr a n t . Wh er e do t h ese

t wo gr a ph s in t er sect ?
4. E va lu a t e t h e defin it e in t egr a ls
NOTE
The fa c t tha t some of the
a rea is b elow the x-a xis will
not ma tter. The a rea
b etween c urves will a lwa ys
b e p ositiveit is not sig ned
a rea . If you g et a neg a tive
a nswer, you sub tra c ted in
the wrong ord er.
4 dx a n d
x 2 dx . Usin g t h ose t wo in t egr a ls,
h ow ca n you fin d t h e sh a ded a r ea ? (Use a t ech n iqu e sim ila r t o t h e cir cle a n d
squ a r e pr oblem fr om n u m ber 1.)
5. F ill in t h e bla n ks below t o com plet e t h e st a t em en t :

Wh en fin din g t h e a r ea en closed by t wo cu r ves t h a t con t a in x va r ia bles, you a r e
a ddin g t h e su m of t h e a r ea s of a n in fin it e n u m ber of ver t ica l
_______________________s. In pr a ct ice, you su bt r a ct t h e defin it e in t egr a l of t h e
_________________________
from
the
defin it e
in t egr a l
of
the
_____________________. Th e lim it s of in t egr a t ion for t h ose in t egr a ls sh ou ld be t h e
x-va lu es of t h e ____________________.
6. Gr a ph t h e cu r ves y 5 2 2 x 2 a n d y 5 x 2 2 3. Ligh t ly sh a de t h e t ot a l a r ea bet ween

t h e cu r ves (n ot ju st in t h e fir st qu a dr a n t t h is t im e). Set u p t h e in t egr a l t h a t
r epr esen t s t h e a r ea , bu t do n ot in t egr a t e it .
Cha pter 9: Applica tions of Integra tion
355
.................................................................
8. F ill in t h e bla n ks below t o com plet e t h e st a t em en t :

Wh en fin din g t h e a r ea en closed by t wo cu r ves t h a t con t a in y va r ia bles, you a r e
a ddin g t h e su m of t h e a r ea s of a n in fin it e n u m ber of _______________________. In
pr a ct ice, you su bt r a ct t h e defin it e in t egr a l of t h e __________________________
from t h e defin it e in t egr a l of t h e __________________. Th e lim it s of in t egr a t ion for
t h ose in t egr a ls sh ou ld be t h e __________________________.
9. F in d t h e a r ea in th e first qu ad ran t en closed by t h e cu r ves x 5 y 2 a n d x =
y .

1. Th e r a diu s of t h e cir cle m u st be
9
sin ce it s dia m et er is t h e sa m e a s t h e side of t h e
2
squ a r e. Th e sh a ded a r ea is 81 81 .
4
2. You fin d t h e a r ea of t h e squ a r e a n d su bt r a ct t h e a r ea of t h e cir cle.
3. You ca n fin d t h is a n swer by set t in g t h em equ a l t o on e a n ot h er.
x2 5 4
x 5 62
Th ey in t er sect a t t h e poin t (2,4).
..............................................................................................
7. If you r fu n ct ion s bot h con t a in ys, h ow will you r t ech n iqu e for fin din g t h e a r ea
bet ween t h em differ ?
356
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
4.
4 dx = 8 a n d
x 2 dx = 8 , a s sh own in t h e followin g dia gr a m s.

3
Not ice t h a t t h e left a r ea m in u s t h e r igh t a r ea equ a ls t h e sh a ded a r ea in t h e

8 16
pr oblem . Th er efor e, t h e a n swer is 8 2 = .
3 3
5. Wh en fin din g t h e a r ea en closed by t wo cu r ves t h a t con t a in x va r ia bles, you a r e

a ddin g t h e su m of t h e a r ea s of a n in fin it e n u m ber of ver t ica l r ect a n gles. In
pr a ct ice, you su bt r a ct t h e defin it e in t egr a l of t h e lower cu r ve fr om t h e defin it e
in t egr a l of t h e h igh er cu r ve. Th e lim it s of in t egr a t ion for t h ose in t egr a ls sh ou ld
be t h e x-va lu es of t h e in t er sect ion poin t s.
6.
Th e dia gr a m con t a in s a sin gle, da r k ver t ica l r ect a n gle, wh ich is on e of t h e in fin it e
n u m ber of r ect a n gles t h a t m a ke u p t h e sh a ded a r ea . Th is m a kes it ea sy t o see
t h a t you will in t egr a t e t h e t op cu r ve m in u s t h e bot t om cu r ve, or (2 2 x 2 )2(x 2 2 3),
a s t h a t is t h e len gt h of t h e r ect a n gle.
F in d t h e in t er sect ion va lu es by set t in g t h e fu n ct ion s equ a l.
2 2 x2 5 x2 2 3
2x 2 5 5
x=
5
2
Th er efor e, t h e a r ea is given by
5/ 2
5/ 2
(( 2 x ) ( x
2
))
3 dx
7. Wh en fu n ct ion s con t a in ys in st ea d of xs, t h e righ tm ost fu n ct ion is t h e gr ea t er

in st ea d of t h e h igh er fu n ct ion . Also, you wou ld u se t h e y-coor din a t e of t h e
in t er sect ion poin t r a t h er t h a n t h e x-coor din a t e.
357
.................................................................
9.
Beca u se t h ese fu n ct ion s bot h con t a in ys, you a r e u sin g h or izon t a l r ect a n gles of
len gt h (r igh t 2 left ) 5 =y 2 y 2 . Th e fu n ct ion s in t er sect a t (1,1) a n d (0,0). Don t
for get t h a t you h a ve t o u se t h e y-coor din a t e (even t h ou gh it s t h e sa m e a s t h e x in
t h is ca se).
(
1
yy
..............................................................................................
8. h or izon t a l r ect a n gles, left m ost cu r ve, r igh t m ost cu r ve, y-coor din a t es of t h e poin t s
of in t er sect ion .
TIP
If you ha ve p rob lems
d ra wing func tions of y, p lot
p oints to c onstruc t the
)dy
g ra p h.
2 3/ 2 y 3 1
1
=
3y
0 3
358
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 1
DO NOT USE A GRAPHING CALCULATOR FOR PROBLEMS 1 AND 4.
TIP
Rememb er tha t vertic a l
rec ta ng les rela te to x
va ria b les a nd horizonta l
rec ta ng les rela te to y
va ria b les. This will help you
immensely in the next
sec tion.
1. Ca lcu la t e t h e a r ea bou n ded by f(x) 5 x 5 2 5x 3 a n d t h e x-a xis. Wh a t im por t a n t

con clu sion ca n be dr a wn fr om t h is pr oblem ?
2. Ca lcu la t e t h e a r ea bou n ded by y 5 x 3 2 4x a n d y 5 (x 1 2)2 in t h e secon d

qu a dr a n t .
3. Ca lcu la t e t h e a r ea in t h e fir st qu a dr a n t bou n ded by x 5 5 a n d y 5 x 2 1 2

t wiceon ce wit h h or izon t a l r ect a n gles a n d on ce wit h ver t ica l on es.
1
4. Ca lcu la t e t h e a r ea bou n ded by x 5 y 2 1 4y 2 5 a n d y 5 2 x 1 1.
2
5. Ca lcu la t e t h e a r ea bou n ded by y 5 3x 3 2 8x, y 5 10x 2 , x 5 0, a n d x 5 21.

1. F ir st , you n eed t o fin d t h e poin t s of in t er sect ion of t h e gr a ph s by set t in g t h em
equ a l.
x 5 2 5x 3 5 0
x 3 (x 2 2 5) 5 0
x = 0, 5
Th is pr oblem m u st be split in t o t wo sepa r a t e in t egr a ls. On [ 5 ,0], f(x) is t h e

t op fu n ct ion , wh er ea s on [0, 5 ], t h e x-a xis (y 5 0) is t h e t op fu n ct ion .
H owever, you on ly n eed t o ca lcu la t e on e of t h ese r egion s sin ce f(x) is odd a n d
t h er efor e or igin -sym m et r ic (bot h of t h e r egion s will h a ve t h e sa m e a r ea ).
359
.................................................................
( x
5
))
5 x 3 dx
+ 5 x 3 dx
5
x6 5 4
6 + 4 x
0
125 + 125 = 125
6
4 12
125
Th er efor e, t h e en t ir e r egion bet ween t h e t wo cu r ves is 125
12 2 = 6 . Th e im por t a n t
con clu sion t o be dr a wn ? Th e F u n da m en t a l Th eor em of Ca lcu lu s is ju st a n ext en sion of t h is m et h od. (Befor e, ou r u n st a t ed lower cu r ve wa s a lwa ys 0, sin ce
u pper cu rve 2 0 5 u pper cu rve.)
2. Th ese a r e bot h fu n ct ion s of x, so you u se x-bou n da r ies a n d in t egr a t e top 2 bottom .

(You a lso u se ver t ica l r ect a n gles wit h x fu n ct ion s.) Gr a ph t h em t o see wh ich is
wh ich .
x 3 2 4x 5 x 2 1 4x 1 4
x 3 2 x 2 2 8x 2 4 5 0
Solve t h is equ a t ion u sin g you r ca lcu la t or t o get x 5 22 a n d 2.5615528128 (t h e
ot h er solu t ion cor r espon ds t o a n in t er sect ion poin t in t h e fir st qu a dr a n t ). Th e
a r ea will be
.5615528128
(( x
4x ( x + 2 ) dx
2
Th e a r ea is a ppr oxim a t ely 2.402 squ a r e u n it s.
exercises
Th e t op fu n ct ion is x 3 2 4x. Now, fin d t h e in t er sect ion poin t s of t h e gr a ph s.
a nsw ers
(0 ( x
..............................................................................................
We will ca lcu la t e t h e a r ea of t h e r egion on [0, 5 ]. Don t for get t h a t y 5 0 is t h e

t op fu n ct ion .
360
.................................................................
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3. Usin g ver t ica l r ect a n gles is m u ch ea sier in t h is pr oblem , a lt h ou gh bot h give you
t h e sa m e solu t ion .
NOTE
Rememb er, you should use
rig ht-left with horizonta l
rec ta ng les, a nd the limits of
integ ra tion a re y s.
NOTE
The rea son we ha d to sp lit
the p rob lem into two
integ ra ls wa s the c ha ng e of
b ound a ries a t y 5 2. With
vertic a l rec ta ng les, the
b ound a ries sta yed the
sa me the whole time. Tha t s
why it wa s ea sier.
Vertical rectan gles (u sin g xs):

Th e a r ea of t h e r egion is fou n d u sin g t h e F u n da m en t a l Th eor em .
0 ( x
5
+ 2 dx =
155
3
H orizon tal rectan gles (u sin g ys):

F r om y 5 0 t o y 5 2, t h e r igh t -h a n d fu n ct ion is x 5 5, a n d t h e left -h a n d fu n ct ion
is x 5 0. In fa ct , t h a t a r ea is sim ply a r ect a n gle of a r ea 10.
H ow do you fin d t h a t u pper in t er sect ion poin t ? You ca n n ot ju st set t h e equ a t ion s
equ a l, beca u se on e is a n equ a t ion in t er m s of x. If you wa n t t o u se h or izon t a l
r ect a n gles, you h a ve t o go wh ole h og a n d ch a n ge ever yt h in g t o ys.
y 5 x2 1 2
y 2 2 5 x2
x=
y2
Now you ca n set t h e t wo equ a l t o fin d t h e bou n da r ies.
y2 =5
y 2 2 5 25
y 5 27
Th e in t er sect ion poin t is (5,27). Not ice t h a t t h e h or izon t a l r ect a n gles fr om y 5 2
t o y 5 27 h a ve a r igh t -h a n d bou n da r y of x 5 5 a n d a left -h a n d bou n da r y of
x = y 2 . Sin ce we a lr ea dy kn ow t h e lower r ect a n gu la r a r ea is 10, let s fin d t h e
ot h er a r ea .
(5
27
y 2 dy =
125
3
Th e t ot a l a r ea is 10 + 125 = 155 , a n d t h e a n swer m a t ch es ou r ver t ica l r ect a n gle

3
3
a n swer.
361
.................................................................
Th e in t er sect ion poin t s will be

y 2 1 4y 2 5 5 2 2 2y
y 2 1 6y 2 7 5 0
On t h e en t ir e in t er va l fr om y 5 1 t o y 5 27, t h e lin e for m s t h e r igh t -h a n d
bou n da r y, so t h e a r ea bet ween t h e cu r ves will be
(( 2 2 y ) ( y
1
))
+ 4 y 5 dy
( 7 6 y y )dy
1
y3 1
256
2
7
y
3
y
3
3
exercises
y 5 1, 27
a nsw ers
1
y52 x11
2
1
y2152 x
2
2 2 2y 5 x
..............................................................................................
4. You h a ve t o u se h or izon t a l r ect a n gles h er e. On e of t h e fu n ct ion s is in t er m s of y,

a n d t h er e is n o ch a n gin g t h a t on e in t o t er m s of x ea sily. Th er efor e, you n eed t o
ch a n ge t h e ot h er a n d pu t it in t er m s of y a lso.
362
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..............................................................................................
5. Bot h of t h ese fu n ct ion s a r e in t er m s of x, so you sh ou ld u se ver t ica l r ect a n gles

a n d x bou n da r ies for in t egr a t ion .
T h is graph is stretch ed to featu re th e area in qu estion .
Th ese gr a ph s in t er sect in t h e in t er va l [21,0]. F in d t h a t poin t .

3x 3 2 8x 5 10x 2
3x 3 210x 2 2 8x 5 0
x(3x 1 2)(x 2 4) 5 0
2
x 5 0, 2 , a n d 4
3
2
Clea r ly, 2 is t h e va lu e we n eed. H owever, we will n eed t wo sepa r a t e in t egr a ls.
3
2
2
On t h e in t er va l [21, 2 ], t h e qu a dr a t ic fu n ct ion is on t op. H owever, on [ 2 ,0],
3
3
t h e cu bic fu n ct ion is on t op. Th er efor e, t h e t ot a l a r ea is
2 / 3
(10x (3x
2
))
8x dx +
(3x
0
2 / 3
8x 10x 2
235 52 443
+
=
or 1.367
324 81 324
THE DISK AND WASHER METHODS

My st u den t s a r e a lwa ys su r pr ised wh en I t ell t h em t h a t ca lcu lu s ca n h elp t h em fin d t h e
volu m e of a bu t t er n u t squ a sh . H owever, wh en t h ey see h ow it s don e, t h ey a r e oft en
disa ppoin t ed. Th a t s n ot ca lcu lu s! t h ey excla im . Is t oo! I clever ly r et or t . Is n ot ! t h ey
pr ot est . Su ch a ca dem ic deba t es a r e essen t ia l t o pr odu cin g en ligh t en ed a n d well-spoken
st u den t s.
Th er e is n o for m u la in you r t ext book con cer n in g t h e volu m e of pr odu ce, so you n eed t o
br ea k t h e squ a sh in t o sm a ller, m or e m a n a gea ble pieces.
363
.................................................................
If you slice t h e squ a sh in t o t h in disks (cylin der s), you ca n fin d t h e a ppr oxim a t e
volu m e of ea ch a n d t h en a dd t h ose volu m es. Sou n d fa m ilia r ? It s ba sica lly a t h r eedim en sion a l Riem a n n su m .
Th e volu m e of a disk is pr 2 h . H owever, if we wa n t t o fin d t h e exact volu m e of a
t h r ee-dim en sion a l sh a pe, we h a ve t o u se a n in fin it e n u m ber of disks (like we u sed a n
in fin it e n u m ber of r ect a n gles t o fin d t h e exa ct a r ea wh en we a pplied t h e F u n da m en t a l
Th eor em ). Th is for m u la is ca lled t h e Disk M eth od .
Th e D is k Me th o d : If t h e a r ea ben ea t h a fu n ct ion is r ot a t ed in t h r ee dim en sion s a n d
t h e r esu lt in g solid h a s n o h oles or ga ps, it s volu m e is given by
V = (r( x )) dx
b
wh er e a a n d b a r e t h e en dpoin t s of t h e or igin a l a r ea a n d r(x) is t h e r a diu s of t h e

t h r ee-dim en sion a l solid.
Th is sou n ds m igh t y com plica t ed, bu t it is r ea lly qu it e sim ple. (An d t h a t s n o t ypica l
m a t h t ea ch er m u m bo ju m bo.) On e t h in g t o keep in m in d: Th e Disk Met h od u ses
r ect a n gles t h a t a r e perpen d icu lar t o t h e r ot a t ion a l a xis. If you r em em ber t h a t , t h e
pr ocess is m u ch sim pler.
Ex a m p le 1: F in d t h e volu m e gen er a t ed if t h e r egion bou n ded by f(x) 5 sin x on [0,p]
is r ot a t ed a r ou n d t h e x-a xis.
S o lu tio n : Dr a w t h e or igin a l r egion fir st (you don t h a ve t o be a ble t o pict u r e it in

t h r ee dim en sion s t o get t h e pr oblem r igh t .) Th e x-a xis (t h e r ot a t ion a l a xis specified by
t h e pr oblem ) is h or izon t a l, so we will h a ve t o u se r ect a n gles per pen dicu la r t o t h a t
..............................................................................................
A sq u a sh s cr oss-sect i on
364
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
(ver t ica l r ect a n gles) t o com plet e t h e pr oblem . Rem em ber fr om t h e la st sect ion t h a t
ver t ica l r ect a n gles m ea n t h a t ever yt h in g is in t er m s of x.
ALERT!
Don t forg et to multip ly b y
the p outsid e the integ ra l.
To fin d r(x), ju st dr a w on e sa m ple ver t ica l r ect a n gle on t h e in t er va l. H ow do you fin d

it s h eigh t ? Use t op 2 bot t om like we did in t h e la st sect ion . So, r(x) 5 sin x 2 0.
Accor din g t o ou r for m u la , t h e volu m e of t h e r esu lt in g solid will be
V=
sin 2 x dx
AB st u den t s will h a ve t o u se t h eir ca lcu la t or s t o in t egr a t e t h is, bu t BC st u den t s

p2
or a ppr oxim a t ely 4.935.
sh ou ld be a ble t o do it by h a n d. Th e a n swer is
2
Ex a m p le 2: F in d t h e volu m e of t h e r egion bou n ded by x 5 2y 2 1 4y 2 2 a n d x 5 1

r ot a t ed a bou t t h e lin e x 5 1.
NOTE
The Disk Method is the
sa me for horizonta l
rec ta ng les, exc ep t a a nd b
a re now y end p oints a nd
the ra d ius is in terms of
y, not x.
S o lu tio n : Th is t im e, t h e r ot a t ion a l a xis is ver t ica l, so you h a ve t o u se h or izon t a l

r ect a n gles (wh ich sh ou ld be ver y ea sy, sin ce t h e fu n ct ion is a lr ea dy in t er m s of y). All
you h a ve t o do is fin d a, b, a n d r(y) a n d plu g t h em r igh t in t o t h e for m u la . Th e
en dpoin t s a r e y 5 1 a n d y 5 3 (t h ey h a ve t o be y va lu es). On ce a ga in , you ca n dr a w a
sa m ple r ect a n gle in or der t o fin d t h e r a diu s.
365
.................................................................
(y
3
( y
3
+ 4 y 2 1 dy
8 y 3 + 22 y 2 24 y + 9 dy
y5
22 3
2y4 +
y 12 y 2 + 9 y
3
5
Th e r ot a t ion a l volu m e is
3
1
16p
, wh ich is m u ch pr et t ier a n a n swer t h a n you t h ou gh t it
15
wou ld be, isn t it ?

Som et im es, r ot a t ion a l solids a r en t a ll t h a t solid. Con sider t h e r egion bou n ded by t h e
h or izon t a l lin es y 5 1 a n d y 5 2 on t h e in t er va l [0,3].
If t h is figu r e is r ot a t ed a bou t t h e x-a xis, t h e em pt y spa ce bet ween y 5 0 a n d y 5 1 get s

r ot a t ed, t oo, cr ea t in g a t h r ee-dim en sion a l dou gh n u t . Th e m or e pr a ct ica l-m in ded
m a t h em a t icia n s of t h e da ys of yor e t h ou gh t it looked m or e like a wa sh er (h en ce t h e
n a m e Wash er M eth od ).
..............................................................................................
To fin d len gt h wit h h or izon t a l r ect a n gles, you t a ke r igh t 2 left , so t h e r a diu s is given
by (2y 2 1 4y 2 2) 2 1.
NOTE
You c a n a lso use the
Wa sher Method with y s b y
a d justing the sa me wa y
you d id with the Disk
Method .
Th e Wa sh er Met h od wor ks t h e sa m e wa y a s ca r vin g a pu m pkin for H a lloween . If you

wa n t t o fin d t h e volu m e of a ja ck-o-la n t er n , wh a t wou ld you h a ve t o do? F ir st , you d
h a ve t o fin d t h e volu m e of t h e wh ole pu m pkin (in clu din g pu m pkin gu t s). Secon d,
you d h a ve t o fin d t h e volu m e of t h e h ollowed-ou t spa ce in side t h e pu m pkin a n d
su bt r a ct t h a t fr om t h e or igin a l volu m e (sor t of like t h e sh a ded a r ea pr oblem in t h e
366
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
begin n in g of t h is ch a pt er ). In t h e Wa sh er Met h od, you u se t h e Disk Met h od t wice,

on ce t o fin d t h e over a ll volu m e a n d on ce t o fin d t h e volu m e of t h e h ole.
Th e Wa s h e r Me th o d : Th e r ot a t ion a l volu m e of t h e a r ea bou n ded by t wo fu n ct ion s,
f(x) a n d g(x), on [a,b] if f(x) g(x) on [a,b]) is given by
V =
(( R( x))
(r( x )) dx
2
wh er e R (x) is t h e ou t er r a diu s (t h e r a diu s of t h e ou t er edge of t h e r egion ) a n d r(x) is

t h e in n er r a diu s (t h e r a diu s of t h e h ole of t h e r egion ).
NOTE
Use rec ta ng les
p erp end ic ula r to the
rota tiona l a xis with the
Wa sher Method , just like
you d id with the d isk.
Wa sher 5 p erp end ic ula r.
Rememb er tha t b oth word s
g rowl a t the end (just like
you d o a fter you ea t c hili).
Aga in , t h is m et h od looks in sa n ely difficu lt , bu t it is n ot ba d if you ve been pa yin g

a t t en t ion sin ce t h e begin n in g of t h is ch a pt er.
Ex a m p le 3: F in d t h e volu m e gen er a t ed by r evolvin g t h e a r ea bou n ded by t h e cu r ves
y 5 =x 1 1, x 5 4, a n d y 5 1 a bou t t h e x-a xis.
S o lu tio n : If you r ot a t e t h e given a r ea a r ou n d t h e lin e y 5 1, t h er e is n o h ole in t h e

r ot a t ion a l solid. H owever, sin ce you a r e r evolvin g a r ou n d t h e lin e y 5 0, t h er e is a
ga pin g h ole t h er e.
We a r e u sin g ver t ica l r ect a n ges, sin ce t h e a xis of r evolu t ion (t h e x-a xis) is h or izon t a l.
Not ice t h a t t h e ou t er r a diu s, R (x), r ea ch es fr om t h e a xis of r ot a t ion t o t h e ou t er edge
of t h e r egion . Th e in n er r a diu s, r(x), r ea ch es fr om t h e a xis of r evolu t ion t o t h e ou t er
edge of t h e ga p bet ween t h e r egion a n d t h e a xis. You ca n fin d t h e len gt h of ea ch by
su bt r a ct in g t op 2 bot t om :
R (x) 5
=x 1 1
r(x) 5 1 2 0
367
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Th e bou n da r ies of t h e r egion a r e x 5 0 a n d x 5 4. Th r ow a ll t h ese com pon en t s

t oget h er, a n d you get t h e volu m e a ccor din g t o t h e Wa sh er Met h od:
ALERT!
Don t forg et to sq ua re the
ra d ii in the Disk a nd Wa sher
( x + 1) (1) dx
V = ( ( x + 2 x + 1) (1) ) dx
4
V=
Method s; the formula is

b a sed on pr2, a s you sa w
a t the b eg inning of the
V=
( x + 2 x )dx
sec tion. I forg et to sq ua re
a ll the timed on t let
4
1
V = x 2 + x 3/ 2
3
2
yourself g et into the ha b it.
4
0
32 56
V = 8 + =
3
3
368
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 2

1. F in d t h e volu m e gen er a t ed by r evolvin g t h e a r ea in t h e fir st qu a dr a n t bou n ded by
y 5 x 2 a n d x 5 3 a bou t t h e lin e x 5 3.
2. Tr u e or F a lse: If
f ( x )dx =
g( x )dx , t h en t h e volu m e gen er a t ed by r evolvin g
ea ch of t h ose r egion s a bou t t h e x-a xis is equ a l. Give a n exa m ple t h a t su ppor t s
you r posit ion .
3. If you r ot a t e t h e lin e segm en t below a bou t t h e y-a xis, you get a r igh t cir cu la r con e
1
of h eigh t h a n d r a diu s r. Ver ify t h a t t h e con e h a s a volu m e of pr 2 h .
3
4. F in d t h e volu m e, V, gen er a t ed by r evolvin g t h e r egion bou n ded by y 5 (x 1 2)3 ,

y 5 0, a n d x 5 0 a bou t x 5 1.
5. F in d t h e volu m e, V, gen er a t ed by r evolvin g t h e r egion bou n ded by y 5 t a n x,

p
p
y 5 0, a n d a bou t t h e x-a xis. Th en , fin d t h e va lu e of c on [0, ] su ch t h a t a pla n e
4
4
per pen dicu la r t o t h e x-a xis a t x 5 c divides V exa ct ly in h a lf.
369
.................................................................
Th e len gt h of t h e exa m ple r ect a n gle is given by righ t 2 left, or 3 2

Th er efor e, t h e volu m e is
(3 y )
9
(9 6 y
9
1/ 2
=y.
dy
+ y dy
81
81 108 +
2
27
2
2. Th e pr oblem pr oposes t h a t t wo r egion s of equ a l a r ea r esu lt in t h e sa m e volu m e
on ce r ot a t ed a bou t t h e x-a xis. Th is is fa lse. Con sider t h e t wo r egion s pict u r ed
below, bot h of a r ea 1.
Bot h r evolu t ion s a r e solid disks wit h kn own r a dii a n d h eigh t s, so we ca n a pply
t h e for m u la V 5 pr 2 h t o fin d t h eir volu m es. Th e solid of r evolu t ion gen er a t ed by
r egion A h a s h eigh t 5 1 a n d r a diu s 5 1; t h e volu m e is p. Region B gen er a t es a
exercises
y2 9
9 y 4 y 3/ 2 +
2 0
a nsw ers
1. Beca u se you a r e r evolvin g a bou t a ver t ica l a xis, you n eed t o u se h or izon t a l
r ect a n gles. Wit h su ch r ect a n gles, ever yt h in g m u st be in t er m s of y, so you h a ve t o
r ewr it e y 5 x 2 a s x 5 =y.
..............................................................................................
370
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
NOTE
In p rob lem 3, rememb er
tha t h a nd r a re c onsta nts;
trea t them like numb ers.
disk of h eigh t
1
1
a n d r a diu s 8; it s volu m e will be p z 8 2 z 5 8p. Th e volu m es a r e
8
8
ver y differ en t .
3. To st a r t , you n eed t o fin d t h e equ a t ion of t h a t lin e segm en t . Beca u se it pa sses

h
t h r ou gh (0,0) a n d (r,h ), it h a s slope a n d y-in t er cept 0. Th u s, t h e equ a t ion is
r
h
x
r
y=
H owever, you a r e r evolvin g a bou t a ver t ica l a xis, so t h e r ect a n gles n eed t o be
h or izon t a l, a n d t h e equ a t ion n eeds t o be in t er m s of y:
r
y
h
x=
Th er efor e, t h e volu m e gen er a t ed a ft er r evolu t ion will be
r2 y2
h2
r
y dy
h
dy
You ca n pu ll ou t t h e con st a n t s t o sim plify t h e in t egr a l.
r2
h
y 2 dy
r 2 y3
3
h2
h
0
r 2 h3
3
h2
r2h
3
4. Th is solid of r evolu t ion will h a ve a h ole in it , so you h a ve t o u se t h e Wa sh er

Met h od. Aga in , a ver t ica l a xis of r evolu t ion m ea n s h or izon t a l r ect a n gles. Th er efor e, t h e fu n ct ion m u st be r ewr it t en a s x 5 3 y 2 2. Th e in n er r a diu s (fr om t h e
371
.................................................................
V =
((1
y2
(1) dy
2
V ' 35.186
You m igh t a s well u se you r ca lcu la t or t o fin d t h e a n swer. You sh ou ld kn ow h ow t o
u se t h e F u n da m en t a l Th eor em by n ow.
5. F in a lly, a pr oblem in wh ich we don t h a ve t o con ver t t h e fu n ct ion in t er m s of y!
Ver t ica l r ect a n gles a r e per pen dicu la r t o t h e x-a xis, so t h e volu m e, V, will be
/4
tan 2 x dx
We ca n in t egr a t e t a n 2 x by h a n d if we r epla ce it wit h (sec2 x 2 1) u sin g P a ppa .

H owever, sa ve t im e by u sin g you r ca lcu la t or sin ce it s a llowed on t h is pr oblem .
V ' .6741915533
We wa n t t o fin d a r evolu t ion a r y volu m e t h a t is exa ct ly h a lf of t h a t , so we sh ou ld
set u p t h is equ a t ion :
c
tan 2 x dx =
0
1
.6741915533
2
Un less you h a ve a sym bolic in t egr a t or (like a TI-89), you ll h a ve t o in t egr a t e t h e

left side by h a n d.
c
sec 2 x 1 dx = .3370957767
0
( tan x x )|0 = .3370957767

c
p(t a n c 2 c) 5 .3370957767
(t a n c 2 c) 5 .1073009183
Use you r ca lcu la t or t o solve t h is equ a t ion ; you get
c ' .645
exercises
V=
a nsw ers
..............................................................................................
a xis of r evolu t ion t o t h e ou t side of t h e r egion ) is 1 2 ( 3 y 22), a n d t h e ou t er

r a diu s (fr om t h e a xis of r evolu t ion t o t h e ou t side of t h e h ole) is 1 2 0 5 1.
372
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
THE SHELL METHOD
NOTE
There a re no p la c es on the
AP test in whic h you ha ve
to a p p ly the Shell Method ,
a c c ord ing to the Colleg e
Boa rd . However, the Shell
Method c a n sa ve you time,
so it s g ood to know.
I m u st con fess: I r ea lly don t like ba seba ll a ll t h a t m u ch . I u sed t o love playin g ba seba ll,
bu t wa t ch in g it on t elevision (or even in t h e st a diu m , I a m sa d t o sa y) ju st doesn t cu t it
for m e. A bu n ch of gu ys st a n din g a r ou n d in t igh t pa n t s sou n ds like Br oa dwa y m u sica l
t r you t s. At lea st in foot ba ll, t h e gu ys in t igh t pa n t s a r e t r yin g t o h u r t on e a n ot h er, so we
ca n for give t h e n ot h in g left t o t h e im a gin a t ion a t t ir e.
On e of t h e m or e in t er est in g pieces of m in u t ia e in ba seba ll (wh ich is fa r fr om t r ivia l t o
t h e a vid fa n ) is t h e design a t ed h it t er r u le. You see, t h e Am er ica n Lea gu e a llows
coa ch es t o r epla ce t h e pit ch er s (wh o a r e gen er a lly very poor ba t t er s) wit h ot h er
pla yer s, wh ose on ly job is t o h it for t h e pit ch er in t h e lin eu p. It s a good con cept : a llow
on e per son good a t som et h in g t o st a n d in for som eon e else.
Th e Sh ell Met h od is t h e design a t ed h it t er for ca lcu lu s, a n d t h er es n o deba t e a bou t
wh et h er or n ot it is good for ba seba ll. Wh en t h e Disk or Wa sh er Met h od is h a r d (or
even im possible) t o u se, t h e Sh ell Met h od st eps in a n d h it s on e ou t of t h e pa r k. Th e
Sh ell Met h od doesn t even ca r e if t h e r ot a t ion a l solid h a s a h ole in it or n ot (wh er ea s
t h a t sca r es t h e Disk Met h od off). Th e Sh ell Met h od u ses r ect a n gles t h a t a r e parallel
t o t h e r ot a t ion a l a xis, so it ca n even sa ve you t im e wit h va r ia ble con ver sion s. Th e r u le
it self is a lit t le biza r r e, t h ou gh . I fin d it difficu lt t o visu a lize, so spen d m or e t im e on
m em or izin g a n d a pplyin g it t h a n t r yin g t o figu r e ou t it s pla ce in t h e cosm os.
Th e S h e ll Me th o d : If a r egion is r ot a t ed a bou t a h or izon t a l or ver t ica l a xis on a n
in t er va l [a,b], t h e r esu lt in g volu m e is given by
d ( x ) h ( x ) dx or
f (b)
( ) d ( y )h( y ) dy
f a
Now, you pr oba bly see wh y I ca ll t h is t h e D esign a t ed Hit t er ; it h elps you m em or ize
t h e for m u la . Bu t wh a t do t h e t wo fu n ct ion s st a n d for ?
d (x) is t h e dist a n ce fr om t h e r ot a t ion a l a xis t o a r ect a n gle in t h e r egion .
h (x) is t h e h eigh t of t h a t r ect a n gle.
TIP
Rememb er, in the Shell
Method , the rec ta ng les will
b e p a ra llel to the
rota tiona l a xis.
Ex a m p le 4: Con sider t h e followin g r egion , bou n ded by fu n ct ion s f(x) a n d g(x), t h a t

in t er sect a t x 5 a a n d x 5 b. Wh a t is t h e volu m e of t h is r egion if r ot a t ed a bou t t h e
y-a xis?
373
.................................................................
2 d ( x )h( x ) dx
a
2 x( f ( x ) g( x ))dx
b
Som et im es, st u den t s a r e con fu sed a bou t h ow t o fin d d (x). It s n ot com plica t ed, so don t
get fr u st r a t ed. Th in k a bou t it t h is wa y: If you a r e given t h e gr a ph below a n d a sked t o
give t h e coor din a t es of t h e poin t , h ow wou ld you r espon d?
Th e on ly cor r ect r espon se wou ld be ver y gen er ic: (x,s(x)). In t h is in st a n ce, you a ssign
a n u n kn own h or izon t a l dist a n ce a va lu e of x. Th a t s a ll you r e doin g wit h t h e Sh ell
Met h od. H owever, d (x) is n ot a lwa ys ju st x (or y), a s you ll see in t h e n ext exa m ple.
Ex a m p le 5: Wh a t volu m e r esu lt s if you r ot a t e t h e r egion in t h e fir st qu a dr a n t
1
bou n ded by y 5 x 2 1 1, x 5 1, a n d y 5 1 a bou t t h e lin e y 5 ?
2
S o lu tio n : To begin , br ea t h e deeply, a n d dr a w t h e r egion . Th en , dr a w a da r k r ect a n gle
in t h e r egion pa r a llel t o t h e r ot a t ion a l a xis.
..............................................................................................
S o lu tio n : Th e key t o t h e Sh ell Met h od is dr a win g t h e da r ken ed r ect a n gle in t h e

r egion (wh ich is pa r a llel t o t h e r ot a t ion a l a xis). Th e fu n ct ion d (x) r epr esen t s h ow fa r
t h a t r ect a n gle is fr om t h e y-a xis. We cou ld h a ve dr a wn t h a t r ect a n gle a n ywh er e on t h e
in t er va l, a n d we ca n t be su r e exa ct ly wh er e it is, so we will sa y t h a t it is a dist a n ce of
x a wa y. Th u s, d (x) 5 x. Secon dly, wh a t is t h e h eigh t of t h a t r ect a n gle? You fin d it t h e
sa m e wa y you h a ve a ll ch a pt er : t op 2 bot t om . Th is is h ow h (x) get s it s va lu e, so
h (x) 5 f(x) 2 g(x). Th er efor e, t h e volu m e of t h e in dica t ed r egion is
NOTE
You d o not ha ve to a d just
the Shell Method a t a ll if
the rota tiona l solid ha s a
hole in it. The method
rema ins exa c tly the sa me.
NOTE
You c a n use the Wa sher
Method to solve Exa mp le 5,
b ut we ll use the Shell
Method , sinc e tha t s the
na me of this sec tion.
All of t h e r ect a n gles a r e h or izon t a l n ow, so a ll of t h e equ a t ion s m u st be in t er m s of y.

Th er efor e, you m u st r ewr it e y 5 x 2 1 1 a s x 5 =y 2 1. H ow fa r is t h a t da r ken ed
r ect a n gle fr om t h e x-a xis? Beca u se you don t kn ow exa ct ly, you m u st sa y t h a t it is y
u n it s a wa y. H owever, t h a t s n ot d (y). To fin d it , we n eed t o kn ow h ow fa r t h e r ect a n gle
is fr om t h e rotation al a xis. Beca u se t h e r ect a n gle is y u n it s a bove t h e x-a xis a n d t h e
1
1
r ot a t ion a l a xis is u n it a bove t h e x-a xis, d (y) 5 y 2 . Th is is m u ch ea sier t o visu a lize
2
2
374
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
t h a n t o expla in ; look a t t h e gr a ph a bove for h elp. All you h a ve left t o do is t o det er m in e

t h e va lu e of h (y), t h e h eigh t (or len gt h ) of t h e r ect a n gle. It s len gt h is given by righ t 2
left a n d is h (y) 5 1 2 =y 2 1. Th er efor e, t h e volu m e will be
2
1
2 y 1
1
2
y 1 dy
You ca n m u lt iply t h is ou t a n d in t egr a t e ea ch sepa r a t ely, bu t let s em br a ce ca lcu la t or

t ech n ology for t h e t im e bein g. Th e a n swer is a ppr oxim a t ely 1.676.
Th is is t h e sa m e a n swer you get u sin g t h e Wa sh er Met h od. If you don t believe m e, Ill
1
sh ow you . Th e ou t er r a diu s will be R (x) 5 (x 2 1 1) 2 , a n d t h e in n er r a diu s is r(x) 5
2
1
. Th er efor e, t h e volu m e is
2
2
2
1
1
1
x 2 + dy = 1.676
0
2 2
375
.................................................................
YOU MAY NOT USE A GRAPHING CALCULATOR FOR THESE PROBLEMS.

1. F in d t h e volu m e gen er a t ed by r ot a t in g t h e a r ea in t h e fir st qu a dr a n t bou n ded by
y 5 x 2 a n d x 5 2 a bou t t h e lin e x 5 22. Use t h e Sh ell Met h od.
2. F in d t h e volu m e gen er a t ed by r ot a t in g t h e a r ea bou n ded by y 5
y 5 2 a bou t t h e x-a xis. Use t h e m ost a ppr opr ia t e m et h od.
3. F in d t h e volu m e gen er a t ed by r ot a t in g t h e a r ea bou n ded by y 5
y 5 0 a bou t t h e lin e y 5 23 u sin g t h e
16 x 2 a n d
=x, x 5 4, a n d
(a ) Sh ell Met h od.

(b) Wa sh er Met h od.
4. F in d t h e volu m e gen er a t ed by r ot a t in g t h e a r ea bou n ded by y 5 x 3 1 x 1 1, y 5 0,
a n d x 5 1 a bou t t h e lin e x 5 1, a n d expla in wh y t h e Sh ell Met h od m u st be u sed.

1. F ir st , gr a ph t h e r egion a n d dr a w you r r ect a n gle.
In t h is ca se, d (x) is m or e t h a n ju st x; in fa ct , it is exa ct ly t wo u n it s m or e, so

d (x) 5 x 1 2. E ven ea sier, h (x) 5 x 2 . Th er efor e, t h e volu m e is
( x + 2 )( x 2 ) dx
(x
2
+ 2 x 2 dx
x4 2 3 2
2
+ x
3 0
4
16
56
2 4 + =
3
3
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 3
376
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
2. Th e Sh ell Met h od is n ot you r best bet in t h is pr oblem . You d h a ve t o u se h or izon t a l r ect a n gles, so t h e fu n ct ion wou ld h a ve t o be pu t in t er m s of y, a n d t h e pr oblem
wou ld on ly get m or e com plica t ed fr om t h er e.
Beca u se t h e r ot a t ion a l solid will h a ve a h ole, you ll n eed t o u se t h e Wa sh er
Met h od (wh ich r equ ir es per pen dicu la r r ect a n gles; in t h is ca se, xs). F ir st , you
n eed t o fin d t h e in t er sect ion poin t s of t h e gr a ph s.
16 x 2 = 2
16 2 x 2 5 4
x 2 5 12
x 5 62
R (x) 5
=3
16 x 2 a n d r(x) 5 2; t h er efor e, t h e volu m e is

2 3
(16 x
2 3
((
4 dx
(12 x ) dx
2
) (
24 3 8 3 24 3 + 8 3
))
32 3
3. (a ) Th e Sh ell Met h od will u se h or izon t a l r ect a n gles a n d r equ ir es t h a t you r ewr it e y 5 =x a s x 5 y 2 .
377
.................................................................
( y + 3) ( 4 y2 ) dy
(4 y y
2
3 y 2 + 12 dy
2
y4
2 2 y2
y3 + 12 y |0
4
2p(8 2 4 2 8 + 24) 5 40p

(b) Th e Wa sh er Met h od u ses ver t ica l r ect a n gles a n d t h e fu n ct ion in t er m s of x.
Th e ou t er r a diu s is R (x) 5 =x 2 (23) a n d t h e in n er r a diu s is r(x) 5 0 2 (23).

(
4
2
x + 3 9 dx
x + 6 x dx
0
x2
+ 4 x 3 2 |04
2
(8 + 32 ) = 40
4. E ven t h ou gh t h e solid of r evolu t ion will h a ve n o h ole in it , you ca n n ot u se t h e
Disk Met h od. To do so, you wou ld h a ve t o u se h or izon t a l r ect a n gles a n d pu t t h e
y 5 x 3 1 x 1 1 in t er m s of y, wh ich is im possible (you ca n n ot solve t h a t equ a t ion
for x). Th er efor e, t h e Sh ell Met h od is t h e on ly wa y t o go (sin ce t h a t r equ ir es
ver t ica l r ect a n gles).
exercises
4

0
a nsw ers
..............................................................................................
Ba sed on t h e dia gr a m , d (y) 5 y 1 3 a n d h (y) 5 4 2 y 2 . Th er efor e, t h e volu m e is
378
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Th e dist a n ce fr om t h e a xis of r evolu t ion t o t h e r ect a n gle in t h e r egion is 1 2 x,

a n d t h e h eigh t of t h e r ect a n gle is x 3 1 x 1 1. So, t h e volu m e gen er a t ed will be
1
2 (1 x ) x 3 + x + 1 dx
0
2 x 4 + x 3 x 2 + 1 dx
0
x5 x 4 x3
+
+ x
4
3
5
1
0
1 1 1 43
2 + + 1 =
30
5 4 3
FINDING THE VOLUME OF REGIONS WITH KNOWN

CROSS SECTIONS
Un t il n ow, a ll of ou r r ot a t ion a l solids h a ve h a d cir cu la r cr oss sect ion s. Th is sect ion
discu sses figu r es wh ose cr oss sect ion s a r e, per h a ps, t r ia n gles, squ a r es, or sem icir cles
in st ea d. Th is con cept seem s in cr edibly h a r d u n t il you r ea lize it s in h er en t sim plicit y.
Th is is ju st a n ext en sion of t h e Disk Met h od, a n d n obody h a t es t h e Disk Met h od! E ven
m a n y of t h e m ost evil people t h r ou gh ou t h ist or y h a r bor ed a fon dn ess for t h e Disk
Met h od, a m on g t h em J esse J a m es, Dr a cu la , a n d t h e gu y wh o ca n celed St a r Tr ek.
In or der t o fin d t h e volu m e wit h t h e Disk Met h od, you in t egr a t ed t h e a r ea of on e cr oss
sect ion . Beca u se t h e cr oss sect ion wa s cir cu la r, you in t egr a t ed t h e for m u la for t h e a r ea
of a cir cle (pr 2 ). So, if a n ew pr oblem h a s squ a r es a s cr oss sect ion s in st ea d (for
exa m ple), you will in t egr a t e t h e for m u la for t h e a r ea of a squ a r e (sid e2 ).
Th er e is on e ot h er differ en ce in t h ese t ypes of pr oblem s. Non cir cu la r cr oss sect ion s a r e

n ot t h e r esu lt of a r ot a t ion , a s ever y ot h er pr oblem h a s been so fa r. (You h a ve been
r ot a t in g a bou t t h e x- or y-a xis or a lin e su ch a s x 5 1.) In st ea d, t h ese solids grow ou t
of a base on th e coord in ate plan e in to th e th ird d im en sion . It s n ot a s h a r d a s it sou n ds.
379
.................................................................
y = 9 x2 and y = 9 x2
H er es wh er e you r im a gin a t ion a n d visu a liza t ion com e in t o pla y. Th is cir cle is sor t of
like h ow a pedest a l is a n a logou s t o a st a t u e. A t h r ee-dim en sion a l for m will sit on top
of it a n d com e ou t of you r pa per. Im a gin e t h a t t h e da r ken ed r ect a n gle in t h e figu r e
a bove is t h e bot t om of a squ a r e t h a t is sit t in g on t h e ba se. Th a t is n ot t h e on ly squ a r e,
h owever. Th er e a r e squ a r es a ll a lon g t h e cir cle a t ever y possible ver t ica l r ect a n gle.
Th e r esu lt in g t h r ee-dim en sion a l sh a pe wou ld look som et h in g like t h is:
Ou r job in t h e n ext exa m ple will be t o fin d t h e volu m e of t h is sh a pe.

Ex a m p le 6: If a solid h a s squ a r e cr oss sect ion s per pen dicu la r t o t h e x-a xis a n d h a s a
ba se bou n ded by x 2 1 y 2 5 9, wh a t is t h e volu m e of t h a t solid?
S o lu tio n : We m u st u se ver t ica l r ect a n gles, sin ce t h ey a r e per pen dicu la r t o t h e x-a xis.
As st a t ed ea r lier, a ll we h a ve t o do is t o in t egr a t e t h e for m u la for t h e a r ea of t h e figu r e
in qu est ion . Th e for m u la for t h e a r ea of a squ a r e (wit h side s) is s 2 . Th er efor e, t h e
in t egr a l we u se t o fin d t h e volu m e is
3
3 s
dx
..............................................................................................
Con sider a cir cu la r ba se on t h e coor din a t e a xes wit h equ a t ion x 2 1 y 2 5 9. Th is cir cle
is a ct u a lly m a de u p of t wo fu n ct ion s (if you solve for y):
380
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
(Th e 23 a n d 3 bou n da r ies a r e t h e x-bou n da r ies of t h e r egion .) H ow lon g is on e side of

t h e squ a r e? Well, we kn ow t h a t t h e da r ken ed r ect a n gle in t h e pr ecedin g dia gr a m is
t h e bot t om side of t h e squ a r e, a n d it h a s len gt h top 2 bottom 5
9 x 2 9 x 2 = 2 9 x 2 . Th er efor e, t h e t ot a l volu m e is
2
3
3 (4(9 x
3
9 x 2 dx
))dx
36 x 4 x 3 3 = 144
|
3 3
Th is pr ocess is a lit t le biza r r e, bu t it is ea sy t o lea r n .
3 Steps to Success with Known Cross Sections

Dr a w t h e gr a ph of t h e ba se on t h e coor din a t e pla n e a n d da r ken a sa m ple r ect a n gle on it (be ca r efu l t o dr a w it a s in st r u ct ed, i.e., per pen dicu la r t o t h e x-a xis or
y-a xis).
Det er m in e t h e len gt h of t h a t r ect a n gle a n d wh a t r ela t ion it h a s t o t h e sh a pe of t h e
cr oss sect ion . In t h e pr eviou s exa m ple, t h e r ect a n gle wa s on e of t h e sides of t h e
squ a r es t h a t for m ed t h e cr oss sect ion s.
In t egr a t e t h e for m u la for t h e a r ea of t h e given cr oss sect ion , in ser t in g t h e in form a t ion you h a ve a bou t t h e da r ken ed r ect a n gle. Ma ke su r e t h e bou n da r ies m a t ch
t h e sh a pe of t h e r ect a n gle (e.g., y-bou n da r ies if t h e r ect a n gle is h or izon t a l).
Ex a m p le 7: F in d t h e volu m e of a solid t h a t h a s sem icir cu la r cr oss sect ion s per pen dicu la r t o t h e x-a xis wh ose ba se is bou n ded by t h e gr a ph s of y 5 x 2 a n d y 5 x .
S o lu tio n : Begin by dr a win g t h e ba se. Beca u se t h ese cr oss sect ion s a r e per pen dicu la r
t o t h e x-a xis, we will u se ver t ica l r ect a n gles a n d xs.
381
.................................................................
H owever, it is n eit h er im por t a n t n or u sefu l t o be a ble t o dr a w t h is r egion , so don t

wor r y if you ca n t . Th e da r ken ed r ect a n gle on t h e ba se will h a ve len gt h x x 2 , bu t
wh a t does t h a t len gt h r epr esen t ? If t h e cr oss sect ion s a r e sem icir cles, t h en t h a t m u st
be t h e dia m et er, a n d t h e sem icir cles spr ou t fr om t h er e. If x x 2 is t h e dia m et er,
x x 2 is t h e r a diu s of t h ose sem icir cles. Th a t s im por t a n t beca u se t h e

2
for m u la for t h e a r ea of a sem icir cle is r . P u t a ll t h ese pieces t oget h er t o get t h e
2
t ot a l volu m e:
t h en
1
2
r 2
dx
2
1
r
0
(x 2x
02
1
dx
x x 2 dx
52
+ x 4 dx
x2 4 7 2 x5
x
+
8 2
7
5
1
0
1 4 1 9
+
=
8 2 7 5 560
..............................................................................................
If you a r e cu r iou s, t h e solid looks like t h is:
382
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
NOTE
The a rea of a n eq uila tera l
=3s2.
tria ng le with sid e s is
4
You should memorize tha t if
you d on t know it.
EXERCISE 4
YOU MAY USE A GRAPHING CALCULATOR FOR PART (B) OF EACH PROBLEM.
1. F in d t h e volu m e of t h e solid wh ose ba se is t h e r egion bou n ded by y 5 2 x a n d
y = 12 x t h a t h a s cr oss sect ion s
(a ) t h a t a r e r ect a n gles of h eigh t 3 per pen dicu la r t o t h e x-a xis.
(b) t h a t a r e equ ila t er a l t r ia n gles per pen dicu la r t o t h e y-a xis.
2. F in d t h e volu m e of t h e solid wh ose ba se is a cir cle wit h r a diu s 5 cen t er ed a t t h e

or igin a n d t h a t h a s cr oss sect ion s
NOTE
The a rea of a n ellip se
is pa b .
(a ) t h a t a r e isosceles r igh t t r ia n gles per pen dicu la r t o t h e x-a xis (su ch t h a t t h e

h ypot en u se lies on t h e ba se).
(b) t h a t a r e sem iellipses of h eigh t 2 per pen dicu la r t o t h e x-a xis.

1. (a ) F ir st , we n eed t o fin d t h e poin t s of in t er sect ion .
x =
1
x
2
x2
4
4x x 2 = 0
x = 0, 4
x =
Sin ce t h e cr oss sect ion s a r e r ect a n gles of h eigh t 3, t h e volu m e will be given by
length width dx
1
3 x +
2
x dx
383
.................................................................
2
1
3 x 2 + x 3 2
3
4
|0
16
3 4 +
=4
(b) Th is t im e, you h a ve t o r ewr it e t h e equ a t ion s in t er m s of y (beca u se t h e

r ect a n gles a r e per pen dicu la r t o t h e y-a xis a n d, t h er efor e, h or izon t a l). Th e
fu n ct ion y 5 2 x becom es x 5 y 2 ; y = 12 x becom es x 5 22y. Th e len gt h of
a side of t h e t r ia n gle is given by righ t 2 left 5 22y 2 y 2 . Th er efor e, t h e
volu m e is
0
2
0
3 2
s dy
4
2
3
2 y y 2 dy
4
2. (a ) F ir st of a ll, we n eed t o figu r e ou t h ow t o fin d t h e a r ea of a n isosceles r igh t

t r ia n gle ba sed on t h e len gt h of it s h ypot en u se.
Accor din g t o t h e P yt h a gor ea n Th eor em , 2s 2 5 h 2 . Th er efor e, s =

a r ea of t h e t r ia n gle is 12 bh = 12 s 2. If we su bst it u t e in for s, we get
h
. Th e
2
1 h = 1 h2 = h2
2 2
2 2
4
Now, we ca n in t egr a t e t h is for m u la t o get t h e volu m e of t h e sh a pe, a s soon a s
we figu r e ou t wh a t t h e len gt h of t h e h ypot en u se is.
exercises
You ca n u se you r ca lcu la t or t o fin d t h e volu m e; it is a ppr oxim a t ely .462.
a nsw ers
r ect a n gle, u sin g top 2 bottom .
..............................................................................................
To fin d t h e widt h of t h e r ect a n gle, you ca lcu la t e t h e len gt h of t h e da r ken ed
384
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
NOTE
You c ould a lso ha ve found
the volume for the p ortion
of the b a se from x 5 0 to
x 5 5 a nd d oub led it.
We kn ow t h a t t h e da r ken ed r ect a n gle r epr esen t s a h ypot en u se, a n d it s len gt h

is h 5 top 2 bottom 5
2 25 x 2 . Th er efor e, t h e volu m e is
((
))
2
1 5
2
2
25
x
dx
4 5
1 5
4 25 x 2 dx
4 5
1
4
100 x x 3
4
3
|5
1 1000 1000 500

4 3
3
3
(b) Th is on e is a lit t le t ou gh er t o pict u r e. Th e sem iellipse sh ou ld com e ou t of t h e
ba se som et h in g like t h is:
Th er efor e, t h e da r ken ed r ect a n gle r epr esen t s 2a (wh ich m ea n s
ab
a = 25 x 2 ), a n d b 5 2 (t h e h eigh t ). Th e a r ea of a sem iellipse is 2 , so
t h e volu m e of t h e solid will be
1 5
ab dx
2 5
5
2 25 x 2 dx
25 x 2 dx
Use you r ca lcu la t or t o eva lu a t e t h is defin it e in t egr a l. Th e volu m e will be

a ppr oxim a t ely 123.370.
385
.................................................................
Th e pr a ct ice of fin din g a r c len gt h h a s a lon g a n d st or ied h ist or y, st r et ch in g a ll t h e wa y

ba ck t o Noa h . Of cou r se, h e u sed cu bit s, bu t we ca n u se a n y u n it of m ea su r e. It is
a r gu a ble t h a t Noa h h a d m or e t h in gs on h is m in d, t h ou gh : t h e im pen din g dest r u ct ion of
t h e h u m a n r a ce, en su r in g h is a r k wa s wa t er t igh t , a n d pla cin g la yer u pon la yer of
n ewspa per on t h e floor. All you h a ve t o wor r y a bou t is pa ssin g t h e AP t est , a n d t h e good
n ews is t h a t t h is t opic is ver y ea sy; a ll you h a ve t o do is m em or ize a pa ir of for m u la s
on e for r ect a n gu la r equ a t ion s a n d on e for pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s.
Th e Le n g th o f a Re c ta n g u la r Cu rv e (o r Arc ): If f(x) is a n in t egr a ble fu n ct ion on
[a,b], t h en t h e len gt h of t h e cu r ve fr om a t o b is
1 + ( f ( x )) dx .
2
Th a t s a ll t h er e is t o it . F in d t h e der iva t ive a n d plu g it r igh t in t o t h e for m u la it

cou ldn t be ea sier.
Ex a m p le 8: F in d t h e len gt h of t h e cu r ve y 5 sin x fr om x 5 0 t o x = 3 .
2
S o lu tio n : F ir st , fin d t h e der iva t ive (wh ich is ver y ea sy).
f(x) 5 sin x
f (x) 5 cos x d x
Now, plu g in t o t h e for m u la .
3
2
1 + cos2 x dx
Th is is r ea lly n ot ver y ea sy t o in t egr a t e wit h ou r m et h ods, so u se t h e ca lcu la t or t o

fin ish . Th e a r c (or cu r ve) len gt h is a ppr oxim a t ely 5.730.
..............................................................................................
ARC LENGTH (BC TOPIC ONLY)
NOTE
If the func tion is in terms of
It is ju st a s ea sy t o fin d a r c len gt h wh en you r e dea lin g wit h pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s; in

fa ct , t h e for m u la is ver y sim ila r t o r ect a n gu la r a r c len gt h . Th e on ly less obviou s
differ en ce is t h a t t h e bou n da r ies of t h e defin it e in t egr a l in pa r a m et r ic a r c len gt h a r e
t-va lu es, n ot x or y va lu es.
Th e Le n g th o f a P a ra m e tric Cu rv e (o r Arc ): If a a n d b a r e t-va lu es for a
pa r a m et r ic fu n ct ion , it s len gt h bet ween t h ose t-va lu es is given by
b
2
2
dx + dy dt
dt
dt
Th e h a r dest pa r t of differ en t ia t in g pa r a m et r ic fu n ct ion s is fin din g
dy
. Der ivin g wit h
dx
r espect t o t is so ea sy t h a t it s ju st silly.
y, the formula c a n b e
a d justed . Ma ke sure tha t a
a nd b a re y b ound a ries,
a nd ta ke the d eriva tive
with resp ec t to y
instea d of x.
386
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
TIP
Ma ny of the integ ra ls you
end up with when find ing
a rc leng th a re d iffic ult a nd
ha ve b een ha nd ed q uite a
b ea ting with the ug ly stic k.
Don t exp ec t to b e a b le to
solve them a ll b y ha nd .
Ex a m p le 9: If a pa r t icle m oves a lon g t h e gr a ph defin ed by x 5 cos t a n d y 5 sin t, h ow

fa r does t h e pa r t icle m ove fr om t 5 0 t o t 5 3 ? Ver ify you r r esu lt geom et r ica lly.
4
S o lu tio n : Sin ce t h e pa r t icle m oves a lon g t h e cu r ve, we a r e ju st fin din g t h e len gt h of

t h e cu r ve. Begin by fin din g t h e der iva t ives.
dx
= sin t
x 5 cos t;
dt
dy
= cos t
y 5 sin t;
dt
Now, su bst it u t e t h ese va lu es in t o t h e a r c-len gt h for m u la .
3 / 4
( sin t )2 + ( cos t )2 dt
3 / 4
sin 2 t + cos2 tdt
Accor din g t o t h e Ma m m a Th eor em , t h e con t en t s of t h e r a dica l a r e equ a l t o 1:
NOTE
It s unlikely tha t you will b e
a sked on the AP text to
verify your result
g eometric a lly, a s this
p rob lem d oes. However,
d oing so will help you a s
you lea rn this top ic .
3 / 4
3 / 4
0
dt
= 3 / 4 = 2.356
To ju st ify t h is geom et r ica lly, you m u st r ea lize t h a t t h e pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s r esu lt in

3
3p
r epr esen t s
a cir cle of r a diu s 1 (t h e u n it cir cle, a ct u a lly). Th e a r c len gt h fr om 0 t o
4
8
of t h e cir cu m fer en ce of t h e cir cle.
Th e cir cu m fer en ce of t h e u n it cir cle is
and
2pr 5 2p ' 6.283185307

3
of t h a t t ot a l is 2.35619449; t h is m a t ch es ou r a n swer a bove.
8
387
.................................................................

p
p
1. Wh a t is t h e len gt h of t h e cu r ve y 5 ln (sin x) fr om x 5 t o x 5 ?
4
2
2. F in d t h e a r c len gt h of
y = x 1 fr om x 5 1 t o x 5 3.
3. H ow lon g is t h e cu r ve defin ed by x 5 y 3 24 y 1 2 fr om y 5 21 t o y 5 1?
4. F in d t h e len gt h of t h e pa r a m et r ic cu r ve defin ed by
t 5 1 t o t 5 5.
5. F in d t h e per im et er of t h e ellipse
x2
4
y2
9
x = t + 1 , y 5 t 2 1 t fr om
= 1 u sin g pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s.

1. Begin by fin din g y:
1 cos x = cot x
sin x
y =
Th e a r c len gt h will be
/2
1 + cot 2 xdx
/4
Th e P a ppa Th eor em a llows you t o r epla ce t h e con t en t s of t h e r a dica l wit h csc2 x.
csc 2 xdx
csc x dx
ln csc x + cot x
ln 1 + 0 + ln
ln
2
4
2
+1
2
2
+1
2
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 5
388
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
2. Aga in , fin d t h e der iva t ive fir st .
y =
1
2 x 1
Th e a r c len gt h will be
3
1+
1+
1
dx
4 ( x 1)
1
dx
4x 4
E va lu a t e t h is wit h you r gr a ph in g ca lcu la t or t o get 2.562.
3. E ven t h ou gh ever yt h in g is in t er m s of y, it wou ld be t h e exa ct sa m e pr oblem if

ever y va r ia ble wer e a n x.
1
1 + 3 y 2 4 dy
Th e a r c len gt h will be 6.361.
4. F ir st , fin d t h e der iva t ives wit h r espect t o t:
NOTE
You c ould a lso solve
p rob lem 5 using the
rec ta ng ula r formula for a rc
leng th.
dx
1
=
dt
2 t +1
dy
= 2t + 1
dt
Th e a r c len gt h will be a s follows:
5
1
+ (2t + 1)2 dt 28.025
( 4t + 4 )
5. Th e fir st or der of bu sin ess is t o r ewr it e t h e ellipse in pa r a m et r ic for m . To do t h is,

r em em ber you r Ma m m a .
cos 2 t 1 sin 2 t 5 1
Com pa r e t h a t equ a t ion wit h t h e ellipse in st a n da r d for m .
x 2 y2
+
=1
4
9
y
x
a n d sin t = , a ccor din g t o Ma m m a . Now, solve t h e n ew
2
3
equ a t ion s for x a n d y t o get t h e pa r a m et r ic for m of t h e ellipse:
You ca n set cos t =
x 5 2 cos t, y 5 3sin t
389
.................................................................
( 2 sin t ) + (3 cos t ) dt
2
Th e per im et er is 2 z 11.05174608 5 22.103.
POLAR AREA (BC TOPIC ONLY)

You m a y h a ve won der ed wh y we didn t discu ss pola r a r c len gt h . P er h a ps you a n swer ed
t h a t qu est ion for you r self. Rem em ber, a n y pola r equ a t ion is ea sily expr essed pa r a m et r ica lly u sin g t h e for m u la s x 5 rcos u a n d y 5 rsin u. Th er efor e, fin din g pola r a r c len gt h
equ a t es t o fin din g pa r a m et r ic a r c len gt h . H owever, you will n eed t o be a ble t o ca lcu la t e
t h e a r ea en closed by pola r cu r ves. Sm ilet h is is t h e la st you will see of pa r a m et r ic a n d
pola r equ a t ion s for t h e AP t est . P ola r a r ea isn t h a r d, bu t it is differ en t , a n d it will t a ke
a m om en t or so t o get u sed t o.
1
2
a r
Well st a r t wit h a n ea sy exa m ple a n d dip ou r t oes in t o t h e swim m in g pool. On ce you

see h ow good t h e wa t er feels, you won t m in d divin g r igh t in .
Ex a m p le 10: Sh ow t h a t t h e a r ea of a qu a r t er cir cle of r a diu s 2 equ a ls p u sin g
pola r a r ea .
S o lu tio n : A cir cle is qu it e ea sy t o expr ess in pola r for m ; a cir cle of r a diu s 2 is ju st t h e
equ a t ion r 5 2. Sin ce we a r e t r yin g t o fin d t h e a r ea of a qu a r t er cir cle, you h a ve t o fin d
t h e a r ea of t h e cir cle in on e of t h e qu a dr a n t s. F or sim plicit ys sa ke, let s ch oose t h e
fir st qu a dr a n t .
exercises
No self-r espect in g ca lcu lu s t opic com es wit h ou t a for m u la t o despa ir over a n d u lt im a t ely m em or ize. Th e for m u la for pola r a r ea is differ en t fr om a ll pr eviou s a r ea
for m u la s, beca u se it is n ot ba sed on r ect a n gles. In st ea d, pola r a r ea u ses a n in fin it e
n u m ber of sect or s t o fin d a r ea . A sector is a h u n k of cir cle; for exa m ple, a piece of pie
2
is a sect or of t h e en t ir e pie. Th e a r ea of a sect or of a cir cle is given by r , bu t sin ce
2
we a r e u sin g a n in fin it e n u m ber of us t o ca lcu la t e exa ct a r ea , we r epla ce u wit h d u.
Th er efor e, t h e for m u la for t h e a r ea bou n ded bet ween r a dia l lin es u 5 a a n d u 5 b is
a nsw ers
..............................................................................................
Th e ellipse is dr a wn com plet ely fr om t 5 0 t o t 5 2p, so you ca n u se t h ose va lu es

t o bou n d t h e defin it e in t egr a l. H owever, exa ct ly h a lf of t h e in t egr a l is dr a wn fr om
t 5 0 t o t 5 p, so let s eva lu a t e t h a t in t egr a l a n d dou ble it (for a ch a n ge of pa ce).
Bot h a n swer s will be t h e sa m e.
390
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Ou r a r ea for m u la su m s t h e a r ea s of t h e lit t le sect or s in t h e fir st qu a dr a n t wit h t h e

for m u la
1
2
2
0 (2) d
In t egr a t e a n d a pply t h e F u n da m en t a l Th eor em t o get
1
4
2 ( )
|0
1 (2 ) =
2
You see, t h a t s n ot so ba d. Let s t r y a sh a ded-r egion pr oblem t o u p t h e a n t e a lit t le. To

solve it , you ll h a ve t o fin d t h e a r ea of t h e ou t er por t ion a n d su bt r a ct t h e in n er. You
ca n u se you r ca lcu la t or wit h n o sh a m e on t h is exa m ple.
Ex a m p le 11: F in d t h e sh a ded a r ea in t h e gr a ph below of r 5 2 1 3 cos u.
S o lu tio n : F ir st of a ll, we sh ou ld fin d wh er e t h e gr a ph in t er sect s t h e pole (or igin ).

2 1 3cos u 5 0
Set you r ca lcu la t or t o r ect a n gu la r m ode for a m om en t t o solve t h is equ a t ion . Th e

a n swer s a r e u 5 2.300523983 a n d u 5 3.982661324. Th is is t h e m ea t of t h e pr oblem .
As u goes fr om 0 t o 2.300523983, t h e t op of t h e gr a ph is dr a wn exclu d in g th e in n er
loop. As u goes fr om 2.300523983 t o 3.982661324, t h e in n er loop is dr a wn . F in a lly,
fr om 3.982661324 t o 2p, t h e bot t om of t h e gr a ph is dr a wn , a ga in exclu din g t h e in n er
loop.
Th er efor e, we ca n get t h e a r ea of t h e r equ est ed r egion by dou blin g t h e left a r ea a bove

a n d t h en su bt r a ct in g t h e m iddle a r ea . (Th e r igh t m ost a r ea is exa ct ly t h e sa m e a s t h e
391
.................................................................
1
2
2
2.300523983
3.982661324
( 2 + 3 cos ) 2 d 2 2.300523893 ( 2 + 3 cos ) 2 d
Th e a r ea is a ppr oxim a t ely 25.822.

Th e fin a l pola r a r ea pr oblem you ca n expect fr om t h e AP t est con cer n s fin din g t h e
a r ea bou n ded by m u lt iple fu n ct ion s. Th ese pr oblem s a r e n o m or e difficu lt if you dr a w
a gr a ph fir st a n d pr oceed ver y ca r efu lly.
Ex a m p le 12: F in d t h e a r ea bou n ded by t h e gr a ph s r 5 3 sin u a n d r 5 1 1 cos u.
S o lu tio n : F ir st , we sh ou ld det er m in e t h e va lu e of u a t wh ich t h e gr a ph s in t er sect .
3 sin u 5 1 1 cos u
3 sin u 2 cos u 2 1 5 0
u 5 .6435011088
Th is is t h e im por t a n t st ep: t h e sh a ded r egion a bove is defin ed by 3 sin u fr om u 5 0 t o

u 5 .6435011088; h owever, fr om u 5 .6435011088 t o u 5 p, t h e sh a ded r egion is
bou n ded by 1 1 cos u.
Th er efor e, t h e a r ea will be t h e su m of t h ose t wo sm a ller r egion s.
1
2
.6435011088
(3 sin )
d +
1
2
(1 + cos )
.6435011088
Th e t ot a l a r ea (plea se u se a ca lcu la t or !) is a ppr oxim a t ely 1.521.
..............................................................................................
left m ost a r ea , sin ce t h e equ a t ion is sym m et r ic a bou t t h e x-a xis.) Th er efor e, t h e
a n swer will be
392
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 6

1. F in d t h e a r ea bou n ded by r 5 22sin u.
2. F in d t h e a r ea in t h e secon d qu a dr a n t bou n ded by r 5 cos u 1 sin u.
3. F in d t h e a r ea en closed by t h e gr a ph of r 5 cos 2u.
4. F in d t h e a r ea of t h e r egion bou n ded by r 5 2 1 cos u a n d r 5 2.
5. F in d t h e a r ea bou n ded by r 5 3 2 2sin u a n d r 5 4cos u.

1. Th e en t ir e gr a ph is dr a wn fr om = 0 t o = . If you ca lcu la t e t h e a r ea fr om 0 t o
2p, you r a n swer will be t wo t im es t oo big.
Ot h er t h a n t h a t , t h e set u p is ver y ea sy:

1
( 2 sin )2 d =
2 0
Th is is sim ila r t o E xa m ple 10, sin ce bot h pr oblem s boil down t o fin din g t h e a r ea
of a cir cle wit h r a diu s 1.
2. Th e r a dia l lin es t h a t bou n d t h e por t ion in t h e secon d qu a dr a n t a r e = (wh ich

2
3
. Th e secon d va lu e m a kes r 5 0 (sin ce t h e sin e a n d
m a kes sen se) a n d =
4
3p
a r e opposit es), wh ich is t h e in t er sect ion a t t h e pole m a r kin g t h e en d
cosin e of
4
of t h e r egion s pr esen ce in t h e secon d qu a dr a n t .
393
.................................................................
1
2
3 4
( cos + sin ) 2 d
2
2
2 ( cos + 2 sin cos + sin )d
3 4
1
2
2
2
2 ( cos + sin + sin 2)d
3 4
1
2
3 4
(1 + sin 2 ) d
Th a t wa s fa n t a st ica Ma m m a su bst it u t ion an d a t r igon om et r ic su bst it u t ion .

You ca n in t egr a t e t h is (u sin g u -su bst it u t ion for sin 2u) a s follows:
1
1
cos 2
2
2
3 4
2
1 3 1

2 4
2 2
1 1
2 4 2
3. Th e best wa y t o a ppr oa ch t h is pr oblem is t o ca lcu la t e t h e a r ea of on e of t h e pet a ls
a n d m u lt iply it by 4. Th is gr a ph is sym m et r ic in ju st a bou t ever y possible wa y, so
t h a t m a kes it a lit t le ea sier. Th e pet a l sh a ded below is bou n ded by t h e r a dia l lin es
3p
p
.
u 5 and u 5
4
4
It s a r ea is
1
2
3 4
cos 2 2 d
exercises
It s n ot a pr et t y a n swer, bu t ca lcu lu s a in t a bea u t y con t est .
a nsw ers
1
2
..............................................................................................
To fin d t h e a r ea , u se t h e for m u la a n d m u lt iply t h e squ a r ed t er m ou t . Ma m m a will

m a ke a r et u r n a ppea r a n ce!
394
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
In or der t o in t egr a t e t h is, you ll h a ve t o u se a power-r edu ct ion for m u la .
1
2
1
4
NOTE
The p ower red uc tion
formula for c os2 2u 5
1 + cos 2~2u!
.
2
1 1
2 + 2 cos 4 d
3 4
3 4
d +
1
16
3 4
cos u du
1 1
+ (0) =
4 2 16
8
Th er e a r e 4 pet a ls, so t h e fin a l a n swer is 4 z

=
8 2
4. Th e r egion in com m on is con st r u ct ed, a s sh own in t h e dia gr a m below.
1
2
3 2
( 2 + cos ) 2 d + 2 2 4 d
Use you r ca lcu la t or t o eva lu a t e a n d su m t h e defin it e in t egr a ls t o get t h e a ppr oxim a t e a r ea of 9.352.
5. F ir st , fin d t h e in t er sect ion poin t s of t h e t wo gr a ph s, a n d be very carefu l th eres

m ore h ere th an m eets th e eye.
3 2 2sin u 2 4cos u 5 0
u 5 1.299129483 5 A, u 5 5.911351042 5 B
F or t h e sa ke of n ot wr it in g decim a ls u n t il ou r eyes fa ll ou t , well u se A a n d B

in st ea d of t h e giga n t ic decim a l in t er sect ion va lu es. Wh a t ca u ses t r ou ble h er e is
t h e cir cle. It will a ct u a lly pa ss t h r ou gh poin t s A a n d B tw ice, sin ce it dr a ws it s
gr a ph com plet ely fr om u 5 0 t o u 5 p. So, t h e cir cle a ct u a lly h it s A wh en u 5 A
an d wh en u 5 A 1 p. Use you r ca lcu la t or t o con vin ce you r self t h a t t h is is t r u e!
395
.................................................................
1
2
( 4 cos ) 2 d
(3 2 sin ) 2 d
Th e on ly t r ickyB in t egr a l is t h e secon d on e. If you t r y t o r epr esen t t h a t a r ea wit h

t h e in t egr a l
( 4 cos ) 2 d , you will be t r a cin g t h e en t ir e cir cle a n ext r a t im e.
A
Ma ke su r e t h a t you t a ke t h e speed wit h wh ich t h e gr a ph dr a ws in t o a ccou n t . You
n eed t o kn ow t h e exa ct va lu es of u for th at specific graph t h a t bou n d t h e r egion .
Wh en you a dd t h e t h r ee in t egr a ls, you get 2.496741051 1 3.494545773 1
2.116617352 ' 8.108.
exercises
1
2
(3 2 sin ) 2 d
a nsw ers
1
2
..............................................................................................
Th e cir cle will h it B wh en u 5 B an d wh en u 5 B 2 p. Below a r e t h e in t egr a ls

t h a t m a ke u p t h e a r ea (t h er e a r e 3) a n d a gr a ph of t h e por t ion of t h e sh a ded
r egion t h ey r epr esen t .
396
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
TECHNOLOGY: USING YOUR CALCULATOR EFFICIENTLY

By n ow, you kn ow t h e fou r m a jor ca lcu la t or pr oficien cies you n eed for t h e AP t est :
gr a ph in g, fin din g r oot s (solvin g equ a t ion s), eva lu a t in g n u m er ic der iva t ives, a n d eva lu a t in g defin it e in t egr a ls. H owever, you m a y n ot be u sin g a ll of t h e ca lcu la t or s fea t u r es.
Rem em ber, t h e AP t est is a h igh -st r ess sit u a t ion a n d is gover n ed by st r ict t im e
con st r a in t syou wa n t t h e ca lcu la t or t o do a s m u ch a s possible for you .
Ta ke, for in st a n ce, pr oblem 5 fr om t h e la st pr oblem set . (E ven t h ou gh it is a BC
pr oblem , t h e skills a pply t o AB st u den t s a s well.) You sh ou ld be u sin g you r ca lcu la t or
t o ser ve t wo m a jor pu r poses: fin din g t h e poin t of in t er sect ion a n d t h en eva lu a t in g
t h r ee defin it e in t egr a ls. You a lr ea dy kn ow h ow t o fin d t h e solu t ion s t o t h e equ a t ion
3 2 2sin u 2 4cos u 5 0
bu t h er es a good t ip. On ce you fin d a r oot , pr ess [Clea r ] t wice t o r et u r n t o t h e h om e

scr een (you ca n a lso u se [2 n d ][Mode], wh ich is t h e [Qu it ] bu t t on ). If you pr ess [X,T,u]
a n d [E n t er ], t h e ca lcu la t or gives you t h e r oot a n d sh ows m or e decim a l pla ces t h a n it
did on t h e gr a ph scr een . Now pr ess [St o] a n d t h en [Alph a ][Ma t h ] (t h e [A] bu t t on ).
Th is st or es t h a t r oot a s t h e va r ia ble A in t h e ca lcu la t or s m em or y; t h is wa y, a n y t im e

you n eed t h a t n u m ber, you ca n sim ply u se A in st ea d of t ypin g it ou t . F ollow t h e
pr ocess a ga in , a n d st or e t h e ot h er r oot t o B .
Now, let s sh or t en t h e pr ocess of con st a n t ly t ypin g t h e equ a t ion s in a s we fin d defin it e

in t egr a ls. If you h a ven t a lr ea dy, swit ch t o pola r m ode a n d gr a ph t h e t wo equ a t ion s:
r 1 5 3 2 2sin u a n d r 2 5 4cos u. Look h ow m u ch ea sier it is t o eva lu a t e t h e secon d,
t r ou blesom e in t egr a l fr om t h a t pr oblem wh en you u se ca lcu la t or sh or t cu t s:
1 B
(4 cos )2 d
A
2
397
.................................................................
Look h ow m u ch t im e you sa ve wh en ca lcu la t in g t h e fin a l in t egr a l if you em ploy a ll

t h ese sh or t cu t s:
Th ese m et h ods h elp elim in a t e t h e er r or s of m ist ypin g a n d h elp you con cen t r a t e on t h e
bu sin ess a t h a n dpa ssin g t h a t AP t est .
..............................................................................................
In st ea d of t ypin g t h e lim it s of in t egr a t ion , ju st u se t h e va r ia bles we defin ed. In st ea d

of t ypin g (4cos u)2 , ju st u se r 2 2 . On ce you t ype a n equ a t ion in t o t h e Y5 (or r5)
scr een , you ca n a ccess t h ose equ a t ion s by pr essin g [Va r s]Y-va r s. To get r 2 , you
t h en select P ola r... r 2 . If you a r e a n AB st u den t , you will u se on ly t h e Y5
scr een , a n d a ll t h ese equ a t ion s a r e fou n d u n der [Va r s]Y-va r sF u n ct ion ....
398
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 7

1. If r egion A is bou n ded by
y=
3 a n d y 5 2x 1 4, fin d
x
(a ) t h e a r ea of A.
(b) t h e volu m e gen er a t ed wh en A is r ot a t ed a bou t t h e y-a xis u sin g both th e
Wash er an d S h ell M eth od s.
(c ) t h e volu m e of t h e solid wit h ba se A t h a t h a s isosceles r igh t t r ia n gu la r cr oss
sect ion s wit h h ypot en u ses per pen dicu la r t o t h e x-a xis.
2. P r ove t h a t t h e volu m e of a sph er e wit h r a diu s r is 4 r 3.

3
3. If r egion B is bou n ded by y 5 2=x 1 2 a n d y 5 1, fin d

(a ) t h e a r ea of B .
(b) t h e volu m e gen er a t ed by r ot a t in g B a bou t t h e y-a xis.
(c ) t h e volu m e gen er a t ed wh en B is r ot a t ed a bou t t h e lin e y 5 21 u sin g both
th e Wash er an d S h ell M eth od s.
*4. If r egion C is bou n ded by t h e pola r cu r ve r 5 sin u cos u, fin d

(a ) t h e a r ea of C.
(b) t h e per im et er of C.
*5. F in d t h e per im et er of t h e r egion bou n ded by x 5 y 2 2 y 2 2 a n d t h e y-a xis.

6. J a m e s D ia bo lic a l Ch a lle n g e : A m a ch in e pa r t is m a de fr om a n a lloy t h a t cost s
$130 per cm 3 . Th e ba se of t h e pa r t is bou n ded by t h e a r ea bet ween t h e fu n ct ion s
y 5 x a n d y 5 x 2 (x is m ea su r ed in cm ). Th e pa r t ca n be m a de u sin g eit h er
sem icir cu la r or equ ila t er a l t r ia n gu la r cr oss sect ion s (per pen dicu la r t o t h e x-a xis).
Wh ich m et h od is less expen sive?
*a B C-on ly qu estion

1. (a ) Th e a r ea is t h e defin it e in t egr a l of top 2 bottom wit h x-bou n da r ies r eflect in g
t h eir in t er sect ion .
399
.................................................................
)dx
x2
2 + 4 x 3 ln x
4 2 ln 27
3
1
(b) S h ell M eth od : Beca u se you a r e r ot a t in g a bou t a ver t ica l a xis, you u se ver t ica l
r ect a n gles wit h t h e Sh ell Met h od. No va r ia bles n eed t o be con ver t edyou
u se xs.
3
3
2 x x + 4 dx
1
x
3
2 x 2 + 4 x 3 dx
1
x3
+ 2 x 2 3x
3
3
1
4 8
=
3
3
Wash er M eth od : You n eed t o con ver t t h e equ a t ion s so t h a t t h ey a r e in t er m s of

y: x 5 4 2 y,
x=
of t h e in t er sect ion , wh ich a r e exa ct ly t h e sa m e a s t h e xs. Th e ou t er r a diu s

will be R (x) 5 (4 2 y), a n d t h e in n er r a diu s is
3
r( x ) =
3
y .
2
3
( 4 y) dy
1
y
16 8 y + y 2 9 y 2 dy
1
16 y 4 y 2 +
y3 9
+
3 y
3
1
1 8
24 21 + =
3
3
exercises
3
y . Th e bou n da r ies of in t egr a t ion a r e n ow t h e y-bou n da r ies
a nsw ers
1 ( x + 4 3x
..............................................................................................
Th e a r ea will be
400
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
(c ) In t h e pr oblem set for kn own cr oss sect ion s, we fou n d t h a t t h e a r ea of a n

2
isosceles r igh t t r ia n gle is h4 , if h is t h e h ypot en u se. Th e len gt h of ea ch
h ypot en u se will be h 5 2x 1 4 2 3x 21 . Th er efor e, t h e volu m e is
1 3
1 2
4
3
x
+
+
x
dx
4 1
1 3 2
24 9
x 8 x + 22
+
dx
4 1
x x2
1 x3
9
4 x 2 + 22 x 24 ln x x
4 3
3
1
1
28
1 80
36 24 ln 3 = 24 ln 3
4
3 4 3
2. To cr ea t e a sph er e of you r ver y own , you n eed t o r ot a t e a sem icir cle. A cir cle
cen t er ed a t t h e or igin h a s equ a t ion x 2 1 y 2 5 r 2 . Solvin g for y gives you a
sem icir cle equ a t ion of
pr odu ces a sph er e.
y = r 2 x 2 . Wh en r ot a t ed a bou t t h e x-a xis, t h is gr a ph
Use t h e Disk Met h od t o fin d t h e volu m e.
r2 x2
) dx
2
Rem em ber t h a t r is a con st a n t , so t r ea t it a s you wou ld a n y n u m ber a s you

com plet e t h e pr oblem .
r 2 x 2 )dx
(
r
r 2 x
x3
3
Now, plu g r a n d 2r in t o t h e expr ession in pla ce of x (ju st a s you h a ve a lwa ys don e

wit h t h e F u n da m en t a l Th eor em ).
3 r3 3 r3
r r +
3
3
(4r )
3
401
.................................................................
x + 2 1 dx
( x
1
12
+ 1 dx
1
2 32
x + x 0
3
1
2
2 +1=
3
3
(b) Th er e is n o h ole in t h e r ot a t ion a l solid, so you ca n u se t h e Disk Met h od. To do
so, h owever, you h a ve t o pu t ever yt h in g in t er m s of y, sin ce t h e Disk Met h od
r equ ir es h or izon t a l r ect a n gles in t h is ca se. (You ca n u se t h e Sh ell Met h od,
a n d you will get t h e sa m e t h in g.)
x 5 (y 2 2)2
Now t h a t t h e equ a t ion is in t er m s of y, u se y bou n da r ies a n d com plet e t h e
in t egr a t ion t o fin d volu m e.
(( y 2) ) dy
2 2
( y 2) dy
4
Set u 5 y 2 2, a n d t h is is a sim ple u -su bst it u t ion pr oblem .
( y 2 )5 2
= 5
5
1
exercises
=x 1 2
y 2 2 5 =x
y5
a nsw ers
0 (
..............................................................................................
3. (a ) Th e a r ea is top 2 bottom wit h x-bou n da r y lim it s.
402
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
(c ) S h ell M eth od : You m u st u se h or izon t a l r ect a n gles (sin ce t h ey a r e pa r a llel t o

y 5 21), a n d ever yt h in g m u st be in t er m s of y.
( y + 1)[ ( y 2)]
1
dy
2 y3 3 y 2 + 4 dy
1
y4
2 y3 + 4 y |12
4
2 4 1 + 4
4
3 3
=
4
2
Wash er M eth od : Th e wa sh er s will be in t er m s of x (sin ce h or izon t a l r ect a n gles

a r e per pen dicu la r t o t h e ver t ica l a xis of r ot a t ion ).
403
.................................................................
x 6 x1/ 2 + 5 dx
0
x2
4 x 3 /2 + 5 x
1
3
4 + 5 =
2
2
4. (a ) Th is gr a ph h a s fou r dist in ct pet a ls t h a t a r e fr a m ed by r a dia l lin es u 5 0,
p
u 5 , u 5 p, u 5 = 32 , a n d u 5 2p.
2
1
2
2
2
0 (cos sin )d
2
Th e a r ea of t h e sin gle pet a l is .0981747704, so t h e t ot a l a r ea is a ppr oxim a t ely .393.

(b) Wh en fin din g t h e per im et er of t h e r egion , you a r e t ech n ica lly fin din g t h e a r c
len gt h of it s bou n din g fu n ct ion . To fin d pola r a r c len gt h , you m u st fir st
con ver t t o pa r a m et r ic for m by u sin g x 5 r cos u a n d y 5 r sin u:
x 5 cos 2 u sin u, y 5 sin 2 u cos u
Now, t a ke t h e der iva t ive of ea ch wit h r espect t o t h e pa r a m et er (wh ich is u
in st ea d of t in t h is pr oblem .)
dx
5 22cos u sin 2 u 1 cos 3 u
d
dy
5 2sin u cos 2 u 2 sin 3 u
d
exercises
Beca u se of t h e gr a ph s sym m et r y, we ca n fin d t h e a r ea of t h e pet a l in t h e fir st

qu a dr a n t a n d m u lt iply it by 4.
a nsw ers
1
2
x + 3 2 2 dx
0
..............................................................................................
Th e ou t er r a diu s is R (x) 5 2=x 1 3, a n d t h e in n er r a diu s is r(x) 5 2.
404
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Now, plu g t h ese bot h in t o t h e for m u la

2
dx
dy
+ d
d
d
You r e cr a zy if you don t u se you r ca lcu la t or. Type it in very ca r efu lly. H er es
wh a t it sh ou ld look like:
Th e t ot a l per im et er is fou r t im es t h a t a n swer, wh ich is a ppr oxim a t ely 4.844.
5. Aga in , you fin d t h e per im et er by ca lcu la t in g t h e a r c len gt h of t h e bou n da r ies.
To fin d t h e len gt h of t h e left bou n da r y, you h a ve t o u se t h e for m u la

b
dx
1 + dy
dy
Th e der iva t ive (wit h r espect t o y, sin ce t h e expr ession is in t er m s of y) is

x 5 2y 2 1. Th er efor e, t h e a r c len gt h is
2
1 + (2 y 1) dy
2
4 y 2 4 y + 2 dy 5.653
Th er efor e, t h e t ot a l per im et er is 5.653 1 3 5 8.653.
405
.................................................................
S em icircle cross section s

2
Th e a r ea of a sem icir cle is r , a n d t h e da r k r ect a n gle wou ld r epr esen t a
2
2
dia m et er of t h e sem icir cle. Th er efor e, x x wou ld be it s r a diu s. Now, in t egr a t e
2
t h e for m u la for t h e a r ea of a sem icir cle, su bst it u t in g in t h e r a diu s.
r 2
dx
2
(x x )
2
2
0 ( x x ) dx
dx
Th e volu m e is .0130899694, so t h e cost of t h e pa r t wou ld be a ppr oxim a t ely $1.70.

E qu ilateral trian gle cross section s
Th e a r ea of a n equ ila t er a l t r ia n gle is
will be
3 2, so t h e volu m e of t h is m a ch in e pa r t
4 s
3 1
2 2
x
x
dx .0144337567
4 0
Th e r esu lt a n t cost for t h e pa r t is $1.87. Th er efor e, t h e pa r t wit h t h e sem icir cle
cr oss sect ion s is ch ea per.
exercises
a nsw ers
Th e len gt h of t h e r ect a n gle is x 2 x 2 , a n d t h e r egion h a s x-bou n da r ies 0 a n d 1.

Use t h is in for m a t ion t o fin d t h e cr oss-sect ion a l volu m es sepa r a t ely.
..............................................................................................
6. Begin by dr a win g t h e bou n ded r egion a n d a da r ken ed r ect a n gle on it per pen dicu la r t o t h e x-a xis.
406
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
SUMMING IT UP
J u st a s der iva t ives h a ve a pplica t ion s su ch a s r ela t ed r a t es a n d opt im iza t ion ,

in t egr a t in g h a s it s own a pplica t ion , wh ich is pr im a r ily con cer n ed wit h fin din g
a r ea a n d volu m e gen er a t ed by gr a ph s.
Rem em ber, in t h e Sh ell Met h od, t h e r ect a n gles will be pa r a llel t o t h e r ot a t ion a l
a xis.
Th e best m et h od t o u se in r ot a t ion a l solid volu m es is on e t h a t r equ ir es t h e lea st

a m ou n t of con ver sion .
Th e fou r m a jor ca lcu la t or pr oficien cies you n eed for t h e t est a r e
Gr a ph in g
F in din g r oot s (solvin g equ a t ion s)
E va lu a t in g n u m er ic der iva t ives

E va lu a t in g defin it e in t egr a ls
Differentia l Eq ua tions
....................................................................................
Ha nds-On Activity 10.1: Sepa ra tion of va ria bles

Ha nds-On Activity 10.2: Slope fields
Eulers method (BC topic only)
Exponentia l growth a nd deca y
Logistic growth (BC topic only)
Technology: A differentia l equa tions ca lcula tor progra m
Summing it up
A d ifferen tial equ ation is sim ply a n equ a t ion t h a t con t a in s a der iva t ive. You r
t ypica l goa l in a differ en t ia l equ a t ion pr oblem is t o fin d t h e equ a t ion t h a t h a s
t h e given der iva t ive; in ot h er wor ds, you a r e t r yin g t o fin d a n a n t ider iva t ive.
H ow is t h is differ en t fr om t h e in t egr a ls you h a ve been fin din g u n t il n ow? Well,
it s n ot ver y differ en t a t a ll. You will be u sin g a ll of you r in t egr a t ion t ech n iqu es t o fin d pa r t icu la r solu t ion s (n o 1 C) u sin g t h e m et h od of separation of
variables. H owever, t h e va st m a jor it y of differ en t ia l equ a t ion s in t h e r ea l
wor ld ca n n ot be solved u sin g t h is m et h od. We will t h en fu r t h er exa m in e t h ose
solu t ion s u sin g slope field s a n d E u lers M eth od . F in a lly, we will look a t som e
a pplica t ion s of differ en t ia l equ a t ion s in expon en tial a n d logarith m ic grow th .
Aft er wer e don e, well go get a n ice cr ea m con e, a n d Ill bu y you t h a t pon y
you ve a lwa ys wa n t ed.
HANDS-ON ACTIVITY 10.1: SEPARATION OF

VARIABLES
E ven t h ou gh t h e st u dy of differ en t ia l equ a t ion s is com plex, you a r e on ly
r equ ir ed t o kn ow a n d u n der st a n d t h e ea siest of a ll m et h ods for solvin g t h em
sepa r a t ion of va r ia bles. Th e n a m e sa ys it a ll, a n d you ve a lr ea dy per for m ed a ll
t h e t a sks t h a t a r e in volved in t h e pr ocess. Th er efor e, t h is sect ion r epr esen t s a
n ew t opic wit h n ot h in g su bst a n t ia lly n ew t o lea r n (I love t h ose kin ds of t opics).
1. Wh a t a bou t t h e equ a t ion
x
dy
5 2 m a kes it a d ifferen tial equ ation ?
dx
y
407
c ha p ter 10
OVERVIEW
408
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
x
2. You r goa l will be t o fin d a n equ a t ion (in t h e for m y 5 f(x)) wh ose der iva t ive is 2 .
y
Wh y ca n t you sim ply in t egr a t e r igh t a wa y? Wh a t m a kes t h is equ a t ion differ en t
dy
4
= 3 , wh ich you ca n in t egr a t e r igh t a wa y?
fr om t h e equ a t ion
dx
x
3. Th is t opic is ver y sim ila r t o a differ en t ia t ion t opic for t h e r ea son you cit ed in
n u m ber 2. Wh a t is t h e n a m e of t h a t t opic, a n d wh y is it sim ila r ?
x
dy
= 2 , you m u st sepa r a t e t h e va r ia bles (pu t a ll t h e ys
dx
y
on on e side a n d t h e xs on t h e ot h er ). H ow ca n you a ccom plish t h is in ou r
equ a t ion ?
4. Befor e you ca n in t egr a t e
5. Go a h ea d a n d sepa r a t e t h e va r ia bles u sin g t h e m et h od you n a m ed in n u m ber 4.

Now, you sh ou ld be a ble t o in t egr a t e bot h sides of t h e equ a t ion sepa r a t ely.
In t egr a t e, r em em ber in g t o in clu de a C for a n y con st a n t . Wh a t geom et r ic sh a pe is
t h e solu t ion t o t h e differ en t ia l equ a t ion ?
6. Th e a n swer we h a ve is ver y gen er a l (beca u se of t h e C). Wh a t if you kn ew t h a t t h e

solu t ion cu r ve pa ssed t h r ou gh t h e poin t (0,3)? Given t h is in for m a t ion , wh a t
wou ld you r solu t ion be?
2
2
7. Let s t r y a n ew differ en t ia l equ a t ion dy = x + x y . Sepa r a t e t h e va r ia bles, a n d
3
dx
in t egr a t e bot h sides sepa r a t ely.
8. You r y expr ession en ds u p con t a in ed in a n a t u r a l log. In su ch ca ses, it is pr efer r ed

t o solve t h e equ a t ion for y, n ot ln y. Solve for y.
9. If you kn ew t h a t t h e pa r t icu la r solu t ion you wer e lookin g for sa t isfied t h e

con dit ion y(3) 5 5, wh a t is C, a n d wh a t is t h e solu t ion t o t h e differ en t ia l
equ a t ion ?
Cha pter 10: Differentia l Equa tions
409
.................................................................
TIP
1. It con t a in s a der iva t ive.

2.
..............................................................................................
Even thoug h you c ould
dy
x
= con t a in s bot h xs a n d ys; u n t il n ow, a ll of ou r in t egr a ls h a ve con t a in ed
dx
y
ju st xs.
3. Th is is sim ila r t o im plicit differ en t ia t ion ; t h ose expr ession s con t a in ed bot h xs
a n d ys a n d t h u s r equ ir ed a differ en t m et h od.
ha ve g roup ed the 2 with

the y, it s b etter to lea ve it
(a nd a ny c onsta nts a
p rob lem mig ht ha ve) on
the sid e with the x s; this
ma kes solving for y ea sier,
4. Sepa r a t ion ca n be a ccom plish ed in t h is pr oblem by cr oss-m u lt iplyin g. Th a t m a y

n ot wor k for a ll pr oblem s, bu t sepa r a t ion is u su a lly a ch ieved t h r ou gh ver y sim ple
m et h ods (see n u m ber 7).
5. Cr oss-m u lt iplyin g gives you
yd y 5 2xd x
ydy = xdx
y2
x2
=
+C
2
2
Mu lt iply ever yt h in g by 2 a n d m ove t h e x t er m t o get
x2 1 y2 5 C
Th er efor e, t h e solu t ion t o t h e differ en t ia l equ a t ion is a cir cle. (Oft en , solu t ion s
a r e wr it t en solved for y, bu t in t h is ca se, t h e a n swer is m or e clea r ly a cir cle wh en
you lea ve it in st a n da r d for m for a cir cle. E it h er wa y, h owever, t h e a n swer is
r igh t .)
6. P lu g in t h e x 5 0 a n d y 5 3, sin ce t h ese va lu es (if on t h e gr a ph ) m u st m a ke t h e
equ a t ion t r u e.
2
a nd most d ifferentia l
eq ua tion solutions a re in
tha t form.
TIP
This is not the sa me C a s in
0 13 5C
the p revious step it just
C59
Now t h a t we kn ow t h e specific va lu e for C, we ca n plu g it in t o t h e solu t ion :
x2 1 y2 5 9
ind ic a tes a n a rb itra ry

numb er. Some textb ooks
use d ifferent c onsta nts
So, t h is specific solu t ion is a cir cle of r a diu s 3.
ea c h time b ec a use of this,

b ut tha t s sillyjust
7. Begin by fa ct or in g t h e x 2 ou t of t h e n u m er a t or.
rememb er tha t C mig ht
dy x (1 + y)
=
dx
3
2
never b e the sa me numb er.
Divide bot h sides by (1 1 y), a n d m u lt iply bot h sides by d x t o sepa r a t e t h e

va r ia bles.
dy
x2
dx
=
1+ y
3
410
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Rewriting e
NOTE
S D
x3
9 +C
x3
a s e 9 z ec
is the sa me thing a s
rewriting x7 5 x512 5 x5 z x2.
NOTE
When you a re g iven a
p oint va lue a nd c a n find C
in a d ifferentia l eq ua tion,
the resulting solution is
c a lled a p a rtic ula r solution,
sinc e it is only one of ma ny
p ossib le solutions if no p oint
va lues were ind ic a ted .
Not ice h ow t h e con st a n t st a ys wit h t h e x t er m s so t h a t you ca n solve for y m or e

ea sily. Now, in t egr a t e bot h sides.
ln y + 1 =
x3
+C
9
8. To solve for y, r a ise e t o t h e power of bot h sides t o get

x3
9
+C
y +1 = e
x3
You ca n r ewr it e t h e r igh t side of t h e equ a t ion a s e 9 e c (u sin g pr oper t ies of
expon en t s), a n d eC is ju st a n ot h er con st a n t , wh ich you ca n t h en wr it e a s C. Th is
gives you
y + 1 = Ce
y = Ce
x3
9
x3
9
9. y(3) 5 5 m ea n s t h a t plu ggin g a va lu e of 3 in t o t h e equ a t ion (for x) gives a n ou t pu t

of 5; it s sim ila r t o sa yin g f(3) 5 5. If t h a t con fu ses you , r em em ber t h a t y(3) 5 5
m ea n s t h e poin t (3,5) is on t h e gr a ph . E it h er wa y, plu g in x 5 3 a n d y 5 5 in or der
t o fin d C.
5 5 Ce27/9 2 1
6 5 Ce3
C=
6
e3
Th er efor e, t h e solu t ion t o t h is differ en t ia l equ a t ion is
6
y=
e
e3
y = 6 e 3 e
x3
9
x3
9
1 or
1 = 6 e
x3
411
.................................................................
DO NOT USE A CALCULATOR TO SOLVE THE FOLLOWING.
y
1. F in d t h e pa r t icu la r solu t ion t o dy =
t h a t sa t isfies t h e con dit ion t h a t
dx 16 + x 2
y(0) 5 1.
2. Wh a t fu n ct ion h a s der iva t ive f (x) 5 ex csc y a n d pa sses t h r ou gh t h e or igin ?
3. In som e ca ses, t h e r a t e of ch a n ge of a qu a n t it y is pr opor t ion a l t o t h e qu a n t it y
it self. Th is is wr it t en a s
dy
= ky
dt
wh er e y is t h e qu a n t it y a n d k is t h e pr opor t ion a lit y con st a n t . Wh a t is t h e gen er a l
solu t ion t o t h is ver y im por t a n t differ en t ia l equ a t ion ?
4. A pa r t icle m oves a lon g t h e x-a xis wit h a cceler a t ion a t t im e t given by a(t) 5 3t.
F in d t h e fu n ct ion descr ibin g t h e pa r t icles posit ion if it t r a vels a t a r a t e of 2 ft /sec
wh en t 5 0 a n d is 3 feet t o t h e r igh t of t h e or igin wh en t 5 1.
5. If a ba ll is t h r own u pwa r d a n d r ea ch es it s m a xim u m h eigh t wh en t 5 2 secon ds,
a n swer t h e followin g qu est ion s:
(a ) Give t h e fu n ct ion r epr esen t in g t h e ba lls velocity.
(b) If t h e ba ll is 85 feet off t h e gr ou n d wh en t 5 1.5 secon ds, wh a t is t h e
posit ion fu n ct ion for t h e ba ll?

1. Divide bot h sides by
y , a n d m u lt iply by d x t o sepa r a t e t h e va r ia bles.
dy
= dx
y 16 + x 2
1 2
dy =
dx
16 + x 2
2 y = 1 arctan x + C
4
y = 1 arctan x + C
8
Now, plu g in t h e given va lu es for x a n d y, a n d you fin d (ea sily) t h a t C 5 1.

Th er efor e, t h e pa r t icu la r solu t ion is
x
1
arctan + 1
8
y=
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 1
412
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
NOTE
Your solution to p rob lem 3 is
the found a tion for the
sec tion on exp onentia l
g rowth a nd d ec a y, where
a ll the q ua ntities in q uestion
ha ve the p rop erty p rob lem
3 d esc rib es.
2. Begin by r ewr it in g t h e equ a t ion like t h is:
dy
ex
=
dx sin y
Now, cr oss-m u lt iplyin g will sepa r a t e t h e va r ia bles.
sin y dy = e
dx
2cos y 5 e 1 C
y 5 a r ccos (2ex 1 C)
Now, plu g in t h e poin t (0,0).
cos (0) 5 cos (a r ccos (21 1 C))
21 1 C 5 1
C52
x
Th e fin a l a n swer is y 5 a r ccos (2e 1 2).
3. Divide bot h sides by y, a n d m u lt iply t h em by d t t o get t h e n ecessa r y sepa r a t ion .

Rem em ber t h a t k is a con st a n t .
NOTE
When you multip ly b y a
neg a tive, you d on t ha ve
to write 2 C , sinc e C
c ould a lrea d y b e neg a tive!
It s a mystery numb er
for now.
dy
= k dt
y
ln y = kt + C
e
e
ln y
ln y
= e kt + C
= e kt e c
y 5 Cek t
4. (a ) Th e in t egr a l of a cceler a t ion is velocit y, a n d we kn ow t h a t v(0) 5 2. So, fin d t h e

a n t ider iva t ive of a(t), a n d plu g in t h e given in for m a t ion .
v(t ) = 3t dt
v( t ) =
v(0)=
3 2
t +C
2
3 2
0
+C =2
2
C52
3
Th er efor e, t h e equ a t ion for velocit y is v(t) 5 t 2 1 2. In or der t o fin d posit ion ,
2
in t egr a t e a ga in , a n d u se t h e fa ct t h a t s(1) 5 3.
3
s(t ) = t 2 + 2 dt
2
s( t ) =
1 3
t + 2t + C
2
413
.................................................................
Th er efor e, t h e posit ion equ a t ion is s(t ) =
1 3
1
t + 2t + .
2
2
5. (a ) Rem em ber t h a t t h e equ a t ion for pr oject ile posit ion is s(t) 5 216t 2 1 v 0 t 1 h 0 ,
wh er e v 0 is t h e in it ia l velocit y a n d h 0 is t h e in it ia l h eigh t . You a r e lookin g for
t h e velocit y equ a t ion , so t a ke t h e der iva t ive:
v(t) 5 232t 1 v 0
Th e ba ll r ea ch es it s m a xim u m h eigh t wh en t 5 2. Th er efor e, t h e der iva t ive
m u st equ a l 0 wh en t 5 2. Th is a llows you t o fin d v 0 .
v(2) 5 232(2) 1 C 5 0
C 5 64
Th er efor e, t h e velocit y equ a t ion is v(t) 5 232t 1 64.
(b) To fin d posit ion , in t egr a t e velocit y, a n d u se t h e fa ct t h a t s(1.5) 5 85.
s (t ) =
( 32t + 64 ) dt
s(t) 5 216t 2 1 64t 1 C

s(1.5) 5 236 1 96 1 C 5 85
C 5 25
s(t) 5 216t 2 1 64t 1 25
HANDS-ON ACTIVITY 10.2: SLOPE FIELDS

Slope fields sou n d like da n ger ou s pla ces t o pla y soccer bu t a r e, in st ea d, h a n dy wa ys t o
visu a lize differ en t ia l equ a t ion s. Rem em ber ba ck in t h e sect ion on lin ea r a ppr oxim a t ion s wh en we discu ssed t h e fa ct t h a t a der iva t ive h a s va lu es ver y close t o it s or igin a l
fu n ct ion a t t h e poin t of t a n gen cy? Wh en t h a t fa ct m a n ifest s it self a ll over t h e coor din a t e pla n e, it s t r u ly som et h in g t o beh old. So, you d bet t er be h oldin g on t o som et h in g
wh en you u n der t a ke t h is a ct ivit y.
dy
x
1. Let s r et u r n t o t h e fir st differ en t ia l equ a t ion fr om a ct ivit y 10.1:
= . Wh a t
dx
y
exa ct ly does t h is equ a t ion t ell you a bou t t h e gen er a l solu t ion ?
dy
x
= con t a in ed t h e poin t (0,1), wh a t cou ld you det er m in e
dx
y
a bou t t h e gr a ph of t h e solu t ion a t t h a t poin t ?
2. If t h e solu t ion t o
3. Wh a t wou ld t h e t a n gen t lin e t o t h e solu t ion gr a ph look like a t t h e poin t (22,0)?
exercises
Th er efor e, t h e posit ion equ a t ion for t h e ba ll is
a nsw ers
1
+2+C=3
2
1
C=
2
..............................................................................................
s(1) =
414
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
4. Ca lcu la t e t h e slopes a t a ll of t h e poin t s in dica t ed on t h e a xes below, a n d dr a w a

sm a ll lin e segm en t wit h t h e cor r ect slope. Th e slope a t poin t (0,1) h a s a lr ea dy
been dr a wn a s a n exa m ple.
dy
x
= (a ccor din g t o ou r wor k in t h e la st ch a pt er ) wa s
dx
y
x 2 1 y 2 5 C. H ow does t h e solu t ion r ela t e t o t h e dr a win g you m a de in pr oblem 4?
5. Th e gen er a l solu t ion t o
6. Wh a t is t h e pu r pose of a slope field?
dy
x
7. Dr a w t h e pa r t icu la r solu t ion t o
= t h a t pa sses t h r ou gh t h e poin t (2,0) on
dx
y
t h e slope field a bove.
8. Dr a w t h e slope field for dy 5 2x 2 y on t h e a xes below.

dx
9. Use t h e slope field t o dr a w a n a ppr oxim a t e solu t ion gr a ph t h a t con t a in s t h e poin t

1 , 1 .
2 2
10. F in d t h e pa r t icu la r solu t ion t o dy 5 2x 2 y t h a t con t a in s 1 , 1 u sin g sepa r a t ion
2 2
dx
of va r ia bles.
11. Use you r ca lcu la t or t o dr a w t h e gr a ph of t h e pa r t icu la r solu t ion you fou n d in

pr oblem 10. It sh ou ld look a lot like t h e gr a ph you dr ew in pr oblem 9.
415
.................................................................
N ote: All slope fields in t h e solu t ion a r e dr a wn wit h a com pu t er a n d h en ce wit h m or e

pr ecision t h a n in t h e exer cises. You r slope fields sh ou ld look sim ila r, t h ou gh n ot a s
det a iled. See t h e t ech n ology sect ion a t t h e en d of t h is ch a pt er for a pr ogr a m t o h elp you
dr a w slope fields wit h you r TI-83.
1. It t ells you t h e slope, dy , of t h e t a n gen t lin es t o t h e solu t ion gr a ph a t a ll poin t s
dx
(x,y).
2. You wou ld kn ow t h a t t h e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e t o t h e gr a ph a t (0,1) wou ld be
dy
0
= = 0 . Th e gr a ph wou ld h a ve a h or izon t a l t a n gen t lin e t h er e.
dx
1
3. Th e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e (a lso ca lled t h e slope of th e solu tion cu rve it self) is
dy 2
= , wh ich is u n defin ed. Th er efor e, t h e t a n gen t lin e t h er e is ver t ica l (sin ce a
dx 0
ver t ica l lin e h a s a n u n defin ed slope).
4. All you h a ve t o do is plu g ea ch (x,y) poin t in t o dy t o get t h e slope. Dr a w a sm a ll
dx
lin e segm en t wit h a ppr oxim a t ely t h a t slope. It doesn t h a ve t o be exa ct , bu t a
1
slope of sh ou ld be m u ch sh a llower t h a n a slope of 2.
2
5. Th e t a n gen t segm en t s in t h e slope field t r a ce ou t t h e cir cu la r sh a pe of t h e

solu t ion gr a ph . Rem em ber t h a t a t a n gen t lin e h a s va lu es ver y close t o it s or igin a l
gr a ph n ea r t h e poin t of t a n gen cy. So, if we dr a w n ot h in g bu t lit t le t a n gen t lin es so
sm a ll t h a t a ll t h e poin t s on t h e segm en t a r e close t o t h e poin t of t a n gen cy, t h e
r esu lt looks like t h e solu t ion gr a ph .
6. A slope field gives you a ba sic idea of t h e sh a pe of t h e solu t ion gr a ph .
7. Th e pa r t icu la r solu t ion will be a cir cle cen t er ed a t t h e or igin wit h r a diu s 2.
..............................................................................................
416
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
NOTE
The slop e field a c tua lly
looks like a ll the c irc les
c entered a t the orig in;
tha t s b ec a use a slop e field
d oesn t know the va lue
of C, so it d ra ws a ll
p ossib le c irc les.
8.
9.
10. Divide by y a n d m u lt iply by d x t o sepa r a t e va r ia bles.
dy
= 2 x 2 dx
y
ln y =
y=
To fin d C, plu g in t h e poin t
S D
2x3
+C
3
2x3
Ce 3
1 1
2 ,
.
2 2
1
= Ce 1 / 12
2
1
C = e1 / 12
2
3
1 / 12
2x
Th e fin a l (u n sim plified) solu t ion is y = e
e 3 .
2
417
.................................................................
DO NOT USE A CALCULATOR FOR ANY OF THESE PROBLEMS.

1. Sket ch t h e slope field of dy 5 2x 2 1 y.
dx
2. (a ) Dr a w t h e slope field for dy = y + xy .
dx
x
(b) F in d t h e solu t ion of t h e differ en t ia l equ a t ion t h a t pa sses t h r ou gh t h e poin t
(1,2e).
x
3. (a ) Use t h e slope field of f (x) 5
t o dr a w a n a ppr oxim a t e gr a ph of f(x) if
y
f(22) 5 0.
(b) F in d f(x) specified in 3(a ).
4. E xpla in h ow t h e slope field of dy 5 3x 2 descr ibes it s gen er a l solu t ion .
dx
5. Wh ich of t h e followin g differ en t ia l equ a t ion s h a s t h e slope field below?
(A)
dy
5x2y
dx
(B )
dy
=
dx
(C)
dy
5 2xy
dx
(D )
dy 2 x
=
dx
y
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 2
418
.................................................................
..............................................................................................

1. All kin ds of weir d st u ff h a ppen s close t o t h e or igin . P lot en ou gh poin t s so t h a t you
ca n see wh a t s goin g on . Rem em ber, a ll you h a ve t o do is plu g in an y poin t s (x,y)
dy
; t h e r esu lt is t h e slope of t h e lin e segm en t you
in t o t h e differ en t ia l equ a t ion
dx
sh ou ld dr a w a t t h a t poin t .
2. (a )
(b) Solve t h e differ en t ia l equ a t ion u sin g sepa r a t ion of va r ia bles. You ll h a ve t o
fa ct or a y ou t of t h e n u m er a t or t o do so.
dy y(1 + x )
=
dx
dx
x
dy
1+ x
=
dx
y
x
dy
= ( x 1 + 1)dx
y
ln y = ln x + x + C
e ln y = e ln x e x e c
y = Cxe x
419
.................................................................
C52
Th er efor e, t h e solu t ion is y 5 2xex . If you gr a ph it u sin g you r ca lcu la t or
(a lt h ou gh t h e pr oblem doesn t a sk you t o do so), you ll see t h a t it fit s t h e slope
field per fect ly.
3. (a ) Th is slope field sor t of looks like t h e big-ba n g t h eor yever yt h in g is explodin g

ou t of t h e or igin . Th e solu t ion ju st scr ea m s, I a m a h yper bola ! Love m e!
Accept m e! Tell m e t h a t I a m h a n dsom e!
dy
x
=
dx
y
ydy = xdx
y2 x 2
=
+C
2
2
y2 5 x2 1 C
Now, fin d t h e C (Ca spia n ).
0541C
C 5 24
exercises
(b) It s t h e r even ge of sepa r a t ion of va r ia bles. In fa ct , t h is pr oblem is ver y sim ila r

x
dy
5 2 . Begin by cr osst o t h e equ a t ion a ll of u s a r e gr owin g t ir ed of:
dx
y
m u lt iplyin g.
a nsw ers
2e 5 C(1)e
..............................................................................................
Now, plu g in t h e poin t (1,2e).
420
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
All t h a t r em a in s is t o plu g in ever yt h in g. Rem em ber t h a t t h e st a n da r d for m

for a h yber bola a lwa ys equ a ls 1.
y 2 2 x 2 5 24
2
x2 y
=1
4
4
Th is is t h e equ a t ion of t h e h yber bola in pa r t 3(a ).
4. E lem en t a r y in t egr a t ion t ells you t h a t if

for
dy
5 3x 2 , t h en y 5 x 3 1 C. Th e slope field
dx
dy
5 3x 2 ou t lin es t h e fa m ily of cu r ves y 5 x 3 1 C.
dx
5. If you dr ew a ll fou r slope fields, you wa st ed va lu a ble t im e; if t h is wer e t h e AP

t est , you d h a ve wa st ed five pr eciou s m in u t es on a ver y sim ple qu est ion in
disgu ise. Look a t t h e defin in g ch a r a ct er ist ic of t h e slope field: it h a s h or izon t a l
t a n gen t s all alon g th e x- a n d y-a xes. In ot h er wor ds, if eit h er t h e x-coor din a t e of
dy
equ a ls 0. Th a t is on ly
t h e poin t is 0 or t h e y-coor din a t e of t h e poin t is 0, t h en
dx
t r u e for on e of t h e fou r ch oices: (C). F or exa m ple, ch oice (D) is u n defin ed a t poin t s
t h a t h a ve y 5 0; ch oices (A) a n d (B) won t h a ve h or izon t a l t a n gen t s a n ywh er e
except for t h e or igin .
NOTE
Euler is p ronounc ed oiler,
not youler.
EULERS METHOD (BC TOPIC ONLY)

If you cou ld solve a ll differ en t ia l equ a t ion s u sin g sepa r a t ion of va r ia bles, t h e wor ld
wou ld be a m u ch h a ppier pla ce. H owever, on ly a ver y sm a ll por t ion of differ en t ia l
equ a t ion s ca n be solved t h a t wa y. Th er e a r e a slew of ot h er m et h ods you d h a ve t o lea r n
t o becom e Su pr em e Ru ler of Differ en t ia l E qu a t ion s, bu t lu ckily you don t h a ve t o. E n t er
E u ler, fa m ou s Swiss m a t h em a t icia n , a n d h is m et h od of fin din g approxim ate solu t ion s t o
n on in t egr a ble differ en t ia l equ a t ion s. E ven t h ou gh E u lers M eth od on ly u ses t a n gen t
lin es a n d is qu it e sim ple in pr em ise, you ca n u se it t o fin d a n a ppr oxim a t e a n swer t o a
differ en t ia l equ a t ion .
Befor e we dive in t o E u ler s Met h od, we n eed t o focu s on on e sim ple con cept . Let s sa y
1
12
a n d con t a in s poin t (1,0). If you st a r t a t t h e poin t a n d go u n it
t h a t a lin e h a s slope
7
2
t o t h e r igh t , h ow m a n y u n it s m u st you go u p t o st a y on t h e lin e? Wh a t y-coor din a t e
com plet es t h e poin t on t h e followin g pa ge?
421
.................................................................
Dy 5 m z Dx
In ou r lin e pr oblem , t h e slope is
1
12
, a n d t h e ch a n ge in x (Dx) fr om (1,0) is . P lu g t h ese
7
2
va lu es in t o t h e n ew for m u la .
y =
S D
12 1 6
=
7 2 7
12
1 6
,
a n d poin t (1,0). If
Th is t ells you t h a t t h e poin t
is a lso on t h e lin e wit h slope
2 7
7
6
1
you wen t u n it r igh t of (1,0), you d h a ve t o go u n it u p t o st a y on t h e lin e. Th is is a
2
7
ver y im por t a n t pa r t of E u ler s Met h od, a lt h ou gh m ost t ext books do n ot expla in wh a t
it m ea n s or wh y it is so im por t a n t . Now, let s m a p ou t t h e goa l of E u ler s Met h od.
A t ypica l differ en t ia l equ a t ion con t a in s a der iva t ive a n d a poin t t h r ou gh wh ich t h e
solu t ion gr a ph pa sses. We will fin d t h e slope, m 1 , of t h e t a n gen t lin e a t t h a t st a r t in g
poin t . Th en , we will t r a vel a fixed dist a n ce r igh t or left (Dx) a n d u se t h e m et h od a bove
t o fin d t h e cor r espon din g Dy. Ba sica lly, we a r e fin din g a n ot h er poin t on t h e t a n gen t
lin e we ju st dr ew.
..............................................................................................
Believe it or n ot , t h e a n swer is qu it e ea sy. Ta ke t h e slope for m u la t h a t you ve u sed

y
sin ce elem en t a r y a lgebr a : m 5 x . Solve it for Dy.
TIP
You will use your c a lc ula tor
a lot in Euler s Method .
Althoug h you should lea rn
to d o the p roc ess b y ha nd ,
you c a n use the c a lc ula tor
p rog ra m in the b a c k of this
c ha p ter to c hec k your
work.
Th is wor ks beca u se a t a n gen t lin e h a s va lu es close t o t h e gr a ph it s t a n gen t t o (a r ou n d

t h e poin t of t a n gen cy). On ce we fin d t h a t n ew poin t , we r epea t t h e pr ocess a n d fin d yet
a n ot h er poin t u n t il we r ea ch ou r a ppr oxim a t ion . Th e pr oblem will t ypica lly t ell you
h ow m a n y st eps you sh ou ld t a ke t o r ea ch t h e solu t ion , a n d (ju st like in t egr a t ion ) t h e
sm a ller t h e st eps you t a ke, t h e m or e a ccu r a t e you r a n swer. Th is pr oba bly sou n ds ver y
com plica t ed, bu t it s qu it e ea sy. H ow m a n y licks does it t a ke t o get t o t h e Toot sie-Roll
cen t er of E u ler s Met h od? Let s fin d ou t .
422
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Ex a m p le 1: Use E u ler s Met h od t o a ppr oxim a t e y(1) if
st eps of len gt h Dx 5 .5 wh en fin din g t h e solu t ion .
x
dy
5 2 a n d y(0) 5 3. Use t wo
dx
y
S o lu tio n : Th is is t h e sa m e differ en t ia l equ a t ion we h a ve seen n u m er ou s t im es n ow.

We a lr ea dy kn ow t h a t it s solu t ion is a cir cle wit h r a diu s 3, bu t let s pr et en d we don t ,
sin ce m ost differ en t ia l equ a t ion s u sin g E u ler s Met h od will n ot be solva ble. We will
h a ve t o r epea t t h e m et h od t wo t im es, on ce wh en x 5 .5 a n d on ce wh en x 5 1 (sin ce we
1
a r e t a kin g t wo st eps of len gt h a lon g t h e x-a xis fr om x 5 0 t o x 5 1, a s t h e pr oblem
2
in dica t es).
Wh a t is t h e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e t o t h e solu t ion cu r ve a t (0,3)? P lu g t h e va lu es
dy
in t o :
dx
dy
0
52 50
dx
3
1
1
u n it t o t h e r igh t a lon g t h e t a n gen t lin e (sin ce Dx 5 ); in or der t o st a y
2
2
on t h e lin e (sin ce it is h or izon t a l), we sh ou ld m ove n eit h er u p n or down . Ou r n ew poin t
1
will be ( ,3). It s sor t of like t igh t r ope wa lkin g t owa r d t h e solu t ion t h e t igh t r ope is
2
1
h or izon t a l, a n d we edge ou r wa y u n it t o t h e r igh t a lon g t h e h igh wir e a n d st op t h er e.
2
We will m ove
1
Now, r epea t t h e pr ocess wit h t h e poin t ( ,3). Th e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e h er e will be
2
1
dy
1
522
=
dx
3
6
1
Aga in , we will m ove u n it t o t h e r igh t a lon g t h is n ew t a n gen t lin e. H owever, h ow
2
m u ch sh ou ld we go u p or down t o st a y on t h e n ew t a n gen t lin e? Use t h e for m u la fr om
t h e begin n in g of t h e sect ion .
Dy 5 m z Dx
1 1
1
Dy 5 =
6 2
12
423
.................................................................
Ou r a ppr oxim a t ion for f(1) is
35
. Sin ce we a lr ea dy kn ow t h e a ct u a l solu t ion of t h e
12
differ en t ia l equ a t ion is x 2 1 y 2 5 9, we ca n fin d t h e a ct u a l solu t ion of =8 '

35
is a ppr oxim a t ely 2.916667, so t h e a ppr oxim a t ion h a s
2.828427. Ou r est im a t e
12
a n er r or of .08824.
SD
H a d we u sed m or e t h a n t wo st eps (wh ich m ea n s a sm a ller Dx) in E xa m ple 1, t h e

a n swer wou ld h a ve been even m or e a ccu r a t e. In t h e n ext exa m ple, well u se fou r st eps
t o t r a vel t h e sa m e dist a n ce. F u r t h er m or e, you won t be a ble t o solve E xa m ple 2 by
sepa r a t ion of va r ia bles. You ll be ou t in t h e wild, u n t a m ed for est wit h on ly on e
wea pon E u ler s Met h od. Ma ke su r e you kn ow h ow t o u se it !
dy
5 x 2 y
Ex a m p le 2: Appr oxim a t e t h e va lu e of y(2) for t h e differ en t ia l equ a t ion
dx
1
u sin g fou r st eps of len gt h Dx 5 , given t h a t t h e poin t (1,2) is on t h e solu t ion cu r ve.
4
S o lu tio n : We will h a ve t o r epea t t h e pr ocess fou r t im es. If you wa n t t o u se decim a ls
in st ea d of fr a ct ion s, t h a t s oka y, bu t r em em ber n ot t o r ou n d off u n t il t h e ver y en d.
H owever, fr a ct ion s will give you t h e exa ct a n swer a n d don t be sh y a bou t you r
ca lcu la t or s a bilit y t o a dd, su bt r a ct , a n d m u lt iply fr a ct ion s fa st er t h a n you ca n .
Poin t (1,2): Th e slope of t h e lin e t a n gen t t o t h e solu t ion is
Th e cor r espon din g Dy will be
dy
5 x 2 y 5 1 2 2 5 21.
dx
1
1
y = ( 1) =
4
4
1
1 5 7
Th e n ew poin t will be 1 + , 2 = , .
4
4
4 4
5 7 dy = 5 7 = 1 . Th e cor r espon din g Dy will be
Poin t , :
4 4 dx 4 4
2
1 1
1
y = =
2 4
8
5 1 7 1 3 13
Th e n ew poin t will be + , = , .
4 4 4 8
2 8
..............................................................................................
1 35
1 1
Th er efor e, t h e n ew poin t is + , 3 = 1, , a n d wer e fin ish ed.
2 2
12
12
424
.................................................................
..............................................................................................

Poin t , :
2 8
dx 2 8
8
1 1
1
y = =
8 4
32
3 1 13 1 = 7 , 51 .
Th e n ew poin t will be + ,
2 4 8 32 4 32

Poin t , :
4 32 dx 4 32 32
5
5
1
=
Dy 5
32 4
128
Th e n ew poin t will be
209
' 1.633.
y(2) 5
128
S DS D
DS D
5
209
7 1 51
+ ,
+
= 2,
. Th er efor e, you r a ppr oxim a t ion of
4 4 32 128
128
Th er e you h a ve it E u ler s Met h od is qu it e m ech a n ica l, a n d besides t h e u gly fr a ct ion s

a n d/or decim a ls, it is a ver y h a n dy wa y t o a ppr oxim a t e solu t ion s t o differ en t ia l
equ a t ion s t h a t we, a s elem en t a r y ca lcu lu s st u den t s, ca n solve n o ot h er wa y.
425
.................................................................
YOU MAY USE A GRAPHING CALCULATOR TO SIMPLIFY YOUR ARITHMETIC FOR ALL
PROBLEMS, BUT DONT USE THE EULERS METHOD CALCULATOR PROGRAM UNTIL
PROBLEM 4.
1. Use E u ler s Met h od t o a ppr oxim a t e y(6) for
dy 1
= given t h a t y(5) 5 2. Use t h r ee
dx x
1
st eps of size Dx 5 .
3
2. (a ) If t h e poin t s (1,3) a n d (4,c) a r e on t h e solu t ion gr a ph t o dy = x + y , a ppr oxidx
x
m a t e c u sin g E u ler s Met h od a n d t h r ee st eps of len gt h Dx 5 1.
(b) Wh a t lim it a t ion s a r e eviden t in t h is a ppr oxim a t ion ?
dy
1
5 axy (wh er e a is a r ea l
3. (a ) Use E u ler s Met h od t o a ppr oxim a t e y(2 ) for
2
dx
1
n u m ber ) if y(0) 5 22. Use t wo st eps of len gt h Dx 5 .
4
(b) Wh a t is t h e er r or on you r a ppr oxim a t ion if a 5 3?
dy
5 y 2 given t h a t y(21)
dx
5 1. F ill ou t t h e ch a r t below; it will h elp or ga n ize you r in for m a t ion .
4. Appr oxim a t e y(0) u sin g 10 st eps of len gt h Dx 5 .1 for
5. Give a n exa m ple of a differ en t ia l equ a t ion for wh ich E u ler s Met h od gives t h e
exact va lu e r a t h er t h a n ju st a n a ppr oxim a t ion .

1
1. Th e given poin t is (5,2) a n d Dx 5 . Well st a r t t h er e a n d a pply E u ler s Met h od
3
t h r ee t im es.
Poin t (5,2):
dy 1 1
5 5 . Th e cor r espon din g Dy is
dx
x 5
1 1
Dy 5 z
5 3
DS D
1
1
16 31
,
5+ ,2+
=
.
3
15
3 15
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 3
426
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Poin t
dy
16 31
,
:
3 15
dx
3.
= 16
y =
3 1 1
=
16 3 16
DS
16 1 31 1
17 511
+ ,
+
,
=
.
3 3 15 16
3 240
17 511 : dy = 3 .
Poin t ,
3 240 dx 17
Dy 5
Th e cor r ect a ppr oxim a t ion for y is
1
3 1
z 5
17 3 17
511 1
+
2.188 .
240 17
2. (a ) Th is qu est ion is ju st a skin g you t o fin d y(4) given a st a r t in g poin t of (1,3) a n d
NOTE
Chec k out the slop e field
dy x + y
=
. It s p retty.
for
dx
x
t h r ee st eps of len gt h 1 t o get t h er e.

Poin t (1,3):
dy 4
= = 4 ; Dy 5 4 z 1 5 4. Th e n ew poin t will be (1 1 1, 3 1 4) 5
dx 1
(2,7).
9
9
dy 9
= ; y = 1 = . Th e n ew poin t will be
dx 2
2
2
2 + 1, 7 + 9 = 3, 23 .
2 2
Poin t (2,7):
29
3, 23 : dy = 2 = 29 ; y = 1 29 .
Poin t 2 dx
3
6
6
Th er efor e, C =
23 29 49
+
=
16.333
2
6
3
(b) Th e y-va lu e is ch a n gin g pr et t y dr a m a t ica lly a s t h e x-va lu e on ly ch a n ges by 1.

Wit h su ch a h u ge ch a n ge in y, t h e a ppr oxim a t ion ca n t be ver y a ccu r a t e; it
t u r n s ou t t o be wit h in a bou t 1 u n it of t h e cor r ect a n swer, bu t t h a t is n ot
n ea r ly a s a ccu r a t e a n a ppr oxim a t ion a s you ca n get wit h a less st eep gr a ph .
Of cou r se, you ca n a lwa ys in cr ea se t h e n u m ber of st eps by decr ea sin g Dx; t h a t
will a lwa ys m a ke you r a ppr oxim a t ion m or e a ccu r a t e.
3. (a ) Th is on e h a s on ly t wo st eps, t h a n k goodn ess. We will be st eppin g ba ckwa r d

1
1
fr om x 5 0 t o x 5 2 , so Dx m u st be n egative: Dx 5 2 .
2
4
1
dy
5 a(0)(22) 5 0; Dy 5 (2 )(0) 5 0. Th e n ew poin t will be
Poin t (0,22):
dx
4
1
(0 2 ,22 2 0).
4
dy
1
a
1 a
1
a
5 a(2 )(22) 5 2 ; Dy 5 2
2 . Th e n ew poin t will
Poin t (2 ,22):
4
dx
4
4 2
8
1
a
.
be 2 , 22 2
2
8
S DS D
427
.................................................................
dy
5 3xy
dx
dy
= 3 xdx
y
ln y =
3 2
x +C
2
y = Ce 3 x
P lu g in t h e given poin t (0,22) t o fin d C:

22 5 C z 1
1
y = 2 e 3
2
= 2.909982829
Th e er r or in t h e a ppr oxim a t ion wa s a bou t .535.

4. Th e cor r ect a ppr oxim a t ion for y(0) is n ea r ly 6.129.
exercises
2/2
1
Th e solu t ion equ a t ion will be y = 22e3x ; it s va lu e for x 5 2 (wh ich we
2
pr edict ed t o be 22.375) is a ct u a lly
a nsw ers
dy
5 3xy; ou r wor k a bove gives a n a ppr oxidx
3
1
1
m a t ion of y(2 ) 5 22 2 5 22.375. To fin d ou t t h e actu al va lu e of y(2 ),
2
8
2
dy
u sin g sepa r a t ion of va r ia bles:
you h a ve t o solve
dx
(b) If a 5 3, you h a ve t h e equ a t ion
..............................................................................................
a
Th er efor e, E u ler s Met h od gives a n a ppr oxim a t ion of 22 2 . Th e n u m ber a
8
cou ld be a n yt h in g, so lea ve it a s a.
428
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
dy
5 c, wh er e c is a n y r ea l n u m ber, t h e solu t ion t o t h e differ en t ia l equ a t ion is
dx
ju st a lin e. Beca u se E u ler s Met h od get s it s va lu e fr om t h e t a n gen t lin e (a n d t h e
t a n gen t lin e t o a lin ea r equ a t ion is ju st t h e lin e it self), you will be st eppin g
t h r ou gh t h e gr a ph of t h e solu t ion du r in g E u ler s Met h od, a n d t h e a n swer will be
exa ct . Tr y it , a n d see for you r self. P ick a va lu e for c a n d a given poin t t h r ou gh
wh ich t h e solu t ion lin e will pa ss; u se E u ler s m et h od t o a ppr oxim a t e som et h in g,
a n d t h en dou ble ch eck it wit h sepa r a t ion of va r ia bles. Th e va lu es will m a t ch .
5. If
EXPONENTIAL GROWTH AND DECAY

You h a ve pr oba bly a llu ded t o expon en t ia l gr owt h in ever yda y con ver sa t ion wit h ou t even
r ea lizin g it . P er h a ps you ve sa id t h in gs like, E ver sin ce I st a r t ed ca r r yin g r a w m ea t in
m y pocket s, t h e n u m ber of t im es Ive been a t t a cked by wild dogs h a s in cr ea sed
expon en tially. E xpon en t ia l gr owt h is su dden , qu ick, a n d r elen t less. Ma t h em a t ica lly,
expon en t ia l gr owt h or deca y h a s on e defin in g ch a r a ct er ist ic (a n d t h is is k ey): t h e r a t e of
ys gr owt h is dir ect ly pr opor t ion a l t o y it self. In ot h er wor ds, t h e bigger y is, t h e fa st er it
gr ows; t h e sm a ller y is, t h e slower it deca ys.
Ma t h em a t ica lly, som et h in g exh ibit in g expon en t ia l gr owt h or deca y sa t isfies t h e differ en t ia l equ a t ion
dy
= ky
dt
wh er e k is ca lled t h e con stan t of proportion ality. A m odel sh ip m igh t be bu ilt t o a 1:35

sca le, wh ich m ea n s t h a t a n y r ea l sh ip pa r t is 35 t im es a s la r ge a s t h e m odel. Th e
con st a n t of pr opor t ion a lit y in t h a t ca se is 35. H owever, k in expon en t ia l gr owt h a n d
deca y is n ever so n ea t a n d t idy, a n d it is r a r ely (if ever ) eviden t fr om r ea din g a
pr oblem . Lu ckily, it is qu it e ea sy t o fin d.
In t h e fir st pr oblem set of t h is ch a pt er (pr oblem 3), you pr oved t h a t t h e gen er a l

dy
5 k t is y 5 Cek t . I fin d t h e for m u la ea sier t o r em em ber, h owever, if you
solu t ion t o
dt
ca ll t h e con st a n t N in st ea d of C (a lt h ou gh t h a t doesn t a m ou n t t o a h ill of bea n s
m a t h em a t ica lly). Wh y is it ea sier t o r em em ber ? It sou n ds like Rosea n n e pr on ou n cin g
n a kedn ekkit .
y = Ne kt
In t h is for m u la , N st a n ds for t h e or igin a l a m ou n t of m a t er ia l, k is t h e pr opor t ion a lit y

con st a n t , t is t im e, a n d y is t h e a m ou n t of N t h a t r em a in s a ft er t im e t h a s pa ssed.
Wh en a ppr oa ch in g expon en t ia l gr owt h a n d deca y pr oblem s, you r fir st goa ls sh ou ld be
t o fin d N a n d k ; t h en , a n swer wh a t ever qu est ion is bein g posed. Don t be in t im ida t ed
by t h ese pr oblem st h ey a r e ver y ea sy.
Ex a m p le 3: Th e n ew t h em e r est a u r a n t in t own (Rowdy Rit a s E a t a n d H u r l) is bein g
t est ed by t h e h ea lt h depa r t m en t for clea n lin ess. H ea lt h in spect or s fin d t h e m en s
r oom floor t o be a fer t ile gr ou n d for gr owin g ba ct er ia . Th ey h a ve det er m in ed t h a t t h e
r a t e of ba ct er ia l gr owt h is pr opor t ion a l t o t h e n u m ber of colon ies. So, t h ey pla n t 10
colon ies a n d com e ba ck in 15 m in u t es; wh en t h ey r et u r n , t h e n u m ber of colon ies h a s
429
.................................................................
S o lu tio n : Th e key ph r a se in t h e pr oblem is th e rate of bacterial grow th is proportion al to th e n u m ber of colon ies, beca u se t h a t m ea n s t h a t you ca n a pply expon en t ia l
gr owt h a n d deca y. Th ey st a r t ed wit h 10 colon ies, so N 5 10 (st a r t in g a m ou n t ). Do n ot
try to figu re ou t w h at k is in you r h ead it d efies sim ple calcu lation . In st ea d, we kn ow
t h a t t h er e will be 35 colon ies a ft er t 5 15 m in u t es, so you ca n set u p t h e equ a t ion
35 = 10e k (15)
Solve t h is equ a t ion for k . Divide by 10 t o begin t h e pr ocess.
7
= e15k
2
ln
7
= 15k
2
k=
ln 7
2
15
k 5 .0835175312
Now you h a ve a for m u la t o det er m in e t h e a m ou n t of ba ct er ia for a n y t im e t m in u t es
a ft er t h e or igin a l pla n t in g:
y 5 10e(.0835175312)t
We wa n t t h e a m ou n t of ba ct er ia gr owt h a ft er 1 h ou r ; sin ce we ca lcu la t ed k u sin g
m in u t es, well h a ve t o expr ess 1 h ou r a s t 5 60 m in u t es. Now, fin d t h e n u m ber of
colon ies.
y 5 10e(.0835175312)(60)
y ' 1500.625
So, a lm ost 1,501 colon ies a r e pa r t yin g a lon g t h e su r fa ce of t h e ba t h r oom floor. In on e
da y, t h e n u m ber will gr ow t o 1.7 3 10 53 colon ies. You m a y be sa fer goin g t o t h e
ba t h r oom in t h e a lley beh in d t h e r est a u r a n t .
Ex a m p le 4: Th e E a st er Bu n n y h a s begu n t o expr ess h is m or e m a levolen t side. Th is
yea r, in st ea d of h idin g r ea l eggs, h es h idin g eggs m a de of a r a dioa ct ive su bst a n ce
Nb-95, wh ich h a s a h a lf-life of 35 da ys. If t h e da n ger ou s eggs h a ve a m a ss of 2
kilogr a m s, a n d you don t fin d t h e on e h idin g u n der you r bed, h ow lon g will it t a ke t h a t
egg t o deca y t o a h a r m less 50 gr a m s?
S o lu tio n : Th e egg st a r t s a t a m a ss of 2,000 g. A h a lf-life of 35 da ys m ea n s t h a t in 35
da ys, exa ct ly h a lf of t h e m a ss will r em a in . Aft er 70 da ys, on e fou r t h of t h e m a ss will
r em a in , et c. Th er efor e, a ft er 35 da ys, t h e m a ss will be 1,000. Th is in for m a t ion will
a llow u s t o fin d k .
..............................................................................................
r isen t o 35. H ow m a n y colon ies will t h er e be on e fu ll h ou r a ft er t h ey pla n t ed t h e

or igin a l 10?
NOTE
All ha lf-life p rob lems
a utoma tic a lly sa tisfy the
dy
5 ky b y their
p rop erty
dt
very na ture.
430
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
TIP
In a n exp onentia l d ec a y
p rob lem suc h a s this, the k
will b e neg a tive.
1,000 5 2,000ek (35)

1
35k
2=e
1
ln = 35k
2
1
2
=k
35
ln
k = 2.0198042052
Now t h a t we kn ow N a n d k , we wa n t t o fin d t wh en on ly 50 gr a m s a r e left . In t h is

ca se, t will be in da ys (sin ce da ys wa s t h e u n it of t im e we u sed wh en det er m in in g k ).
50 5 2,000e2.0198042052t
1
= e .0198042052t
40
ln 1
40
=t
.0198042052
t ' 186.267 da ys
You sh ou ld be sa fe by Th a n ksgivin g. (Not h in g wr on g wit h a lit t le pr em a t u r e h a ir loss

a n d a h ea lt h y gr een ish glow, is t h er e?)
431
.................................................................
YOU MAY USE A GRAPHING CALCULATOR FOR ALL OF THESE PROBLEMS.

1. If P u -230 (a pa r t icu la r ly st in ky r a dioa ct ive su bst a n ce) h a s a h a lf-life of 24,360
yea r s, fin d a n equ a t ion t h a t r epr esen t s t h e a m ou n t of P u -230 left a ft er t im e t, if
you bega n wit h N gr a m s.
2. Most m en in t h e wor ld (except , of cou r se, for m e, if m y wife is r ea din g t h is) t h in k
t h a t J u lia Rober t s is pr et t y a t t r a ct ive. If left u n ch ecked (a n d t h e pr a ct ice wer e
lega l), we ca n a ssu m e t h e n u m ber of h er h u sba n ds wou ld in cr ea se expon en t ia lly.
As of r igh t n ow, sh e h a s on e h u sba n d, bu t if lega l r est r ict ion s wer e lift ed sh e
m igh t h a ve 4 h u sba n ds 2 yea r s fr om n ow. H ow m a n y yea r s wou ld it t a ke h er t o
m a r r y 100 m en if t h e n u m ber of h u sba n ds is pr opor t ion a l t o t h e r a t e of in cr ea se?
3. Assu m e t h a t t h e wor ld popu la t ion s in t er est in t h e n ew boy ba n d, H u n ks o
Love, is gr owin g a t a r a t e pr opor t ion a l t o t h e n u m ber of it s fa n s. If t h e H u n k s
h a d 2,000 fa n s on e yea r a ft er t h ey r elea sed t h eir fir st a lbu m a n d 50,000 fa n s five
yea r s a ft er t h eir fir st a lbu m , h ow m a n y fa n s did t h ey h a ve t h e m om en t t h e fir st
a lbu m wa s r elea sed?
4. Vin n y t h e Ta lkin g Dog wa s a n im pr essive a n im a l for m a n y r ea son s du r in g h is
sh or t -lived ca r eer. F ir st of a ll, h e wa s a t a lkin g dog, for goodn ess sa kes! H owever,
1
on e of t h e u n for t u n a t e side-effect s of t h is gift wa s t h a t h e in cr ea sed h is size by
3
ever y t wo weeks. If h e weigh ed 5 pou n ds a t bir t h , h ow m a n y d ays did it t a ke h im
t o r ea ch a n en or m ou s 600 pou n ds (a t wh ich poin t h is poor, pit ia ble, pooch ie h ea r t
pu t t er ed ou t )?

1. Beca u se t h e r a t e of decr ea se is pr opor t ion a l t o t h e a m ou n t of su bst a n ce (t h e
a m ou n t decr ea ses by h a lf), we ca n u se expon en t ia l gr owt h a n d deca y. In ot h er
wor ds, let s get N ek t. In 24,360 yea r s, N will decr ea se by h a lf, so we ca n wr it e
N
= Ne k(24360)
2
Divide bot h sides by N , a n d you get
1
5 e24360k
2
ln 1
2
24360
= k = .0000284543178
t
Th er efor e, t h e equ a t ion y 5 N e(2.0000284543178) will give you t h e a m ou n t of P u -230

left a ft er t im e t if you bega n wit h N gr a m s.
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 4
432
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
2. Th is pr oblem clea r ly st a t es t h e pr opor t ion a lit y r ela t ion sh ip r equ ir ed t o u se expon en t ia l gr owt h a n d deca y. H er e, N 5 1, a n d y 5 4 wh en t 5 2 yea r s, so you ca n set
u p t h e equ a t ion :
4 = 1e k2
ln 4
= k = .6931471806
2
Now t h a t we h a ve k , we n eed t o fin d t wh en y 5 100.
100 5 1e.6931471806t
ln 100 5 .6931471806t
t ' 6.644 yea r s
3. Ou r job in t h is pr oblem will be t o fin d N , t h e or igin a l n u m ber of fa n s. We h a ve t h e

followin g equ a t ion s ba sed on t h e given in for m a t ion :
NOTE
It should b e no surp rise tha t
the left-ha nd sid e of the
4
eq ua tion is in the sec ond
3
4
step , a s Vinny s weig ht is
3
of his orig ina l weig ht every
14 d a ys. In the ha lf-life
p rob lems, you ma y ha ve
notic ed tha t this numb er
1
a lwa ys turns out to b e .
2
2,000 5 N ek (1) a n d 50,000 5 N ek (5)

Solve t h e fir st equ a t ion for N , a n d you get
2, 000
ek
P lu g t h is va lu e in t o t h e ot h er equ a t ion , a n d you ca n fin d k .
N=
50, 000 =
2, 000 5k
e
ek
50,000 5 2,000e5k 2k
25 5 e4k
ln 25 k = .8047189562
4
F in a lly, we ca n fin d t h e va lu e of N by plu ggin g k in t o N 5
N 5
2, 000
.
ek
2, 000
e
.8047189562
N ' 894.427 or igin a l fa n s

20
1
z55
or
3
3
6.667 pou n ds 14 da ys la t er. Not ice t h a t we will u se da ys r a t h er t h a n weeks a s ou r
u n it of t im e, sin ce t h e fin a l qu est ion in t h e pr oblem a sks for da ys.
4. Oh , cr u el fa t e. If Vin n y weigh ed 5 pou n ds a t bir t h , h e weigh ed 5 1
20
= 5e k(14 )
3
4
= e14k
3
ln 43
14
We wa n t t o fin d t wh en y 5 600.
= k = .0205487195
600 5 5e(.0205487195)t
ln 120 5 .0205487195t
t 5 232.982 da ys
433
.................................................................
LOGISTIC GROWTH (BC TOPIC ONLY)

In a ddit ion t o expon en t ia l gr owt h , BC st u den t s n eed t o be fa m ilia r wit h logistic grow th .
Th e m a jor differ en ce bet ween t h e t wo is t h a t expon en t ia l gr owt h a ssu m es t h a t t h er e a r e
n o r est r ict ion s on t h e qu a n t it y gr owin g. Alt h ou gh billion s u pon billion s of ba ct er ia
colon ies ca n gr ow in a sm a ll a r ea , t h e sa m e is n ot t r u e of, let s sa y, deer. On ly so m a n y
deer ca n be su ppor t ed by a pa r t icu la r ecosyst em ; t h is n u m ber is ca lled t h e carryin g
capacity for t h a t species. Aft er t h e ca r r yin g ca pa cit y h a s been r ea ch ed, t h er e a r e n o
lon ger en ou gh n a t u r a l r esou r ces t o su ppor t t h e ext en ded popu la t ion , a n d it s a lm ost
im possible for deer t o get r eser va t ion s in a n y deer r est a u r a n t s (except a s t h e m a in
cou r se). So, on ce t oo m a n y deer in h a bit a n a r ea , n a t u r e pu t s t h e br a kes on deerpopu la t ion gr owt h .
Logist ic gr owt h looks like expon en t ia l gr owt h a t t h e begin n in g, bu t t h en ch a n ges
con ca vit y a n d levels ou t t owa r ds t h e ca r r yin g ca pa cit y (t h e u pper lim it for gr owt h ).
exponential growth
L is
logistic growth
In expon en t ia l gr owt h , t h e r a t e of ch a n ge of t h e qu a n t it y is pr opor t ion a l t o t h e

qu a n t it y it self. In logist ic gr owt h , t h is is a lso t r u e, bu t t h e qu a n t it y is also pr oport ion a l t o it s dist a n ce fr om t h e u pper bou n d. Th is t r a n sla t es in t o t h e for m u la
dy
5 k y(L 2 y)
dt
wh er e L is t h e ca r r yin g ca pa cit y (u pper bou n d) a n d k is t h e con st a n t of pr opor t ion a lit y. If you solve t h is differ en t ia l equ a t ion u sin g a ver y t r icky sepa r a t ion of va r ia bles,
you get t h e gen er a l solu t ion :
y=
L
1 + ce Lkt
It s n ot wor t h a ct u a lly solvin g, bu t bot h of t h e for m u la s a bove n eed t o be m em or ized.

Ex a m p le 5: A h igh ly con t a giou s pin keye (scien t ific n a m e: Con ju n ct ivit u s it ch likecr a ziu s) is r a va gin g t h e loca l elem en t a r y sch ool. Th e popu la t ion of t h e sch ool is 900
(in clu din g st u den t s a n d st a ff), a n d t h e r a t e of in fect ion is pr opor t ion a l bot h t o t h e
n u m ber in fect ed a n d t h e n u m ber of st u den t s wh ose eyes a r e pu s-fr ee. If seven t y-five
..............................................................................................
Th e poor gu y lived a lm ost 8 m on t h s. Th e r ea l t r a gedy is t h a t even t h ou gh h e

cou ld t a lk, a ll h e wa n t ed t o t a lk a bou t wer e h is m isgivin gs con cer n in g con t em por a r y U.S. for eign policy. H is h a n dler s wer e r elieved a t h is pa ssin g. It wa s like
h a vin g t o t a lk t o a fu r r y J oh n Ker r y a ll t h e t im e, t h ey expla in ed.
434
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
people wer e in fect ed on Decem ber 15 a n d 250 h a ve con t r a ct ed pin keye by Decem ber
20, h ow m a n y people will h a ve got t en t h e gift of cr u st y eyes by Ch r ist m a s Da y?
S o lu tio n : Beca u se of t h e pr opor t ion a lit y st a t em en t s in t h e pr oblem , logist ic gr owt h is
t h e a ppr oa ch we sh ou ld t a ke. Th e u pper lim it for t h e disea se will be L 5 900; it is
im possible for m or e t h a n 900 people t o be in fect ed sin ce t h e sch ool on ly con t a in s 900
people. Th is gives u s t h e equ a t ion
y=
900
1 + ce 900 kt
We will in t er pr et t 5 0 a s Decem ber 15, sin ce t h a t is t h e ea r liest in for m a t ion given .

Th er efor e, we kn ow t h a t y(0) 5 75. P lu g t h a t in for m a t ion in t o t h e equ a t ion .
75 =
900
1 + ce 0
75 1 75c 5 900
c=
825
= 11
75
F ive da ys la t er, 250 people h a ve con t r a ct ed pin keye, so plu g t h a t in for m a t ion (a n d t h e
c we ju st fou n d) t o fin d k :
250 =
900
1 + 11e 900 k 5
250~1 1 11e24500k ! 5 900
11e 4500k =
13
5
24500k 5 21.442383838
k 5 .0003205297
900
. We wa n t t o fin d t h e n u m ber of
1 + 11e 900(.0003205297)t
in fect ion s on Decem ber 25, so t 5 10.
F in a lly, we h a ve t h e equ a t ion y =
y=
900
1 + 11e
900(.0003205297 )(10 )
y ' 557.432
So, a lm ost 558 st u den t s h a ve con t r a ct ed pin keye in t im e t o open pr esen t s.

Logist ic gr owt h ca n m odel a lot of r ea l-wor ld beh a vior ; in fa ct , som e r et a iler s h a ve
h a r n essed a key fea t u r e of logist ic gr owt h . E ver y yea r, t h er e seem s t o be a n ew t oy on
t h e m a r ket t h a t ever yon e wa n t s (Tickle Me E lm o, F u r by, Ca bba ge P a t ch Kid), a n d fa d
t oys like t h ese follow a logist ic sa les pa t t er n . Som e st or es com pu t e t h e logist ic gr owt h
cu r ve (ju st a s we did in E xa m ple 4) a n d st op pu r ch a sin g t h e fa d t oys wh en t h e
con ca vit y of t h e cu r ve ch a n ges (wh ich m ea n s t h a t t h e sa les a r e st ill in cr ea sin g bu t
n ow a t a decr ea sin g r a t e). Th is pr a ct ice h elps cu t down on piles of u n sold pr odu ct a n d
t h u s decr ea ses u n n ecessa r y spen din g by t h e st or e.
435
.................................................................
YOU MAY USE A GRAPHING CALCULATOR FOR THESE PROBLEMS.

1. Th e big t oy for t h e h olida y sea son t h is yea r is t h e Tickle Me Ben St ein Doll. Wh en
you gen t ly squ eeze h is t u m m y, Ben will giggle a n d t a lk t o you a bou t h is wor k in
t h e Nixon a dm in ist r a t ion . Th e kids love it ! Resea r ch sh ows t h a t t h e r a t e of sa les
is pr opor t ion a l t o t h e n u m ber sold a n d t h e n u m ber in t h e t a r get a u dien ce wh o
h a ven t yet pu r ch a sed it . Assu m e t h a t t h e t a r get a u dien ce n u m ber is 4 m illion . If
950,000 h a ve been sold by 12 a .m . on Oct ober 1, a n d 3.5 m illion h a ve been sold by
12 a .m . on Decem ber 1, on wh a t da y did t h e com pa n y sell t o exa ct ly h a lf of it s
t a r get a u dien ce?
2. Th e ca r r yin g ca pa cit y for deer in a pa r t icu la r sm a ll t own is 2,200, a n d t h e r a t e of
in cr ea se in t h eir n u m ber s is pr opor t ion a l t o bot h t h e n u m ber, n , of deer a n d
2,200 2 n . If t h er e wer e 1,000 deer on e m on t h a go a n d 1,150 deer n ow, h ow m a n y
m on t h s will it t a ke t h e deer t o n u m ber 2,100?
3. Assu m e t h a t t h e r a t e of fa n s bein g sea t ed in Or iole P a r k a t Ca m den Ya r ds (h om e
t o t h e Ba lt im or e Or ioles) is pr opor t ion a l bot h t o t h e n u m ber of fa n s a lr ea dy
sea t ed a n d t h e n u m ber of em pt y sea t s; t h e pa r k h a s a ca pa cit y of 48,262 fa n s.
On e h ou r befor e ga m e t im e, on ly 10 per cen t of t h e sea t s a r e filled. At ga m e t im e,
85 per cen t of t h e sea t s a r e filled. Assu m in g t h a t n o on e lea ves ea r ly, wh a t
per cen t a ge of t h e sea t s a r e filled 2 h ou r s in t o t h e ga m e?
dy
in cr ea sin g t h e fa st est in a logist ic gr owt h cu r ve? J u st ify
dt
you r a n swer m a t h em a t ica lly.
4. F or wh a t va lu e of y is

1. In t h is pr oblem , L 5 4,000,000. Th e fir st object ive is t o fin d c u sin g t h e fa ct t h a t
y(0) 5 950,000. (F or ou r pu r poses, t 5 0 is Oct ober 1.)
950, 000 =
4, 000, 000
1 + ce 4,000,000k 0
950, 000 =
4, 000, 000
1+c
950,000(1 1 c) 5 4,000,000
c=
61
19
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 5
436
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
If t 5 0 equ a t es t o t h e begin n in g of Oct ober 1, t h en t 5 1 is Oct ober 2, t 5 30 is

Oct ober 31, a n d t 5 61 is Decem ber 1. We kn ow t h a t y(61) 5 3,500,000.
3, 500 , 000 =
4 , 000 , 000
1 + 61 e 4 , 000 , 000 k 61
19
61 4 , 000 , 000 k 61 1
e
=
19
7
e 244 , 000 , 000 k =
k=
19
ln 427
244 , 000 , 000
19
427
= .0000000128
Now t h a t we h a ve c a n d k , we wa n t t o fin d t wh en y 5 2,000,000 (h a lf of t h e

t a r get a u dien ce).
2 , 000 , 000 =
4 , 000 , 000
4 , 000 , 000 ( .0000000128 ) t
61
1+ e
19
1+
61 .0512 t
e
=2
19
e .0512 t =
t=
ln 19
61
.0512
19
61
22.782
Th er efor e, t h e sa les figu r e wa s r ea ch ed a ft er t 5 22 bu t befor e t 5 23; t h is

t r a n sla t es t o Oct ober 23.
2. L 5 2,200; y(0) will t r a n sla t e t o a m on t h a go a n d y(0) 5 1,000; y(1) 5 1,150. Use

a ll of t h is in for m a t ion t h e sa m e wa y you did in n u m ber 1 t o fin d c a n d k . F ir st ,
fin d c.
2, 200
1 + ce 2200 k0
1,000(1 1 c) 5 2,200
1, 000 =
c=
6
5
Now fin d k .
1150 =
2, 200
1 + 6 e 2200 k1
5
6
44
1 + e 2,200 k =
5
23
437
.................................................................
ln 35
46
= .0001242242
2, 200
Ou r fin a l goa l in t h is pr oblem is t o ca lcu la t e t wh en y 5 2,100.
2, 100 =
2, 200
2 ,200(.0001242242 )t
6
1+ e
5
6 2,200(.0001242242)t 22
1+ e
=
5
21
e 2, 200
t=
(.0001242242) t = 5
126
5
ln 126
.273293335
= 11.807
Sin ce t 5 1 t r a n sla t es t o t h is m on t h , t 5 11.807 t r a n sla t es t o 10.807 m on t h s fr om

n ow.
48, 262
1 + ce 48,262 k0
4, 826.2 =
4, 826.2 =
48, 262
1+ c
c59
Now fin d k u sin g y(1).
48, 262
1 + 9e 48,262 k1
1 1 9e248,262k 5 1.176470588
41, 022.7 =
e248,262k 5 .0196078431
k 5 .0000814684
Th e pr oblem a sks u s t o fin d y wh en t 5 3.
y=
Two h ou r s in t o t h e ga m e,
48, 262
48 , 262 ( .0000814684 ) 3
1 + 9e
y 5 48,258.7258
48, 258.7258
= 99.993 per cen t of t h e sea t s a r e filled.
48, 262
exercises
3. L 5 48,262; y(0) is on e h ou r befor e ga m e t im e, a n d y(0) 5 .10L 5 4,826.2; y(1) 5

.85L 5 41,022.7. Begin by fin din g c.
a nsw ers
k=
..............................................................................................
35
46
e 2,200 k =
438
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
dy
. Tr ea t t h is like a n y opt im iza t ion
dt
pr oblem st a r t by fin din g it s der iva t ive a n d set t in g it equ a l t o 0. (Rem em ber, t h e
2
dy
is wr it t en d 2y .) You ll h a ve t o u se t h e P r odu ct Ru le. Beca u se a
der iva t ive of
dt
dt
logist ic r ela t ion sh ip is eviden t , we u se it s gen er a l for m .
4. In t h is pr oblem , you a r e t r yin g t o m a xim ize
dy
= ky( L y)
dt
d2y
dy
dy
= k ( L y) + ky = 0
2
dt
dt
dt
k
Sin ce
dy
( L y y) = 0
dt
dy
dy
is n ot zer o, we ca n divide bot h sides by k z
a n d sa y t h a t
dt
dt
L 2y = 0
L
y=
2
Th er efor e, t h e r a t e of ch a n ge is t h e gr ea t est h a lfwa y t o t h e u pper bou n da r y for
t h e logist ic gr owt h . Th is m a kes sen se geom et r ica lly, beca u se t h e slope of t h e
t a n gen t lin es will in cr ea se t o t h a t poin t a n d t h en becom e less st eep a ft er wa r d.
TECHNOLOGY: A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS CALCULATOR

PROGRAM
NOTE
You ma y use this p rog ra m
a s long a s you typ e it in
exa c tly a s listed , inc lud ing
the a uthor s na me a nd
c op yrig ht d a te. Do not sell
this p rog ra m to a nyoneit
is mea nt to b e free.
BC st u den t s m a y be a lit t le disa ppoin t ed in t h e BC t opics so fa r. All of t h em seem t o be

ver y com pu t a t ion a l in n a t u r e. Ar c len gt h s, slope fields, et c., a r e a ll ba sica lly for m u la s
you h a ve t o m em or ize. E ven wor se, t h e m a jor BC t opic in differ en t ia l equ a t ion s (E u ler s
Met h od) r equ ir es m in dless, r epet it ive wor k. Lu ckily, t h e ca lcu la t or ca n sa ve t h e da y.
Th a n ks t o Gr eg H oer st , a for m er 5-er on t h e BC t est a n d a st u den t of m in e, you r
ca lcu la t or ca n h elp dr a g you t h r ou gh t h e doldr u m s of slope fields a n d E u ler s Met h od.
Som e st u den t s wer e so a ppr ecia t ive of Gr egs pr ogr a m , t h ey set u p sm a ll sh r in es in
t h eir ba sem en t in h on or of h im , a n d h a ve vot ed for h im a s a wr it e-in ca n dida t e for
ever y pr esiden t ia l elect ion ever sin ce.
At t h e en d of t h is sect ion , you ll fin d a r ela t ively sh or t pr ogr a m t h a t will t a ke t h e
dr u dger y ou t of E u ler s a n d slope fields. All you h a ve t o do is t ype in som e ba sic
in for m a t ion , a n d t h e ca lcu la t or t a kes ca r e of t h e r est . Does t h is m ea n you sh ou ldn t
kn ow t h e for m u la s a n d t ech n iqu es for t h e t wo m et h ods it sim plifies? No, n o, n o!
E ssen t ia lly h a lf of t h e AP t est is n ow don e wit h ou t a ca lcu la t or, so m a ke su r e you
don t gr ow t oo depen den t on t h e ca lcu la t or. If you d r a t h er n ot t ype t h e pr ogr a m in ,
a n d you (or you r t ea ch er ) h a ve a TI Gr a ph lin k t h a t h ooks in t o you r com pu t er, you ca n
down loa d t h e pr ogr a m fr om m y Web sit e www.ca lcu lu s-h elp.com .
dy
5 2x 2 y; you gr a ph ed it s
dx
slope field ba ck in H a n ds-on Act ivit y 10.2. Of cou r se gr a ph in g it wit h t h e ca lcu la t or
Ex a m p le 6: Let s look ba ck a t t h e differ en t ia l equ a t ion
439
.................................................................
Now, r u n t h e pr ogr a m by pr essin g [P r gm ], pr essin g [E n t er ] t o select t h e pr ogr a m , a n d

t h en pr essin g [E n t er ] a ga in ; you sh ou ld see t h e t it le scr een . P r ess [E n t er ] t o go t o t h e
m en u , a n d select Slope F ield.
Th e pr ogr a m n ow a sks you t o t ype t h e n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or sepa r a t ely. In t h is
exa m ple, t h e den om in a t or is sim ply 1. Use t h e [Alph a ] bu t t on t o get X a n d Y . Th e
pr ogr a m t h en a sks you wh a t t h e len gt h of t h e lin e segm en t s sh ou ld be. Beca u se t h is
win dow set t in g is so det a iled, you sh ou ld u se a sm a ll n u m ber ; I u sed len gt h 5 .25. On
la r ger win dows, you will n eed t o u se a la r ger len gt h , su ch a s 1.
Now, wa it a s t h e ca lcu la t or dr a ws t h e slope field for you . On ce it s fin ish ed, pr ess
[E n t er ] t o r et u r n t o t h e m en u scr een .
Th e on ly dr a wba ck t o t h is pr ogr a m is t h a t you ca n t t ell t h e ca lcu la t or exa ct ly wh er e

t o dr a w t h e lin e segm en t s, bu t in t h e gr a n d sch em e of t h in gs, t h a t m a t t er s lit t le. If
you h a ve a P C, go t o t h e Web sit e www.gr a ph m a t ica .com a n d down loa d t h e pr ogr a m
..............................................................................................
will be sign ifica n t ly ea sier. Befor e we r u n t h e pr ogr a m , m a ke su r e t o set t h e win dow

you wa n t . In t h e exer cises, we u sed a n x in t er va l of [21.5,1.5] a n d a y in t er va l of
[0,1.5]. P u sh t h e [Win dow] bu t t on , a n d en t er t h ese va lu es in t o t h e a ppr opr ia t e spot s.
440
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Graph m atica. It dr a ws in cr edible slope fields a n d ea sily dr a ws solu t ion gr a ph s t o a

slope field wh en you click t h e in it ia l poin t (x,y).
dy 1
given t h a t y(5) 5 2;
Ex a m p le 7: Use E u ler s Met h od t o a ppr oxim a t e y(6) for
=
dx
x
1
u se t h r ee st eps of size Dx 5 .
3
S o lu tio n : Th is is on e of t h e pr oblem s followin g t h e sect ion on E u ler s m et h od. Let s
solve it wit h t h e ca lcu la t or. Ru n t h e pr ogr a m , a n d select E u ler s fr om t h e m en u .
E n t er a ll t h e in for m a t ion r equ est ed by t h e pr ogr a m . Th e Kn own X a n d Kn own Y
pr om pt s cor r espon d t o t h e poin t (x,y) t h a t is on t h e solu t ion t o t h e differ en t ia l
equ a t ion ; in t h is ca se, t h a t poin t is (5,2). Befor e it begin s it s ca lcu la t ion s, t h e pr ogr a m
a sks See St eps? (Y51). If you wa n t t o see ea ch st ep of E u ler s m et h od, pr ess [1] a n d
t h en pr ess [E n t er ]. If you ju st wa n t t h e solu t ion , pr ess a n y ot h er n u m ber a n d pr ess
[E n t er ]. P r ess [1] so we ca n see a ll of t h e st eps.
Th e ca lcu la t or begin s wit h t h e given poin t a n d t a kes a st ep t owa r d t h e fin a l a ppr oxim a t ion ea ch t im e you pr ess [E n t er ].
Th e a n swer is 2.188, wh ich m a t ch es t h e a n swer we got t h e h a r d wa y.
441
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
D iffe re n tia l Equ a tio n To o ls , B y Gre g Ho e rs t
442
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 6

1. If f (x) 5 3x 1 1, f (1) 5 2, a n d f(2) 5 3, fin d f(x).
dy 18 4x
2. Wh ich con ic sect ion is t h e solu t ion t o t h e differ en t ia l equ a t ion
=
?
dx
9y
J u st ify you r a n swer m a t h em a t ica lly.
3. Wh a t is t h e posit ion fu n ct ion of a pa r t icle m ovin g a lon g t h e x-a xis wit h velocit y
3
v(t) 5 t 3 1 4t 1 3 if t h e pa r t icle pa sses t h r ou gh t h e or igin wh en t 5 2?
2
4. If
dy
5 x 2 2 y 2,
dx
(a ) dr a w t h e slope field for
dy
a t a ll in dica t ed poin t s on t h e a xes below.
dx
2
1
2
*(b) u se E u ler s Met h od t o a ppr oxim a t e y(2) u sin g 4 st eps if y(0) 5 1.
5. A h u m a n zygot e con sist s of 1 cell a t con cept ion , a n d t h e n u m ber of cells gr ows t o
8 by t h e en d of on e week. Assu m in g t h a t t h e r a t e of cell in cr ea se is pr opor t ion a l
t o t h e n u m ber of cells, h ow m a n y weeks will it t a ke t h e ba by-in -pr ocess t o a m a ss
1,000 cells?
ALERT!
Prob lems 7 a nd 8 rep resent
neither stra ig htforwa rd
exp onentia l nor log istic
g rowth. You ha ve to b eg in
with the d ifferentia l
eq ua tion exp ressed in the
p rob lem.
*6. Sa r a h likes m ollies a bove a ll ot h er t r opica l fish . H er fish m u st r ea lly like ea ch

ot h er, beca u se t h ey a r e r epr odu cin g like cr a zy. Th e r a t e of in cr ea se of t h e fish is
pr opor t ion a l t o bot h t h e popu la t ion a n d t h e n u m ber of a ddit ion a l fish t h e t a n k
cou ld su ppor t . H er t a n k h a s a ca r r yin g ca pa cit y of 50 m ollies. If sh e bou gh t 10
fish t o st a r t t h e t a n k t wo m on t h s a go (n on e of wh ich died) a n d h a s 25 fish n ow,
h ow m a n y fish will sh e h a ve in on e m on t h ?
7. Newt on s La w of Coolin g st a t es t h a t a n object cools down a t a r a t e pr opor t ion a l t o
t h e differ en ce bet ween it s t em per a t u r e a n d t h e t em per a t u r e of t h e a m bien t
(su r r ou n din g) a ir. If m y coffee wa s 100F t en m in u t es a go, t h e t em per a t u r e of m y
r oom is a con st a n t 75F, a n d t h e coffee is on ly 90F n ow, wh a t will t h e t em per a t u r e of m y coffee be in 15 m in u t es?
443
.................................................................
(b) In wh a t yea r did t h e popu la t ion r ea ch 400,000?

*a B C-on ly qu estion

1. F ir st , fin d f (x) by in t egr a t in g f (x):
f ( x ) =
(3x + 1)dx
3
f (x) 5 x 2 1 x 1 C
2
Sin ce you kn ow t h a t f (1) 5 2, u se t h a t in for m a t ion t o fin d C.
f (1) 5
3
111C52
2
1
C52
2
Now, r epea t t h e pr ocess t o fin d f(x).
f (x ) =
1 3 x2 1
x +
x +C
2
2 2
f(2) 5 4 1 2 2 1 1 C 5 3
C 5 22
2
1
x
1
3
Th er efor e, f ( x ) = x +
x 2.
2
2 2
2. Solve t h is differ en t ia l equ a t ion by sepa r a t in g t h e va r ia bles.
9 ydy = (18 4x ) dx
9 2
y = 18x 2x 2 + C
2
2x 2 18x +
9 2
y =C
2
4x 2 2 36x 1 9y 2 5 C
Th is is a n ellipse, sin ce t h e squ a r ed t er m s h a ve u n like coefficien t s wit h t h e sa m e
sign . Th er es n o n eed t o pu t it in st a n da r d for m .
exercises
3
1
f ( x ) = x 2 + x dx
2
2
a nsw ers
(a ) Wh a t wa s t h e popu la t ion in 1993?
..............................................................................................
8. J a m e s D ia bo lic a l Ch a lle n g e : Th e popu la t ion of a species of jellyfish in a sm a ll

h a r bor, a ppr opr ia t ely ca lled S tin g H arbor, is dir ect ly pr opor t ion a l t o 450 2 Q(t),
wh er e Q is t h e popu la t ion (in t h ou sa n ds) a n d t is t h e t im e (in yea r s). At t 5 0
(1990) t h e popu la t ion wa s 100,000, a n d in 1992, t h e popu la t ion wa s 300,000.
444
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
3. We a r e lookin g for s(t) kn owin g t h a t s(t) 5 *v(t)d t a n d s(2) 5 0.
3
s (t ) = t 3 + 4t + 3 dt
2
3 4
t + 2t 2 + 3t + C
8
s(2) 5 6 1 8 1 6 1 C 5 0
s (t ) =
C 5 220
3
Th er efor e, t h e posit ion equ a t ion is s(t) 5 t 4 1 2t 2 1 3t 2 20.
8
4. (a )
2
1
(b) St a r t a t poin t (0,1), a n d t a ke 4 st eps of size Dx 5 .
2
Poin t (0,1):
Poin t
Poin t
Poin t
1
1
dy
5 0 2 1 5 21; Dy 5 z (21) 5 2 . Th e n ew poin t will be
dx
2
2
(0 1 12, 1 2 12)
S D
1
1 1 dy 1 1
,
5 2 5 0; Dy 5 0 z 5 0. Th e n ew poin t will be
:
2 2 dx 4 4
2
1 1 1
1 , 10
2 2 2
S D
1,
1 dy
1 3
3 1
3
5 1 2 5 ; Dy 5 z 5 . Th e n ew poin t will be
:
2 dx
4 4
4 2
8
1 1 3
11 , 1
2 2 8
S D
95
95 1
95
3 7 d y 9 49
,
5 2
5 ; Dy 5
z 5
. Th e n ew poin t will be
:
2 8 d x 4 64
64
64 2
128
3 + 1 , 7 + 95
2 2 8 128
Th e a ppr oxim a t ion given by E u ler s m et h od is y(2) 5
207
1.617 .
128
5. Beca u se of t h e pr opor t ion a l r ela t ion sh ip descr ibed, it s t im e t o u se N ek t. Clea r ly,

t h e in it ia l va lu e (N ) is 1; fin d k if t is m ea su r ed in weeks.
8 5 1ek (1)
k 5 ln 8
445
.................................................................
8)t
t ' 3.322 weeks

Th a t ba bys gr owin g like a weed.
6. Th is sit u a t ion ca lls for a logist ic gr owt h m odel, a n d we kn ow t h a t y(0) 5 10
(if t equ a ls t wo m on t h s a go):
50
1 + ce 50 k 0
10 =
50
1+ c
10c 5 40
10 =
c54
Now, u se c a n d t h e fa ct t h a t y(2) 5 25 t o fin d k :
50
1 + 4 e 100 k
2100k
4e
51
25 =
k=
ln 14
y=
50
50 ( .0138629436 )( 3 )
1 + 4e
y 5 33.333
Sa r a h will h a ve 33 fish a n d som e fish on t h e wa y.

7. If t h e r a t e of ch a n ge of t h e t em per a t u r e is pr opor t ion a l t o t h e differ en ce bet ween
t h e t em per a t u r e a n d t h e a m bien t a ir, t h en t h is t r a n sla t es t o t h e differ en t ia l
equ a t ion
dy
= k( R y)
dt
wh er e y is t em per a t u r e of t h e coolin g object , R is t h e r oom t em per a t u r e, a n d k is
t h e con st a n t of pr opor t ion a lit y. You ca n n ot u se y 5 N ek t or logist ic gr owt h t o
m odel t h e t em per a t u r e, a s t h e r a t e of gr owt h is n ot pr opor t ion a l t o t h e t em per a t u r e. H owever, it is n ot difficu lt t o t r a n sla t e t h e given in for m a t ion in t o t h e a bove
differ en t ia l equ a t ion . Sin ce R is 75, let s plu g it in a n d t h en solve by sepa r a t ion of
va r ia bles.
dy
= k ( 75 y )
dt
dy
75 y = kdt
ln 75 y = kt + C
exercises
= .0138629436
100
Th e pr oblem a sks u s t o fin d y (n u m ber of fish ) wh en t 5 3 (on e m on t h fr om n ow):
a nsw ers
1,000 5 1e(ln
..............................................................................................
You ca n wr it e k a s a decim a l, bu t for on ce, k is n ot m essy in it s exa ct for m , so you

ca n lea ve it for n ow. Tim e t o fin d t wh en y 5 1,000:
446
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
ALERT!
Rememb er tha t Q is in
thousa nd s, so d on t write
unnec essa ry zeros.
75 2 y 5 Cek t
y 5 75 2 Cek t
Use t h e fa ct t h a t y(0) 5 100 (t em per a t u r e 10 m in u t es a go) t o fin d C:
100 5 75 2 Ce0
C 5 225
Now, u se C a n d t h e fa ct t h a t y(10) 5 90 t o fin d k :
90 5 75 2 (225e10k )
15 5 25e10k
ln 35
= k = .0510825624
10
Th e t em per a t u r e of m y coffee 15 m in u t es la t er (t 5 25) will be
y 5 75 2 (225e25(2.0510825624))
y 5 81.971F
8. Mu ch like pr oblem 7, t h is pr oblem t r a n sla t es in t o t h e differ en t ia l equ a t ion
dQ
= k ( 450 Q )
dt
If you solve it u sin g sepa r a t ion of va r ia bles, you get
Q 5 450 2 Cek t
Now, u se t h e fa ct t h a t Q(0) 5 100 t o fin d t h a t C 5 350. Th en , u se t h e fa ct t h a t
Q(2) 5 300 t o fin d k :
300 5 450 2 350e2k
ln 37
= k = .4236489302
2
Now we ca n solve t h e in dividu a l pa r t s of t h e qu est ion .
(a ) F in d Q if t 5 3:
Q 5 450 2 350e2.4236489302z3
Q ' 351.802.
Th er e sh ou ld be a lm ost 352,000 jellyfish in St in g H a r bor.
(b) We wa n t t o fin d t wh en Q 5 400:
400 5 450 2 350e2.4236489302zt
ln 17
.4236489302
= t 4.593
Th e popu la t ion will r ea ch 400,000 du r in g m id-1994.
447
.................................................................
A differ en t ia l equ a t ion is sim ply a n equ a t ion t h a t con t a in s a der iva t ive.
You r t ypica l goa l in a differ en t ia l equ a t ion pr oblem is t o fin d t h e equ a t ion t h a t
h a s t h e given der iva t ive; in ot h er wor ds, you a r e t r yin g t o fin d a n a n t ider iva t ive.
You will u se you r ca lcu la t or a lot in E u ler s Met h od. If you a r e a llowed t o u se a
ca lcu la t or t o a n swer a n E u ler s Met h od qu est ion on t h e fr ee r espon se sect ion , you
st ill h a ve t o sh ow you r wor k a n d t h e set u p.
..............................................................................................
SUMMING IT UP
Seq uenc es a nd Series

(BC Top ic s Only)
....................................................................................
Introduction to sequences a nd series, nth term divergence test

Convergence tests for infinite series
Power series
Ta ylor a nd Ma cla urin series
Technology: Viewing a nd ca lcula ting sequences a nd series
with a gra phing ca lcula tor
Summing it up
As a BC ca lcu lu s st u den t , you h a ve com e a lon g wa y sin ce you r fir st lim it s a n d
der iva t ives. Th er e m a y h a ve been a t im e wh en you fea r ed t h e Ch a in Ru le, bu t
t h a t t im e is lon g sin ce pa st . You a r e n ow a m em ber of t h e elit e Ca lcu lu s Clu b.
(F ir st r u le of Ca lcu lu s Clu b: Don t t a lk a bou t Ca lcu lu s Clu b.) An d you r m em ber sh ip is com plet e wit h sequ en ces a n d ser ies.
On ce you get a n idea of wh a t sequ en ces a n d ser ies a r e, we will focu s pr im a r ily
on in fin it e ser ies. F or a cou ple of sect ion s, you ll u se va r iou s t est s t o det er m in e
t h e con ver gen ce of in fin it e ser ies. On ce t h a t is com plet e, well discu ss power
ser ies a n d u se Ta ylor a n d Ma cla u r in ser ies t o a ppr oxim a t e t h e va lu es of
fu n ct ion s. Sou n d good? You r J edi t r a in in g is a lm ost com plet e . . . t h e F or ce is
st r on g wit h t h is on e.
INTRODUCTION TO SEQUENCES AND SERIES, NTH

TERM DIVERGENCE TEST
A sequ en ce is ba sica lly a list of n u m ber s ba sed on som e defin in g r u le. Nea r ly
ever y ca lcu lu s book begin s wit h t h e sa m e exa m ple, a n d it s so da r n fin e t h a t I
1 n
will bow t o peer pr essu r e a n d u se it a s well. Con sider t h e sequ en ce . Th e
2
n u m ber n will t a ke on a ll in t eger va lu es begin n in g a t 1, so t h e r esu lt in g
sequ en ce of n u m ber s will be
1 n 1 1 1 2 1 3
2 = 2 , 2 , 2 ,
1 n 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 = 2 , 4 , 8 , 16 , 32 , 64 ,
449
c ha p ter 11
OVERVIEW
450
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
In som e ca ses, for t h e sa ke of ea se, we will let n begin wit h 0 in st ea d of 1bu t you ll
kn ow exa ct ly wh en t o do t h a t , so don t get st r essed ou t or con fu sed.
NOTE
The Forc e is with you
a lwa ys, a nd it eq ua ls ma ss
times a c c elera tion.
NOTE
The Tec hnolog y sec tion a t
the end of this c ha p ter
exp la ins how to g ra p h
seq uenc es a nd series on
your TI-83. You should
p rob a b ly rea d tha t b efore
you g o a ny further.
Ou r sin gu la r goa l in sequ en ces is t o det er m in e wh et h er or n ot t h ey con verge. In ot h er

wor ds, is t h e sequ en ce h ea din g in som e dir ect ion t owa r d som e lim it in g n u m ber ? You
ca n gr a ph t h e sequ en ce a bove t o see t h a t it is h ea ded t owa r d a lim it of 0.
E a ch t er m of t h e sequ en ce is h a lf a s la r ge a s t h e t er m befor e, a n d t h e sequ en ce

a ppr oa ch es a lim it of 0 ver y qu ickly. Ma t h em a t ica lly, we wr it e
1 n
lim = 0
n 2
Beca u se t h is sequ en ce h a s a lim it a s n a ppr oa ch es in fin it y, t h e sequ en ce is sa id t o

con verge; if n o lim it exist ed, t h e sequ en ce wou ld be descr ibed a s d ivergen t.
3n3 2n 7
Ex a m p le 1: Det er m in e wh et h er or n ot
2
3 is a con ver gen t or diver gen t
4 5n + 6n
sequ en ce.
S o lu tio n : Th e sequ en ce will con ver ge if it s lim it a t in fin it y exist s a n d will diver ge if
t h e lim it does n ot exist .
3n 3 2 n 7
n 4 5 n 2 + 6 n 3
Th is is a r a t ion a l fu n ct ion wit h equ a l degr ees in t h e n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or ;
1
3
= . Th er efor e, t h e
t h er efor e, t h e lim it is t h e r a t io of t h e lea din g coefficien t s:
6
2
1
sequ en ce con ver ges t o . Th is is fu r t h er eviden ced by t h e gr a ph of t h e sequ en ce below:
2
lim
A series is sim ila r t o a sequ en ce, bu t in a ser ies, you a dd a ll t h e t er m s t oget h er. Ser ies
a r e wr it t en u sin g sigm a n ot a t ion a n d look like t h is:
n
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 +
2
2 4 8 16 32 64
n =1
Cha pter 11: Sequences a nd Series (BC Topics Only)
451
.................................................................
1
4
1
2
1
8
1
16
1
64
1
32
If t h e la r ge box r epr esen t s on e u n it a n d you con t in u ou sly divide t h e box in t o h a lves,

t h e su m of a ll t h e pieces will even t u a lly (if you a dd for ever a n d ever ) equ a l t h e en t ir e
n
1
box. Th u s, 5 1.
2
n =1
You won t be a ble t o dr a w pict u r es like t h is for t h e m a jor it y of ser ies, bu t , in t h e n ext
sect ion , you ll lea r n a m u ch ea sier wa y t o fin d t h e a bove su m . Ma t h em a t ica lly, you
n eed t o kn ow t h a t a ser ies get s it s va lu e fr om t h e sequ en ce of its partial su m s (SOP S).
A partial su m is t h e su m of a piece of t h e ser ies, r a t h er t h a n t h e en t ir e t h in g; it is
wr it t en S n , wh er e n is t h e n u m ber of t er m s bein g su m m ed. Let s u se good old
n
1 a s a n exa m ple:
2
n =1
1
S1 5
2
S2 5
S3 5
1
1
1 5 .75
2
4
1
1
1
1 1 5 .875
2
4
8
Th er efor e, t h e SOP S is .5, .75, .875, .... Th is is t h e im por t a n t t h in g t o r em em ber : If th e

S OPS con verges, th en th e in fin ite series con verges, an d its su m is equ al to th e lim it at
w h ich th e S OPS con verged . F or t h e m ost pa r t , you will u se t h e fa n t a st ic for m u la
a llu ded t o ea r lier in or der t o fin d su m s. H owever, if a ll else fa ils, you ca n u se t h e
SOP S t o fin d t h e su m of a ser ies.
1
1
.
Ex a m p le 2: F in d t h e su m of t h e ser ies
+ 2
n
n
n =1
S o lu tio n : Con st r u ct t h e sequ en ce of pa r t ia l su m s t o ga in som e in sigh t on t h is ser ies:
1
S1 5 1 2
3
NOTE
The series in Exa mp le 2 is
one exa mp le of a
telesc op ing series; the
terms in these series c a nc el
1
1 1
S2 5 1 2
1
2
3
2 4
S3 5 1 2
..............................................................................................
SD
1 n
a n d get s it s va lu e fr om t h e
2
su m of a ll t h e t er m s in t h e sequ en ce. H owever, h ow ca n you t ell if a ser ies wit h a n
in fin it e n u m ber of t er m s h a s a fin it e su m ? At fir st gla n ce, it seem s im possibleh ow
ca n you a dd in fin it ely m a n y n u m ber s t oget h er t o get a r ea l su m ? Con sider t h e
n
1
dia gr a m below, wh ich sh ou ld h elp you visu a lize t h e in fin it e ser ies :
2
n =1
Th e n ot a t ion is r ea d t h e su m fr om 1 t o in fin it y of
out a s the SOPS p rog resses.
1
1
1
1 1
1
2
1
2
3
2
4
3 5
452
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
See wh a t h a ppen ed t h er e? Th e 2 13 a n d 13 will ca n cel ou t . In S 4 , t h e 2 14 a n d 14 will

ca n cel ou t . In fa ct , ea ch pa r t ia l su m will ca n cel ou t a n ot h er t er m a ll t h e wa y t o
in fin it y, a n d t h e on ly t wo n u m ber s left will be 1 1 12 . Th er efor e, t h e su m of t h e ser ies
is 23 . You ca n u se you r ca lcu la t or t o ca lcu la t e S 500 t o ver ify t h a t t h e SOP S is in deed
a ppr oa ch in g 23 :
It m a kes sen se t h a t ea ch t er m in a sequ en ce n eeds t o get sm a ller if t h e ser ies is goin g

t o con ver ge. You a r e a ddin g n u m ber s for a n in fin it e a m ou n t of t im e; if you a r e n ot
even t u a lly a ddin g 0 in t h is in fin it e loop, you r su m will gr ow a n d gr ow a n d n ever
a ppr oa ch a lim it in g va lu e. We sh owed t h a t t h e sequ en ce of t h e t er m s t h a t m a ke u p
( 12 )
h a ve a lim it of 0 ea r ly in t h is sect ion , a n d t h a t in fin it e ser ies h a s a su m .
n =1
H owever, if t h e lim it , a s n a ppr oa ch es in fin it y, of t h e sequ en ce t h a t for m s a n in fin it e

ser ies does n ot equ a l 0, t h en t h a t in fin it e ser ies can n ot con ver ge. Th is is ca lled t h e n th
Term Divergen ce Test, a n d it is t h e ea siest wa y t o im m edia t ely t ell if a ser ies is goin g
t o diver ge.
an 0 , t h en
n th Te rm D iv e rg e n c e Te s t: If lim
n
Ex a m p le 3: Sh ow t h a t
n n+ 1
is a diver gen t ser ies.
n=1
is diver gen t .
n =1
n +1
S o lu tio n : Beca u se lim
n = 1 (a n d t h is lim it m u st equ a l 0 for t h e ser ies t o be con vern
gen t ), t h e ser ies diver ges by t h e n t h Ter m Diver gen ce Test . Th a t s a ll t h er e is t o it . If
you t h in k a bou t it , sin ce t h e lim it a t in fin it y is 1, a s n a ppr oa ch es in fin it y, you d be
a ddin g 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 for ever, a n d t h a t clea r ly a ppr oa ch es n o lim it in g or
m a xim u m va lu e.
a n = 0 , t h a t does n ot m ea n t h a t t h e ser ies will con ver ge!

Be ca r efu l! J u st beca u se nlim
F or exa m ple, t h e h arm on ic series
1n
n=1
is diver gen t even t h ou gh
lim 1 5 0. If th e
n n
lim it at in fin ity is 0, you can con clu d e n oth in g from th e n th Term Divergen ce Test. It
ca n on ly be u sed t o sh ow t h a t a ser ies diver ges (if it s lim it a t in fin it y does n ot equ a l 0);
it ca n n ever be u sed t o sh ow t h a t a ser ies con ver ges.
453
.................................................................
YOU MAY USE YOUR GRAPHING CALCULATOR FOR PROBLEM 4 ONLY.
ln x con ver ges.

2
x
1. Det er m in e if t h e sequ en ce
2. F in d t h e n t h t er m of ea ch sequ en ce (in ot h er wor ds, fin d t h e pa t t er n eviden ced by

t h e sequ en ce), a n d u se it t o det er m in e wh et h er or n ot t h e sequ en ce con ver ges.
3 4 5 6
(a ) 2 , , , , ,
4 9 16 25
1 1 1 1
(b) 1, , , ,
,
2 6 24 120
3. Use t h e n t h Ter m Diver gen ce Test t o det er m in e wh et h er or n ot t h e followin g
series con ver ge:
(a )
n =1
(b)
1 + 3n 2 + n3
4n3 5n + 2
1
x2
n=1
4. (a ) Wh a t is t h e su m of
n + 1 n + 3 ?
n =1
(b) Ca lcu la t e S 500 t o ver ify t h a t t h e SOP S is bou n ded by t h e su m you fou n d.

1. Th e sequ en ce con ver ges if lim ln2x exists . You ll h a ve t o u se LH pit a ls Ru le:
n x
lim
lim
Th e sequ en ce con ver ges.
1
x
2x
1
=0
2x2
n +1 . Use LH pit a ls t o sh ow t h a t t h e sequ en ce

2. (a ) Th is is t h e sequ en ce
n2
con ver ges.
n =1
lim
1
=0
2n
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 1
454
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
(b) Th is is t h e sequ en ce
n1! . H ow ca n we t ell t h a t it con ver ges? It is ver y clea r
n =1
1
t h a t lim n! = 0; in fa ct , t h is sequ en ce con ver ges t o 0 sign ifica n t ly fa st er t h a n
n
HJ
1
, sin ce t h e for m er s den om in a t or will gr ow la r ger m u ch fa st er t h a n t h e
x
la t t er s.
3. (a )
lim 1+ 3n 2 + n 3
n 4 n 3 5n + 2
1 , sin ce t h e expr ession is r a t ion a l a n d t h e degr ees of t h e

4
n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or a r e equ a l. Beca u se t h e lim it does n ot equ a l 0,

t h is ser ies diver ges by t h e n t h Ter m Diver gen ce Test .
(b)
lim 1 5 0, bu t t h is does n ot n ecessa r ily m ea n t h a t t h e ser ies is con vern x 2

gen t . You will fin d ou t t h a t it does con ver ge ver y soon (in t h e In t egr a l Test
su bsect ion ), bu t you ca n n ever con clu de t h a t a n y ser ies con ver ges u sin g t h e
n t h Ter m Diver gen ce Test ; it ca n on ly be u sed t o pr ove diver gen ce. Th er efor e,
you ca n dr a w n o con clu sion .
4. (a ) Th is is a t elescopin g ser ies; if you wr it e ou t t h e fou r t h pa r t ia l su m (S 4 ), you

ca n see wh a t t er m s will ca n cel ou t in t h e lon g r u n a n d wh ich on es will
r em a in :
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + +
2 4 3 5 4 6 5 7
1 1
Th e on ly t er m s t h a t will r em a in a s n a ppr oa ch es in fin it y a r e + , so t h e
2 3
5
in fin it e su m is ' .833333.
6
S4 =
(b) Use you r ca lcu la t or t o fin d S 500 . Of cou r se, t h is is n ot t h e lim it a t in fin it y, bu t
it will give u s a n idea of wh er e SOP S is h ea din g a t t h a t poin t .
S 500 is closin g in on .8333, bu t it h a s a ll of in fin it y t o get t h er eso wh a t s t h e

r u sh ?
455
.................................................................
You r m a jor focu s in in fin it e ser ies will be in det er m in in g wh et h er or n ot t h e ser ies
con ver ge; in som e r a r e in st a n ces, you will a lso be a ble t o pr ovide t h e su m a t wh ich t h e
ser ies con ver ge. E a ch of t h ese t est s wor ks best for cer t a in kin ds of ser ies, so m a ke su r e
t o lea r n t h e ser ies ch a r a ct er ist ics t h a t in dica t e wh ich t est s t o u se a s well a s h ow t o a pply
t h e t est s t h em selves. So, don t ju st lea r n on e or t wo a n d expect t o be a ble t o a pply t h em
in a ll sit u a t ion s; you n eed t o kn ow t h em a ll. I kn ow, n o r est for t h e wicked. . . .
Geometric Series
Geom et r ic ser ies h a ve t h e ea siest t est for con ver gen ce of t h em a ll, bu t fir st you n eed t o
kn ow wh a t a geom et r ic ser ies is. E ver y geom et r ic ser ies h a s t h e for m
ar
n=0
wh er e a is a con st a n t t h a t ca n be fa ct or ed ou t of ea ch t er m a n d r is t h e ratio, t h e
iden t ica l por t ion of ea ch t er m r a ised t o a n in cr ea sin g power a s t h e t er m s in cr ea se. Th e
m a jor differ en ce bet ween t h is ser ies a n d m ost ot h er in fin it e ser ies is t h a t geom et r ic
ser ies begin wit h n 5 0 a n d n ot n 5 1. H owever, t h a t m a kes t h e a t er m ver y ea sy t o
fin d; t h e a t er m will be t h e fir st t er m in t h e geom et r ic ser ies wh en expa n ded, sin ce it
()
n
2 13 t o get
is m u lt iplied by r 0 , wh ich is ju st 1. Let s expa n d t h e geom et r ic ser ies
n=0
a feel for t h ese pu ppies:
2
1
1
1
1
2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 +
3
3
3
3
2+
2 2
2
2
+ +
+
+
3 9 27 81
Not on ly will you be a ble t o t ell if t h is ser ies a ct u a lly a dds u p t o som et h in g (con ver ges), bu t we ca n a ct u a lly fin d ou t exactly wh a t t h e su m of t h e ser ies is.
Ge o m e tric S e rie s : Th e geom et r ic ser ies
ar
will diver ge for U r U 1. It will on ly
n=0
con ver ge if 0 , U r U , 1. If t h e ser ies does con ver ge, it will con ver ge t o t h e su m 1a r .
n
1
Th er efor e, t h e ser ies 2 con ver ges sin ce t h e r a t io, 13 , is bet ween 0 a n d 1.
3
n=0
F u r t h er m or e, t h e su m of t h e ser ies will be
a
2
3
= = 2 =3
1 r 2
2
3
Ex a m p le 4: Det er m in e wh et h er or n ot t h e followin g ser ies con ver ge; if t h ey do, fin d

t h e su m of t h e ser ies.
(a )
3+
15 75 375
+
+
+
4 16 64
..............................................................................................
CONVERGENCE TESTS FOR INFINITE SERIES
TIP
Just a s p romised , the first
term of the exp a nsion is the
a term of the g eometric
series.
456
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Th e fir st t er m is a, so a 5 3. You a lso kn ow t h a t ea ch t er m of t h e ser ies con t a in s a, so

fa ct or it ou t t o det er m in e r:
5 25 125
31 + +
+
+
4 16 64
25
5
So, t h e n 5 0 t er m is 1, t h e n 5 1 t er m is , a n d t h e n 5 2 t er m is . Th e n u m er a t or s
4
16
a r e power s of 5, a n d t h e den om in a t or s a r e power s of 4. Th is is ju st t h e ser ies
3( 45 )
n=0
(b)
. H owever, 45 1, so t h e ser ies diver ges.
1 1 1 1
1
1
+ + +
+
+
+
2 4 8 16 32 64
Recogn ize t h is pr oblem ? We h a ve a lr ea dy decided t h a t t h e a n swer m u st be 1, so let s

1
fin a lly pr ove it . F ir st of a ll, a 5 , so fa ct or t h a t ou t of ever yt h in g:
2
1 1 1 1 1
1
1+ + + +
+
+
2 2 4 8 16 32
Th e r a t io is defin it ely
SD
1
, m a kin g t h e ser ies
2
1
2
1 12
1
2
1
2
12 12
. Th er efor e, t h e su m will be
n=0
=1
ju st a s we t h ou gh t it wou ld be.
NOTE
Divid ing the other terms b y
1
is the sa me a s multip lying
4
them b y 4.
(c )
1 1 1 2
4
+ + +
+ +
4 6 9 27 81
Aga in , sin ce a is t h e fir st t er m , 14 , divide it ou t of a ll t h e ot h er t er m s.
1
4 4 8 16
1+ + +
+
+
4
6 9 27 81
Th e 64 t er m ca n be r edu ced t o 23 , a n d t h e ser ies in pa r en t h eses h a s r a t io 23 . Th u s, t h e
ser ies con ver ges (sin ce 23 is bet ween 0 a n d 1), a n d it h a s su m
1
4
2
3
1
4
1
3
1
12
457
.................................................................
To h elp you r em em ber t h e n ecessa r y con dit ion s t h a t m u st exist in or der t o a pply t h e
in t egr a l t est , m em or ize t h e followin g ph r a se: In p r ison , d ogs c u r se. Th e m n eu m on ic
device r ein for ces t h a t in or der t o a pply t h e In t egr a l Test , t h e fu n ct ion m u st be p osit ive,
d ecr ea sin g, a n d c on t in u ou s. In essen ce, t h e In t egr a l Test sh ows t h a t a n in fin it e ser ies
a n d a n in t egr a l wit h a n in fin it e u pper bou n d h a ve a lot in com m on : eit h er t h ey will bot h
con ver ge or bot h diver ge.
Th e In te g ra l Te s t: If a n 5 f(n ) is a posit ive, decr ea sin g, con t in u ou s fu n ct ion , t h en
and
n=1
1n , t h e
f (n)dn eit h er bot h con ver ge or bot h diver ge. As a n exa m ple, con sider
h a r m on ic ser ies. We a lr ea dy kn ow t h a t t h e sequ en ce
n=1
{ 1n } con ver ges, bu t
does t h e in fin it e ser ies con ver ge? Accor din g t o t h e In t egr a l Test , it will if t h e in t egr a l
1
n
dn does. Th er efor e, t r y t o eva lu a t e t h is im pr oper in t egr a l:

1
dn
n
lim ln n 1b
lim
b 1
b
lim ln b
b
As x a ppr oa ch es in fin it y, ln x will a ppr oa ch a h eigh t of in fin it y; t h e gr a ph h a s n o

h or izon t a l a sym pt ot e or lim it in g va lu e a n d will in cr ea se for ever (a lt h ou gh m or e
slowly t h a n m a n y ot h er gr a ph s). Th er efor e, t h e in t egr a l diver ges, a n d t h e in fin it e
ser ies m u st diver ge, t oo.
Th e ju st ifica t ion for t h e In t egr a l Test lies in geom et r y. Rem em ber t h a t a n in t egr a l is
r ea lly t h e su m of a n in fin it e n u m ber of r ect a n gle a r ea s; t h e a bove ser ies wa s a n
in fin it e su m of n u m ber s. If a fu n ct ion cr ea t es r ect a n gles wh ose a r ea s gr ow a n d r esu lt
in diver gen ce, t h en t h a t sa m e fu n ct ion will cr ea t e ou t pu t s wh ose su m s gr ow t oo m u ch
a n d a lso cr ea t e diver gen ce.
Th is lea ds u s ba ck t o a br ief discu ssion we bega n in t h e Im pr oper In t egr a ls sect ion of
Ch a pt er 8. At t h a t t im e, we discu ssed t h e set of im pr oper in t egr a ls of t h e for m
1
xp
dx . We sa id t h a t t h is in t egr a l will diver ge for a n y p 1 bu t will con ver ge for
p . 1. We ca n n ow a pply t h is fa ct t o in fin it e ser ies.
P -s e rie s : A p-ser ies is a ser ies of t h e for m
n1 , wh er e p is a posit ive n u m ber. A
n =1
p-ser ies will con ver ge if p . 1 bu t will diver ge if p 1. In t h e ca se of t h e h a r m on ic

ser ies 1n , p 5 1, so it will diver ge; you don t h a ve t o a pply t h e In t egr a l Test a s we did
a bove, bu t if you do, it will becom e ver y clea r exa ct ly wh y t h e h a r m on ic ser ies
diver ges.
Ex a m p le 5: Det er m in e wh et h er or n ot t h e followin g ser ies con ver ge, a n d expla in h ow
you a r r ived a t you r a n swer :
(a )
23
n =1
..............................................................................................
The Integra l Test a nd P-Series
NOTE
It ma kes sense tha t p must
b e p ositive. If p 5 22, tha t
c rea tes the series
( n 2,
n=1
whic h d efinitely ha s a n
infinite heig ht a s x
a p p roa c hes infinity.
NOTE
The fa c t tha t I ha ve not
p ep p ered this d isc ussion on
p -series with low-b row
humor is a testa ment to my
self-c ontrol.
458
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
If you r ewr it e t h e ser ies a s
will diver ge.

(b)
n1
2/3 ,
n =1
it is a p-ser ies wit h p 5 23 . Sin ce 23 1, t h e ser ies
3n
2n2 + 3
n =1
Accor din g t o t h e In t egr a l Test , t h e con ver gen ce of t h is ser ies is cor r ela t ed wit h t h e
con ver gen ce of t h e r ela t ed im pr oper in t egr a l. Th er efor e, t r y t o in t egr a t e:
3n
dn
2n2 + 3
b
n
lim 3
dn
1 2n 2 + 3
b
You sh ou ld u se u -su bst it u t ion , wit h u 5 2n 2 1 3. Don t for get t o r epla ce 1 a n d b wit h
u -bou n da r ies.
1
lim 3 ln (u )
4
2b2 + 3
5
Th is in t egr a l defin it ely gr ows in fin it ely la r ge a s x a ppr oa ch es in fin it y, so bot h it a n d

t h e ser ies will diver ge.
NOTE
The Comp a rison Test is a lso
c a lled the Direc t
Comp a rison Test.
ALERT!
If a n b n , a nd b n is
d iverg ent or a n is
c onverg ent, you c a n d ra w
no c onc lusions a b out the
other series.
The Compa rison Test

Th is t est is u sefu l wh en t h e ser ies a t h a n d looks sim ila r t o a ser ies for wh ich you a lr ea dy
kn owor ca n ea sily det er m in et h e con ver gen ce. Now t h a t you kn ow h ow t o a pply t h e
in t egr a l, geom et r ic, a n d p-ser ies t est s, you ca n u se t h em in con ju n ct ion wit h t h e
Com pa r ison Test in or der t o det er m in e t h e con ver gen ce of ser ies t h a t a r e a lm ost (bu t n ot
qu it e) geom et r ic or p-ser ies or t h a t a r e n ea r ly (bu t n ot qu it e) in t egr a ble. As wa s t h e ca se
wit h t h e In t egr a l Test , a ll t h e t er m s of t h e ser ies in volved m u st be posit ive t o a pply t h e
Com pa r ison Test .
Th e Co m p a ris o n Te s t: If Sa n a n d Sb n a r e bot h posit ive ser ies a n d ever y t er m of Sa n
is less t h a n or equ a l t o t h e cor r espon din g Sb n t er m ,
(1) if Sb n con ver ges, t h en Sa n con ver ges.

(2) if Sa n diver ges, t h en Sb n diver ges.
Con sider t h e followin g dia gr a m of t h e fir st few t er m s of ea ch sequ en ce. Not ice t h a t
a n , b n for a ll n . Th e figu r e a lso con t a in s t h e fu n ct ion s a(x) a n d b(x) fr om wh ich t h e
t er m s of t h e ser ies get t h eir va lu e.
459
.................................................................
b2
b3
a1
a2
a(x)
b4
a3
a4
b5
a5
If
con ver ges, t h en a ccor din g t o t h e In t egr a l Test ,
n=1
b( x )dx is fin it e. In ot h er
wor ds, t h er e is a n u m ber t h a t r epr esen t s t h e a r ea t r a pped bet ween b(x) a n d t h e

x-a xis. Sin ce t h e a r ea ben ea t h a(x) m u st be less t h a n t h e a r ea ben ea t h b(x) (sin ce a ll
t h e fu n ct ion va lu es for a a r e less t h a n or equ a l t o bs va lu es), t h en t h e a r ea ben ea t h
a(x) m u st a lso be fin it e. H ow ca n a n a r ea less t h a n a fin it e a r ea be in fin it e? Sim ila r ly,
if
a (x )
diver ges, t h en t h e a r ea
n =1
a( x )dx m u st be in fin it e. If b h a s la r ger va lu es
t h a n t h is diver gen t in t egr a l, t h en b n m u st be diver gen t , t oo.

Th is t est wor ks ju st like t h e r est r ict ion sign s for kiddie r ides a t t h em e pa r ks: You
ca n n ot be t a ller t h a n t h is t o r ide t h is r ide. I a m t oo t a ll t o r ide kids r ides, bu t P a pa
Sm u r f ca n r ide a n y of t h em . If a n in dividu a l com es a lon g wh o is t a ller t h a n I a m , t h en
h e will n ot be a ble t o r ide eit h er (t h e diver gen ce pa r t of t h e r u le). H owever, if som eon e
sh or t er t h a n P a pa Sm u r f st r olls u p, t h en h e will be a ble t o r ide (t h e con ver gen ce pa r t
of t h e r u le).
Ex a m p le 6: Use t h e Com pa r ison Test t o det er m in e t h e con ver gen ce of t h e followin g
ser ies:
en
(a )
n+3
n =1
n 1+ 3 . Wit h ou t a dou bt , t h e n u m er a t or en is m u ch la r ger

n =1
t h a n t h e ot h er n u m er a t or, 1. Th er efor e, ea ch t er m of t h e ser ies
n e+ 3
will be la r ger
n =1
n 1+ 3 . H owever, u sin g t h e In t egr a l Test , it is ea sy t o

e
is diver gen t . Beca u se
is la r ger t h a n a diver gen t ser ies, it
n+3
t h a n t h e com pa r sion ser ies,
n 1+ 3
n =1
n =1
n =1
m u st a lso be diver gen t by t h e Com pa r ison Test .
(b)
7 3+ 1
n =1
NOTE
The tric kiest p a rt of the
Comp a rison Test is d ec id ing
wha t to c omp a re the g iven
series to. Most of the time,
you p ic k a series tha t is
c lose to, b ut simp ler tha n,
the g iven series.
Com pa r e t h is t o t h e ser ies
see t h a t
..............................................................................................
b1 b(x)
Com pa r e t h is t o t h e ser ies
n =1
3
7
, wh ich is a con ver gen t geom et r ic ser ies (sin ce r 5
3
, wh ich is less t h a n 1). Sin ce ea ch of t h e den om in a t or s of
7
t h e cor r espon din g den om in a t or s in t h e geom et r ic ser ies
7 3+ 1
n =1
n =1
a r e gr ea t er t h a n
3 , t h a t will r esu lt in a
7
460
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
sm a ller over a ll va lu e for ea ch t er m (in t h e sa m e wa y t h a t
Th er efor e,
7 3+ 1
n =1
1
1
, , even t h ou gh 6 . 5).
6
5
is sm a ller t h a n a con ver gen t ser ies, so it m u st be con ver gen t , t oo.
The Limit Compa rison Test

Th is t est oper a t es in a sligh t ly differ en t wa y fr om pr eviou s t est s bu t h a s m a n y of t h e
sa m e ch a r a ct er ist ics a s t h e Com pa r ison Test . F or on e t h in g, you ll n eed t o in ven t a
com pa r ison ser ies, a n d bot h you r or igin a l a n d t h e n ew ser ies m u st con t a in posit ive
t er m s. In pr a ct ice, t h e Lim it Com pa r ison Test a llows you t o t a ke u gly ser ies a n d
com pa r e t h em t o ver y sim ple p-ser ies t o det er m in e t h eir con ver gen ce. Th er e is even
good n ews, pessim ist ic m a t h em a t icia n : It s ver y ea sy t o pick a com pa r ison ser ies wit h
t h is t est . Wh en you ve st opped ch eer in g, you m a y con t in u e r ea din g.
TIP
When c hoosing the
c omp a rison series, use only
the hig hest p owers of n in
the numera tor a nd
d enomina tor of the orig ina l
series.
Th e Lim it Co m p a ris o n Te s t: If Sa n a n d Sb n a r e posit ive ser ies, a n d

a
lim n = N
n b
n
(wh er e N is a posit ive n u m ber), t h en bot h ser ies eit h er con ver ge or diver ge. If t h e lim it
does n ot equ a l a fin it e n u m ber, you ca n dr a w n o con clu sion fr om t h is t est .
Tran slation : To det er m in e wh et h er or n ot a ser ies Sa n con ver ges, you will fir st in ven t
a
a com pa r ison ser ies Sb n . Th en , fin d t h e lim it a t in fin it y of t h e qu ot ien t bn . If t h a t
n
lim it exist s (in ot h er wor ds, if t h e lim it is a fin it e n u m ber ), t h en eit h er bot h ser ies will
con ver ge or bot h will diver ge. Beca u se of t h is, you sh ou ld ch oose a Sb n t h a t is
obviou sly con ver gen t or diver gen t t o cu t down on you r wor k.
J u st like t h e Com pa r ison Test , t h e con ver gen ce or diver gen ce of t h e ser ies, a n , is
depen den t u pon t h e con ver gen ce of t h e ser ies t o wh ich it is com pa r ed, b n . Alt h ou gh a
bit st r a n ge, t h e Lim it Com pa r ison Test is m or e st r a igh t for wa r d t h a n it s pr edecessor
a n d is, in pr a ct ice, ea sier t o u se.
Ex a m p le 7: Use t h e Lim it Com pa r ison Test t o det er m in e wh et h er or n ot t h e followin g
ser ies con ver ge:
(a )
3n + 6
1 5n + 7n2
n =1
As t h e t ip a bove expla in s, u se t h e h igh est power s of n in t h e n u m er a t or a n d den om i1

n
n a t or t o cr ea t e a com pa r ison ser ies of 2 or .
n
N
3n + 6
1 5n + 7 n 2
n
1
n
lim
Mu lt iply t h e n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or of t h is m ega fr a ct ion by
lim
3n 2 + 6n
1 5n + 7n 2
n
t o get
1
461
.................................................................
st ill kn ow t h a t
n+5
(b)
3n 4 n
n =1
1
n
is a diver gen t p-ser ies (sin ce p 5 1).
Th is on e is t r ickier. You r e su pposed t o u se t h e h igh est power s of n on ly, so wh a t do

you do wit h t h e 4 n ? An swer : in clu de it a lsowit h a n n power, it h a s t o be im por t a n t .
n
1
Th er efor e, t h e com pa r ison ser ies is
or n .
n 4n
4
n+5
3n 4 n
1
4n
lim
Mu lt iply t h e t op a n d bot t om of t h a t gia n t fr a ct ion by 4 n t o get
CAUTION
lim n + 5 = 1
n 3n
3
com pa r ison ser ies ca n be r ewr it t en a s
1
d oes not mea n
3
tha t either series ha s a sum
1
of . All tha t s imp orta nt is
3
1
tha t is a finite numb er
3
(not `).
A limit of
We got t h e n u m ber we n eededn ow, t o det er m in e if t h e ser ies con ver ge or n ot . Th e
..............................................................................................
Beca u se t h is is a r a t ion a l fu n ct ion wit h equ a l degr ees in t h e n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or, t h e lim it is t h e r a t io of t h e lea din g coefficien t s: 37 . Th er efor e, bot h ser ies will
eit h er con ver ge or diver ge; so wh ich is it ? We a lr ea dy kn ow t h a t
1n diver ges, so bot h ser ies diver ge. If you for got t h a t it wa s a h a r m on ic ser ies, you
, wh ich is a con ver gen t geom et r ic
n =1
ser ies (sin ce r 5 14 , 1). Th er efor e, bot h of t h e ser ies m u st be con ver gen t .
The Ra tio Test

Yet a ga in , t h is t est wor ks on ly for ser ies wit h posit ive t er m s. (Th e n ext ser ies t est will
fin a lly a ddr ess ser ies wit h posit ive a n d n ega t ive t er m s.) Th e Ra t io Test wor ks best for
ser ies t h a t con t a in t h in gs t h a t gr ow ext r em ely la r ge a s n in cr ea ses, like power s of n or
fa ct or ia ls in volvin g n . In essen ce, you t a ke t h e lim it a t in fin it y of t h e r a t io of a gen er ic
ser ies t er m a n a n d t h e n ext con secu t ive gen er ic t er m a n 1 1 ; you ca n det er m in e t h e
con ver gen ce of t h e ser ies ba sed on wh a t h a ppen s a ft er you fin d t h e lim it .
Th e Ra tio Te s t: If Sa n is a ser ies wh ose t er m s a r e posit ive, a n d
lim an +1 5 N
an
(wh er e N is a r ea l n u m ber ), t h en
(1) Sa n con ver ges if N , 1.
(2) Sa n diver ges if N . 1.
(3) If N 5 1, we don t kn ow diddly squ a t : t h e ser ies cou ld con ver ge or diver ge, bu t t o
det er m in e wh ich , well h a ve t o u se a differ en t t est ; t h e Ra t io Test doesn t h elp.
462
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Ex a m p le 8: Use t h e Ra t io Test t o det er m in e wh et h er or n ot t h e followin g ser ies

con ver ge:
(a )
n3
n
n =1 !
You r best bet is t h e Ra t io Test beca u se of t h e fa ct or ia l in t h e ser ies. In t h is ca se, a n 5

n 3 ; t o get a
n 1 1 , su bst it u t e (n 1 1) for n :
n!
an
1 1
(n + 1)3
(n + 1)!
Now you ca n set u p t h e lim it t h a t is t h e h ea r t of t h e Ra t io Test :
lim an +1
n a
n
( n +1)3
lim ( n +1)!
n3
n!
To sim plify t h e fr a ct ion , m u lt iply t h e n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or by t h e r ecipr oca l of

t h e den om in a t or. (Th is is a lwa ys t h e secon d st ep.)
3
lim ( n + 1) n!
n ( n + 1)!
n3
lim
( n + 1) 3 n!
( n + 1) n! n 3
2
lim ( n + 1)
n3
2
lim n + 2 n + 1 = 0
n3
Th e lim it a t in fin it y is 0; sin ce 0 , 1, t h e ser ies con ver ges a ccor din g t o t h e Ra t io Test .
(b)
n2
n=1
Th is doesn t h a ve a n yt h in g t h a t gr ows so la r ge a s t o m a ke t h e Ra t io Test ou r fir st

ch oice, bu t we h a ve t o follow dir ect ion s.
463
.................................................................
2
n2
n2
=1
n n 2 + 2 n + 1
lim
Sin ce t h e lim it equ a ls 1, n o con clu sion ca n be dr a wn u sin g t h e Ra t io Test . So, let s t r y
som et h in g else even t h ou gh t h e dir ect ion s don t t ell u s t ower e r ebels! Not ice t h a t
2
2 is a lm ost a p-ser ies, so t h e bet t er bet wou ld h a ve been t h e Lim it Com pa r ison Test .
n
1
:
n2
A good com pa r ison ser ies is
2
n
lim 2
n 1
n2
Beca u se 2 is a fin it e n u m ber (a n d
=2
1
is a con ver gen t p-ser ies) bot h ser ies con ver ge
n2
a ccor din g t o t h e Lim it Com pa r ison Test .
The Alterna ting Series Test

Un t il n ow, you h a ve det er m in ed con ver gen ce for lot s of differ en t ser ies. Most of t h ose
t est s r equ ir ed t h e t er m s of t h e ser ies t o be posit ive. F in a lly (exh a le h er e), t h e Alt er n a t in g Ser ies Test (in h a le n er vou sly h er e) a llows you t o con sider ser ies wit h n ega t ive
t er m s. H owever, t h ese ser ies m u st a lt er n a t e ba ck a n d for t h bet ween posit ive a n d
n ega t ive t er m s. F or exa m ple,
( 1) n +1
n =1
n =1
( 1)n +1
n
=1
is a n a lt er n a t in g ser ies:
1 1 1 1 1
+ + +
2 3 4 5 6
Th e ser ies h a s a posit ive t er m , t h en a n ega t ive t er m , t h en a posit ive t er m , et c. In

con t r a st , t h e ser ies
1 1 1 1 1
+ +
2 3 4 5 6
is n ot a n a lt er n a t in g ser ies. Not on ly do t h e sign s h a ve t o a lt er n a t e, bu t t h ey a lso h a ve

t o a lt er n a t e ever y ot h er t er m .
Th e Alte rn a tin g S e rie s Te s t: If Sa n is a n a lt er n a t in g ser ies; ea ch t er m , a n
an = 0 , t h en Sa n con ver ges.
sm a ller t h a n t h e pr ecedin g t er m a n ; a n d lim
n
1 1,
is
Tran slation : In or der for a n a lt er n a t in g ser ies t o con ver ge, (1) t h e t er m s m u st decr ea se a s n in cr ea ses (in fa ct , ea ch t er m h as t o be sm a ller t h a n t h e t er m befor e it ), a n d
(2) t h e ser ies m u st pa ss t h e n t h Ter m Diver gen ce Test t h e n t h t er m m u st h a ve a
lim it of 0. If bot h con dit ion s a r e sa t isfied, t h e a lt er n a t in g ser ies con ver ges.
..............................................................................................
2
lim ( n +1)
464
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
TIP
Onc e you know a series is
a lterna ting , you c a n ig nore
the neg a tive sig ns a s you
p roc eed throug h the test.
Ex a m p le 9: Det er m in e wh et h er or n ot t h e followin g ser ies con ver ge u sin g t h e Alt ern a t in g Ser ies Test :
(a )
n =1
( 1) n +1
n
It s t h e a lt er n a t in g ser ies for m of a h a r m on ic ser ies. You m a y wa n t t o a n swer divergen t a s a r eflex. Let s see wh a t h a ppen s. If we wr it e ou t a few t er m s
1 1 1 1 1
+ + +
2 3 4 5 6
it s clea r t h a t t h is is a n a lt er n a t in g ser ies a n d t h a t ea ch t er m is sm a ller t h a n t h e

pr eviou s on e. Don t wor r y a bou t t h e posit ive a n d n ega t ive sign s. Clea r ly, 13 > 14 > 15 ,
et c. Th a t sa t isfies t h e fir st r equ ir em en t of t h e t est . Th e secon d r equ ir em en t in volves
t h e followin g lim it :
1
=0
n
Th e lim it is ver y ea sy t o fin d, a n d we a ga in ign or e t h e possibilit y of a n ega t ive sign
wh en eva lu a t in g t h e lim it . Th e t est t a kes ca r e of t h e n ega t ive sign wit h ou t ou r h a vin g
t o wor r y a bou t it . Beca u se bot h con dit ion s a r e sa t isfied, t h is ser ies con ver ges.
(b)
lim
n =1
( 1)n ( n + 3)
2n
To begin , let s wr it e ou t a few t er m s of t h e ser ies:
5
7 4 3
1+ + +
4
8 5 4
Th e ser ies is defin it ely a lt er n a t in g, a n d (ign or in g t h e sign s) ea ch t er m is less t h a n t h e
t er m pr ecedin g it . H owever,
2 +
n+3 1
= 0
2n
2
Th er efor e, t h is ser ies fa ils t h e secon d con dit ion of t h e Alt er n a t in g Ser ies Test . In fa ct ,
t h is ser ies ou t r igh t fails t h e n t h Ter m Diver gen ce Test a n d t h er efor e diver ges. E ven
t h ou gh it s a n a lt er n a t in g ser ies, it (like a ll ser ies) m u st pass t h e n t h Ter m Diver gen ce
Test in or der t o con ver ge.
lim
In som e ser ies, t h e a lt er n a t in g ser ies t est will n ot a pply, even t h ou gh we wa n t it t o so

ba dly. Let s t a ke, for exa m ple,
( 1)
n =1
4n
. Th e ser ies defin it ely a lt er n a t es; t h a t s n ot
n!
t h e pr oblem . If we wr it e a few t er m s ou t , we get
4 + 8
32 32 128
+
+
3
3
15
465
.................................................................
4n
n n!
lim
`
, so ou r n a t u r a l in st in ct wou ld be t o u se LH pit a ls
`
Ru le. H ow do we fin d t h e der iva t ive of (n !)? Th in gs a r e lookin g u glyt h e Alt er n a t in g
Ser ies Test isn t cu t t in g t h e m u st a r d. In ca ses su ch a s t h ese, we will look for absolu te
con vergen ce. It will a llow u s t o ign or e t h e pesky n ega t ive sign s a n d still det er m in e if
t h e a lt er n a t in g ser ies con ver ges.
Th is is t h e in det er m in a t e for m
Abs o lu te Co n v e rg e n c e : If SU a n U con ver ges, t h en Sa n is sa id t o con verge absolu tely,

a n d t h e or igin a l ser ies, Sa n , a u t om a t ica lly con ver ges. If SU a n U diver ges bu t Sa n con ver ges, t h e ser ies is sa id t o con ver ge con d ition ally.
n
n 4
con ver ge?
Ex a m p le 10: Does ( 1)
n!
n =1
S o lu tio n : Beca u se t h e Alt er n a t in g Ser ies Test doesn t wor k, a s we sh owed a bove, we
will t est t o see if
( 1) n
n =1
4n
=
n!
4n
n!
n =1
con ver ges in st ea d. Beca u se of t h e la r ge qu a n t it ies in volved, t h e Ra t io Test is you r best

bet .
4 n +1
lim
( n +1)!
4n
n!
4
=0
n n + 1
lim
Beca u se 0 , 1, t h is ser ies con ver ges by t h e Ra t io Test . H er es t h e gr ea t pa r t : Beca u se

t he a bsolu t e va lu e of t h e ser ies con ver ged, t h e ser ies con ver ges a bsolu t ely, a n d
n
(1)n 4n! con ver ges a u t om a t ica lly! H a n dy, eh ?
n =1
You m a y won der wh y a bsolu t e con ver gen ce wor ks. In essen ce, it sa ys t o ign or e a ll
n ega t ive t er m s in a ser ies a n d m a ke t h em posit ive. If t h a t a ll-posit ive ser ies still
con ver ges t o a sin gle n u m ber, t h en a llowin g som e of t h ose t er m s t o be n ega t ive will
n ot ca u se t h a t su m t o get a n y la r ger a n d possibly diver ge. In fa ct , t h e in clu sion of
n ega t ive t er m s will m a ke t h a t su m sm a ller.
Th e fin a l im por t a n t ch a r a ct er ist ic of a lt er n a t in g ser ies is t h e er r or-bou n d t h a t t h ey

ca n r epor t . Like m ost ot h er ser ies t est s (exclu din g geom et r ic), you ca n n ot fin d t h e su m
of t h e in fin it e ser ies. You st ill ca n t wit h Alt er n a t in g Ser ies (Booooo!), bu t you can t ell
a ppr oxim a t ely h ow close you r pa r t ia l su m a ppr oxim a t ion is. H er es t h e im por t a n t
fa ct oid t o r em em ber : T h e error in h eren t in an altern atin g series partial su m S n is less
th an th e absolu te valu e of th e n ext term , a n 1 1 . Th is m a y sou n d t r icky, bu t it s r ea lly
ea sy!
..............................................................................................
Th e t er m s (a t lea st in t h is sm a ll sa m ple) defin it ely don t seem t o be get t in g u n ifor m ly

sm a ller. Th ey will la t er, bu t a t fir st , t h in gs a r e pr et t y weir d. F u r t h er m or e, let s t r y t o
fin d t h e r equ ir ed lim it for t h e Alt er n a t in g Ser ies Test :
466
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Ex a m p le 11: F in d t h e in t er va l in wh ich t h e a ct u a l su m of
S 5 is u sed t o a ppr oxim a t e it .
n =1
( 1) n +1
n2
is con t a in ed if
S o lu tio n : S 5 is t h e pa r t ia l su m t h a t in clu des on ly t h e fir st five t er m s of t h e ser ies. So,

t h is pr oblem is a ppr oxim a t in g t h e su m of t h e ser ies by a ddin g on ly t h ose t er m s
t oget h er :
S5 = 1
1 1 1
1
+
+
.838611
4 9 16 25
Alt h ou gh t h a t s n ot t h e su m of t h e in fin it e ser ies, we will soon be a ble t o t ell ju st h ow

close of a n a ppr oxim a t ion it is. Th e m a xim u m possible er r or will be t h e a bsolu t e va lu e
1 .027777 . Th e a ct u a l in fin it e su m for t h e ser ies will

of t h e n ext t er m , a6 = 36
fa ll wit h in .027777 of .838611. Th er efor e, t h e a ct u a l su m is som ewh er e in t h e in t er va l
(.838611 2 .027777,.838611 1 .027777)

(.810833,.866388)
Conclusion
Aft er lea r n in g a ll of t h ese t est s for ser ies con ver gen ce, m ost st u den t s t h in k t h a t it will
be a m ir a cle if t h ey ca n sim ply r em em ber t h em a ll on a t est I a gr ee. H owever, it is a
m ir a cle t h a t h elps m e r em em ber a ll t h e t est s. Wh en ever you fa ce a n u gly, squ ir m in g,
gr oss ser ies pr oblem , r em em ber Moses pa r t in g t h e Red Sea . Not on ly is it r ela xin g, it
a lso for m s a m n em on ic ph r a se t o h elp you r em em ber a ll t h e ser ies you ve lea r n ed:
PARTIN G C
(Oka y, I h a d t o be a lit t le cr ea t ive wit h C, bu t cu t m e som e sla ck.) E a ch let t er

r epr esen t s on e of t h e t est s you ju st lea r n ed. As you a t t em pt ea ch of t h e pr oblem s in
t h e P r oblem Set , u se t h e Moses ph r a se t o h elp decide wh ich t est t o u se:
1
?
np
P-ser ies: Is t h e ser ies in t h e for m
Alt er n a t in g ser ies: Does t h e ser ies a lt er n a t e? If it does, a r e t h e t er m s

get t in g sm a ller, a n d is t h e n t h t er m 0?
Ra t io Test : Does t h e ser ies con t a in t h in gs t h a t gr ow ver y la r ge a s n in cr ea ses?

Telescopin g ser ies: Will a ll bu t a cou ple of t h e t er m s in t h e ser ies ca n cel
ou t ?
In t egr a l Test : Ca n you ea sily in t egr a t e t h e expr ession t h a t defin es t h e
ser ies?
N t h Ter m Diver gen ce Test : Is t h e n t h t er m som et h in g ot h er t h a n 0?
Geom et r ic ser ies: Is t h e ser ies of t h e for m
T
I
ar n ?
n= 0
Com pa r ison Test s: Is t h e ser ies alm ost a n ot h er kin d of ser ies (e.g., p-ser ies
or geom et r ic ser ies)? Wh ich wou ld be bet t er t o u se: t h e Com pa r ison or t h e
Lim it Com pa r ison Test ?
J u s t th in k o f it: Moses wa s fleein g fr om t h e E gypt ia n s a n d ca pt ivit y. You ve
pr oba bly n ever h a d t o pa r t a n yt h in g la r ger t h a n you r h a ir. Un less you a r e a
m em ber of t h e 80s ba n d P oison , t h e t a sks a r en t even com pa r a ble.
467
.................................................................

F or 1 t h r ou gh 12, det er m in e wh et h er or n ot t h e ser ies con ver ge u sin g t h e a ppr opr ia t e
con ver gen ce t est (t h er e m a y be m or e t h a n on e a pplica ble t est ). If possible, give t h e su m
of t h e ser ies.
1.
2
7
n=0
2.
n3
n=1
2
3.
5n
n =1
4.
n =1 n
n
5.
+5
n!
n =1
6.
1 1 1 1 1
+ + + + +
5 6 7 8 9
7.
2+
1 1 1
+ +
+
2 8 32
8.
5n 2 6n + 3
3
n =1 n 7n + 8
9.
cos n
n
n =1
10.
3n + 4
n
n =1 2
11.
8n 3 6 n 5
12 n 4 + 9 n 5
n =1
12.
n =1
3n + 1
n5 + 2
13. Det er m in e if t h e ser ies

or diver ges.
( 1)n
n =1
3n + 4
con ver ges a bsolu t ely, con ver ges con dit ion a lly,
exerc ises

..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 2
468
.................................................................
..............................................................................................

1. Th is is a geom et r ic ser ies wit h a 5 1 a n d
will con ver ge, a n d it will con ver ge t o
r=
2 . Beca u se 0
7
<
2
7
< 1 , t h e ser ies
a
1
1 7
=
= 5 =
2
1 r 1 7
5
7
2. Th is looks like a p-ser ies wit h p 5 3. H owever, t h e 4 m a kes it a lit t le differ en t .

Beca u se t h e 4 will be m u lt iplied by ever y t er m in t h e ser ies, we ca n r ewr it e t h e
ser ies a s
1
3
n=1 n
(You ca n pu ll ou t t h e con st a n t , ju st like you did wit h defin it e in t egr a ls.) Th er efor e, t h e 4 does n ot a ffect t h e ser ies a t a ll. Sin ce p . 1, t h e ser ies con ver ges.
3. Th is ser ies is a good ca n dida t e for t h e Ra t io Test beca u se of 5 n ; t h is qu a n t it y will

gr ow la r ge qu ickly a s n in cr ea ses.
( n + 1) 2
n +1
lim 5n 2
lim
5n
( n + 1) 2 5 n
5 n +1
n2
n2 + 2n +1 1
=
5
5n 2
n
lim
1
1
< 1, t h is ser ies con ver ges a ccor din g t o t h e Ra t io Test . (Rem em ber,
5
5
ju st t ells you t h a t t h e ser ies con ver gesit does n ot m ea n t h a t t h e su m of t h e
1
ser ies is .)
5
1
4. Com pa r e t h is t o t h e ser ies
5 / 3 . Th e or igin a l ser ies h a s den om in a t or s t h a t
n
n =1
Beca u se
a r e sligh t ly gr ea t er t h a n ea ch cor r espon din g den om in a t or in t h e secon d ser ies. A

la r ger den om in a t or m ea n s a sm aller va lu e. Th er efor e, ea ch t er m of
n =1
n
n =1
1
n5 + 5
1
5/ 3
will be sm a ller t h a n t h e cor r espon din g t er m of
is a sim ple p-ser ies, a n d sin ce
n
n =1
p=
5
3
1
5/ 3
. Not ice t h a t
> 1 , it con ver ges. Beca u se
469
.................................................................
n =1
1
5
n +5
is sm a ller t h a n a con ver gen t ser ies, it m u st con ver ge by t h e Com -
pa r ison Test , t oo.
5. Th e Ra t io Test is ou r best bet , a s n n a n d n ! will gr ow la r ge qu ickly a s n in cr ea ses.
( n + 1) n +1
( n + 1)!
lim
nn
n!
( n + 1) n +1 n!
n
n ( n + 1)! n
lim
( n + 1) n +1
lim
n
n ( n + 1) n
You ca n ca n cel a n (n 1 1) t er m ou t of t h e t op a n d bot t om , lea vin g you wit h
lim
( n + 1) n
nn
H er es t h e t r icky pa r t : If you r ewr it e t h is lim it , you get
n
lim 1 + = e
n
n
Rem em ber t h a t lim it you m em or ized a lon g t im e a go? Th er e it is a ga in . Sin ce
e . 1 (e is a ppr oxim a t ely 2.718), t h e ser ies diver ges.
6. Th is is a ct u a lly t h e ser ies
n + 4 . Use t h e In t egr a l Test t o see if it con ver ges.
n =1
dn
n+4
b
lim 1
dn
n+4
lim ln n + 4
b
1
lim ln (b + 4 ) ln 5 =
b
Th er efor e, bot h t h e in t egr a l a n d t h e ser ies diver ge.

7. Th is is a geom et r ic ser ies wit h a 5 2. F a ct or 2 ou t of a ll t h e t er m s in t h e ser ies t o
get t h e followin g r a t io:
1 1
1
2 1 + +
+
+
4 16 64
exercises
n + 1
n
n
lim
a nsw ers
..............................................................................................
470
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Th e den om in a t or s a r e con secu t ive power s of 4, so t h e r a t io is r = 14 , a n d t h e

n
1
1
ser ies is 2 . Th e ser ies con ver ges sin ce is bet ween 0 a n d 1, a n d it h a s su m
4
4
n=0
a
2
4 8
= 3 =2 =
1 r
3 3
4
8. Th is is a Lim it Com pa r ison pr oblem . Ta ke t h e h igh est power s of t h e n u m er a t or

2
a n d den om in a t or t o cr ea t e t h e com pa r ison ser ies n 3
1 .
n
5n2 6n + 3
n3 7n + 8
lim
n
1
n
3
2
5n 6n + 3n 5
= =5
lim
n
1
n3 7n + 8
1
is a diver gen t p-ser ies, a n d t h e a bove lim it exist s, bot h ser ies diver ge by
n
t h e Lim it Com pa r ison Test .
Sin ce
9. Alt h ou gh t h is ser ies looks fu n ky, it s ju st a n a lt er n a t in g ser ies. Th e n u m er a t or s

will be cos p, cos 2p, cos 3p, cos 4p, et c., wh ich a r e ju st t h e n u m ber s 1, 21, 1, 21,
et c. E a ch su ccessive t er m will defin it ely get sm a ller (sin ce t h e den om in a t or s will
gr ow st ea dily). Th er efor e, a ll t h a t s left in t h e Alt er n a t in g Ser ies Test is t h e lim it :
lim
1
1/ 2
n n
Th e lim it does equ a l zer o (con sider t h e gr a ph ). Th er efor e, t h is a lt er n a t in g ser ies
con ver ges by t h e Alt er n a t in g Ser ies Test .
10. E a ch t er m of t h is ser ies is gr ea t er t h a n ea ch cor r espon din g t er m of t h e
wh ich is a diver gen t geom et r ic ser ies. Beca u se
( 23 )
n =1
3 2+ 4 is gr ea t er t h a n a diver-
n =1
gen t ser ies, it m u st diver ge by t h e Com pa r ison Test , t oo.
11. Alt h ou gh t h is pr oblem m a y look com plica t ed, it is a ct u a lly qu it e ea sy. Th is ser ies
diver ges by t h e n t h Ter m Diver gen ce Test . Not ice t h a t
8n 3 6 n 5
6
2
= =
4
5
9
3
n 12 n + 9 n
Beca u se t h e lim it a t in fin it y of t h e n t h t er m is n ot 0, t h is ser ies ca n n ot con ver ge
2
(you will even t u a lly be a ddin g 2 for ever ).
3
lim
12. If you r ewr it e t h e ser ies a s
3n + 1
n =1
n5 + 2
471
.................................................................
n5 + 2
1
lim
n4
(If you lea ve

get h er.)
n4
u n sim plified, it s m or e obviou s t o m u lt iply t h e r a dica ls t o-
lim
3n 5 + n 4
5
3
= 3
1
n
n +2
1
1
= 2 is a con ver gen t p-ser ies, bot h ser ies m u st con ver ge.
Beca u se
n
n4
n =1
13. F ir st of a ll, t est t h e a bsolu t e con ver gen ce by ign or in g t h e (21)n . Th is gives t h e
ser ies
5 3n + 4 . Th is is sim ila r t o t h e p-ser ies
n =1
1
, so u se t h e Lim it Com pa r in1 / 5
son Test :
lim
lim 5
n
3n + 4
Beca u se t h is is a r a t ion a l fu n ct ion wit h equ a l power s in bot h pa r t s of t h e fr a ct ion ,

t h e lim it is 5 13 . Beca u se t h a t is a fin it e n u m ber, bot h ser ies diver ge a ccor din g t o
t h e Lim it Com pa r ison Test . Th e con clu sion ? Th is ser ies d oes n ot con ver ge a bsolu t ely. Next , we n eed t o det er m in e wh et h er or n ot t h e ser ies con ver ges con dit ion a lly by lea vin g t h e (21)n in pla ce.
Th e ser ies
n =1
( 1) n
5
3n + 4
is defin it ely a lt er n a t in g, a n d, beca u se t h e den om in a t or s
will gr ow st ea dily, t h e t er m s will lessen in va lu e a s n in cr ea ses. Now, t o t est t h e

n t h t er m (t h e la st h u r dle in t h e Alt er n a t in g Ser ies Test ):
1
=0
n 3 n + 4
Accor din g t o t h e Alt er n a t in g Ser ies Test , t h is ser ies con ver ges bu t on ly con d ition ally, sin ce t h e a bsolu t e va lu e of t h e ser ies diver ged.
lim 5
exercises
1
3n + 4
1
n 1/ 5
a nsw ers
3n + 1
..............................................................................................
you ca n u se t h e Lim it Com pa r ison Test . Ta ke t h e h igh est power s of n in t h e

1/2
.
n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or t o cr ea t e t h e com pa r ison ser ies n5 / 2 = 1
n
n4 / 2
472
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
POWER SERIES
Th u s fa r, you h a ve dea lt exclu sively wit h ser ies of t h e for m Sa n ; a ll t h e ser ies h a ve been
r u n s of con st a n t s. Th e fin a l t wo sect ion s of t h is ch a pt er dea l wit h ser ies t h a t con t a in
va r ia bles, a n d t h e AP t est h a s m or e qu est ion s on t h ese t opics t h a n a ll t h e ot h er
sequ en ces a n d ser ies t opics com bin ed. P ower ser ies, t h e fir st of t h e essen t ia l t opics, a r e
ser ies of t h e for m
an x n or
n= 0
an ( x c)n
; t h e fir st is sa id t o be cen t er ed a bou t
n=0
x 5 0, wh ile t h e secon d for m is cen t er ed a bou t x 5 c. St r a n gely en ou gh , m ost of ou r

in for m a t ion con cer n in g power ser ies does n ot com e fr om m a t h em a t icia n s, bu t r a t h er
fr om Sh ir ley Ma cLa in e, fa m ou s n ew-a ge celebr it y. In h er m ost r ecen t book Ou t on a
L eash , sh e cla im s t h a t , a m on g h er m a n y r ein ca r n a t ion s, t h r ee of t h em wer e spen t a s
power ser ies. It wa sn t a n excit in g life, sh e sa ys in t h e book, bu t I a lwa ys felt cen t er ed
swim m in g in t h e c.
You r m a jor goa l wit h power ser ies will be (su r pr ise, su r pr ise) t o det er m in e wh er e t h ey
con ver ge. Not ice t h a t we a r e n ot t r yin g t o det er m in e if t h ey con ver ge, bu t r a t h er
w h ere t h ey con ver ge. All power ser ies will con ver ge a t t h e x-va lu e a t wh ich t h ey a r e
cen t er ed (x 5 c). To t est t h is, plu g x 5 c in t o t h e gen er ic power ser ies cen t er ed a t c:
a (x c)
n=0
= an + an ( c c ) + an ( c c ) + ... = an
1
Will power ser ies con ver ge a t ot h er poin t s? P ossibly. On e of t h r ee t h in gs will h a ppen :
(1) Th e power ser ies will on ly con ver ge wh en x 5 c.
(2) Th e power ser ies will con ver ge a t c a n d som e dist a n ce a r ou n d c (ca lled t h e rad iu s
of con vergen ce, or ROC). F or exa m ple, if a ser ies cen t er ed a bou t 3 (c 5 3) h a s a
r a diu s of con ver gen ce of 4, t h en t h e ser ies will con ver ge wh en x is bet ween 21
a n d 7.
NOTE
Power series usua lly sta rt
with n 5 0, ra ther
tha n n 5 1.
(3) Th e power ser ies will con ver ge for a ll x (in t h is ca se, t h e r a diu s of con ver gen ce
is `).
To fin d t h e ROC for a power ser ies, you ll u se t h e Ra t io Test , sin ce power ser ies by
defin it ion con t a in power s of n , wh ich gr ow la r ge qu ickly a s n in cr ea ses. In fa ct , you
w ill alw ays test for absolu te con vergen ce w h en fin d in g th e R OC t o sim plify m a t t er s.
On ce you fin d t h e ROC, you will som et im es be a sked wh et h er or n ot t h e ser ies
con ver ges a t t h e en dpoin t s of t h a t in t er va l. F or exa m ple, ou r ser ies cen t er ed a bou t 3
wit h ROC 5 4 h a ve a n in terval of con ver gen ce (IOC) of [21,7),(21,7],[21,7], or (21,7),
depen din g u pon wh ich en dpoin t s ca u se t h e ser ies t o con ver ge.
473
.................................................................
(a )
( 1)n 1 x n
n2 + 5n + 4
a t x 5 c , the ra d ius of
Use t h e Ra t io Test t o see if t h e ser ies con ver ges a bsolu t ely:
c onverg enc e is 0.
x n +1
2
( n +1) + 5 ( n +1) + 4
xn
n 2 +5n+ 4
lim
lim
(n
+ 5n + 4 x
n + 7 n + 10
n 2 + 5n + 4
a ppr oa ch es 1.
n 2 + 7 n + 10
lim 1 x
Rem em ber, t h e Ra t io Test on ly gu a r a n t ees con ver gen ce if t h a t lim it is less t h a n on e.

Sin ce t h e lim it is x, t h e ser ies will on ly con ver ge if U x U , 1 or 21 , x , 1. Th e ser ies
is cen t er ed a t c 5 0 a n d h a s ROC 5 1.
(b)
NOTE
If the series c onverg es only
n=0
As n a ppr oa ch es in fin it y,
..............................................................................................
Ex a m p le 12: F in d t h e r a diu s of con ver gen ce for t h e followin g power ser ies:
3x n
n + 1)!
n=0 (
NOTE
Th is is a n ot h er power ser ies cen t er ed a t c 5 0. To see wh er e it con ver ges, u se t h e

Ra t io Test t o see if t h e ser ies con ver ges a bsolu t ely:
lim
lim
x
n+2
Rem em ber t h a t x is som e n u m ber you ll plu g in la t er, so even t h ou gh it s t ech n ica lly a
va r ia ble, you ca n t r ea t it like a n u m ber. Wh a t ever n u m ber it is, it s ir r eleva n t in t h is
pr oblem . Th e den om in a t or will gr ow in fin it ely la r ge, so
lim
x 5 21 a nd x 5 7. You ll
sep a ra tely in the series.
3x n
( n + 1)!
c onverg e a t the end p oints
ha ve to test those p oints
3x n +1
( n + 2 )!
The series ma y or ma y not
x
=0
n+2
Th e Ra t io Test on ly gu a r a n t ees con ver gen ce wh en t h e lim it is less t h a n 1. In t h is ca se,

t h e lim it is 0, wh ich is alw ays less t h a n 1, r ega r dless of wh a t x is. Th er efor e, t h is
ser ies con ver ges for a ll x, a n d t h e r a diu s of con ver gen ce is `.
474
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Ex a m p le 13: On wh a t in t er va l does t h e ser ies
( 1)n ( x + 2)
con ver ge?

n 2n
S o lu tio n : F or a ch a n ge, t h is power ser ies is cen t er ed a t c 5 22, sin ce (x 2 (22)) 5
(x 2 c). Th is qu est ion a sks for t h e IOC; we st ill n eed t o fin d t h e ROC fir st :
n=0
( x + 2 ) n +1
( n +1)2 n +1
lim
n
( x +2 ) n
n2 n
lim
n( x + 2 )
2 ( n + 1)
1
n
As n a ppr oa ch es in fin it y, 2( n +1) a ppr oa ch es , so t h e lim it is
2
t h is m u st be less t h a n 1 in or der for t h e ser ies t o con ver ge:
x +2
2
. Rem em ber t h a t
x+2
<1
2
x+2 <2
Th e r a diu s of con ver gen ce is 2. Th e ser ies is cen t er ed a t x 5 22, so t h e ser ies
con ver ges on (22 2 2,22 1 2) 5 (24,0).
Wer e n ot don e yet ! We n eed t o see if t h e ser ies con ver ges a t t h e en dpoin t s of t h e
in t er va l, x 5 24 a n d x 5 0. Let s plu g ea ch sepa r a t ely in t o t h e or igin a l ser ies t o see
wh a t h a ppen s.
x 5 24:
( 1) n ( 4 + 2 ) n
n=0
n=0
n 2n
( 1) n ( 2 ) n
n 2n
475
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Rega r dless of wh a t n is, t h e n u m er a t or will be posit ive in t h is ser ies. In essen ce, you
will h a ve t h e ser ies
TIP
Onc e you simp lify the Ra tio
Test to g et U x 2 c U , d , the
2n
n 2n
n=0
d rep resents the ra d ius of

c onverg enc e. In Exa mp le
13, you simp lify to g et U x +
If you ca n cel ou t t h e 2n , you h a ve
2U , 2; here, c 5 2, so tha t
is the ra d ius of
1
n
n= 0
c onverg enc e.
wh ich is t h e diver gen t h a r m on ic ser ies. Th er efor e, t h e ser ies does n ot con ver ge for
x 5 24.
x 5 0:
( 1) n 2 n
n 2n
n=0
n=0
( 1) n
n
Th is is t h e a lt er n a t in g h a r m on ic ser ies t h a t sa t isfies a ll t h e con dit ion s of t h e Alt ern a t in g Ser ies Test a n d t h u s con ver ges. Th er efor e, t h e ser ies d oes con ver ge
wh en x 5 0.
( 1) n ( x + 2 ) n
is (24,0].
Th e IOC for
n 2n
n=0
Beca u se power ser ies con t a in xs, t h ey ca n a lso be u sed t o defin e fu n ct ion s:
an x n = f ( x )
n=0
As lon g a s t h e ser ies con ver ges on t h e in t er va l (c,d ), it will r et u r n a su m for a n y va lu e

bet ween c a n d d ; t h a t su m will be t h e fu n ct ion va lu e for t h e given in pu t . F u n ct ion s
defin ed a s power ser ies h a ve t wo im por t a n t ch a r a ct er ist ics:
(1) Der iva t ives or in t egr a ls of fu n ct ion s defin ed by power ser ies h a ve t h e sam e r a diu s
of con ver gen ce a s t h e or igin a l fu n ct ion . H owever, t h e en dpoin t s m a y a ct differen t ly, so you ll h a ve t o ch eck t h em a ga in . Th u s, a lt h ou gh t h e rad iu s of con ver gen ce
will be equ a l, t h e in terval of con ver gen ce m a y n ot be.
(2) To fin d t h e der iva t ive or in t egr a l of a fu n ct ion defin ed by a power ser ies, sim ply
differ en t ia t e or in t egr a t e t h e given power ser ies ju st as you h ave d on e previou sly.
All of t h e t ech n iqu es you h a ve u sed t o fin d der iva t ives a n d in t egr a ls of r egu la r
fu n ct ion s st ill a pply for power ser ies fu n ct ion s.
476
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Ex a m p le 14: If f(x) 5
34x
, fin d t h e in t er va l of con ver gen ce for f(x) a n d *f(x)d x.
n=0
S o lu tio n : Th is power ser ies (cen t er ed a t x 5 0) is a ct u a lly ju st a geom et r ic ser ies wit h
3x
a 5 1 a n d r 5 . Geom et r ic ser ies on ly con ver ge wh en U r U , 1:
4
3x
<1
4
x<
4
3
4
4 4
Th e r a diu s of con ver gen ce for t h is ser ies is , so t h e ser ies con ver ges on , . To
3
3 3
fin d t h e in t er va l of con ver gen ce, plu g in t h e en dpoin t s:
4
x52 :
3
( 1)
n=0
Th is is a diver gen t a lt er n a t in g ser ies.

4
x5 :
3
1n
n= 0
Th is diver ges by t h e n t h Ter m Diver gen ce Test .

4 4
Th er efor e, t h e IOC for f(x) 5 , . Th e n ext pa r t of t h e qu est ion a sks you t o fin d
3 3
t h e IOC for *f(x)d x, so begin by in t egr a t in g t h e ser ies wit h u -su bst it u t ion :
u=
3x
4
dx
3x
3
4
; du = dx; du = dx
4
4
3
4 n
u du
3
4 u n +1
3 n +1
f ( x )dx =
4 3 x n +1

n = 0 3( n + 1) 4
477
.................................................................
4
x52 :
3
3 (n4+ 1) ( 1)
n +1
n=0
Th is is a con ver gen t a lt er n a t in g ser ies.

4
x5 :
3
4 (1)
n = 0 3 ( n + 1)
n +1
3n + 3
n=0
1
a n d a pply t h e Lim it Com pa r ison Test :
n
4
n
+3 = 4
3
lim
n
1
3
n
You ca n com pa r e t h is wit h t h e ser ies
Th er efor e, bot h ser ies diver ge.

Th e in t er va l of con ver gen ce for
4 4
f ( x ) dx = 3 , 3 .
..............................................................................................
Th e in t egr a l will h a ve t h e sa m e ROC, bu t we n eed t o r ech eck t h e en dpoin t s t o see if

t h e IOC ch a n ges:
478
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 3

1. F in d t h e r a diu s of con ver gen ce for ea ch of t h e followin g:
(1)n x 2 n
(a )
n!
n=0
(b)
n!( x + 3)n
n2
n =1
2. Th e ser ies
n2 x n
con ver ges on wh a t in t er va l?
4n
n=0
2
3
3. If f ( x ) = ( x + 1) + ( x + 1) + ( x + 1) + , give t h e in t er va l of con ver gen ce for f (x).

2
3

1. (a ) Apply t h e Ra t io Test t o see if t h e ser ies con ver ges a bsolu t ely:
x
lim
n
lim
n
( n +1)
( n +1)!
2
x2n
n!
x2
=0
n +1
Rem em ber, t h e n a ppr oa ch es in fin it y wh ile t h e x st a ys t h e sa m e; t h er efor e,

t h e lim it is 0, r ega r dless of x. Beca u se 0 , 1 (st ill), t h is ser ies con ver ges for a ll
x, a n d t h e r a diu s of con ver gen ce is `. Th e in t er va l of con ver gen ce is (2`,`), if
you r e cu r iou s.
(b) Apply t h e Ra t io Test . On ce you sim plify t h e com plex fr a ct ion , you get
( n + 1)!( x + 3 ) n +1 n 2
lim
n
n
n!( x + 3 )
( n + 1) 2
lim
n
lim
n
n 2 ( n + 1)( x + 3 )
( n + 1) 2
( x + 3)( n 3 + n 2 )
n2 + 2n +1
479
.................................................................
( n +1 ) 2 x n +1
4 n +1
n2 xn
lim
n
lim
n
4n
x n2 + 2n +1
4n
= x
1
x
=
4
4
Accor din g t o t h e Ra t io Test , t h e ser ies con ver ges if
x
<1
4
U x U ,4
So, t h e r a diu s of con ver gen ce is 4 for t h is ser ies cen t er ed a t 0. Th e ser ies m u st
con ver ge on (0 2 4, 0 1 4) 5 (24, 4). Now you h a ve t o see wh et h er or n ot t h e
ser ies con ver ges a t t h e en dpoin t s by plu ggin g t h em in for x:
x 5 24:
n 2 ( 4)n
4n
n=0
(1)n
n=0
Th is diver ges by t h e n t h Ter m Diver gen ce Test .

x 5 4:
2 n
n4
n
n=0 4
n2
n=0
Th is diver ges by t h e n t h Ter m Diver gen ce Test , t oo, a n d bot h en dpoin t s h a ve

fa iled u s.
n2x
Th er efor e, t h e ser ies n con ver ges on (24, 4).
n=0 4
exercises
a nsw ers
2. Begin by fin din g t h e r a diu s of con ver gen ce:
..............................................................................................
Beca u se t h e degr ee of n in t h e n u m er a t or is h igh er, t h is r a t ion a l expr ession

will becom e in fin it ely la r ge. Th er efor e, t h is lim it is n ever less t h a n 1 a n d ca n
n ever con ver ge, a ccor din g t o t h e Ra t io Test . Rem em ber t h a t a ll power ser ies
con ver gea t lea st for t h e x va lu e a t wh ich t h ey a r e cen t er ed. Th er efor e, t h e
ser ies con ver ges on ly for x 5 23, a n d t h e r a diu s of con ver gen ce is 0.
480
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
3. Th e fu n ct ion a n d it s der iva t ive will bot h h a ve t h e sa m e r a diu s of con ver gen ce, so
you ca n fin d t h e ROC of t h e or igin a l fu n ct ion fir st .
NOTE
Just like p ower series, Ta ylor
series a re stressed very
hea vily on the AP test.
NOTE
Rememb er, the nota tion
f~n!~x! mea ns the nth
d eriva tive of f(x).
( x +1 ) n +1
lim
n
n +1
( x +1 ) n
n
lim
n
n ( x + 1)
n +1
n a ppr oa ch es 1.
As n a ppr oa ch es in fin it y, n+1
lim x + 1 = x + 1
Accor din g t o t h e Ra t io Test , t h e ser ies con ver ges if U x 1 1 U , 1, so t h e r a diu s of

con ver gen ce (a s a lwa ys) is t h a t n u m ber on t h e r igh t side on ce weve solved for
U x 2 cU ; in t h is ca se, t h e ROC is 1. Sin ce t h e power ser ies is cen t er ed a t c 5 21, we
kn ow (so fa r ) t h a t t h e ser ies con ver ges on t h e in t er va l (21 2 1, 21 1 1) 5 (22, 0).
Now, it s t im e t o t a ke t h e der iva t ive of t h e ser ies a n d t est t h e en dpoin t s x 5 22
a n d x 5 0. Use t h e P ower Ru le t o t a ke t h e der iva t ive:
n ( x + 1)
n
n =1
( x + 1)
n =1
n 1
n 1
Bot h en dpoin t s m a ke t h e ser ies diver ge by t h e n t h Ter m Diver gen ce Test if you
plu g t h em in , so t h e in t er va l of con ver gen ce is (22, 0).
TAYLOR AND MACLAURIN SERIES
At t h e en d of t h e power ser ies sect ion , we sa w t h a t a fu n ct ion ca n be defin ed u sin g a

power ser ies. Taylor series a r e specific for m s of t h e power ser ies t h a t a r e u sed t o
p
a ppr oxim a t e fu n ct ion va lu es. F or exa m ple, you kn ow cos p a n d cos by h ea r t , bu t if
2
1
p
1
a sked t o eva lu a t e cos , you d pr oba bly be st u m ped. (Ar ccos is ver y ea sy; t h a t is , bu t
2
2
3
1
1
cos is r ou gh .) We ca n cr ea t e a ver y sim ple Ta ylor ser ies t h a t will a ppr oxim a t e cos
2
2
ver y n icely. We will cr ea t e a power ser ies cen t er ed a r ou n d a ver y ea sily obt a in ed va lu e
1
1
of cosin e t h a t is a lso close t o . Th e best ch oice is c 5 0, sin ce 0 is close t o a n d cos 0 is
2
2
ea sy t o eva lu a t e; cos 0 5 1.
Ta y lo r s e rie s fo r f(x) c e n te re d a bo u t x 5 c:
n=0
f ( x ) = f ( c ) + f ( c )( x c ) +
f ( n ) (c)( x c)
.
n!
n
f ( c )( x c ) 2 f ( c )( x c ) 3
+
+
2!
3!
481
.................................................................
ser ies t h a t is cen t er ed a t c 5 0, r esu lt in g in t h e sim pler-lookin g ser ies
n=0
f (n) (0) x n
.
n!
f (0) x 2 f (0) x 3
f ( n ) (0) x n
f ( x ) = f ( 0 ) + f ( 0 ) x +
+
++
+
2!
3!
n!
Ex a m p le 15: Use a fou r t h -degr ee Ta ylor polyn om ia l of or der (degr ee) 4 cen t er ed a t 0
1
.
t o a ppr oxim a t e cos
2
SD
S o lu tio n : Sin ce t h is Ta ylor ser ies is cen t er ed a t c 5 0, it is a ct u a lly a Ma cla u r in

ser ies. We will h a ve t o u se t h e Ma cla u r in ser ies expa n sion u p t o n 5 4, sin ce t h e
r equ est ed degr ee is 4. In or der t o fin d t h e ser ies, we will h a ve t o fin d f(0), f (0), f (0),
f (0), a n d f (4)(x):
f(x) 5 cos x; f(0) 5 1
f (x) 5 2sin x; f (0) 5 0
f (x) 5 2cos x; f (0) 5 21
f (x) 5 sin x; f (0) 5 0
f (4)(x) 5 cos x; f(0) 5 1.
To get t h e Ma cla u r in polyn om ia l, plu g t h ese in t o t h e Ma cla u r in for m u la a n d st op
wh en n 5 4:
4
f ( 0 ) x 2 f ( 0 ) x 3 f ( ) ( 0 ) x 4
cos x f ( 0 ) + f ( 0 ) x +
+
+
2!
3!
4!
cos x 1 + 0 x
x2
x3
x4
+0
+1
2!
3!
4!
x2 x4
cos x 1
+
2! 4!
Th e r esu lt in g polyn om ia l will give you t h e a ppr oxim a t e va lu e of cos x. To fin d t h e
1
1
a ppr oxim a t e va lu e of cos , plu g in for x:
2
2
(1) (1)
2
1
2
2
cos 1
+
2
2!
4!
cos
1
1
1
1 +
.8776041667
2
8 384
..............................................................................................
Most of t h e t im e, you will n ot u se a n in fin it e ser ies t o a ppr oxim a t e fu n ct ion va lu es.
In st ea d, you will u se on ly a fin it e n u m ber of t h e ser ies t er m s. In t h ese ca ses, t h e
Ta ylor ser ies is oft en ca lled a Taylor polyn om ial of degr ee n (wh er e n is t h e h igh est
power of t h e r esu lt in g polyn om ia l). A M aclau rin series is t h e specific ca se of a Ta ylor
TIP
All Ma c la urin series a re a lso
Ta ylor series; they a re just
sp ec ia l Ta ylor series.
482
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
1
(a ccor din g t o t h e ca lcu la t or ) is .8775825619, so t h e a ppr oxi2
m a t ion wa sn t t oo sh a bby a t a ll. J u st like Riem a n n su m s, t h e a ccu r a cy of you r
pr edict ion will in cr ea se a s you in cr ea se t h e n u m ber of t er m s in you r Ta ylor polyn om ia l; in ot h er wor ds, t h e gr ea t er t h e n , t h e m or e a ccu r a t e t h e r esu lt . Below, t h e gr a ph
of y 5 cos x is com pa r ed wit h t h e gr a ph s of t h r ee Ma cla u r in polyn om ia ls for cos x
cen t er ed a bou t 0.
Th e a ct u a l va lu e for cos
NOTE
A Ta ylor series is
g ua ra nteed to g ive the
exa c t func tion va lue only
for x 5 c , the va lue a round
whic h the series is
c entered . All other va lues
will likely b e
a p p roxima tions.
Maclaurin polynomial,
n=0
y=1
n=2
y = 1 x2!
n=4
y = 1 x2!
x4
4!
A cou ple of t h in gs a r e clea r fr om t h e gr a ph s. F ir st of a ll, t h e gr ea t er t h e degr ee of t h e

polyn om ia l, t h e closer it s gr a ph is t o t h e gr a ph of cos x. H owever, n on e of t h e
a ppr oxim a t ion s a r e ver y good for a ppr oxim a t in g va lu es fa r a wa y fr om x 5 0. If you
n eed t o a ppr oxim a t e ot h er va lu es, you will h a ve t o u se a Ta ylor polyn om ia l cen t er ed
a bou t a differ en t va lu e. F or exa m ple, t o est im a t e cos (3.2), you m igh t u se a Ta ylor
ser ies cen t er ed a bou t c 5 p, sin ce p is close t o 3.2.
Alt h ou gh it wa sn t t oo difficu lt t o com e u p wit h t h e Ma cla u r in polyn om ia l for cos x,
you sh ou ldn t h a ve t o con st r u ct it like t h a t on t h e AP t est . It is on e of fou r fu n ct ion s for
wh ich you sh ou ld h a ve t h e Ma cla u r in expa n sion s m em or izeddoin g so will sa ve you
m u ch -n eeded t im e.
Ma c la u rin S e rie s to Me m o rize
cos x = 1
x2 x4 x6
+
+
2 ! 4 ! 6!
sin x = x
x3 x5 x7
+
+
3! 5! 7!
483
.................................................................
1
= 1+ x + x2 + x3 + x4 +
1 x
Not a ll of t h e ser ies on t h e AP t est will be ba sed on t h ese fou r fu n ct ion s, bu t m ost of
t h em will. An y ot h er ser ies ca n be con st r u ct ed u sin g t h e m et h od of E xa m ple 15.
Ex a m p le 16: Der ive t h e Ma cla u r in ser ies for sin x fr om t h e Ma cla u r in ser ies for cos x.
S o lu tio n : We kn ow t h a t *cos x d x 5 sin x. Ta ylor ser ies a ct ju st like t h eir pa r en t
fu n ct ion s; if you in t egr a t e ea ch t er m of t h e cos x Ma cla u r in ser ies, you will en d u p
wit h t h e Ma cla u r in ser ies for sin x. Th is is n ot on ly u sefu l for im pr essin g you r fr ien ds,
h owever.
x3 x5
+
+
3! 5!
Ex a m p le 17: Det er m in e a power ser ies for sin x 2 .

S o lu tio n : Besides a ct in g like t h eir pa r en t fu n ct ion s, Ta ylor ser ies a r e a lso h a n dy
beca u se t h ey a r e ver y flexible. We a lr ea dy kn ow t h e Ma cla u r in ser ies for sin x (a n d
Ta ylor a n d Ma cla u r in ser ies a r e ju st specia l power ser ies a n ywa y). To fin d t h e ser ies
for x 2 , ju st plu g x 2 in for x. Th a t s a ll t h er e is t o it .
(x ) + (x ) (x )
sin x = x
3!
sin x 2 = x 2
5!
7!
ALERT!
Even thoug h the sin x series

x3 x5
is written x 2 + , the
3! 5!
x7
next term in the series, 2 ,
7!
is still neg a tive. The series still
a lterna tes; it s just c ommon
x3 x5 x 7
sin x = x
+
+
3! 5! 7!
5
series listed will c onverg e

1
.
on (2`,`), exc ep t for
12x
Tha t series ha s a n interva l of
outsid e tha t interva l.
Th e r esu lt in g ser ies is exa ct ly t h e on e for sin x t h a t you a r e t o m em or ize.
Ea c h of the Ma c la urin
will not work well for x s
x3
x5
+
+
3 2! 5 4!
sin x = x
ALERT!
c onverg enc e of (21,1) a nd
x2 x4
cos x dx = 1
+
+ dx
2! 4!
sin x = x
..............................................................................................
x2 x3 x4
+
+
+
2! 3! 4!
ex = 1+ x +
nota tion to write a 1 a t

the end of a n infinite series,
reg a rd less of the sig n of the
next term.
x 6 x10 x14
+
+
3!
5!
7!
If t h e qu est ion h a d a sked you t o fin d a ser ies for sin (2x 1 3), a ll you wou ld do is plu g
(2x 1 3) in for x. Sim ple!
484
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Like a lt er n a t in g ser ies, t h er e is a wa y t o t ell h ow a ccu r a t ely you r Ta ylor polyn om ia l

a ppr oxim a t es t h e a ct u a l fu n ct ion va lu e: you u se som et h in g ca lled t h e L agran ge
rem ain d er or L agran ge error bou n d . It is t h e t r ickiest pa r t of Ta ylor ser ies.
La g ra n g e Re m a in d e r: If you u se a Ta ylor polyn om ia l of degr ee n cen t er ed a bou t c t o

a ppr oxim a t e t h e va lu e x, t h en t h e a ct u a l fu n ct ion va lu e fa lls wit h in t h e er r or bou n d
Rn ( x ) =
f ( n +1 ) ( z )( x c ) n +1
( n + 1) !
wh er e z is som e n u m ber bet ween x a n d c.
Tran slation : Sim ila r t o a lt er n a t in g ser ies, t h e er r or bou n d is given by t h e n ext t er m in

t h e ser ies, n 1 1. Th e on ly t r icky pa r t is t h a t you eva lu a t e f (n 11), t h e (n 1 1)t h
der iva t ive, a t z, n ot c. Wh a t t h e h eck is z, you a sk? It is t h e n u m ber t h a t m a kes
f (n 11)(z) a s la r ge a s it ca n be. Th is er r or bou n d is su pposed t o t ell you h ow fa r off you
a r e fr om t h e r ea l n u m ber, so we wa n t t o a ssu m e t h e wor st . We wa n t t h e er r or bou n d
t o r epr esen t t h e la r gest possible er r or. In pr a ct ice, pickin g z is r ela t ively ea syr ea lly,
you ll see.
Ex a m p le 18: Appr oxim a t e cos (.1) u sin g a fou r t h -degr ee Ma cla u r in polyn om ia l, a n d
fin d t h e a ssocia t ed La gr a n ge r em a in der.
S o lu tio n : We a lr ea dy kn ow t h e fou r t h -degr ee Ma cla u r in polyn om ia l for cosin e, so
plu g .1 in for x t o get t h e a ppr oxim a t ion :
cos x = 1
x2 x4
+
2! 4!
.12 .14
cos .1 = 1
+
.99500416667
2!
4!
Th e a ssocia t ed La gr a n ge r em a in der for n 5 4 (den ot ed R 4 (x)) is
R4 ( x ) =
f (5) ( z )( x c)5
5!
Th e fift h der iva t ive of cos x is 2sin x, so f (5)(z) 5 2sin z. Now, plu g in x 5 .1 a n d c 5 0
t o get
R4 (.1) =
( sin z )(.1)5
5!
485
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
We n eed 2sin z t o be a s la r ge a s it ca n possibly be. Th e la r gest va lu e of 2sin x is 1,

sin ce 2sin x, like sin x, h a s a r a n ge of [21,1]. By a ssu m in g 2sin z is t h e la r gest
possible va lu e, we a r e cr ea t in g t h e la r gest possible er r or ; so, plu g in 1 for 2sin z. Th e
a ct u a l r em a in der will be less t h a n t h is la r gest possible va lu e.
TIP
f~n11!~z! will often ha ve a
va lue of 1 on AP p rob lems,
ma king the La g ra ng e
R4 ( .1) <
1 .15 .15
=
= .0000000833
5!
5!
rema ind er simp ly the va lue

of the next term in the
series, a s it turned out to b e
Th er efor e, ou r a ppr oxim a t ion of .99500416667 is off by n o m or e t h a n .0000000833. In

fa ct , it is on ly off by .0000000014.
in Exa mp le 18.
486
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 4

1. (a ) Ver ify t h a t t h e Ma cla u r in expa n sion for
f ( x ) = e x is 1 + x +
x2 x3
+
+
2! 3!
(b) Sh ow t h a t t h e Ma cla u r in ser ies for ex (like t h e fu n ct ion it r epr esen t s) is it s

own der iva t ive.
2. (a ) Cr ea t e a Ma cla u r in ser ies for g(x) 5 cos (ex ).

(b) Use a sixt h -degr ee Ma u cla u r in ser ies t o a ppr oxim a t e cos e2 .
(c ) E xpla in wh y t h e a ppr oxim a t ion in 2(b) is so h or r id.
3. E st im a t e t h e va lu e of =1.3 u sin g t h e t h ir d-degr ee Ta ylor polyn om ia l for y 5 =x

cen t er ed a bou t x 5 1.
4. Let P(x) 5 4 2 (x 2 2) 1 3(x 2 2)2 2 5(x 2 2)3 be a Ta ylor polyn om ia l of degr ee 3

for f(x) cen t er ed a bou t 2.
(a ) Wh a t is f (2)?
(b) Use a secon d-degr ee Ta ylor polyn om ia l t o a ppr oxim a t e f (2.1).
f (n) (0) x n
1. (a ) Th e Ma cla u r in ser ies is
n eed f(0), f 8(0), f 88(0), et c.
n=0
n!
. To wr it e ou t t h e expa n sion , well
f(x) 5 ex ; f(0) 5 e0 5 1
f 8(x) 5 ex ; f 8(x) 5 e0 5 1
In fa ct , ea ch der iva t ive of ex is ex , a n d ea ch der iva t ives r esu lt in g va lu e a t
x 5 0 will be 1. Th er efor e, t h e ser ies is
f ( 0 ) + f ( 0 ) x +
1+1 x +
f (0) x 2 f (0) x 3
+
+
2!
3!
1 x 2 1 x 3
+
+
2!
3!
wh ich is t h e expa n sion we a ll kn ow a n d love.
487
.................................................................
( )
d x
2 x 3x 2 4 x 3
e = 0 +1+
+
+
+
dx
2!
3!
4!
( )
d x
x2 x3
e =1+ x +
+
+
dx
2! 3!
( )
2. (a ) You a lr ea dy kn ow t h e Ma cla u r in ser ies for cos x, so ju st plu g ex in for ea ch x:
ex )
ex )
(
(
cos(e ) = 1
+
2
2!
( )
cos e
4!
e2 x e 4 x
=1
+
+
2!
4!
(b) Ba sed on you r wor k for 2(a ), t h e sixt h -degr ee Ma cla u r in polyn om ia l for cos x
is
( )
cos e x 1
To a ppr oxim a t e cos e2 , plu g 2 in for x:
cos e2 1
e 4 e8 e12
+
128.1408
2! 4! 6!
Wh oa , h ow ca n cosin e h a ve a va lu e lower t h a n 21? Yikes!

(c ) Rem em ber t h a t a Ta ylor ser ies is on ly a ccu r a t e a r ou n d t h e va lu e a t wh ich it
is cen t er ed. Beca u se t h is is a Ma cla u r in ser ies, it s cen t er ed a t c 5 0. Usin g
t h is a ppr oxim a t ion t o eva lu a t e cos (e2 ) is ir r espon sible, sin ce e2 7.389, wh ich
is n owh er e close t o c 5 0. As you ca n see fr om t h e gr a ph of y 5 cos (ex ) a n d t h e
Ma cla u r in ser ies in 2(b), t h e gr a ph s a r e n owh er e close t o ea ch ot h er a s you
get fa r t h er a wa y fr om x 5 0.
cos (e x )
2x
4x
6x
y = 1 e2! + e4! + e6!
exercises
e2 x e4 x e6 x
+
2!
4!
6!
a nsw ers
d x
d
x2 x3 x 4
e =
x
1
+
+
+
+
+
dx
dx
2! 3! 4!
..............................................................................................
(b) F in d t h e der iva t ive of ea ch t er m of t h e ser ies sepa r a t ely:
488
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
3. To fin d t h e t h ir d-degr ee Ta ylor polyn om ia l for f(x) cen t er ed a t c 5 1, well n eed

t h e va lu e of t h e fir st t h r ee der iva t ives of f eva lu a t ed a t 1; t h ese a r e r equ ir ed by
t h e for m u la .
f(x) 5 x 1/2 ; f(1) 5 1
1
1
f 8(x) 5 x 21/2 ; f 8(1) 5
2
2
1
1 23/2
; f 88(1) 5 2
f 88(x) 5 2 x
4
4
3
3 25/2
; f 888(1) 5
f 888(x) 5 x
8
8
Th er efor e, t h e Ta ylor polyn om ia l is
x f (1) + f (1)( x 1) +
f (1)( x 1)
f (1)( x 1)
+
2!
3!
2
3( x 1)
x 1 ( x 1)
x 1+
+
2
4 2!
8 3!
2
x 1+
x 1 ( x 1)2 ( x 1)3
+
2
8
16
F in a lly, plu g in x 5 1.3 t o get t h e a ppr oxim a t ion of 1.1404375, wh ich is r ela t ively
close t o t h e a ct u a l va lu e of 1.140175.
4. (a ) We kn ow t h a t t h e squ a r ed t er m in a n y Ta ylor polyn om ia l is given by
f (c)( x c) . In t h is pr oblem , t h a t t er m sh ou ld be f (2)( x 2) . In t h e

2!
2!
a ct u a l expa n sion , t h e squ a r ed t er m is 3(x 2 2)2 . Th er efor e,
2
f (2)( x 2)
2
= 3( x 2)
2!
2
f (2)
=3
2!
f 88(2) 5 6
(b) Th is qu est ion a sks you t o a ppr oxim a t e t h e va lu e of t h e d erivative of f. Sin ce a
Ta ylor ser ies a ct s like it s pa r en t fu n ct ion , you ca n a ppr oxim a t e f 8(x) by t a kin g
t h e der iva t ive of ea ch t er m :
P8(x) 5 21 1 6(x 2 2) 2 15(x 2 2)2
Th is is t h e secon d-degr ee polyn om ia l t o wh ich t h e pr oblem is a llu din g. You
ca n u se it t o fin d you r a ppr oxim a t ion sin ce 2.1 is close t o 2, t h e va lu e a t wh ich
t h e ser ies is cen t er ed:
f 8(2.1) ' 21 1 6(.1) 2 15(.1)2 ' 2.55
Isn t t h a t biza r r e? We don t even kn ow t h e fu n ct ion t h a t P a ppr oxim a t es, bu t
we ca n st ill a ppr oxim a t e it s der iva t ive.
489
.................................................................
You r ca lcu la t or ca n ser ve t h r ee m a jor fu n ct ion s t o a ssist you in t h is ch a pt er : it ca n gr a ph

sequ en ces, gr a ph ser ies, a n d ca lcu la t e pa r t ia l su m s. Be wa r n ed a h ea d of t im e: Th e
ca lcu la t or com m a n ds t o a ccom plish t h ese t a sks a r e n ot a s fr ien dly a s t h e com m a n ds
u sed t o eva lu a t e a defin it e in t egr a l. It m a y t a ke a bit of pr a ct ice befor e t h ese t ech n iqu es
becom e secon d n a t u r e.
In t h e fir st pr oblem set , wa y ba ck in t h e begin n in g of t h is ch a pt er, you h a d t o
1 + 3n 2 + n3
con ver ged. H opefu lly, t h is pr obdet er m in e wh et h er or n ot t h e ser ies
3
n =1 4 n 5n + 2
lem is m u ch ea sier n ow; t h e ser ies clea r ly diver ges beca u se of t h e n t h Ter m Divergen ce Test , sin ce
1 + 3n 2 + n 3 1
=
3
4
n 4 n 5 n + 2
lim
1
a s n a ppr oa ch es in fin it y, you ll h a ve
4
t o ch a n ge t h e [Mode] t o sequ en ce. Th is ch a n ges t h e [Y5] scr een t o t h e u (n ) scr een ;
t ype t h e sequ en ce in for u (n ). (Th e [x,t,u,n ] bu t t on will n ow displa y a n n .)
In or der t o sh ow t h a t t h e sequ en ce a ppr oa ch es
If you ch oose fr ien dly [Win dow] set t in gs a n d pr ess [Gr a ph ], t h e sequ en ce clea r ly levels
1
off. If you en t er a secon d sequ en ce of for v(n ), it s ea sier t o see t h a t t h e sequ en ce does
4
1
in deed begin t o level off a t .
4
..............................................................................................
TECHNOLOGY: VIEWING AND CALCULATING SEQUENCES

AND SERIES WITH A GRAPHING CALCULATOR
NOTE
The [Wind ow] setting s for
my g ra p h a re nMin 5 1,
nMa x 5 50, PlotSta rt 5 1,
PlotStep 5 1, Xmin 5 0,
Xma x 5 50, Xsc l 5 5, Ymin
5 .1, Yma x 5 .5, a nd
Ysc l 5 1.
490
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
1
Rem em ber t h a t a lt h ou gh t h e sequ en ce con ver ges t o , t h e ser ies will diver ge by t h e
4
n t h Ter m Diver gen ce Test . In or der t o visu a lize t h is, we ca n gr a ph t h a t ser ies. To do
so, h owever, you ll n eed t o m a ke som e m in or set t in g ch a n ges on you r ca lcu la t or. F ir st
of a ll, go t o t h e [Mode] scr een a n d select P a r a m et r ic m ode a n d Dot r a t h er t h a n
con n ect ed. Now, go t o t h e [Y5] scr een a n d set X1T 5 T. Th e Y1T is t h e t r icky pa r t :
NOTE
My [Wind ow] setting s for
this g ra p h a re Tmin 5 1,
Tma x 5 35, Tstep 5 1, Xmin
5 0, Xma x 5 35, Xsc l 5 5,
Ymin 5 5, Yma x 5 15, a nd
Ysc l 5 1.
To get t h e su m com m a n d, you n eed t o pr ess [2 n d ][St a t ]Ma t h su m , (a n d t h e

seq com m a n d com es fr om [2 n d ][St a t ]Ops seq. (Th e N u sed is t h e let t er N ,
wh ich is t h e r esu lt of pr essin g [Alph a ][Log]. Th e syn t a x for a sequ en ce is seq(sequ en ce of n ,n ,w h atever n 5 in sigm a, T ,1).
Ch oose n ice [Win dow] set t in gs for t h e gr a ph (it m igh t t a ke a cou ple of t r ies t o pick
good set t in gs), a n d you get a good pict u r e of t h e ser ies:
Th is ser ies is defin it ely diver gen t it a ppr oa ch es n o lim it in g h eigh t . F u r t h er m or e, a t

a ppr oxim a t ely n 5 10 (on t h e gr a ph t 5 10), t h e t er m s pr ogr ess a lm ost in a lin ea r
fa sh ion . Ca n you gu ess wh a t t h e slope of t h a t lin e is? Ill spa r e you t h e su spen se: it s
1
1
, sin ce t h e sequ en ce t ells u s we will be a ddin g a ppr oxim a t ely t o ea ch t er m for ever.
4
4
If you a r en t a ll t h a t im pr essed wit h t h e ser ies-gr a ph in g ca pa bilit y of t h e ca lcu la t or

(we r ea lly did h a ve t o for ce it , didn t we?), t h en you ll pr oba bly be equ a lly u n im pr essed
wit h t h e ca lcu la t or s a bilit y t o ca lcu la t e pa r t ia l su m s. Th e pr ocess is ver y sim ila r t o
491
.................................................................
1 + 3n 2 + n3
t h e ser ies gr a ph . Alt h ou gh t h e ser ies
diver ges, you ca n st ill fin d t h e
3
n =1 4 n 5n + 2
su m of it s fir st n t er m s. Let s u se t h e ca lcu la t or t o fin d S 200 . You do n ot h a ve t o u se t h e
[Y5] scr een , a s t h is is sim ply a com m a n d you ca n t ype ou t on t h e r egu la r scr een :
Th er efor e, S 200 ' 58.869. You ca n ea sily t ell t h a t t h is ser ies diver ges if you ca lcu la t e
S 300 ' 84.173. Clea r ly, t h e ser ies is n ot levelin g ou t a n d a ppr oa ch in g a lim it in g
va lu e even wh en t h e n is t h is la r ge. H owever, t h e ca lcu la t or does h a ve it s lim it a t ion s.
If you t ype t oo la r ge a va lu e for n , you will get a n er r or m essa ge. Texa s In st r u m en t s
t ech n icia n s expla in t h a t t h is occu r s beca u se t h e ca lcu la t or is t ir ed of a ddin g so m a n y
da n g n u m ber s, for P et es sa ke . . . let it do som et h in g in t er est in g for a ch a n ge.
..............................................................................................
492
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
EXERCISE 5
1 +
1. Det er m in e wh et h er or n ot t h e ser ies
a n swer.
n =1
1 n
con ver ges, a n d ju st ify you r
n
2. F in d t h e in t er va l of con ver gen ce for t h e power ser ies:
x x2
x3
+
+
3 2 9 6 27
3. If P(x) 5 2 1 3(x 1 1) 2 6(x 1 1)2 is a Ta ylor polyn om ia l for f(x), wr it e a

t h ir d-degr ee Ta ylor polyn om ia l for m ( x ) =
4. Does t h e ser ies

ver ge?
( 1)
n +1
( 3 n + 2 )! con ver ge
P ( t ) dt .
a bsolu t ely, con ver ge con dit ion a lly, or di-
n=0
5. F in d t h e va lu e of a so t h a t t h e r a diu s of con ver gen ce for t h e ser ies
(a )
2 n
( x 1) n
3n
n =1
is
1
a n d a . 0.
4
6. If g(x) 5 esin x, u se a fou r t h -degr ee Ma cla u r in polyn om ia l t o a ppr oxim a t e g(.3).

7. F in d t h e su m of ea ch of t h e followin g ser ies. If you ca n n ot fin d t h e exact su m , fin d
it a ccu r a t e t o fou r decim a l pla ces:
(a )
3 3 3
+ +
2 4 8
(b)
( 1)
en
n =1
(c )
n n + 3
n =1
8. J a m e s D ia bo lic a l Ch a lle n g e : P r ove t h e con ver gen ce or diver gen ce of t h e
ser ies
n3
u sin g fou r differ en t con ver gen ce t est s.
n=1
493
.................................................................
n ot 0. Th er efor e, t h is ser ies fa ils t h e n t h Ter m Diver gen ce Test a n d t h er efor e

diver ges.
2. Th is is t h e ser ies
(1)n x n
n=0
n! 3n
. To fin d t h e in t er va l of con ver gen ce, u se t h e Ra t io
Test t o see wh er e t h e ser ies con ver ges a bsolu t ely:
lim
x n +1
( n + 1)! 3 n +1
lim
n! 3 n
xn
x
3 ( n + 1)
Rega r dless of x, t h is lim it will be 0 a s t h e den om in a t or will gr ow in fin it ely la r ge.

Th er efor e, t h is lim it is a lwa ys less t h a n 1, so t h is ser ies a lwa ys con ver ges. Th e
in t er va l of con ver gen ce will be (2`,`). No n eed t o t est en dpoin t s, sin ce a n
in t er va l ca n t be closed a t a n u n bou n ded (in fin it e) en dpoin t .
3. To fin d m (x), in t egr a t e:
2
3
6
2t + (t + 1)2 (t + 1)3
2
3
)dt
x
1
Apply F u n da m en t a l Th eor em P a r t On e:
3
2 x + ( x + 1)2 2( x + 1)3 (2( 1) + 0)
2
All of t h e polyn om ia l t er m s will ca n cel ou t wh en you plu g in x 5 21, except for
2(21). You ca n wr it e you r fin a l a n swer by sim plifyin g:
2 1 2x 1
3
(x 1 1)2 2 2(x 1 1)3
2
or by fa ct or in g ou t a 2.
3
2(x 1 1) 1 (x 1 1)2 2 2(x 1 1)3
2
E it h er of t h ose a n swer s is a ccept a ble.
exercises
1(2 + 3(t + 1) 6(t + 1)

x
a nsw ers
1
1
n
1. Th e n t h t er m of t h e ser ies is
(1+ 1n ) ; a s n a ppr oa ch es in fin it y, you get e , wh ich is
..............................................................................................
494
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
4. F ir st , ign or e t h e fa ct t h a t it is a n a lt er n a t in g ser ies t o see if t h e con ver gen ce is

a bsolu t e. Th e Ra t io Test ser ves t h e best t o t est for con ver gen ce beca u se of t h e
fa ct or ia l.
lim
lim
lim
(3n + 2) !
(n +1)+ 2 !
(3n + 2) !
(3n + 5) !
1
(3n + 5) (3n + 4 ) (3n + 3)
As n a ppr oa ch es in fin it y, t h is va lu e will gr ow ext r em ely sm a ll. E a ch of t h e

bin om ia ls in t h e den om in a t or will be h u ge, a n d t h eir pr odu ct will be even la r ger.
1 divided by a h igh n u m ber is 0. Sin ce 0 , 1, t h is ser ies con ver ges a bsolu t ely.
Rem em ber, t h is m ea n s t h a t t h e or igin a l a lt er n a t in g ser ies con ver ges a u t om a t ica lly.
5. F in d t h e r a diu s of con ver gen ce a s u su a l, u sin g t h e Ra t io Test :
(a2 )
n +1
( x 1 ) n +1
3 ( n +1 ) 2
n
a2
( x 1 ) n
lim
( )
3n2
lim
a 2 ( x 1) n 2
( n + 1) 2
n
As n a ppr oa ch es in fin it y, t h e lim it of ( n+1)2 is 1, m a kin g t h e over a ll lim it
U a 2 (x 2 1)U
Th is lim it m u st be less t h a n 1 t o m a ke t h e ser ies con ver ge.
U a 2 (x 2 1)U , 1
x 1 <
1
a2
1
; we h a d a sh or t cu t t h a t sa id
4
wh en ever we solve for U x 2 cU , t h e n u m ber on t h e ot h er side of t h e in equ a lit y is
t h e r a diu s of con ver gen ce. Th u s,
We a lso kn ow t h a t t h e r a diu s of con ver gen ce is
1 1
=
a2 4
a2 5 4
a 52
a ca n n ot equ a l 22, sin ce t h e pr oblem specified t h a t a . 0.
495
.................................................................
g( x ) = e
sin x
x2 x3 x 4
+
+
+
2! 3! 4!
sin 2 x sin 3 x sin 4 x

= 1 + sin x +
+
+
+
2!
3!
4!
If you r ea d t h e qu est ion ca r efu lly, you see t h a t it a sks you t o fin d a n a ppr oxim a t ion for g8(x), t h e der iva t ive of t h e ser ies a bove. H owever, t h e ser ies a bove h a s on e
t oo few t er m s wr it t en . Sin ce t h e equ a t ion a bove is of degr ee 4, it s der iva t ive will
h a ve degr ee 3, so a dd a n ot h er t er m wh en you t a ke t h e der iva t ive.
2 sin x cos x 3 sin 2 x cos x 4 sin 3 x cos x 5 sin 4 x cos x

+
+
+
2!
3!
4!
5!
Use t h is u gly m on st er t o a ppr oxim a t e g(.3) by plu ggin g .3 in for x. Th e r esu lt in g
a ppr oxim a t ion is 1.2837864. Th e a ct u a l va lu e for g(x) 5 (cos x)(esin x ) 5
1.2838053.
g ( x ) cos x +
3 12
7. (a ) Th is is t h e geom et r ic ser ies
. Th e in fin it e su m is given by
n=0
a
3
=
1 r 1 12
S=
( )
3
3
2
=2
(b) Th is is a con ver gen t a lt er n a t in g ser ies, a ccor din g t o t h e Alt er n a t in g Ser ies
Test . H owever, you ca n n ot u su a lly fin d t h e su m of su ch a ser ies (wit h t h e
except ion of pa r t (a ) a bove). In st ea d, r em em ber t h a t t h e r em a in der (or er r or
bou n d) in a n a lt er n a t in g ser ies is t h e a bsolu t e va lu e of t h e fir st om it t ed t er m .
Th er efor e, we sh ou ld ca lcu la t e t h e va lu es of a few t er m s in t h e a lt er n a t in g
ser ies u n t il on e of t h e t er m s va lu es en su r es a ccu r a cy t o fou r decim a l pla ces.
a2 =
1
e2
1
= .000335463
e8
Th e t er m a 2 is t h e r em a in der for S 1 , t h e su m of t h e n 5 1 t er m . Th e a bove

m ea n s t h a t S 1 is a ccu r a t e t o t h r ee decim a l pla ces, bu t t h e fou r t h decim a l
pla ce cou ld be off by a s m u ch a s 3, so t r y a 3 :
a3 =
1
3
e3
1
= 1.880 10 12
27
e
Th is on e defin it ely cin ch es it . Th e su m S 2 will be a ccu r a t e t o 11 decim a l

pla ces. All t h a t r em a in s is t o fin d S 2 :
1 1
S2 = a1 + a2 = + 8 .3675
e e
If you a r e du biou s, u se you r ca lcu la t or t o fin d S 500 , a n d you ll fin d t h a t we
wer e qu it e a ccu r a t e, even a ft er on ly t wo t er m s.
exercises
S=
a nsw ers
ex = 1 + x +
..............................................................................................
6. We a lr ea dy kn ow t h e Ma cla u r in ser ies for ex , so plu g sin x in for x t o get t h e

Ma cla u r in polyn om ia l for esin x :
496
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
(c ) Th is is a t elescopin g ser ies, a n d you ca n fin d t h e exa ct su m by expa n din g t h e

ser ies t o det er m in e wh ich t er m s will ca n cel ou t a s n a ppr oa ch es in fin it y:
1 1
1 1
1 1
n n + 3 = 1 4 + 2 5 + 3 6 + 4 7 +
n =1
1
lower will be ca n celed ou t by it s opposit e a s t h e su m
4
get s lon ger a n d lon ger. Th er efor e, t h e exa ct su m is com posed of t h e on ly
n u m ber s t h a t do n ot get ca n celed: 1 + 12 + 13 = 11
6 1.833333 .
E ver y n u m ber fr om
8. Oka y, so fou r t est s is a lit t le over kill; a lt h ou gh it s t r u e t h a t on ly on e is n ecessa r y,

t h is pr oblem wou ldn t be dia bolica l ot h er wise, wou ld it ?
3
1
3
1
ou t of t h e ser ies, you get 3 . 3 is a p-ser ies
n=1 n n
p
3
wit h p 5 3, so t h e ser ies con ver ges. Th e fa ct t h a t you m u lt iply t h e su m by wh en
p
you r e fin ish ed does n ot ch a n ge t h e fa ct t h a t t h e su m is a fin it e n u m ber.
P-series Test: If you fa ct or t h e
In tegral Test: Th e ser ies will con ver ge if
3
b
lim
exist s.
x 3 dx
3 1 b
2
b 2 x 1
lim
3 1
2 1
b
b
lim
3
( 1) = 23
2
Beca u se t h e lim it is a fin it e n u m ber, bot h t h e in t egr a l a n d t h e ser ies con ver ge.
L im it Com parison Test: Com pa r e t h e ser ies t o
lim
3
n3
1
n3
Beca u se t h e lim it is a fin it e n u m ber, a n d

ser ies m u st con ver ge.
1
.
n3
1
is a con ver gen t p-ser ies, t h en bot h
n3
n3
is less t h a n t h e cor r espon din g

3
1
1
t er m in t h e ser ies 3 . You kn ow t h is beca u se , 1. Wh en you m u lt iply 3 by
p
n
n=1 n
1
1
a va lu e less t h a n on e, t h e r esu lt is sm a ller t h a n 3 . Not ice t h a t 3 is a con ver gen t
n
n
3
p-ser ies. Beca u se t h e t er m s of 3 a r e less t h a n a con ver gen t ser ies, it m u st
n=1 n
a lso con ver ge by t h e Com pa r ison Test .
Com parison Test: E a ch t er m in t h e ser ies
n=1
497
.................................................................
A sequ en ce is ba sica lly a list of n u m ber s ba sed on som e defin in g r u le.
Th e Com pa r ison Test is a lso ca lled t h e Dir ect Com pa r ison Test .
Th e t r ickiest pa r t of t h e Com pa r ison Test is decidin g wh a t t o com pa r e t h e given

ser ies t o. Most of t h e t im e, you pick a ser ies t h a t is close t o, bu t sim pler t h a n , t h e
given ser ies.
Wh en ch oosin g t h e Com pa r ison Ser ies, u se on ly t h e h igh est power s of n in t h e

n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or of t h e or igin a l ser ies.
..............................................................................................
SUMMING IT UP
PART III
..........................................................
FOUR PRACTICE TESTS
......................................................................
PRACTICE TEST 1
AP Ca lc ulus AB
PRACTICE TEST 2
AP Ca lc ulus AB
PRACTICE TEST 3
AP Ca lc ulus BC
PRACTICE TEST 4
AP Ca lc ulus BC
.................................................................
Section I, Pa rt A
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
1. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
11. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
20. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
3. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
13. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
22. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
2. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
4. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
5. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
6. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
7. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
8. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
9. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
10. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
12. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
14. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
15. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
16. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
17. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
18. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
19. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
21. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
23. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
24. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
25. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
26. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
27. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
28. O
Section I, Pa rt B
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
29. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
35. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
41. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
31. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
37. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
43. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
30. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
32. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
33. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
34. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
36. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
38. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
39. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
40. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
42. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
44. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
45. O
a nsw er sheet
ANSWER SHEET PRACTICE TEST 1
..............................................................................................
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
501
502
DO YOUR CALCULATIONS HERE.
Section II
PART III: Four Pra ctice Tests
.................................................................
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
.................................................................
503
a nsw er sheet
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
504
.................................................................
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
..............................................................................................
Pra c tic e Test 1: AP

Ca lc ulus AB
....................................................................................
55 Minutes 28 Questions
A CALCULATOR MAY NOT BE USED FOR THIS PART OF THE EXAMINATION.
D ire c tio n s : Solve ea ch of t h e followin g pr oblem s, u sin g t h e a va ila ble
spa ce for scr a t ch wor k. Aft er exa m in in g t h e for m of t h e ch oices, decide
wh ich is t h e best of t h e ch oices given a n d fill in t h e cor r espon din g ova l on
t h e a n swer sh eet . No cr edit will be given for a n yt h in g wr it t en in t h e t est
book. Do n ot spen d t oo m u ch t im e on a n y on e pr oblem .
In th is te s t: Un less ot h er wise specified, t h e dom a in of a fu n ct ion f is
a ssu m ed t o be t h e set of a ll r ea l n u m ber s x for wh ich f(x) is a r ea l
n u m ber.
1.
1 2x
0 e
3. If F ( x ) =
dx =
64
3
(A) e2 2 1
(A)
(B ) e2
(B ) 64
2
(C) e
2
2
e
1
(D )
2
(C)
(D ) 16
(E) 2e2 2 2
(E)
2. If f(x) 5 t a n (e
(A) e
sin x
sin x
), t h en f8(x) 5
cos x sec 2 e sin x
)
sec ( e
) tan ( e )
sec ( e
)
sec ( e
) tan ( e )
(B ) e sin x cos x sec 2 e sin x

(C) e sin x
(D ) e sin x
(E) e sin x
16
3
sin x
sin x
sin x
sin x
sin x
505
56
3
x2
t 2dt, t h en F(2) 5
p ra c tic e test 1
SECTION I, PART A
506
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
4. If f(x) 5 t a n 2 x 1 sin x, t h en f =
4
(A) 4 +
2
2
+
(B )
2
(C) 8 +
2
8
(D )
2
4
(E)
2
QUESTIONS 8 AND 9 REFER TO THE

GRAPH BELOW OF THE VELOCITY OF A
MOVING OBJECT AS A FUNCTION OF
TIME.
2
2
2
2
5. At wh ich of t h e followin g poin t s is

t h e gr a ph of f(x) 5 x 4 2 2x 3 2 2x 2 2 7
decr ea sin g a n d con ca ve down ?
8. At wh a t t im e h a s t h e object r ea ch ed
it s m a xim u m speed?
(A) (1,210)
(B ) (2,215)
(A) 0
(B ) 2
(C) (3,2)
(C) 3
(D ) 5
(E) 6
(D ) (21,26)
(E) (22,17)
6. Wh ich of t h e followin g a r e a n t ider iva t ives of f(x) 5 cos 3 x sin x ?

I. F ( x ) =
II. F ( x ) =
III. F ( x ) =
cos 4 x
4
2
(A) I on ly
(B ) II on ly
(D ) I a n d III
(E) I, II, a n d III
d
7. e sin 2 x =
dx
(A)
(B )
(C)
(D )
(E)
(B ) [2,3]
4
(C) [2,4]
(D ) [3,5]
(E) [5,6]
10. An equ a t ion of t h e lin e t a n gen t t o
p
, 1 is
y 5 sin x 1 2cosx a t
2
S D
(A) 2x 2 y 5 p 2 1
(C) III on ly
(A) [0,2]
sin x sin x
2
4
1 cos 4 x
4
9. Over wh a t in t er va l does t h e object

h a ve t h e gr ea t est a cceler a t ion ?
2 cos2xe sin 2x
cos2xe sin 2x
2e sin 2x
2cos2xe sin 2x
2 2cos2xe sin 2x
(B )
(C)
(D )
(E)
2x 1 y 5 p 1 1
2x 2 2y 5 2 2 p
4x 1 2y 5 2 2 p
Non e of t h e a bove
Pra ctice Test 1: AP Ca lculus AB
507
.................................................................
(E)
Wh ich of t h ese gr a ph s cou ld be t h e

der iva t ive of f ?
(A)
12. Th e fu n ct ion f is given by f(x) 5 x 4 2

8x 3 1 24x 2 2 32x 1 15.
All of t h ese st a t em en t s a r e t r u e E XCE P T
(B )
(A)
(B )
(C)
(D )
1 a n d 3 a r e zer os of f.
f (2) 5 0.
f (2) 5 0.
(2, 2 1) is a poin t of in flect ion
of f.
(E) (2, 2 1) is a loca l m in im u m of f.

13. Th e fu n ct ion f is given by f(x) 5
3e sin x .
f is decr ea sin g over wh ich in t er va l?
(A) [0,p]
(C)
,
2 2
3
(C) ,
2 2
3 5
(D )
2 , 2
(B )
(E) [2`,`]
p ra c tic e test
(D )
..............................................................................................
11. Th e gr a ph of t h e fu n ct ion f is given

below.
508
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
14. Let f a n d g be t wice differ en t ia ble

fu n ct ion s su ch t h a t f8(x) 0 for a ll x
in t h e dom a in of f. If h (x) 5 f(g8(x))
a n d h 8(3) 5 2 2, t h en a t x 5 3
16. Wh a t is t h e a r ea of t h e r egion
bou n ded by t h e cu r ves y 5 x 3 1 1
a n d y 5 2 x 2 fr om x 5 0 t o x 5 2?
(A)
26
3
(B )
10
3
(C)
10
3
(D )
20
3
(E)
26
3
(A) h is con ca ve down .

(B ) g is decr ea sin g.
(C) f is con ca ve down .
(D ) g is con ca ve down .
(E) f is decr ea sin g.
15. In t h e dia gr a m below, f h a s a ver t ica l

t a n gen t a t x 5 1 a n d h or izon t a l t a n gen t s a t x 5 2 a n d a t x 5 5. All of
t h ese st a t em en t s a r e t r u e E XCE P T
1 2 3 4 5
(A) lim+ f ( x ) = lim f ( x )

x 3
(B )
lim f ( x ) = f (5)
x5
(C) lim
h 0
(D )
(E)
x 3
f (2 + h) f (2)
=0
h
lim
h 0
f (4 + h) f (4)
f (4 + h) f (4)
= lim
h
h
h 0 +
lim f ( x ) > lim
x 2.5
h 0
f ( 2.5 + h ) f ( 2.5 )
h
509
.................................................................
(B )
18.
y x2
y2 x
(D )
1 x
y 1
(E)
x2 y
y2 x
(B )
x2
x y2
(C)
(A) 2 4
x2
y2 x
1
3
13
(D )
6
(E) 4
20. Wh a t is t h e a ver a ge va lu e of y 5
sin 2x over 4 , 3 ?
6
(A)
(B ) 1
6
3
(C)
sin 2 x dx =
1
2
(C) 0
(D )
1
3
(C)
(A) 2 1
(B )
(D ) 3p
1
2
(E)
(E) 1
21.
5x2 + 7x 3
=
x 2 + 3 x 11 x 2
3
(A)
2
5
(B )
11
lim
(C) 0
(D )
7
3
(E) It is n on exist en t .
p ra c tic e test
(A)
19. Th e gr a ph of f(x) 5 (x 2 4)3 (3x 2 1)3

h a s a loca l m in im u m a t x 5
..............................................................................................
dy
for t h e cu r ve defin ed
dx
3
3
by x 1 y 5 3xy.
17. Det er m in e
510
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
1 x
22. Th e gr a ph of f(x) 5 2
is con ca ve
x 1
down over wh ich in t er va l(s)?
25.
(A) ( 2 `, 2 1)
(B ) ( 2 1, `)
(C) (21,1) (1,`)
e2
(A)
7
3e 2
(B )
4
e2
(D ) (2`,1)
(E) (2`,`)
(C) 2
23.
7
3
8
(E)
3
y = x2
(D )
y = x
Th e a r ea of t h e sh a ded r egion in t h e
dia gr a m a bove is equ iva len t t o
(A)
0 ( x
(B )
x 4 x dx
(C)
0 (
26. A pa r t icles posit ion is given by s(t) 5

t
sin t 1 2cost 1 1 2.
p
Th e a ver a ge velocit y of t h e pa r t icle
over [0,2p] is
+1
1
(B )
3
x dx
(A)
(C) 0
((
(D )
(D )
2 x
(E)
(
0
1
x x 2 dx
1
ln 2 x
dx =
x
(E) +1
))
x x 2 dx
x x 2 dx
27.
tan 2( 8 + h) tan 4
=
h0
h
24. lim
(A)
3
2
(B ) 2
t h en
lim f ( x ) =
x ln 2
(A)
1
2
(B ) ln 2
(C) 2
(C)
2 2
(D ) e 2
(D ) 4
(E)
4 2
511
.................................................................
10
In t h e t r ia n gle sh own a bove, u is in cr ea sin g a t a con st a n t r a t e of 15
26 r a dia n s per m in u t e.
At wh a t r a t e is t h e a r ea of t h e t r ia n gle in cr ea sin g, in squ a r e u n it s per
m in u t e, wh en h is 24 u n it s?
(A)
338
5
(B ) 39
(C)
195
4
(D ) 182
(E) 195
STOP
END OF SECTION I, PART A. IF YOU HAVE ANY TIME LEFT, GO OVER

YOUR WORK IN THIS PART ONLY. DO NOT WORK IN ANY OTHER PART
OF THE TEST.
p ra c tic e test
..............................................................................................
28.
512
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
SECTION I, PART B
A GRAPHING CALCULATOR IS REQUIRED FOR SOME QUESTIONS IN THIS PART OF
THE EXAMINATION.
D ire c tio n s : Solve ea ch of t h e followin g pr oblem s, u sin g t h e a va ila ble spa ce
for scr a t ch wor k. Aft er exa m in in g t h e for m of t h e ch oices, decide wh ich is t h e
best of t h e ch oices given a n d fill in t h e cor r espon din g ova l on t h e a n swer
sh eet . No cr edit will be given for a n yt h in g wr it t en in t h e t est book. Do n ot
spen d t oo m u ch t im e on a n y on e pr oblem .
In th is te s t: (1) Th e exa ct n u m er ica l va lu e of t h e cor r ect a n swer does n ot
a lwa ys a ppea r a m on g t h e ch oices given . Wh en t h is h a ppen s, select fr om
a m on g t h e ch oices t h e n u m ber t h a t best a ppr oxim a t es t h e exa ct n u m er ica l
va lu e. (2) Un less ot h er wise specified, t h e dom a in of a fu n ct ion f is a ssu m ed t o
be t h e set of a ll r ea l n u m ber s x for wh ich f(x) is a r ea l n u m ber.
29. If
f ( x) =
3x
e3x
sin x 2
t h en f (x) 5
31.
4
3
2
1
3 sin x 2 2 x cos x 2
sin 2 x 2
(A)
(B )
3e 3 x
2 x cos x 2
(C)
e3 x
2 x cos x 2 3 sin x 2
sin 2 x 2
(D )
e3 x
3 sin x 2 + 2 x cos x 2
sin 2 x 2
3x
(E) 3e
2 x cos x 2
30. Wh ich of t h e followin g is a n equ a t ion

for a lin e t a n gen t t o t h e gr a ph of f(x)
5 e2x wh en f (x) 5 10?
(A) y 5 10x 2 8.05
(B ) y 5 x 2 8.05
(C) y 5 x 2 3.05
(D ) y 5 10x 2 11.5
(E) y 5 10x 2 3.05
1
2
3
4
Th e gr a ph of t h e der iva t ive of f is

sh own a bove.
Wh ich of t h e followin g st a t em en t s is
t r u e?
(A) f(0) , f(6) , f(2) , f(4)
(B )
(C)
(D )
(E)
f(6)
f(0)
f(2)
f(0)
,
,
,
,
f(0)
f(2)
f(0)
f(2)
,
,
,
,
f(2)
f(4)
f(6)
f(6)
,
,
,
,
f(4)
f(6)
f(4)
f(4)
513
.................................................................
I. f(5) 5 3
II. f (5) 5 3
x2 1
f (x) =
. Wh ich of t h ese
x 1
st a t em en t s is t r u e?
I. f is con t in u ou s a t x 5 21.
II. f is differ en t ia ble a t x 5 1.
III. f h a s a loca l m a xim u m a t x 5 21.
III. f is con t in u ou s a n d differ en t ia ble

a t x 5 5.
(A) I on ly
(B ) II on ly
(A) I on ly
(C) III on ly
(D ) I a n d III
(E) II a n d III
(B ) II on ly
(C) III on ly
(D ) I a n d II
(E) II a n d III
33. Th e fu n ct ion f wh ose der iva t ive is
given by f (x) 5 5x 3 2 15x 1 7 h a s a
loca l m a xim u m a t x 5
(A) 21.930
(B )
(C)
(D )
(E)
21.000
0.511
1.000
1.419
34. Ca r A is t r a velin g sou t h a t 40 m ph

t owa r d Millville, a n d Ca r B is t r a velin g west a t 30 m ph t owa r d Millville.
If bot h ca r s bega n t r a velin g 100
m iles ou t side of Millville a t t h e sa m e
t im e, t h en a t wh a t r a t e, in m ph , is
t h e dist a n ce bet ween t h em decr ea sin g a ft er 90 m in u t es?
(A) 35.00
(B ) 47.79
(C) 50.00
(D ) 55.14
(E) 68.01
36. If y 5 3x 2 7 a n d x 0, wh a t is t h e
m in im u m pr odu ct of x 2 y?
(A) 25.646
(B ) 0
(C) 1.555
(D ) 2.813
(E) 3.841
37. Wh a t is t h e a r ea of t h e r egion
bou n ded by y 5 sin x, y = 14 x 1, a n d
t h e y-a xis?
(A) 0.772
(B ) 2.815
(C) 3.926
(D ) 5.552
(E) 34.882
38. A r egion R loca t ed in t h e fir st qu a dr a n t is bou n ded by t h e x-a xis, y 5
sin x, a n d
y=
( 12 ) x .
Det er m in e t h e
volu m e of t h e solid for m ed wh en R is

r ot a t ed a bou t t h e y-a xis.
(A)
(B )
(C)
(D )
(E)
1.130
2.724
3.265
16.875
17.117
p ra c tic e test
f ( 5 + h ) f ( 5)
lim
= 3.
h
h0
Wh ich of t h e followin g m u st be t r u e?
35. Let
..............................................................................................
32. Let f be a fu n ct ion su ch t h a t
514
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
39. Let f be t h e fu n ct ion given by

3
f ( x ) = 3 x . F or wh a t va lu e of x is
ex
t h e slope of t h e lin e t a n gen t t o f
42.
equ a l t o 21.024?
(A) 29.004
(B ) 24.732
(C) 1.029
Let
(A)
40.
(B )
Th e gr a ph of f is sh own a bove. If
g (x ) =
gr a ph sh own a bove. Wh ich of t h e followin g cou ld be t h e gr a ph of f?
(D ) 1.277
(E) 4.797
f ( x ) = h(t ) dt , wh er e h is t h e
f (t ) dt, for
a
wh a t va lu e of x
does g(x) h a ve a r ela t ive m in im u m ?

(A) a
(B ) b
(C) c
(D ) d
(E) It ca n n ot be det er m in ed fr om
t h e in for m a t ion given .
(C)
41. Th e gr a ph of t h e fu n ct ion y 5 x 5 2 x 2
1 sin x ch a n ges con ca vit y a t x 5
(A) 0.324
(B ) 0.499
(D )
(C) 0.506
(D ) 0.611
(E) 0.704
(E)
515
.................................................................
0
1
1
2
2
4
3
1
4
3
5
2
6
5
A t a ble of va lu es for a con t in u ou s

fu n ct ion f is sh own a bove.
If t h r ee equ a l su bin t er va ls a r e u sed
for [0,6], wh ich of t h e followin g is
equ iva len t t o a r igh t -h a n d Riem a n n
Su m a ppr oxim a t ion for
f ( x ) dx ?
Let g(x) 5
x
2
f ( t ) dt . F or wh a t
va lu e of x 22 wou ld g(x) 5 0?
(A) 0
(B )
(C) 2
(A) 14
(B )
(C)
(D )
(E)
x 2, x 0
x,
x >0
f (x) =
23 2
(E) 2 2
(D )
17
20
24
27
44.
Th e gr a ph of a fu n ct ion f is sh own
a bove. Wh ich of t h ese st a t em en t s
a bou t f is fa lse?
(A) f is con t in u ou s bu t n ot differ en t ia ble a t x 5 a .
(B ) . lim
xa
f ( x + a) f ( x )
f ( x + a) f ( x )
lim+
a
a
xa
(C) f(a ) is defin ed, bu t f(c) is n ot .

(D ) f (b) 5 0.
(E) lim ( f ( x )) lim+ ( f ( x )).
x c
STOP
x c
END OF SECTION I, PART B. IF YOU HAVE ANY TIME LEFT, GO OVER

OF THE TEST.
p ra c tic e test
x
f (x)
..............................................................................................
45. Let f be defin ed a s follows:
43.
516
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
SECTION II, PART A

A GRAPHING CALCULATOR IS REQUIRED FOR SOME PROBLEMS OR PARTS OF
PROBLEMS IN THIS PART OF THE EXAMINATION.
S HOW ALL YOU R WORK. It is im por t a n t t o sh ow you r set u ps for t h ese
pr oblem s beca u se pa r t ia l cr edit will be a wa r ded. If you u se decim a l a ppr oxim a t ion s, t h ey sh ou ld be a ccu r a t e t o t h r ee decim a l pla ces.
1. At t im e t, 0 t 10, t h e velocit y of a
pa r t icle m ovin g a lon g t h e x-a xis is
given by t h e followin g equ a t ion : v(t)
5 1 2 4sin (2t) 2 7cos t.
(a ) Is t h e pa r t icle m ovin g left or
r igh t a t t 5 5 secon ds? E xpla in
you r r ea son in g.
(b) Wh a t is t h e a ver a ge velocit y of
t h e pa r t icle fr om t 5 0 t o t 5
10?
(c ) Wh a t is t h e a ver a ge a cceler a t ion of t h e pa r t icle fr om t 5 0
t o t 5 10?
(d ) Given t h a t p(t) is t h e posit ion
of t h e pa r t icle a t t im e t a n d
p(0) 5 5, fin d p(2).
2. Let R be t h e r egion bou n d by y 5 2x 2

2 8x 1 11 a n d y 5 x 2 2 4x 1 10.
(a ) Sket ch t h e r egion on t h e a xes
pr ovided.
10
8
6
4
2
10
(b) Det er m in e t h e a r ea of R .
(c ) Det er m in e t h e volu m e wh en R
is r ot a t ed a bou t t h e y-a xis.
(d ) Th e lin e x 5 k divides t h e
r egion R in t o t wo r egion s su ch
t h a t wh en t h ese t wo r egion s
a r e r ot a t ed a bou t t h e y-a xis,
t h ey gen er a t e solids wit h equ a l
volu m e. F in d t h e va lu e of k .
517
.................................................................
(c ) Wh a t is t h e a ver a ge a m ou n t of
wa t er in t h e r eser voir du r in g
t h e fir st 20 h ou r s?
(d ) Aft er h ow m a n y h ou r s of
lea kin g will t h e a m ou n t fr om
pa r t C be in t h e r eser voir ?
STOP
END OF SECTION II, PART A. IF YOU HAVE ANY TIME LEFT, GO OVER
OF THE TEST.
p ra c tic e test
(a ) Wr it e a n expr ession for A(t)

t h e a m ou n t of wa t er in t h e
r eser voir for a n y t im e t.
(b) H ow m u ch wa t er wou ld h a ve
lea ked ou t a ft er 5 h ou r s?
..............................................................................................
3. Wa t er is lea kin g ou t of a con ica l r eser voir a t a r a t e pr opor t ion a l t o t h e

a m ou n t of wa t er in t h e r eser voir ;
dy
5 k y wh er e y is t h e
t h a t is,
dx
a m ou n t of wa t er left for a n y t im e t.
In it ia lly, t h er e wer e 100 ga llon s in
t h e r eser voir, a n d a ft er 10 h ou r s,
t h er e wer e 70 ga llon s.
518
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
SECTION II, PART B

A CALCULATOR IS NOT PERMITTED IN THIS PART OF THE EXAMINATION.
4. Con sider t h e differ en t ia l equ a t ion
dy x + 1
=
. All of t h e followin g qu esdx
y
t ion s r efer t o t h is differ en t ia l equ a t ion .
dy
at
dx
t h e in dica t ed poin t s on t h e
below coor din a t e a xis.
(a ) Dr a w t h e slope field for
6. Th e gr a ph of a fu n ct ion f con sist s of

t wo qu a r t er cir cles a n d t wo lin e segm en t s, a s sh own below. Let g be t h e
fu n ct ion given by
x
g( x ) = f ( x ) dx .
3
5
4
3
2
1
1
2
4
5
(b) Th e solu t ion t o t h is differ en t ia l

equ a t ion ca n be cla ssified a s
wh ich con ic sect ion ? J u st ify
you r a n swer m a t h em a t ica lly.
(c ) F in d t h e specific solu t ion t o t h e
differ en t ia l equ a t ion , given t h a t
it con t a in s t h e poin t (2,4).
5. Con sider t h e cu r ve defin ed by y 4 5 y 2

2 x 2.
dy
x
=
(a ) Ver ify t h a t
.
dx y 2 y 3
(b) Wr it e t h e equ a t ion for a n y
h or izon t a l t a n gen t s of t h e
cu r ve.
(c ) Wr it e t h e equ a t ion for a n y
ver t ica l t a n gen t s of t h e cu r ve.
(d ) At wh a t or der ed pa ir (x,y) is
t h e lin e 4x 3 4 y 5 1 t a n gen t
t o t h e cu r ve y 4 5 y 2 2 x 2 ?
STOP
f
3
12
15
(a ) F in d g(0) a n d g(8).
(b) Wh a t is t h e m a xim u m va lu e of
g on [3,16]?
(c ) Wr it e t h e equ a t ion for t h e lin e
t a n gen t t o g a t (11, g(11)).
(d ) F in d t h e x-coor din a t e of a n y
poin t s of in flect ion of g on
[0,16].
END OF SECTION II, PART B. IF YOU HAVE ANY TIME LEFT, GO OVER
OF THE TEST.
519
.................................................................
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
D
B
E
C
A
E
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
D
D
E
B
B
D
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
C
D
D
E
C
D
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
D
C
B
C
C
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
D
E
D
C
E
1. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). Solve
t h is in t egr a l u sin g u -su bst it u t ion .
Let u 5 2x, so d u 5 2 d x.
1 2x
2
e dx becom es 12 eu du , wh ich
0
0
2
1
yields 2 e 1 .
2. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (B ). Th is is
a r a t h er com plica t ed Ch a in Ru le a pplica t ion . Th e der iva t ive of t a n u is
sec2 u d u , bu t we m u st n t for get t o
a lso t a ke t h e der iva t ive of esin x . Sin ce
( e ) = cos x e
sin x
d
dx
sin x
tan e sin x = sec 2 e sin x cos x e sin x
6. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E). H er e,
we sh ou ld t a ke t h e der iva t ive of ea ch
I, II, a n d III a n d see wh a t we get .
d cos4 x
4 cos3 x
=
( sin x )
4
4
dx
= cos3 x sin x
3. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E). Be
ca r efu l h er e. Alt h ou gh it r esem bles a
F u n da m en t a l Th eor em P a r t Two
pr oblem , it is n ot . Th e pr oblem a sks
for F(2), n ot F (2)! So,
F(2) =
d sin 2 x sin 4 x
=
4
dx 2
sin x cos x
2 t 2 dt = 563 .
4. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C).
St r a igh t -for wa r d eva lu a t ion of a der iva t ive a t a poin t pr oblem : f (x) 5
2t a n xsec2 x 1 cosx. So,
( )
2 , wh ich is 8 + 2 .
f =4+
4
2
2
5. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (A). We
n eed bot h t h e fir st a n d secon d der iva t ives t o be n ega t ive for t h is fu n ct ion t o be decr ea sin g a n d con ca ve
down . f (x) 5 4x 3 2 6x 2 2 4x a n d
f (x) 5 12x 2 2 12x 2 4. By u sin g t h e
wiggle gr a ph below,
4 sin3 x cos x
4
5 sin x cosx2 sin 3 xcosx 5

sin xcosx(12sin 2 x) = sin x cosx(cos 2 x)
5 cos 3 x sin x
d
dx
1 cos4 x
4 cos3 x ( sin x )
=
4
4
= cos3 x sin x
7. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). An ot h er len gt h y Ch a in Ru leju st don t

for get t o t a ke t h e der iva t ive of 2x,
t h e a r gu m en t of t h e a r gu m en t . Sin ce
t h e der iva t ive of eu is eu d u a n d t h e
pra ctice test 1
d
dx
we ca n ea sily see t h a t ch oices (B)

a n d (C) ca n be elim in a t ed, so we
m u st ch eck ou t t h e va lu es of f (22),
f (21), a n d f (1). f (1) 5 24 , 0.
a nsw ers
Section I, Pa rt A
..............................................................................................
ANSWER KEY AND EXPLANATIONS
520
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
der iva t ive of sin u is cosu d u , t h en

d sin 2 x = 2 cos 2 xesin 2 x .
dx e
8. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). Rem em ber, speed is t h e a bsolu t e va lu e

of velocit y. Sin ce 15 > 10 , t h e
m a xim u m speed is r ea ch ed a t t 5 5
secon ds.
9. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E). Acceler a t ion ca n be t h ou gh t of a s t h e a bsolu t e va lu e or slope of velocit y. Th e

slope of t h e velocit y cu r ve is st eepest
on [5,6].
10. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (B ). In order t o wr it e t h e equ a t ion for a lin e,

we n eed it s slope a n d a poin t on t h a t
lin e. We a lr ea dy h a ve t h e poin t ,
( 2 ,1) , so t h e big pr oblem is det er-
m in in g it s slope, wh ich is t h e der iva t ive of t h e cu r ve wh en x = 2 . y 5

cosx 2 2sin x, so y = 2. Usin g
2
poin t slope for m , t h e equ a t ion for
t h e lin e cou ld be wr it t en a s
y 1 = 2 x . Sin ce t h is is n ot a
2
ch oice, we m u st ch a n ge t h is t o st a n da r d for m , 2x 1 y 5 p 1 1.
11. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (B ). Sin ce

t h e f is decr ea sin g over (2`,21), it s
der iva t ive, f , m u st be n ega t ive over
t h is sa m e in t er va l. Th is elim in a t es
ch oices (C), (D), a n d (E ). E xa m in in g
t h e in t er va l (21,0), t h e gr a ph of f is
decr ea sin g h er e; t h u s, t h e gr a ph of f
m u st be n ega t ive. On ly ch oice (B)
m eet s t h is r equ ir em en t .
12. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). By exa m in in g

the
secon d-der iva t ive
wiggle gr a ph below, we ca n see t h a t
t h e secon d der iva t ive is posit ive a t ,
befor e, a n d a ft er 2. Th er efor e, t h er e
is n o poin t of in flect ion a t x 5 2.
13. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). P r et t y

sim ple pr oblem we det er m in e t h e
der iva t ive, set it equ a l t o zer o, a n d
u se a wiggle gr a ph .
f (x) 5 3e
sin x
cosx 5 0
sin x
will n ever be 0, we set

Sin ce 3e
cosx 5 0 a n d solve.
cosx 5 0 wh en x = 2 + n for a n y
in t eger n . By exa m in in g t h e wiggle
gr a ph below, we ca n see t h a t t h e der iva t ive is n ega t ive over [ 2 , 32 ].
14. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). Th is
on e seem s t r icky, bu t it a ct u a lly
wor ks ou t qu it e qu ickly. If h (x) 5
f(g(x)), t h en by u sin g t h e ch a in r u le,
h (x) 5 f ( g(x))g(x). Th e pr oblem
t ells u s t h a t f (x) will a lwa ys be posit ive. Sin ce h (3) som eh ow becom es
n ega t ive, g(3) m u st be n ega t ive.
Th er efor e, g m u st be con ca ve down
a t x 5 3.
15. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). Do we
u n der st a n d t h e defin it ion s of con t in u it y a n d differ en t ia bilit y?
(A) Does t h e lim it exist a s x
a ppr oa ch es 3? Yes.
(B ) Is f con t in u ou s a t x 5 5? Yes.
(C) Does f (2) 5 0? Yes. (It h a s a
h or izon t a l t a n gen t lin e.)
(D ) Does f (4) exist ? No.
(E) Is f(2.5) . f (2.5)? Yes. (f(2.5) .
0, a n d sin ce f is decr ea sin g a t x
5 2.5, f (2.5) , 0.)
521
.................................................................
It follows
com es
that
sin 2x dx be-
1 2 sin u du = 1 cos u 2
0
2 0
2
1
1
= ( 0 1) = .
2
2
19. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). Aga in ,

we will r ely on t h e m a gic of t h e
wiggle gr a ph t o su pply u s wit h t h e
solu t ion t o t h is differ en t ia t ion pr oblem .
f (x) 5 3(x 2 4)2 (3x 2 1)2 [3(x 2 4) 1
(3x 2 1]
5 3(x 2 4)2 (3x 2 1)2 (6x 2 13)
As we ca n see, y 5 x 3 1 1 is a bove y
5 2x 2 over t h e en t ir e in t er va l. So,
A=
+ 1 x 2 dx
x4
x3 2
+x+
4
3 0
8 26
= 4+2+ =
3 3
17. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). Som e

im plicit differ en t ia t ion : Rem em ber,
ever yt h in g h er e is differ en t ia t ed
wit h r espect t o x. Don t for get t h e
pr odu ct r u le for 3xy.
dy
dy
= 3x
+ 3y
dx
dx
dy
3 y2 3x
= 3 y 3x 2
dx
dy 3 y 3x 2
=
dx 3 y2 3x
3x 2 + 3 y2
1
3
+
13
6
+
4
20. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). Wh en ever t h e pr oblem a sks for t h e a vera ge va lu e of t h e fu n ct ion , we sh ou ld

im m edia t ely t h in k of t h e m ea n va lu e
t h eor em for in t egr a t ion . We a r e lookin g for f(c) in t h is for m u la :
f (c ) =
1
ba
f ( x ) dx . Applyin g t h e
b
MVT for In t egr a t ion h er e yields t h e

followin g equ a t ion :
y x2
dy
= 2
dx
y x
pra ctice test 1
0 x
By set t in g f (x) 5 0 a n d solvin g, we

qu ickly discover t h a t t h e zer os of t h e
1 13
der iva t ive a r e , , a n d 4. By exa m 3 6
in in g t h e wiggle gr a ph below, we ca n
see t h a t t h e on ly va lu e wh er e t h e
der iva t ive ch a n ges fr om n ega t ive t o
13
posit ive is a t x 5 .
6
a nsw ers
18. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). Th is is
a ver y sim ple u -su bst it u t ion in t egr a l. Let u 5 2x, so d u 5 2d x.
..............................................................................................
16. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E). We

sh ou ld a lwa ys sket ch t h e r egion .
522
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
f (c ) =
=
=
=
=
3
1
4 4 sin2x dx
3
4
1 1 2 3 sin u du
12 2 2
6 cos u 2 3
)| 2
(
6 1 0
2
21. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (B ). Rem em ber, lim it s a t in fin it y a r e like

h or izon t a l a sym pt ot es. If t h e t op
degr ee is gr ea t er t h a n t h e bot t om
degr ee, t h e lim it does n ot exist . If
t h e bot t om degr ee is gr ea t er t h a n
t h e t op degr ee, t h e lim it is zer o. If,
a s in t h is ca se, t h e degr ees a r e
equ a l, t h en t h e lim it is t h e r a t io of
the lea ding coefficient of the numera t or over t h a t of t h e den om in a t or.
5 .
H er e, t h a t r a t io is 11
22. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). Sket ch

t h e cu r ve. We m a y sim plify t h e expr ession fir st by u sin g ca n cella t ion .
H owever, we m u st r em em ber t h a t by
ca n celin g ou t a t er m in volvin g x, we
a r e r em ovin g a discon t in u it y. So, t h e
gr a ph of t h e or igin a l fu n ct ion will
h a ve a poin t discon t in u it y.
1x
f ( x ) = 12 x =
x 1 ( x 1)( x + 1)
=
1
x +1
wit h a poin t discon t in u it y a t x 5 1.
By exa m in in g t h e gr a ph a bove, we
ca n see t h a t it is con ca ve down t o t h e
r igh t of t h e a sym pt ot e. Th ese a r e a ct u a lly t wo in t er va ls, beca u se t h e
fu n ct ion is n ot con t in u ou s a t x 5 1.
Th ey a r e (21,1) a n d (1,`).
23. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). Th e
t wo cu r ves, y = x a n d y 5 x 2 in t ersect a t x 5 0 a n d x 5 1. So, t h ese will
be ou r lim it s of in t egr a t ion . F or x
va lu es bet ween 0 a n d 1,
x > x2.
Th is bein g t h e ca se, wh en we det erm in e t h e a r ea of t h e r egion , we
sh ou ld su bt r a ct
x x 2 . Th er efor e,
1
2
A 5
x x dx .
0
ju st t h e der iva t ive of f(x) 5 t a n 2x
eva lu a t ed a t x = . f (x) 5 2sec2 2x,

8
2
so f = 2 sec = 4 .
8
4
()
25. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E).

A lit t le t r icky u -su bst it u t ion in t edx
.
gr a l. Let u 5 ln x, t h en du =
x
It follows t h a t
e2
ln2 x dx =
x
3
=u
3
0 u du
2
| = 38 0 = 38
2
0
26. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). Sin ce

t h e qu est ion a sks for a ver a ge velocit y a n d we a r e given t h e posit ion
equ a t ion , we sh ou ld det er m in e t h e
slope of t h e seca n t lin e:
s ( 2 ) s ( 0 )
2 0
0 + 2 + 2 + 2 (2 + 2)
=
2
2
1
=
=
2
Average velocity =
523
.................................................................
lim f ( x ) =
x (ln 2)
lim + f ( x ) = eln 2 = 2,
x (ln 2)
then lim f ( x ) exists and
10
Differ en t ia t in g t h is wit h r espect t o t
yields
dh
d
= 10 sec2
dt
dt
x ln 2
is equal to 2 as well.
28. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E). Th is is
a r a t h er ch a llen gin g r ela t ed-r a t es
dA
wh en
pr oblem . We a r e lookin g for
dt
h 5 24. F ir st , we n eed a pr im a r y
equ a t ion . Th is will be t h e for m u la for
t h e a r ea of a t r ia n gle:
1
bh
2
Sin ce t h e ba se is a con st a n t , 10, t h is
becom es
A=
1
h (10 ) = 5h
2
Differ en t ia t in g wit h r espect t o t
yields
A=
dh
15
= 10 sec2
dt
26
Th e la st u n kn own t o iden t ify is
10sec2 u. We ca n u se t h e P yt h a gor ea n
t h eor em t o h elp h er e. Sin ce h 5 24
a n d b 5 10, t h e h ypot en u se m u st be
26. So,
26 2
10 sec2 = 10
10
P lu ggin g t h is
dh gives u s
dt
expr ession
in
for
dA
26 15
= (5 )(10 )
10 26
dt
13 3
= 50 = 195
5 2
pra ctice test 1
dA
dh
=5
dt
dt
dh
? We m u st
H ow do we det er m in e
dt
fin d a r ela t ion sh ip ot h er t h a n
1
A = bh in volvin g h . H ow a bou t
2
u sin g t h e t a n gen t equ a t ion ?
Sin ce we kn ow d = 15 , t h is equ a dt
26
t ion becom es
a nsw ers
Since
tan = h or h 5 10t a n u
..............................................................................................
27. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C).
524
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Section I, Pa rt B
29.
30.
31.
32.
A
E
D
E
33.
34.
35.
36.
C
B
D
A
37. C
38. E
39. E

m u st u se t h e qu ot ien t r u le t o eva lu a t e t h e followin g der iva t ive:
f ( x ) =
3 e 3 x sin x 2 2 xe 3 x cos x 2
sin 2 x 2
3 sin x 2 2 x cos x 2
sin 2 x 2
= e3 x
30. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E). To

wr it e t h e equ a t ion for a lin e, we n eed
t h e slope of t h e lin e a n d a poin t on
t h e lin e. We a lr ea dy h a ve it s slope,
sin ce f (x) 5 10; t h e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e is 10 a s well. To fin d t h e
poin t on t h e lin e, we m u st set t h e
der iva t ive of f equ a l t o 10 a n d solve
for x; t h en , su bst it u t e t h is x-va lu e
in t o f t o det er m in e t h e cor r espon din g
y-va lu e.
f (x) 5 2e2x 5 10
e2x 5 5
2x 5 ln 5
x = ln 5
2
Now, we su bst it u t e t h is va lu e in t o f
a n d t h e r esu lt is
ln 5
f
= eln 5 = 5
2
Ou r pr oblem h a s n ow been r edu ced
t o det er m in in g t h e equ a t ion for a
lin e t h a t pa sses t h r ou gh ln25 , 5 a n d
h a s slope 10. P oin t -slope for m of t h is
equ a t ion is
y 5 = 10 x
ln 5
40. C
41. B
42. C
43. D
44. E
45. D
Con ver t in g t o slope-in t er cept for m

a n d u sin g t h e ca lcu la t or t o eva lu a t e
t h e va lu e of ln 5 , we get
2
y 5 10x 2 3.047
a n a r ea a ccu m u la t ion pr oblem . Th e
fu n ct ion decr ea ses fr om x 5 0 t o x 5
1 by a n a m ou n t equ iva len t t o t h e
a r ea bet ween t h e gr a ph of f a n d t h e
x-a xis, wh ich is 22 u n it s squ a r ed.
Th is wa s det er m in ed by fin din g t h e
a r ea of t h e t r ia n gle. Th e fu n ct ion
t h en in cr ea ses fr om x 5 1 t o x 5 2 by
3
u n it s squ a r ed. F r om x 5 2 t o x 5 4,
2
9
3
it in cr ea ses 3 1 or u n it s squ a r ed.
2
2
F r om x 5 4 t o x 5 6, t h e fu n ct ion
decr ea ses 2 u n it s squ a r ed. P u t t in g
a ll of t h is t oget h er, we ca n see t h a t
t h e fu n ct ion s va lu e is gr ea t est a t x 5
4, followed by a t x 5 6, t h en a t x 5 0,
a n d lea st a t x 5 2.
t h e lim it of t h e differ en ce qu ot ien t
t h a t is t h e defin it ion of t h e der iva t ive. All t h is m ea n s is t h a t f (5) 5 3.
F or I., does t h e fu n ct ion s va lu e n ecessa r ily equ a l t h e der iva t ives va lu e?
No, so I. is ou t . Sin ce t h e der iva t ive
exist s a t x 5 5, t h e fu n ct ion is differen t ia ble t h er e. Rem em ber t h a t differ en t ia bilit y im plies con t in u it y, so
t h e fu n ct ion m u st be con t in u ou s a t x
5 5 a s well.
33. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). Use t h e
ca lcu la t or t o gr a ph t h e der iva t ive
given . Wh er e t h e gr a ph ch a n ges
fr om posit ive t o n ega t ive will be t h e
loca l m a xim u m . Th is occu r s a t x 5
0.511.
525
.................................................................
36. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (A). Th is is

a n opt im iza t ion pr oblem . Let s fir st
expr ess t h e pr odu ct x 2 y on ly a s a
fu n ct ion of x:
p(x) 5 x 2 (3x 2 7) 5 3x 3 2 7x 2
We a r e lookin g for dC
dt . We kn ow t h a t
dA = 40 a n d dB = 30. Now, we
dt
dt
n eed a n equ a t ion t o r ela t e A, B , a n d
C. Sin ce t h is is a r igh t t r ia n gle, we
ca n cer t a in ly u se t h e P yt h a gor ea n
t h eor em :
Differ en t ia t in g wit h r espect t o t,
wh ich we do in ever y r ela t ed-r a t es
pr oblem , yields
2A
p(x) 5 9x 2 2 14x 5 0
x(9x 2 14) 5 0
14
.
9
By exa m in in g t h e wiggle gr a ph bex 5 0 or x 5
A 2 1 B 2 5 C2
(2)
Next , we differ en t ia t e a n d set t h e der iva t ive equ a l t o zer o a n d solve for x
t o det er m in e ou r cr it ica l va lu es:
dA
dB
dC
+ 2B
= 2C
dt
dt
dt
low, we ca n see t h a t t h e fu n ct ion s

14
m in im u m occu r s a t x 5 .
9
A dA + B dB
dt
dt = dC
C
dt
Wh a t a r e t h e va lu es of A, B , a n d C?
To a n swer t h is, we u se t h e fa ct s t h a t
t h e ca r s ea ch st a r t ed 100 m iles fr om
Millville a n d h a ve been t r a velin g for
3
h ou r s. Ca r A h a s
90 m in u t es or
2
t r a veled 60 m iles, so A 5 40. Ca r B
h a s t r a veled 45 m iles, so B 5 55. By
t h e P yt h a gor ea n t h eor em ,
C = 40 2 + 552 . Su bst it u t in g t h ese
va lu es in t o t h e equ a t ion yields
dC =
dt
40 ( 40 ) + 55 ( 30 )
402 + 552
= 47.79
pr oblem is best a n swer ed u sin g t h e
gr a ph in g ca lcu la t or. If we exa m in e
t h e gr a ph , we ca n see t h a t it is con t in u ou s a t x 5 21. Th e gr a ph h a s a
Th e pr oblem a sks for t h e m in im u m

14
pr odu ct . So, we m u st su bst it u t e
9
ba ck in t o p(x), a n d we get 25.646.
37. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). Use
you r ca lcu la t or t o det er m in e wh er e
t h ese t wo cu r ves in t er sect . Th is in t er sect ion poin t will give u s a lim it of
in t egr a t ion . Sin ce t h e gr a ph of y 5
1
sin x is a bove t h e gr a ph of y 5 x 2
4
1, we in t egr a t e t o fin d t h e a r ea :
A=
3.314
sin x 4 x 1 dx
Ou r ca lcu la t or will t h en do a ll t h e
wor k a n d give u s
A 5 3.926
38. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E). Be
ca r efu l h er em a ke su r e you h a ve
pra ctice test 1
Solvin g t h is equ a t ion for dC

dt gives
us
a nsw ers
ju m p discon t in u it y a t x 5 1; it is n ot
differ en t ia ble t h er e. Sin ce t h e gr a ph
is in cr ea sin g befor e a n d decr ea sin g
a ft er x 5 21, t h er e is a loca l m a xim u m a t x 5 21.
..............................................................................................
34. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (B ). Rela t ed

r a t esoh boy! F ir st , let s dr a w t h e
followin g dia gr a m :
526
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
t h e r igh t r egion , a s sh own in t h e dia gr a m below:
Th e best m et h od t o u se, sin ce we a r e

r ot a t in g a bou t t h e y-a xis, wou ld be
sh ells. H owever, we will n eed t o
br ea k it u p in t o t wo r egion s.
1.895 1
x x dx +
0 2
V = 2
x
x
dx
sin
)
(
(
)
1.895
we a r e lookin g for t h e gr a ph of t h e
fu n ct ion . Sin ce t h e der iva t ives
gr a ph is con t in u ou s, t h er e a r e n o discon t in u it ies, cu sps, or ver t ica l t a n gen t s on t h e fu n ct ion s gr a ph . Th is
elim in a t es ch oices (A), (D), a n d (E ).
Sin ce t h e der iva t ive is posit ive a n d
in cr ea sin g fr om x 5 0 t o x 5 a, t h e
fu n ct ion m u st be in cr ea sin g a n d con ca ve u p over t h is sa m e in t er va l. Bet ween t h e t wo ch oices r em a in in g,
on ly (C) m eet s t h is r equ ir em en t .
pr oblem r equ ir es a lit t le dr a win g.
We sh ou ld plot t h e seven poin t s,
dr a w t h e r ect a n gles, fin d t h e a r ea of
ea ch on e, a n d a dd t h em u p.
Usin g ou r ca lcu la t or,
10
V 5 17.117
39. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E). Set t h e

der iva t ive of f equ a l t o 21.024, a n d
solve. By t h e qu ot ien t r u le, we h a ve
f (x) 5
e x 9 x2 e x 3x3
= 1.024.
e2 x
Gr a ph in g a n d det er m in in g t h e in t ercept yields x 5 4.797.
40. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). Sin ce g

is a n a n t ider iva t ive of f, t h en f is t h e
der iva t ive of g. Th e gr a ph of t h e der iva t ive of g ch a n ges fr om n ega t ive
t o posit ive a t x 5 c, so g h a s a m in im u m t h er e.
41. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (B ). Use

you r ca lcu la t or for t h is on e. F ir st , det er m in e t h e secon d der iva t ive of f.
Gr a ph it , a n d fin d t h e x-in t er cept .
f (x) 5 5x 4 2 2x 1 cosx
f (x) 5 20x 3 2 2 2 sin x
Ou r ca lcu la t or sh ows u s t h a t t h e xin t er cept of t h is secon d der iva t ive is
0.4985.
42. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). We

h a ve t h e gr a ph of t h e der iva t ive, bu t
8 1 6 1 10 5 24
44. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E). Let s
exa m in e ea ch st a t em en t : Sin ce t h er e
is a n obviou s cu sp a t x 5 a, (A) is a
t r u e st a t em en t . (B) sa ys t h a t t h e
left -h a n d der iva t ive does n ot equ a l
t h e r igh t -h a n d der iva t ive a t x 5 a,
wh ich m ea n s t h a t t h er e m u st be a
cu sp t h er ewh ich t h er e is. So, t h is
is t r u e a lso. Th e h ole a t x 5 c wou ld
in dica t e t h a t f(c) is u n defin ed, so (C)
is t r u e. (D) is t r u e beca u se t h er e is a
h or izon t a l t a n gen t a t x 5 b. Sin ce
t h e discon t in u it y a t x 5 c is r em ov-
f ( x ) exists,
a ble, t h e lim
x c
lim ( f ( x )) lim+ ( f ( x )) is false.
x c
x c
45. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). In t h is
pr oblem , t h e qu est ion is for wh a t
va lu e of k will t h e a r ea u n der
0 (
k
x dx equ a l
0 ( x
2
dx ? Set -
t in g t h ese t wo in t egr a ls equ a l t o

ea ch ot h er a n d solvin g for x yields
527
.................................................................
) x
2x
=x
3 | 3|
x dx =
3 2
p (t ) =
1 4 sin 2x
dx
7 cos x
= x + 2 cos 2x 7 sin x + C
2 k3 2 = 8
3
3
k =4
k = 42 / 3 = 3 16 = 2 3 2
To det er m in e t h e cor r ect va lu e of

C, t h e con st a n t of in t egr a t ion , we
sh ou ld u se t h e con dit ion given t o
u s, p(0) 5 5:
32
p(0) 5 5 5 0 1 2cos 0 27sin 0 1 C

5521C
35C
Section II, Pa rt A
1. (a ) At t 5 5, v(t) 5 1.1904 . 0, wh ich
in dica t es t h a t t h e velocit y is
posit ive. Th er efor e, t h e pa r t icle
is m ovin g t o t h e r igh t .
(b) Sin ce t h e velocit y fu n ct ion is
given , t h is is a n a pplica t ion of
t h e m ea n va lu e t h eor em for in t e-
Su bst it u t in g t h is va lu e ba ck in t o
t h e posit ion equ a t ion gives u s
p(t) 5 x 1 2cos 2x 2 7sin x 1 3
Now, t o a n swer t h e qu est ion :
p(2) 5 2 1 2cos 4 2 7sin 2 1 3
5 22.672
2. (a )
y=
gr a t ion , wh ich sa ys t h a t
Aver a ge va lu e 5 1
ba
4x + 10
f ( x ) dx
y = 2x 2 x + 11
10 1 4 sin 2x
1
dx
10 0 0 7 cos x
= 1.262
(c ) Rem em ber t h a t a cceler a t ion is
t h e der iva t ive or slope of t h e velocit y cu r ve. So, we wa n t t h e a ver a ge slope of t h e velocit y fr om
t 5 0 t o t 5 10. In ot h er wor ds,
we wa n t t h e slope of t h e seca n t
lin e fr om t 5 0 t o t 5 10.
v (10 ) v ( 0 )
10 0
3.2217 6
=
= 0.922
10
m ( sec ) =
(d ) H er e, we n eed t o det er m in e t h e
posit ion equ a t ion , p(t). In or der
t o det er m in e t h e posit ion equ a t ion , we sh ou ld fin d a n a n t ider iva t ive of t h e velocit y
equ a t ion , v(t).
(b) We u se t h e defin it e in t egr a l t o

det er m in e t h e a r ea of t h is r egion . We m u st fir st u se t h e ca lcu la t or t o det er m in e t h e poin t s of
in t er sect ion of t h e gr a ph s. Th e
x-coor din a t es will give u s ou r
lim it s of in t er sect ion .
A=
3.7321
3.7321
.2679
.2679
2
2x 2
x
4
x
+
10
8x + 11 dx
( x
+ 4x 1 dx
= 6.928
pra ctice test 1
Applyin g t h a t for m u la t o t h is
pr oblem lea ds t o
f (c ) =
a nsw ers
..............................................................................................
528
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
(c ) To determine the volume when the

region R is rotated about the y-axis,
we a r e goin g t o u se t h e sh ell
b
m et h od: V = 2 d ( x ) h ( x ) d x.
a
Vy = 2
3.7321
0.2679
( x ( x
))
+ 4x 1 dx
= 87.06236948
(d ) In ser t k for t h e u pper lim it of
in t egr a t ion , set t h e volu m e expr ession equ a l t o h a lf of t h e solu t ion for pa r t C, a n d solve for k .
x 2 +
x
dx = 43.531
0.2679
4x 1
4
3
2 k
2 x + 4x x |0.2679 = 43.531
3
2
4
4
3
2
k + 4k k ( 0.0115) = 6.928
4
3
2
4
3
2
k + 4k k 6.91667 = 0
2
4
3
k = 2.350
k wa s det er m in ed by gr a ph in g
t h e fu n ct ion a n d det er m in in g t h e
x-in t er cept .
dy
5 k y sh ou ld in dx
dica t e t h a t we a r e dea lin g wit h
t h is expon en t ia l gr owt h or deca y
m odel:
A(t) 5 N ek t
Sin ce we a r e given t h a t t h e in it ia l a m ou n t of wa t er wa s 100
ga llon s, we kn ow t h a t N 5 100.
We ca n det er m in e k by su bst it u t in g va lu es for N , t, a n d A(t) a n d
solvin g for k , a s su ch :
3. (a ) Th e equ a t ion
A(10) 5 70 5 100e10k
0.7 5 e10k
ln 0.7 5 10 k
k=
ln 0.7
10
Now t h a t we h a ve det er m in ed
bot h con st a n t s, N a n d k , we ca n
wr it e ou r expr ession A(t):
A (t ) = 100e
ln 0.7
10
(b) Th is pr oblem is kin d of t r icky. To

det er m in e t h e a m ou n t of wa t er
t h a t h a d lea ked ou t a ft er 5
h ou r s, we sh ou ld fin d h ow m u ch
is st ill in t h e r eser voir, wh ich is
A(5), a n d su bt r a ct t h a t fr om t h e
in it ia l a m ou n t , 100 ga llon s.
A ( 5 ) = 100 e
ln 0.7
10
ln 0.7
= 100 e 2
= 83.667 gallons
Th is r epr esen t s t h e a m ou n t st ill
in t h e r eser voir. Th e a m ou n t of
lea ka ge wou ld be
100 2 83.667 5 16.333 ga llon s
(c ) By a pplyin g t h e m ea n va lu e
t h eor em for in t egr a t ion , we get
Average amount =
1 20 100e ln100.7 t dt
20 0
= 71.494 gallons
(d ) We kn ow t h e a m ou n t , A(t), is
equ a l t o 71.494. We set E qu a t ion
(2) equ a l t o t h is a n d solve for t.
71.494 = 100e
ln 0.7 t
10
( )t
71.494
= e 10
100
ln 0.7
ln 0.71494 =
t
10
ln 0.7
t = 9.408 hours
529
.................................................................
(c ) If t h e h yper bola con t a in s poin t

(2,4), su bst it u t e t h ese va lu es in t o
you r a n swer for pa r t (B), a n d you
get t h e cor r espon din g va lu e for
t h e con st a n t C.
(2 1 1)2 2 4 2 5 1 2 C
9 2 16 5 1 2 C
C58
Th er efor e, t h e exa ct solu t ion t o
t h a t pa r t icu la r differ en t ia l equ a t ion is
(x 1 1)2 2 y 2 5 27
If you wa n t t o pu t it in t o st a n da r d for m , you ca n :
y2 ( x + 1)
=1
7
7
2
5. (a ) H er e, we m u st u se im plicit differ en t ia t ion , beca u se x a n d y a r e

n ot sepa r a t ed for u s. We will differ en t ia t e bot h sides of t h e equ a t ion wit h r espect t o x, gr ou p t h e
dy
dy
t er m s wit h a , a n d solve for .
dx
dx
Now, in t egr a t e bot h sides of t h e

equ a t ion a n d m u lt iply by 2 t o
m a ke it pr et t ier.
y2
x2
=
+x +C
2
2
y2 = x 2 + 2x + C
pra ctice test 1
(b) Th e slope fields sh a pe su ggest s

a h yper bola cen t er ed a t (21,0),
bu t t h e qu est ion r equ ir es u s t o
ju st ify ou r a n swer m a t h em a t ica lly. Th e ea siest wa y t o ju st ify
t h e a n swer is by a ct u a lly solvin g
t h e differ en t ia l equ a t ion by sepa r a t ion . (Rem em ber, in t h e followin g st eps, C r epr esen t s a n y
con st a n t . Th er efor e, m u lt iplyin g
a con st a n t by a n y n u m ber or
a ddin g a n y n u m ber t o a con st a n t
r esu lt s in a n ot h er con st a n t . F or
t h e sa ke of ea se, we ju st con t in u e
t o u se t h e sa m e sym bol for t h a t
con st a n t C.) Begin by cr ossm u lt iplyin g t o sepa r a t e xs
a n d ys
y d y 5 (x 1 1)d x
a nsw ers
4. (a ) To dr a w a slope field, you plu g

ea ch of t h e in dica t ed coor din a t es
dy
for x a n d y. If t h e r esu lt in t o
dx
in g slope is u n defin ed, you ca n
in dica t e t h a t wit h a sm a ll ver t ica l lin e (sin ce t h e slope of a vert ica l lin e is u n defin ed). You r
a n swer sh ou ld look som et h in g
like t h is
To pu t t h is in t o st a n da r d for m
for a con ic, com plet e t h e squ a r e
for x.
y 2 1 1 5 x 2 1 2x 1 1 1 C
y 2 1 1 5 (x 1 1)2 1 C
If you su bt r a ct y 2 , you get t h e
equ a t ion of a h yper bola . Th is is
a ll t h e ju st ifica t ion you n eed t o
get t h e qu est ion com plet ely corr ect .
(x 1 1)2 2 y 2 5 1 2 C
..............................................................................................
Section II, Pa rt B
530
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
dy
4y
dx
dy
dy
2y
4 y3
dx
dx
dy
4 y3 2 y
dx
dy
dx
3
dy
= 2y
2x
dx
= 2x
= 2x
2x
= 3
4 y 2y
x
= 3
2y y
x
=
y 2 y3
(b) In or der t o h a ve a h or izon t a l t a n gen t , t h e der iva t ive m u st equ a l

dy
equ a l t o zer o
zer o. Let s set
dx
a n d solve for x. Rem em ber, in order for a r a t ion a l expr ession like
dy
t o equ a l zer o, t h e n u m er a ou r
dx
t or m u st equ a l zer o. So, well ju st
set t h e n u m er a t or of ou r expr esdy
equ a l t o zer o, a s su ch :
sion for
dx
2x 5 0, so x 5 0
Now, we will det er m in e t h e corr espon din g y-va lu e(s):
y4 5 y2 2 0
y4 2 y2 5 0
y 2 (y 2 2 1) 5 0
y 5 0, y 5 2 1, or y 5 1.
Upon closer exa m in a t ion , y 0
beca u se t h e fu n ct ion does n ot exist wh en y 5 0; t h a t is, t h e den om in a t or will equ a l zer o t h er e.
So, ou r t wo poin t s wh en t h e t a n gen t lin e is h or izon t a l a r e (0, 21)
a n d (0,1). Th is lea ds u s t o t h e
equ a t ion s for t h e h or izon t a l t a n gen t s:
y 5 2 1 and y 5 1
(c ) Rem em ber t h a t t h e slope of a
ver t ica l lin e is u n defin ed. Th a t
m ea n s t h a t we look for poin t s
wh er e t h e der iva t ive is u n defin ed (i.e., wh er e t h e den om in a -
t or of t h e der iva t ive is equ a l t o

zer o). Th is t im e we will set t h e y
2 2y 3 equ a l t o zer o a n d solve
for y.
y 2 y3 = 0
y 1 2 y2 = 0
y = 0, y =
2
2
, or y =
2
2
Th e cor r espon din g x-va lu es a r e x

1
1
5 0, x 5 2 , a n d x 5 . Beca u se
2
2
ver t ica l lin es h a ve equ a t ion s of
t h e for m x 5 a, t h e x-va lu es a r e
a ll we n eed t o wr it e t h e equ a t ion s for t h e ver t ica l t a n gen t
lin es:
1
1
x 5 0, x 5 2 , a n d x 5
2
2
(d ) In or der for t h e lin e a n d t h e
cu r ve t o be t a n gen t , t wo t h in gs
m u st be t r u e: Th ey m u st in t ersect a n d h a ve equ a l slopes. F or
t h e slopes t o be equ a l, we sh ou ld
set t h eir der iva t ives equ a l. Let s
dy
for t h e lin e:
det er m in e
dx
4x 3 4y =1
dy
4 34
=0
dx
dy
= 3
dx
Next , we will solve t h e equ a t ion
of t h e lin e for x in t er m s of y:
4x 3 4y =1
1+ 4y
x=
4 3
531
.................................................................
x
y 2 y3
We a lr ea dy h a ve x =
3=
1+ 4y
.
4 3
1+ 4y
( 4 3 )( y 2 y )
3
12 y 2 y 3 = 1 + 4 y
24 y 3 8 y + 1 = 0
x=
1 + 4 12
4 3
3
=
4 3
=
3
4
y 5 25(x 2 11)
or
y 5 25x 1 55
(d ) P oin t s of in flect ion occu r on ly
wh en t h e der iva t ive of t h e der iva t ive is equ a l t o zer o. Sin ce
t h e gr a ph of f, t h e der iva t ive of g,
does n ot h a ve a n y h or izon t a l
t a n gen t s, t h en f , or g, will
n ever be zer o. Th u s, g h a s n o
poin t s of in flect ion .
We h a ve bot h ou r x- a n d y-coordin a t es n ow, so we ca n det erm in e t h a t ou r lin e a n d cu r ve a r e

3 1
, .
t a n gen t a t
2
4
pra ctice test 1
H ow do we solve t h is wit h ou t ou r
ca lcu la t or ? Let s t r y syn t h et ic di1
1
vision wit h . Wh y ? Rem em ber
2
2
t h e r a t ion a l r oot t h eor em ? It t old
u s t o t r y fa ct or s of t h e con st a n t
t er m over fa ct or s of t h e lea din g
1
coefficien t . Sin ce wor ked in ou r
2
1
syn t h et ic division , is a solu t ion .
2
We will n ow fin d t h e x-coor din a t e
of t h e poin t of t a n gen cy by su bst it u t in g t h is y-va lu e:
a nsw ers
3=
6. (a ) To det er m in e g(0), we h a ve t o
fin d t h e a r ea u n der t h e cu r ve
fr om x 5 3 t o x 5 0. Th is is t h e
opposit e of t h e a r ea u n der t h e
cu r ve fr om x 5 0 t o x 5 3. Sin ce
t h e a r ea of a cir cle of r a diu s 3 is
9p, t h en t h e a r ea of t h is qu a r t er
cir cle m u st be 94 . So, g(0) 5
94 .
g(8) wou ld be t h e a r ea of t h e t r ia n gle wit h ba se 5 a n d h eigh t 3.
So, g ( 8 ) = 15 .
2
(b) Th e on ly in t er va l for wh ich g is
in cr ea sin g is [3,8]. So, t h e m a xim u m va lu e of g is a t x 5 8. Th e
m a xim u m va lu e of g is 15 .
2
(c ) We n eed a poin t a n d a slope.
Sin ce f(11) 5 25, t h en g(11) 5
25. H en ce, t h e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e is 25. To det er m in e t h e
y-coor din a t e of t h e poin t on t h e
lin e, we m u st det er m in e g(11).
By a r ea a ccu m u la t ion , we ca n
see t h a t g(11) 5 0. Th is lea ds u s
t o t h e followin g equ a t ion for t h e
t a n gen t lin e:
..............................................................................................
Wh en t h e der iva t ives a r e equ a l,

t h ey a r e equ a l t o =3. So, n ow
we will set t h e expr ession for t h e
der iva t ive of t h e cu r ve equ a l t o
=3.
.................................................................
Section I, Pa rt A
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
1. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
11. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
20. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
3. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
13. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
22. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
2. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
4. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
5. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
6. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
7. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
8. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
9. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
10. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
12. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
14. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
15. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
16. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
17. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
18. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
19. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
21. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
23. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
24. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
25. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
26. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
27. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
28. O
Section I, Pa rt B
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
29. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
35. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
41. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
31. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
37. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
43. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
30. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
32. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
33. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
34. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
36. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
38. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
39. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
40. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
42. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
44. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
45. O
a nsw er sheet
..............................................................................................
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
533
534
Section II
.................................................................
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
.................................................................
535
a nsw er sheet
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
536
.................................................................
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
..............................................................................................

Ca lc ulus AB
....................................................................................
n u m ber.
(A) 227
(B ) 26
2.
cars per minute
1. Wh a t is t h e in st a n t a n eou s r a t e
of ch a n ge for f(x) 5
x 3 1 3x 2 1 3x 1 1
a t x 5 2?
x11
100
50
(C) 6
(D ) 9
12
18
24
time of day
(E) 27
Th e r a t e a t wh ich ca r s cr oss a
br idge in ca r s per m in u t e is
given by t h e pr ecedin g gr a ph . A
good a ppr oxim a t ion for t h e t ot a l
n u m ber of ca r s t h a t cr ossed t h e
br idge by 12:00 n oon is
(A)
(B )
(C)
(D )
50.
825.
1,200.
45,000.
(E) 49,500.
537
p ra c tic e test 2
SECTION I, PART A
538
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
3.
3x
1 x 3 dx =
(A) 2
6. Wh a t is t h e slope of t h e cu r ve defin ed by 3x 2 1 2xy 1 6y 2 2 3x 2 8y 5

0 a t t h e poin t (1,1)?
18
5
72
(B ) 2
25
(A) 2
5
6
124
(C)
125
(B ) 2
1
2
(D )
(C) 0
126
125
(D )
12
(E)
5
1
2
(E) It is u n defin ed.
4.
5.
x
f (x)
0
3
1
4
2
9
7.
(
1
)(x
Th e fu n ct ion f is con t in u ou s on t h e
closed in t er va l [0,2] a n d h a s va lu es
a s defin ed by t h e t a ble a bove. Wh ich
of t h e followin g st a t em en t s m u st be
t r u e?
(A) 2 4
(B )
404
105
(A) f m u st be in cr ea sin g on [0,2].
(C)
8
5
(D )
28
105
(B ) f m u st be con ca ve u p on (0,2).
SD SD
3
1
. f
.
2
2
(D ) Th e a ver a ge r a t e of in cr ea se of
f over [0,2] is 3.
(E) f h a s n o poin t s of in flect ion on
[0,2].
(C) f
tan xe sec x
cos x dx =
(A) e2
(B ) e2 2 1
(C)
(D )
=e
=e2 e
(E) e2 2 e
+ 3x 8 dx =
(E) 1
8. Th e r a diu s of a sph er e is in cr ea sin g

a t a r a t e of 2 in ch es per m in u t e. At
wh a t r a t e (in cu bic in ch es per
m in u t e) is t h e volu m e in cr ea sin g
wh en t h e su r fa ce a r ea of t h e sph er e
is 9p squ a r e in ch es?
(A) 2
(B ) 2p
(C) 9p
(D ) 18
(E) 18p
539
.................................................................
y = x3
Wh a t is t h e a ver a ge va lu e of f over
[24,4]?
pr ecedin g dia gr a m is equ iva len t t o
(A)
2
3
(B )
8
3
(C)
10
3
(A)
( x + 6 x ) dx .
(D )
16
3
(B )
(x
(E)
80
3
(C)
x + 6 x dx .
(D )
x 3 x 6 dx .
(E)
( x + 6 + x ) dx .
x 6 dx .
)
)
13.
f
1
10. Wh a t is t h e a ver a ge r a t e of ch a n ge of
f(x) 5 x 3 2 3x 2 1 x 2 1 over [21,4]?
(A)
13
5
f is a t wice differ en t ia ble fu n ct ion

wit h a h or izon t a l t a n gen t lin e a t x 5
1, a s sh own in t h e dia gr a m a bove.
Wh ich of t h ese st a t em en t s m u st be
t r u e?
(B ) 3
(C) 5
(A) f (1) < f (1) < f (1)
(D ) 10
(E) 25
(C) f (1) < f (1) < f (1)
11. If t h e gr a ph of t h e secon d der iva t ive

of som e fu n ct ion , f, is a lin e of slope
6, t h en f cou ld be wh ich t ype of fu n ct ion ?
(A)
(B )
(C)
(D )
(B ) f (1) < f (1) < f (1)

(D ) f (1) < f (1) < f (1)
(E) f (1) < f (1) < f (1)
con st a n t
lin ea r
qu a dr a t ic
cu bic
(E) qu a r t ic
p ra c tic e test
y=x+6
..............................................................................................
12. Let f be defin ed a s
9.
540
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
14. Let f be a con t in u ou s fu n ct ion on [2

4, 12]. If f(2 4) 5 2 2 a n d f(12) 5 6,
t h en t h e m ea n va lu e t h eor em gu a ra n t ees t h a t
17.
x
f
g x
(A) f(4) 5 2
1
2
1
(C) f (c) 5 for a t lea st on e c
2
bet ween 2 4 a n d 12
1
3
2
1
2
2
0
3
1
2
3
1
4
0
1
4
2
1
2
1
(B ) f (4) 5
(D ) f(c) 5 0 for a t lea st on e c

bet ween 2 4 a n d 12
(E) f(4) 5 0
( )
d 2x2 t
15.
e dt =
dx 3
(A) e2x
(B ) 4xe2x
(C) e2x 2 e3
2
(D ) 4xe2x 2 e3
(E) ex
16. Let f(x) 5 ex . If t h e r a t e of ch a n ge of f

a t x 5 c is e3 t im es it s r a t e of ch a n ge
a t x 5 2, t h en c 5
Let f, g, a n d t h eir der iva t ives be defin ed by t h e t a ble a bove. If h (x) 5

f(g(x)), t h en for wh a t va lu e, c, is h (c)
5 h (c)?
(A) 1
(B ) 2
(C) 3
(D ) 4
(E) Non e of t h e a bove
18. Let f be a differ en t ia ble fu n ct ion over
[0,10] su ch t h a t f(0) 5 0 a n d f(10) 5
3. If t h er e a r e exa ct ly t wo solu t ion s
t o f(x) 5 4 over (0,10), t h en wh ich of
t h ese st a t em en t s m u st be t r u e?
(A) f (c) 5 0 for som e c on (0,10).
(B ) f h a s a loca l m a xim u m a t x 5
5.
(C) f (c) 5 0 for som e c on (0,10).
(D ) 0 is t h e a bsolu t e m in im u m of f.
(E) f is st r ict ly m on ot on ic.
19. Th e
n or m a l
lin e
to
the
cu r ve
(A) 1
(B ) 2
y = 8 x 2 a t t h e poin t (2,2) h a s
slope
(C) 3
(D ) 4
(A) 22
(E) 5
1
(B ) 2
2
1
(C)
2
(D ) 1
(E) 2
541
.................................................................
2 x dx = 0 ?
3
(A) 0
(B ) 2
(C) 22 a n d 2
(D ) 22, 0, a n d 2
(E) 0 a n d 2
24. Below is t h e slope field gr a ph of

dy
som e differ en t ia l equ a t ion
= f ~x!.
dx
(Not e: E a ch dot on t h e a xes m a r ks
on e u n it .)
Wh ich of t h e followin g equ a t ion s is
t h e ea siest possible differ en t ia l
equ a t ion for t h e ch a r a ct er ist ics
sh own in t h e gr a ph ?
21. If t h e r a t e of ch a n ge of y is dir ect ly

pr opor t ion a l t o y, t h en it s possible
that
(A) y = 3 te 2
(B ) y 5 5e1.5 t
(C) y = 23 t 2
(D ) y = ln
(E) y = t 3
( t)
3
2
22. Th e gr a ph of y 5 3x 3 2 2x 2 1 6x 2 2
is decr ea sin g for wh ich in t er va l(s)?
2
(A) ,
9
2
(B ) ,
9
(A) x 2 (y 1 1)
(B ) xy + x 2 y 2 1
(C) xy 1 y
(D )
x21
y11
(E) xy 1 3xy 2 1
2
(C) 0 ,
9
(D ) ( 2 `, `)
23. Det er m in e t h e va lu e for c on [2,5]

t h a t sa t isfies t h e m ea n va lu e t h eox2 3
.
r em for f(x) 5
x 1
(A) 21
(B ) 2
(C) 3
(D ) 4
(E) 5
p ra c tic e test
that
..............................................................................................
20. Wh a t a r e a ll t h e va lu es for k su ch
542
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
25.
f
g
pr ecedin g dia gr a m is
(A)
( f ( x ) g ( x )) dx
(B )
27. Th e wa t er level in a cylin dr ica l ba rr el is fa llin g a t a r a t e of on e in ch per

m in u t e. If t h e r a diu s of t h e ba r r el is
t en in ch es, wh a t is t h e r a t e t h a t wa t er is lea vin g t h e ba r r el (in cu bic
in ch es per m in u t e) wh en t h e volu m e
is 500p cu bic in ch es?
(A) 1
(B ) p
(C) 100p
(D ) 200p
(E) 500p
28. If f(x) 5 a r ct a n (x 2 ), t h en f
( f ( x ) g ( x )) dx
(A)
1
5
(C)
( g ( x ) + f ( x )) dx
(B )
1
4
(D )
( g ( x ) f ( x )) dx
(C)
(E)
( g ( x ) + f ( x )) dx
26. Th e fu n ct ion f is con t in u ou s on t h e

closed in t er va l [0,2]. It is given t h a t
f(0)5 2 1 a n d f(2) 5 2. If f (x) . 0 for
a ll x on [0,2] a n d f (x) , 0 for a ll x on
(0,2), t h en f(1) cou ld be
( 3) =
3
4
3
(D )
5
2 3
(E)
5
(A) 0
(B )
1
2
(C) 1
(D ) 2
(E)
5
2
STOP

OF THE TEST.
543
.................................................................

THE EXAMINATION.
29. A pa r t icle st a r t s a t t h e or igin a n d m oves a lon g t h e x-a xis wit h decr ea sin g posit ive
velocit y. Wh ich of t h ese cou ld be t h e gr a ph of t h e dist a n ce, s(t), of t h e pa r t icle
fr om t h e or igin a t t im e t?
(A)
(B )
t
(C)
t
(D )
(E)
p ra c tic e test
..............................................................................................
SECTION I, PART B
544
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
30. Let f be t h e fu n ct ion given by f(x) 5 3

ln 2x, a n d let g be t h e fu n ct ion given
by g(x) 5 x 3 1 2x. At wh a t va lu e of x
do t h e gr a ph s of f a n d g h a ve pa r a llel
t a n gen t lin es?
33.
x
f (x)
a bove. Appr oxim a t e
(C) 0.521
(D ) 0.782
9
4
12
5
12
f ( x )dx u s-
in g a r igh t -h a n d Riem a n n su m wit h

t h r ee su bin t er va ls of equ a l len gt h .
(E) 1.000
(A) 14
(B ) 27
31. Let f be som e fu n ct ion su ch t h a t t h e

r a t e of in cr ea se of t h e der iva t ive of f
is 2 for a ll x. If f (2) 5 4 a n d f(1) 5 2,
fin d f(3).
32.
6
2
Let f be a con t in u ou s fu n ct ion wit h

va lu es a s r epr esen t ed in t h e t a ble
(A) 2 0.782
(B ) 20.301
(C) 33
(D ) 42
(E) 48
(A) 3
(B ) 6
(C) 7
3
3
34.
(D ) 9
(E) 10
xa
lim 3
=
3
xa x a
(A)
1
a2
(B )
1
3a 2
(C)
1
4a2
(D ) 0
Th e gr a ph of f , t h e der iva t ive of f, is

sh own a bove. Wh ich of t h e followin g
descr ibes a ll r ela t ive ext r em a of f on
(a,b)?
(A) On e r ela t ive m a xim u m a n d on e
r ela t ive m in im u m
(B ) Two r ela t ive m a xim u m s a n d
on e r ela t ive m in im u m
(C) On e r ela t ive m a xim u m a n d n o
r ela t ive m in im u m
(D ) No r ela t ive m a xim u m a n d t wo
r ela t ive m in im u m s
(E) On e r ela t ive m a xim u m a n d t wo
r ela t ive m in im u m s
35. Let
f ( x) =
2x
(et )dt . Wh a t
va lu e
on [0,4] sa t isfies t h e m ea n va lu e
t h eor em for f?
(A)
(B )
(C)
(D )
2.960
2.971
3.307
3.653
(E) 4.000
545
.................................................................
a n d g be defin ed a s
10
= ky, wh er e k is a con -
st a n t a n d t is m ea su r ed in yea r s. If
t h e popu la t ion t r iples ever y five
yea r s, t h en k 5
(C) 0.220.
(D ) 0.300.
(E) 1.099.
dy
dt
(A) 0.110.
(B ) 0.139.
(D ) 1.869
(E) 2.333
g( x ) =
equ a t ion
f ( x )dx . Wh ich of t h e
followin g st a t em en t s a bou t f a n d g is
false?
40. Th e cir cu m fer en ce of a cir cle is in cr ea sin g a t a r a t e of 25 in ch es per

m in u t e. Wh en t h e cir cu m fer en ce is
10p in ch es, h ow fa st is t h e a r ea of
t h e cir cle in cr ea sin g in squ a r e in ch es
per m in u t e?
1
(A)
5
p
(B )
5
(C) 2
(D ) 2p
(E) 25p
(A) g(23) 5 0
(B ) g h a s a loca l m in im u m a t
x 5 23.
(C) g(210) 5 0
(D ) f (1) does n ot exist .
(E) g h a s a loca l m a xim u m a t
x 5 1.
38. Let f(x) 5 x 2 1 3. Usin g t h e t r a pezoida l r u le, wit h n 5 5, a ppr oxim a t e
3
0 f ( x ) dx .
(A)
(B )
(C)
(D )
(E)
11.34
17.82
18.00
18.18
22.68
p ra c tic e test
(A) 0.535
(B ) 1.387
(C) 1.821
39. P opu la t ion y gr ows a ccor din g t o t h e
..............................................................................................
36. Th e posit ion for a pa r t icle m ovin g on

t h e x-a xis is given by
1
3
2
s(t ) = t + 2 t + . At wh a t t im e, t,
2
on [0,3] is t h e pa r t icles in st a n t a n eou s velocit y equ a l t o it s a ver a ge
velocit y over [0,3]?
546
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
43. Th e fir st der iva t ive of a fu n ct ion , f, is

x
given by f ( x ) = e 2 sin x . H ow
x
m a n y cr it ica l va lu es does f h a ve on
t h e open in t er va l (0,10)?
41.
Th e ba se of a solid is t h e r egion in
t h e fir st qu a dr a n t bou n ded by t h e
x-a xis a n d t h e pa r a bola y 5 2x 2 1
6x, a s sh own in t h e figu r e a bove. If
cr oss sect ion s per pen dicu la r t o t h e
x-a xis a r e equ ila t er a l t r ia n gles, wh a t
is t h e volu m e of t h e solid?
On e
Two
Th r ee
F ou r
(E) F ive
44.
d
dx
2x
f (t ) dt =
(A) f (3)
(B ) 2f( 2 2x)
(C) 22f(2x)
(A) 15.588
(B ) 62.354
(C) 112.237
(D ) 2f (2x)
(E) 22f (2x)
(D ) 129.600
(E) 259.200
42. Let f be t h e fu n ct ion given by f(x) 5

x 2 1 4x 2 8. Th e t a n gen t lin e t o t h e
gr a ph a t x 5 2 is u sed t o a ppr oxim a t e va lu es of f. F or wh a t va lu e(s) of
x is t h e t a n gen t lin e a ppr oxim a t ion
t wice t h a t of f?
I.
(A)
(B )
(C)
(D )
for a con st a n t , k . F or wh a t va lu e of k
will
II. 1
lim f ( x ) = lim+ f(x)?

x 1
x 1
(A) I on ly
(A) 2 2
(B ) 21
(C) 0
(B ) II on ly
(C) III on ly
(D ) 1
III.
(D ) I a n d II
(E) I a n d III
STOP

OF THE TEST.
547
.................................................................

1. E xa m in e t h e fu n ct ion , f, defin ed a s
f ( x) =
x + x for 0 x 10.
3
(a ) Use a Riem a n n su m wit h five

equ a l su bin t er va ls eva lu a t ed a t
t h e m idpoin t t o a ppr oxim a t e t h e
a r ea u n der f fr om x 5 0 t o x 5
10.
(b) Aga in u sin g five equ a l su bin t erva ls, u se t h e t r a pezoida l r u le t o
a ppr oxim a t e t h e a r ea u n der f
fr om x 5 0 t o x 5 10.
(c ) Usin g you r r esu lt fr om pa r t B,
a ppr oxim a t e t h e a ver a ge va lu e
of t h e fu n ct ion , f, fr om x 5 0 t o
x 5 10.
(d ) Det er m in e t h e a ct u a l a ver a ge
va lu e of t h e fu n ct ion , f, fr om x
5 0 t o x 5 10.
2. A m a n is obser vin g a h or ser a ce. H e

is st a n din g a t som e poin t , O, 100 feet
fr om t h e t r a ck. Th e lin e of sigh t fr om
t h e obser ver t o som e poin t P loca t ed
on t h e t r a ck for m s a 30 a n gle wit h
t h e t r a ck, a s sh own in t h e dia gr a m
below. H or se H is ga llopin g a t a con st a n t r a t e of 45 feet per secon d.
(a ) At wh a t r a t e is t h e dist a n ce
fr om t h e h or se t o t h e obser ver
ch a n gin g 4 secon ds a ft er t h e
h or se pa sses poin t P?
(b) At wh a t r a t e is t h e a r ea of t h e
t r ia n gle for m ed by P, H , a n d O
ch a n gin g 4 secon ds a ft er t h e
h or se pa sses poin t P?
(c ) At t h e in st a n t t h e h or se ga llops
pa st h im , t h e obser ver begin s
r u n n in g a t a con st a n t r a t e of 10
feet per secon d on a lin e
per pen dicu la r t o a n d t owa r d t h e
t r a ck. At wh a t r a t e is t h e
dist a n ce bet ween t h e obser ver
a n d t h e h or se ch a n gin g wh en
t h e obser ver is 50 feet fr om t h e
t r a ck?
p ra c tic e test
..............................................................................................
SECTION II, PART A
548
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
3. Let v(t) be t h e velocit y, in feet per

secon d, of a r a ce ca r a t t im e t secon ds, t 0. At t im e t 5 0, wh ile t r a velin g a t 197.28 feet per secon d, t h e
dr iver a pplies t h e br a kes su ch t h a t
t h e ca r s velocit y sa t isfies t h e differ11
en t ia l equ a t ion dv
dt = 25 t 7 .
(b) H ow fa r does t h e ca r t r a vel

befor e com in g t o a st op?
(c ) Wr it e a n equ a t ion for t h e
t a n gen t lin e t o t h e velocit y
cu r ve a t t 5 9 secon ds.
(d ) F in d t h e ca r s a ver a ge velocit y
fr om t 5 0 u n t il it st ops.
(a ) F in d a n expr ession for v in

t er m s of t wh er e t is m ea su r ed
in secon ds.
STOP
OF THE TEST.
549
.................................................................
A CALCULATOR IS NOT PERMITTED FOR THIS PART OF THE EXAMINATION.

4. Let R be defin ed a s t h e r egion in t h e
fir st qu a dr a n t bou n ded by t h e cu r ves
y 5 x 2 a n d y 5 8 2 x 2.
(a ) Sket ch a n d la bel t h e r egion on
t h e a xes pr ovided.
5. Th e gr a ph below r epr esen t s t h e der iva t ive, f , of som e fu n ct ion f.
f
10
10
8
6
4
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 2 3 4
(b) Det er m in e t h e a r ea of R .
(c ) Det er m in e t h e volu m e of t h e
solid for m ed wh en R is r ot a t ed
a bou t t h e x-a xis.
(d ) Det er m in e t h e volu m e of t h e
solid wh ose ba se is R a n d wh ose
cr oss sect ion s per pen dicu la r t o
t h e x-a xis a r e sem icir cles.
STOP
11 12
(a ) At wh a t va lu e of x does f
a ch ieve a loca l m a xim u m ?
E xpla in you r r ea son in g.
(b) P u t t h ese va lu es in or der fr om
lea st t o gr ea t est : f(4), f(5), a n d
f(7). E xpla in you r r ea son in g.
(c ) Does f h a ve a n y poin t s of
in flect ion ? If so, wh a t a r e t h ey?
6. E xa m in e t h e cu r ve defin ed by 2exy 2
y 5 0.
xy
(a ) Ver ify dy = 2 ye
.
dx 1 2 xe xy
(b) F in d for t h e fa m ily of cu r ves
bexy 2 y 5 0.
(c ) Det er m in e t h e y-in t er cept (s) of
bexy 2 y 5 0.
(d ) Wr it e t h e equ a t ion for t h e
t a n gen t lin e a t t h e y-in t er cept .
OF THE TEST.
p ra c tic e test
..............................................................................................
SECTION II, PART B
550
.................................................................
..............................................................................................

Section I, Pa rt A
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
C
E
E
D
E
A
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
B
E
C
C
D
C
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
1. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). In st a n t a n eou s r a t es of ch a n ge a lwa ys im ply differ en t ia t ion . To qu ickly

det er m in e t h is der iva t ive, it is h elpfu l t o r ecogn ize x 3 1 3x 2 1 3x 1 1 a s
(x 1 1)3 . We t h en sim plify t h e or gin a l
fu n ct ion t o
( x + 1) 3 5 (x 1 1)2
f(x) 5
x +1
Now, u se t h e P ower a n d Ch a in
Ru les:
f (x) 5 2(x 1 1)
To fin d t h e in st a n t eou s r a t e of
ch a n ge wh en x 5 2,
f (2) 5 2(2 1 1) 5 6
2. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E). To a ppr oxim a t e t h e a ct u a l n u m ber of ca r s

cr ossin g t h e br idge, a ppr oxim a t e t h e
a r ea u n der t h is gr a ph . On e wa y t o do
t h is is t o divide t h e in t er va l fr om t 5
0 t o t 5 12 in t o 2 equ a l su bin t er va ls.
Bot h of t h ese r egion s r esem ble t r a pezoids. Th e a r ea of t h e left on e is
1
h (b1 + b2 )
2
1
= ( 6 ) (100 + 25 )
2
= 375
A=
Th e a r ea of t h e r igh t t r a pezoid
wou ld be
E
C
B
E
C
A
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
D
C
B
E
C
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
B
B
C
C
D
So, t h e a r ea u n der t h e cu r ve wou ld

be a ppr oxim a t ely 825. Bu t we m u st
be ca r efu l h er e. Th e r a t e is in ca r s
per m in u t e. Sin ce t h e x-a xis is in
h ou r s, we m u st con ver t t h e r a t e t o
ca r s per h ou r. To do t h is, we m u lt iply
ou r 825 by 60 (m in u t es per h ou r ) a n d
get 49,500 ca r s.
3. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E). F in d
t h e defin it e in t egr a l:
5 3x
1 x 3 dx = 1 x 2 dx
=
3
x
| = 5 +3
5
12
5
4. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). Th er e
is n ot en ou gh in for m a t ion t o det erm in e wh et h er or n ot ch oices (A),
(B), (C), or (E ) a r e t r u e. Look a t
ch oice (D):
f (2) f (0 )
20
9
3=6=3
=
2
2
Average rate of change =
m u st r ecogn ize t h a t
1
5 sec x.
cos x
Th is let s u s r ewr it e t h e in t egr a l a s
1
A = ( 6 ) (100 + 50 )
2
= 450
sec x
0 ( sec x tan xe ) dx
551
.................................................................
e u du = e u
| =e
2
n eed t h e der iva t ive of t h e cu r ve.
Sin ce x a n d y a r e n ot sepa r a t ed for
u s, we m u st u se im plicit differ en t ia t ion . Differ en t ia t e ever yt h in g wit h
r espect t o x.
4 3
r
3
As in a ll su ch pr oblem s, we differ en t ia t e wit h r espect t o t.
V =
dV
dr
= 4r 2
dt
dt
3x 2 + 2xy + 6 y2 3x 8 y = 0
dy
dy
dy
+ 2 y + 12 y
38
=0
dx
dx
dx
dy
, and
Now, gr ou p a ll t er m s wit h
dx
dy
.
solve for
dx
6x + 2x
dy
( 2 x + 12 y 8 ) = 3 6 x 2 y
dx
F in a lly, we ju st su bst it u t e ou r poin t

dy
and
(1,1) in t o ou r expr ession for
dx
get
dV
5 9p(2) 5 18p
dt
9. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). To fin d
t h e a r ea of a r egion bou n ded by t wo
cu r ves, we sh ou ld a pply t h e followin g for m u la :
a ( f ( x ) g( x ))dx
b
dy
362
5
=
1,1) =
(
dx
2 + 12 8
6
7. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (B ). Befor e
we t r y t o in t egr a t e a n yt h in g h er e,
dist r ibu t e t h a t =x a n d ch a n ge t h e
n ot a t ion t o t h a t of r a t ion a l expon en t s. Aft er t h ese t wo st eps, we get
0 (
1
x5
+ 3 x 3 2 8 x 1 2 dx
In t egr a t in g lea ds t o
2 x 7 2 + 6 x 5 2 16 x 3 2 1 =
7
0
5
3
2 + 6 16 0 = 404
7 5
3
105
a r ela t ed-r a t es pr oblem . We a r e
wh er e a a n d b a r e t h e en dpoin t s of
t h e in t er va l. f(x) r epr esen t s t h e t op
cu r ve, wh ile g(x) r epr esen t s t h e bot t om cu r ve. F in din g a a n d b is sim ple
en ou gh . Sin ce t h e r egion begin s a t
t h e y-a xis, a 5 0. To fin d b, we will
det er m in e wh a t va lu e sa t isfies t h e
followin g equ a t ion :
x3 5 x 1 6
By in spect ion , we ca n see t h a t x 5 2.
Now, t h e a r ea of t h e r egion wou ld be
given by
0 ( x + 6 x
2
)dx
10. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). Wh en ever t h e a ver a ge r a t e of ch a n ge is

r equ est ed, we ju st n eed t o com pu t e
t h e slope of t h e seca n t lin e.
pra ctice test 2
dy
3 6x 2 y
=
dx 2x + 12 y 8
Kn owledge of ba sic for m u la s is u sefu l h er e. 4pr 2 is m er ely t h e su r fa ce

a r ea for m u la for a sph er e. We wer e
given t h a t t h e su r fa ce a r ea is equ a l
dr
5 2. Su bst it u t in g
t o 9p a n d t h a t
dt
t h ese va lu es yields
a nsw ers
dr
, t h e r a t e a t wh ich t h e r a dt
diu s is in cr ea sin g, a n d n eed t o fin d
dV
, t h e r a t e a t wh ich t h e volu m e is
dt
in cr ea sin g wh en A, t h e su r fa ce a r ea ,
is 9p. Ou r pr im a r y equ a t ion is t h e
volu m e equ a t ion for a sph er e:
given
..............................................................................................
Next , we ca n eva lu a t e t h is in t egr a l

u sin g u -su bst it u t ion . If we let u 5
sec x a n d d u 5 sec x t a n x d x, we get
552
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
f (12) f ( 4 ) 1
= , t h en a t som e
2
12 ( 4 )
f
poin t c on [a,b], ( c ) = 1
2
f (b) f (a)
ba
f ( 4 ) f ( 1)
=
4 ( 1)
m=
a n a pplica t ion of t h e F u n da m en t a l
Th eor em of Ca lcu lu s, P a r t Two,
wh ich st a t es
19 ( 6 )
=5
5

we kn ow t h a t t h e secon d der iva t ive
is a lin e of slope 6, we ca n sa y t h a t
f (x) 5 6x 1 C 1
Th a t im plies t h a t f (x) 5 3x 2 1
C 1x 1 C 2
wh ich in t u r n im plies t h a t f(x) 5
x 3 1 C 3x 2 1 C 2x 1 C 4.

MVT for in t egr a ls sa ys t h a t t h e a vera ge va lu e of a fu n ct ion over a given
in t er va l is t h e a r ea u n der t h e cu r ve
divided by t h e len gt h of t h e in t er va l.
So, t h e a ver a ge va lu e, f(c), of f over
[24,4] cou ld be fou n d like t h is:
1
f (c) =
8
4 (
x dx +
0 x
dx
wh ich is equ iva len t t o

4
f ( c ) = 1
8 0
x 2dx
3 4
4
= 1 2 x3 2 + x
0
83
3 0
= 1 16 + 64 = 10
8 3
3
3
13. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E). Sin ce f

h a s a h or izon t a l t a n gen t a t x 5 1, we
kn ow t h a t f (1) 5 0. By r ea din g t h e
gr a ph , we ca n see t h a t f(1) . 0. Sin ce
t h e gr a ph is con ca ve down a t x 5 1,
f (1) , 0. H en ce, f (1) , f (1) , f(1).
MVT st a t es t h a t a t som e poin t c on
t h e in t er va l [a,b],
f (c ) =
f (b) f ( a ) . Sin ce
ba
= 4xe2x
16. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E). Sin ce

we kn ow t h a t r a t e of ch a n ge im plies
der iva t ive, fr om t h e in for m a t ion in
t h e pr oblem , we ca n wr it e
f (c) 5 e3 f (2)
We a r e a lso t old t h a t f(x) 5 ex , so f (x)
5 ex . So, t h e a bove equ a t ion becom es
ec 5 e3 z e2 5 e5
So, c 5 5
( x ) dx +
d 2x etdt = e2x 2 4x
dx 3
Th a t is a cu bic fu n ct ion .
d x
f (t ) dt = f ( x )
dx a
We m u st r em em ber t h a t wh en t h e
u pper lim it of in t egr a t ion is som e
fu n ct ion of x, su ch a s 2x 2 , we m u st
m u lt iply f(x) by t h e der iva t ive of t h a t
fu n ct ion wit h r espect t o x. H en ce,
17. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). Th is

pr oblem is t est in g if we ca n a pply t h e
ch a in r u le t o fu n ct ion s defin ed by a
t a ble. If h (x) 5 f(g(x)), t h en h (x) 5 f
(g(x))g(x). Th is is wh y, wh en x 5 3,
h (3) 5 f(g(x)) 5 f(4) 5 2
h (3) 5 f (g(3))g(3) 5 f (4)g(3) 5
2z152
So, h (3) 5 h (3)
18. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (A). Sin ce
t h er e a r e exa ct ly t wo poin t s on (0,10)
wh er e f h a s a va lu e of 4, t h e gr a ph of
f m u st cr oss t h e lin e x 5 4 t wice:
On ce on t h e wa y u p a n d on ce on t h e
wa y down . Th e fa ct t h a t f is differ en t ia ble over t h e in t er va l in su r es n o
cu sps or discon t in u it ies. Sin ce t h e
cu r ve t u r n s a r ou n d som ewh er e on
(0,10), t h er e m u st be a t lea st on e
553
.................................................................
tangent slope = y
1 2
= 1 8 x2
( 2x )
2
x
=
8 x2
y(2) =
2 = 2 = 1
2
84
Th e slope of t h e n or m a l lin e is t h e
opposit e r ecipr oca l
20. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). E va lu a t e t h e defin it e in t egr a l a n d a pply

t h e F u n da m en t a l Th eor em , P a r t
On e:
x4 k
4 |2
4
k 24
4
4
4
k 16
k
=0
=0
=0
= 2
21. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (B ). Th e
r a t e of ch a n ge of y bein g dir ect ly pr opor t ion a l t o y is t h e sa m e st a t em en t
as
y 5 k y,
wh ich we kn ow lea ds t o
y 5 N ek t
22. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E). Th e
qu est ion t o a n swer h er e is wh en , if
ever, is t h e der iva t ive of y 5 3x 3 2
Th is is a n u n fa ct or a ble t r in om ia l.
Sin ce we a r e n ot per m it t ed t o u se
ou r ca lcu la t or s, wed bet t er u se t h e
qu a dr a t ic for m u la . So,
x=
4 16 216
18
Ah a ! Th e r a dica n d, 16 2 216, is less

t h a n zer o, wh ich wou ld in dica t e t h a t
t h e equ a t ion h a s n o r ea l solu t ion s,
wh ich wou ld im ply t h a t t h e der iva t ive of y 5 3x 3 2 2x 2 1 6x 2 2 is
n ever zer o. Sin ce it is a polyn om ia l
fu n ct ion , t h en it m u st be con t in u ou s;
h en ce, y 5 3x 3 2 2x 2 1 6x 2 2 is
st r ict ly m on ot on ic. Now, we sh ou ld
det er m in e t h e va lu e of t h e der iva t ive
a t on e x va lu e t o det er m in e if t h e
der iva t ive is a lwa ys posit ive or a lwa ys n ega t ive. Usin g t h e equ a t ion ,
let s det er m in e t h e va lu e of t h e der iva t ive wh en x 5 0:
y(0) 5 0 2 0 1 6 5 6 . 0
Sin ce t h e der iva t ive is a lwa ys posit ive, t h e fu n ct ion y 5 3x 3 2 2x 2 1 6x
2 2 is n ever decr ea sin g.
23. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). Rem em ber, t h e MVT gu a r a n t ees t h a t
for som e c on [2,5],
f (c ) =
=
11
2
f (5 ) f ( 2 )
(5 2 )
1 3
=
3
2
Now, we sh ou ld det er m in e t h e de2

r iva t ive of f ( x ) = x 3 , set it equ a l
x 1
3
t o , a n d solve for x.
2
f (x ) =
2x ( x 1)
( x 1)
2
x 32 = 3
( x 1) 2
x 2 2x + 3 = 3
2
2
( x 1)
pra ctice test 2
1
=1
1
y 5 9x 2 2 4x 1 6 5 0
a nsw ers
19. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). Nor m a l

lin es a r e per pen dicu la r t o t a n gen t
lin es. Th e slopes of t wo per pen dicu la r lin es a r e opposit e r ecipr oca ls of
ea ch ot h er. So, t h is pr oblem n eeds u s
t o det er m in e t h e slope of t h e cu r ve a t
x 5 2, a n d t h en det er m in e t h e opposit e r ecipr oca l of t h a t slope. Sin ce
slope of t h e cu r ve is det er m in ed by
t h e va lu e of it s der iva t ive,
2x 2 1 6x 2 2 n ega t ive? We sh ou ld t r y
t o det er m in e t h e der iva t ive, fin d a n y
cr it ica l va lu es, a n d exa m in e a wiggle
gr a ph .
..............................................................................................
h or izon t a l t a n gen t on (0,10). H or izon t a l t a n gen t s a r e pla ces wh er e t h e

der iva t ive is equ a l t o zer o.
554
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
2(x 2 2 2x 1 3) 5 3(x 2 1)2

2
2x 2 4x 1 6 5 3x 2 6x 1 3
x 2 2 2x 2 3 5 0
(x 2 3)(x 1 1) 5 0
x 5 3 or x 5 21
plies t h a t t h e fu n ct ion is in cr ea sin g

over t h is in t er va l. Th e secon d der iva t ive bein g n ega t ive m ea n s t h a t t h e
fu n ct ion is con ca ve down . Th e cu r ve
m u st look som et h in g like t h e cu r ve
dr a wn below:
Sin ce 21 is n ot on [2,5], we t h r ow
t h a t va lu e ou t a n d t h e va lu e on [2,5]
t h a t sa t isfies t h e MVT is 3.
slope field sh ows u s t h a t f(x) will
h a ve a der iva t ive of zer o wh en y 5
21 a n d wh en x 5 1 (sin ce t h e slopes
a r e h or izon t a l t h er e). Th e ea siest
possible differ en t ia l equ a t ion wit h
su ch ch a r a ct er ist ics is f (x) = (x 2
1)(y + 1), sin ce plu ggin g in 21 for y
or 1 for x m a kes t h e slope 0. If you
fa ct or ch oice (B) by gr ou pin g, t h a t is
exa ct ly wh a t you get
xy + x 2 y 2 1
x(y + 1) 2 1(y + 1)
(x 2 1)(y + 1)
25. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (B ). Th is
pr oblem is n ot a s clea r a s it m a y
a ppea r in it ia lly. Aft er exa m in in g t h e
dia gr a m , we sh ou ld look for
a (g( x ) f ( x ))dx
b
H owever, t h is is n ot a n a n swer
ch oice. On e of t h e ch oices m u st be
equ iva len t t o ou r s. Rem em ber t h a t
wh en you swit ch t h e lim it s of in t egr a t ion , you get t h e opposit e va lu e.
Swit ch in g ou r lim it s gives u s
Not ice t h a t ever y y-coor din a t e over

t h e in t er va l (0,2) is less t h a n 2, so
f(1) , 2. Not ice t h a t t h e en t ir e cu r ve
is a bove t h e seca n t lin e fr om (0, 21)
t o (2,2). (Th is is t r u e du e t o t h e con ca vit y of t h e cu r ve.) Sin ce t h e seca n t
1
lin e segm en t pa sses t h r ou gh 1, ,
2
1
f(1) . . Th er efor e, f(1) cou ld be 1.
2
27. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). Th is is
a n ot h er r ela t ed-r a t es pr oblem . We
dh
5 21, wh er e h r epr ekn ow t h a t
dt
sen t s t h e wa t er level in t h e ba r r el.
dV
, wit h V r epr eWe a r e lookin g for
dt
sen t in g t h e volu m e of t h e ba r r el. Ou r
pr im a r y equ a t ion is t h e for m u la for
volu m e of a cylin der :
V 5 pr 2 h
Sin ce it is given t h a t t h e r a diu s, r, is

a con st a n t of 10, we ca n su bst it u t e
t h is in t o t h e equ a t ion a n d get
V 5 100ph
( g( x ) f ( x ))dx
Th is is st ill n ot a ch oice. Wh a t if we
t r ea t t h a t n ega t ive sign a s if it wer e
t h e con st a n t 2 1 a n d dist r ibu t e it
t h r ou gh t h e in t egr a l? We get
b ( f ( x ) g( x ))dx
a
E u r eka !
26. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). Th e der iva t ive bein g posit ive over [0,2] im -
Now, a s in a n y r ela t ed-r a t es pr oblem , we sh ou ld differ en t ia t e wit h r espect t o t:

dh
dV
5 100p
dt
dt
dh
5 21 in t o t h e equ a Su bst it u t in g
dt
t ion yields
dV
5 2100p
dt
555
.................................................................
Not ice t h a t t h e in for m a t ion t h a t t h e

volu m e wa s 500p cu bic in ch es wa s
u n n ecessa r y.
Now, we su bst it u t e x 5
28. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). All we

n eed h er e is t h e der iva t ive of f(x) 5
a r ct a n u .
f ( x ) =
f ( x ) =
2x
1+ x4
=3 a n d get
( 3 ) = 29 +31 = 2103 =
3
5
u
1+ u2
Section I, Pa rt B
29.
30.
31.
32.
D
D
E
B
33.
34.
35.
36.
C
A
A
D
37. E
38. D
39. C
29. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). Th e
pa r t icles posit ive velocit y in dica t es
t h a t t h e posit ion fu n ct ion s gr a ph is
in cr ea sin g. Th e decr ea sin g velocit y
in dica t es t h a t t h e posit ion fu n ct ion s
gr a ph sh ou ld be con ca ve down .
43. D
44. E
45. B
f (x) 5 2x 1 C 1
In or der t o det er m in e C 1 , we ca n u se
t h e in for m a t ion given t o u s t h a t f (2)
5 4. We will su bst it u t e t h is a n d solve
for C 1 :
f (2) 5 4 5 4 1 C 1
C1 5 0
Su bst it u t in g t h is va lu e in t o t h e secon d equ a t ion yields
f (x) 5 2x
Now, we will det er m in e f(x) a n d fin d
a n a n t ider iva t ive of t h e la st equ a t ion :
f(x) 5 x 2 1 C 2
To solve for C 2 , we ca n u se t h e fa ct
t h a t f(1) 5 2, so
3
= 3x 2 + 2
x
f(1) 5 2 5 1 1 C 2
3 3x 2 2 = 0
x
Th en , f(x) 5 x 2 1 1
x 5 0.782
31. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E). Th e
r a t e of in cr ea se of t h e der iva t ive is
t h e secon d der iva t ive. So,
f (x) 5 2
To fin d a n expr ession for t h e fir st
der iva t ive, we ca n fin d a n a n t ider iva t ive:
C2 5 1
F in a lly, we ca n det er m in e f(3):
f(3) 5 9 1 1 5 10
32. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (B ). We
m u st r em em ber h ow t o fa ct or t h e differ en ce of per fect cu bes:
a 3 2 b 3 5 (a 2 b)(a 2 1 ab 1 b 2 )
Usin g t h is for m u la , we ca n sim plify
t h e lim it :
pra ctice test 2
30. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). In order for t h ese t wo fu n ct ion s t o h a ve

pa r a llel t a n gen t lin es, t h eir der iva t ives m u st be equ a l. So, we sh ou ld
fin d t h e der iva t ives of bot h fu n ct ion s, set t h em equ a l t o ea ch ot h er,
a n d solve for x. Sin ce f(x) 5 3 ln (2x),
f ( x ) = 3x . Th e der iva t ive of g(x) 5
x 3 1 2x is g(x) 5 3x 2 1 2. Now, we
will set t h ese t wo expr ession s equ a l
a n d u se ou r ca lcu la t or t o solve for x:
40. D
41. C
42. E
a nsw ers
Sin ce ou r fu n ct ion is u 5 x 2 , t h e
equ a t ion becom es
..............................................................................................
Th er efor e, t h e wa t er is lea vin g t h e

ba r r el a t 100p in 3 /m in .
556
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
xa
1
= lim 2
3
3
xa x a
x a x + ax + a 2
lim
wh ich we ca n eva lu a t e by su bst it u t ion :
1
1
= 2
2
2
a +a +a
3a
2

best wa y t o a t t a ck t h is pr oblem
wou ld be t o plot t h e 4 poin t s given
a n d sket ch t h e 3 r ect a n gles, a s
sh own in t h e dia gr a m below:
f (c ) =
f (b) f (a )
ba
e8 e0 0
f ( 4 ) f ( 0)
=
4
4
8
= e 1
4
8
Not e: f(4) = etdt = et 80 = e 8 e0
Now, we will det er m in e t h e der iva 2x t
t ive of f(x) 5
e dt :
f (x) 5 2e2x
Next , we will set ou r va lu e for f (c)
equ a l t o ou r expr ession for f (x) a n d
u se ou r ca lcu la t or t o solve for x:
5
4
3
2
1
15
12
8
2e2x = e 1
4
6
3
x = 2.960
6
12
Not ice t h a t t h e h eigh t s of t h e r ect a n gles a r e det er m in ed by t h e y-va lu e

cor r espon din g t o t h e r igh t en dpoin t
of t h e su bin t er va ls. Next , we det erm in e t h e a r ea of ea ch r ect a n gle a n d
t h en a dd t h em u p:
12
f ( x ) dx 6 + 12 + 15 = 33

t h e gr a ph of t h e der iva t ive of f
cr osses t h e x-a xis t wice, t h er e will be
t wo r ela t ive ext r em a . Th er e will be
on e m a xim u m beca u se t h e der iva t ive
ch a n ges fr om posit ive t o n ega t ive
on ce. Th er e will a lso be on e m in im u m sin ce t h e der iva t ive ch a n ges
fr om n ega t ive t o posit ive on ce a s
well.

a r a t h er com plica t ed a pplica t ion of
t h e MVT. We will a lso h a ve t o u se
t h e F u n da m en t a l Th eor em of Ca lcu lu s, P a r t Two. F ir st , let s det er m in e
t h e va lu e of f 8(c):
pr oblem a sks wh er e is t h e slope of
t h e t a n gen t lin e, wh ich is t h e in st a n t a n eou s velocit y, equ a l t o t h e slope of
t h e seca n t lin e, wh ich is t h e a ver a ge
velocit y, over [0,3].
msec = s(3) s(0)
27 + 18 + 1 1
2
2
=
3
= 3
To fin d t h e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e,
fin d t h e der iva t ive of t h e cu r ve:
m t a n 5 2 3t 2 1 4t
To det er m in e wh er e t h e t wo slopes
a r e t h e sa m e, we will set m sec equ a l
t o m t a n a n d solve for x u sin g ou r ca lcu la t or :
23t 2 1 4t 5 23
23t 2 1 4t 1 3 5 0
t 5 1.869
37. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E). F or g t o
h a ve a loca l m a xim u m a t x 5 1, t h e
der iva t ive of g, wh ich is f, m u st
ch a n ge fr om posit ive t o n ega t ive a t x
5 1. It does n ot .
557
.................................................................
f ( a ) + 2 f ( x1 ) +
f ( x ) dx b a 2f ( x2 ) +
2n
2 f ( x n 1 ) + f (b )
Applyin g it t o t h is fu n ct ion , we get
0 (
3
3 + 2 (3.36 ) +
2 ( 4.44 ) +
3
2
x + 3 dx
10 2 ( 6.24 ) +
2 8.76 + 12
)
5 0.3 z (3 1 6.72 1 8.88 1 12.48 1

17.52 1 12)
5 .3 z 60.6 5 18.18
y 5 N ek t
We kn ow t h a t a ft er five yea r s, t h e
popu la t ion will be t h r ee t im es wh a t
it wa s in it ia lly. If we su bst it u t e 3N
for y a n d 5 for t a n d solve for k , we
get
3N 5 N e5k
3 5 e5k
ln 3 5 5k
k = ln 3 0.220
5
40. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). In t h is
r ela t ed-r a t es pr oblem , we a r e goin g
dr
dr
. To qu ickly fin d
, let s
t o n eed
dt
dt
u se t h e for m u la for t h e cir cu m feren ce, differ en t ia t e wit h r espect t o t,
dr
a n d solve for :
dt
C 5 2pr
dC = 2
. We ca n
dt
5
n ow su bst it u t e t h is va lu e in t o t h e
dr
equ a t ion t o get a va lu e for :
dt
We a r e given t h a t
dr
1
= 5 =
dt 2 5
Th e qu est ion is a skin g u s a bou t t h e
r a t e a t wh ich t h e a r ea is in cr ea sin g,
dA
, wh en t h e cir cu m fer en ce is 10p
dt
in ch es. We will t a ke t h e for m u la for
t h e a r ea of a cir cle a n d differ en t ia t e
wit h r espect t o t:
A 5 pr 2
dA
dr
= 2r
dt
dt
Not ice t h a t we h a ve t h e expr ession
2pr. Th is is ju st t h e cir cu m fer en ce
t h a t we kn ow t o be 10p. We ca n su b1
st it u t e t h is va lu e a n d t h e va lu e for
5
dA
dr
t o det er m in e
:
dt
dt
dA
1
= 10 = 2
dt
5
41. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). Rem em ber t h a t t h e for m u la for t h e volu m e of a solid wit h kn own cr oss
sect ion s is
b
V = A( x ) dx
a
wh er e A(x) r epr esen t s t h e a r ea of t h e

cr oss sect ion s. In t h is pr oblem , we
a r e dea lin g wit h cr oss sect ion s t h a t
a r e equ ila t er a l t r ia n gles. Th e form u la for t h e a r ea of a n equ ila t er a l
t r ia n gle is
A=
3 2
s
4
wh er e s is t h e len gt h of on e side. As
we ca n see fr om t h e dia gr a m , t h e
in t er va l is fr om x 5 0 t o x 5 6.
Th er efor e, t h e volu m e of t h is solid is
pra ctice test 2
39. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). Sin ce

dy
5 k y, we ca n im m edia t ely sa y
dx
t h a t we a r e dea lin g wit h a n expon en t ia l fu n ct ion of t h e followin g for m :
dr = dC
dt
dt 2
a nsw ers
dC
dr
= 2
dt
dt
..............................................................................................
a t ediou s exa m ple of t h e t r a pezoida l
r u le. Sin ce we h a ve 5 su bin t er va ls
a n d t h e in t er va l is 3 u n it s lon g, we
will be dea lin g wit h som e m essy
n u m ber s. An ywa y, we st ill h a ve t o
r em em ber t h e t r a pezoida l r u le:
558
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
V=
( x
6
+ 6x
dx
Ou r ca lcu la t or will n ow do t h e r est

a n d get
V 5 112.237
42. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E). F ir st ,

we m u st det er m in e a n equ a t ion for
t h e t a n gen t lin e t o t h is cu r ve a t x 5
2. We n eed a poin t on t h e lin e a n d
t h e slope of t h e lin e. F ir st t h e poin t :
Sin ce f(2) 5 4, (2,4) is on t h e lin e.
Now t h e slope:
f 8(x) 5 2x 1 4
f 8(2) 5 4 1 4 5 8
Th e equ a t ion for t h e t a n gen t lin e is
y 2 4 5 8(x 2 2)
or
d 3 f (t ) dt =
dx 2x
2x
d 3 f (t ) dt
dx
On ce weve r ewr it t en t h e pr oblem
like t h is, it s n ot so difficu lt :
d
( 2x )
dx
= f ( 2x ) 2
f ( 2x )
= 2 f ( 2x )
45. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (B ). In order for t h e left -h a n d a n d r igh t -h a n d

lim it s t o be equ a l, t h e fu n ct ion m u st
be con t in u ou s. So, we n eed t o fin d
t h e va lu e of k for wh ich t h is equ a t ion
is t r u e:
3
y 5 8x 2 12
Now, let s exa m in e ou r ch oices.
I. Th e va lu e of t h e fu n ct ion a t
x = 2 is 4 2 6 , a n d t h e
t a n gen t lin e a ppr oxim a t ion is
8 2 12 , wh ich is t wice t h e
va lu e of t h e fu n ct ion . So, I
ch ecks ou t .
II. Th e fu n ct ion va lu e a t x 5 1 is 2
3, wh ile t h e t a n gen t lin e a ppr oxim a t ion is 2 4.
III. Th e fu n ct ion va lu e a t x = 2 is
4 2 6 , a n d t h e t a n gen t lin e
a ppr oxim a t ion is 8 2 12 . So,
III a pplies t oo.
43. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). In order t o det er m in e t h e n u m ber of cr it ica l va lu es of t h e fu n ct ion , we ca n

cou n t t h e zer os of t h e der iva t ive.
Th is wou ld r equ ir e u s t o gr a ph t h e
der iva t ive on t h e ca lcu la t or a n d
cou n t h ow m a n y t im es it cr osses t h e
x-a xis. It cr osses fou r t im es.
a t r icky F u n da m en t a l Th eor em of
Ca lcu lu s, P a r t Two pr oblem . F ir st ,
we sh ou ld r ewr it e it a s su ch :
1 + k = ln 1
Th is is r ela t ively sim ple t o solve:

11k 50
k 5 21
Section II, Pa rt A
1. (a ) Th e five su bin t er va ls wou ld ea ch
be of len gt h 2 a n d wou ld be [0,2],
[2,4], [4,6], [6,8], a n d [8,10]. Th e
m idpoin t s of t h ese su bin t er va ls
wou ld be 1, 3, 5, 7, a n d 9, r espect ively. Th e Riem a n n su m t h a t we
a r e lookin g for is ju st t h e su m of
five r ect a n gles, ea ch of widt h 2
a n d h eigh t f(m i), wh er e m i is t h e
m idpoin t of t h e i t h su bin t er va l.
So,
A 5 2(f(1) 1 f(3) 1 f(5) 1 f(7) 1
f(9))
5 2(0.667 1 1.577 1 2.412 1
3.215 1 4)
5 2(11.871)
5 23.743
559
.................................................................
a f ( x ) dx
f ( a ) + 2 f ( x1 ) +
b a 2f x +
2n ( 2 )
+2 f xn 1 + f (b )
f (0 ) + 2f (2) +
A 10 2f ( 4 ) + 2f ( 6 ) +
10
2 f ( 8 ) + f (10 )
5 (0 1 2(1.138) 1 2(2) 1
2(2.817) + 2(3.610) 1 4.387)
5 23.516
(c ) Th e a ver a ge va lu e, f(c), of t h e
fu n ct ion is t h e a r ea u n der t h e
cu r ve divided by t h e len gt h of
t h e in t er va l. So, we ca n a ppr oxim a t e f(c) like t h is:
23.516
= 2.352
10
(d ) H er e, we sh ou ld det er m in e t h e
exa ct a r ea u n der t h e cu r ve a n d
divide it by t h e len gt h of t h e in t er va l:
f (c ) = 1
10
10
x + x
dx
3
1
( 23.694 ) = 2.369
10
2. (a ) Well st a r t by la belin g a fou r t h

poin t , Q, a s t h e poin t on t h e
t r a ck dir ect ly in fr on t of obser ver
O. We will a lso defin e som e va r ia bles: x will be t h e dist a n ce fr om
t h e h or se H t o t h e poin t Q, y will
be t h e dist a n ce fr om t h e obser ver
O t o t h e poin t Q, a n d z will be
t h e dist a n ce bet ween t h e h or se H
x 2 + 1002 = z 2
dx
dz
2x
= 2z
dt
dt
x dx
dz
= dt
dt
z
6.79492 45
=
100.23059
= 3 .0 5 1
So, wh en t 5 4, t h e dist a n ce fr om
t h e h or se t o t h e obser ver is in cr ea sin g a t 3.051 feet per secon d.
pra ctice test 2
f (c)
H ow lon g is t h e dist a n ce fr om P
t o Q? We ca n u se t h e 30-60-90
t r ia n gle t h eor em t o det er m in e
t h a t it is 100 3 or 173.2051 feet .
Sin ce t h e h or se is r u n n in g a t 45
feet per secon d, h e h a s r u n 180
feet a ft er 4 secon ds. So, x 5 180 2
173.2051 5 6.79492.
Now we ca n u se t h e P yt h a gor ea n
t h eor em t o wr it e ou r pr im a r y
equ a t ion :
x 2 1 100 2 5 z 2
Su bst it u t in g x 5 6.79492 in t o t h e
equ a t ion a n d solvin g for z gives
us
6.79492 2 1 100 2 5 z 2
10,046.171 5 z 2
z 5 100.23059
Th e qu est ion a sked u s for t h e
r a t e t h a t t h e dist a n ce fr om t h e
h or se t o t h e obser ver is in cr ea sin g a ft er fou r secon ds. In ot h er
dz
wh en t 5 4? To
wor ds, wh a t is
dt
a n swer t h is, let s differ en t ia t e
dz
.
wit h r espect t o t a n d solve for
dt
a nsw ers
a n d t h e obser ver O. All of t h is is

sh own in t h e dia gr a m below.
..............................................................................................
(b) Reca ll t h e t r a pezoida l r u le:
560
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
(b) Th is is n ot a difficu lt pr oblem .

Th e a r ea of a t r ia n gle is
A =
Solvin g for
1
z ba se z h eigh t
2
Th e h eigh t of t h is t r ia n gle is a
con st a n t , 100 feet , so
A 5 50 z ba se
To det er m in e t h e r a t e a t wh ich
t h e a r ea of t h e t r ia n gle is ch a n gin g, let s differ en t ia t e wit h r espect t o t:
dA
d
= 50 ( base )
dt
dt
d
Wh a t is (ba se)? Th a t s t h e r a t e
dt
a t wh ich t h e ba se is ch a n gin g,
wh ich is m er ely t h e speed of t h e
h or se, 45 feet per secon d. Now
we h a ve
dA = 50 45 = 2, 250
dt
So, t h e a r ea of t h e t r ia n gle
for m ed by P, H ,a n d O is in cr ea sin g a t a con st a n t r a t e of 2,250
feet 2 per secon d.
(c ) We will u se x, y, a n d z t o r epr esen t t h e sa m e dist a n ces a s in
pa r t A. It ca n be det er m in ed ea sily t h a t t h e h or se h a s ga lloped
225 feet in t h e sa m e a m ou n t of
t im e t h a t t h e m a n r a n 50 feet .
So, y 5 50, x 5 225, a n d z ca n be
det er m in ed a s su ch :
dz
gives u s
dt
dy
dx
dz x dt + y dt
=
dt
z
Now, we will su bst it u t e t h e followin g va lu es in t o t h e equ a t ion :

dx
x 5 225, y 5 50, z 5 230.489,
dt
dy
dy
5 2 10.
is n ega 5 45, a n d
dt
dt
t ive beca u se y is get t in g sh or t er.
dz = 50 10 + 225 45
230.489
dt
= 41.759
Th e dist a n ce fr om t h e h or se t o
t h e obser ver is in cr ea sin g a t
41.759 feet per secon d.
3. Th is pr oblem in volves solvin g t h e
sepa r a ble
differ en t ia l
equ a t ion
dv = 11 t 7 . F ir st , we sh ou ld
dt
25
sepa r a t e t h e vs a n d ts:
11
dv = t 7 dt
25
In t egr a t e bot h sides:
v=
11 2
t 7t + C
50
To det er m in e t h e va lu e of C, we u se
t h e in it ia l con dit ion given t o u s in
t h e pr oblem . Sin ce v(0) 5 197.28,
t h en
x2 1 y2 5 z 2
50 2 1 225 2 5 z 2
z 5 230.489
dz
, we sh ou ld difdt
fer en t ia t e wit h r espect t o t:
v ( 0 ) = 197.28 =
a n d C 5 197.28. Now, we h a ve ou r
expr ession for v in t er m s of t:
To det er m in e
2x
dy
dx
dz
+ 2y
= 2z
dt
dt
dt
11 2
0 70 + C
50
v(t ) =
11 2
t 7 t + 197.28
50
561
.................................................................
1
18 0
11 t 2 7t + 197.28 = 0
50
11 t 2
18
dt = 1989.36
0 50
7t + 197.28
v ( t )dt
You a lr ea dy kn ow t h e va lu e of
t h e in t egr a l fr om you r wor k in
pa r t (B).
t 5 18
It t a kes t h e ca r 18 secon ds t o
com e t o a st op. Now, t o det erm in e h ow fa r t h e ca r t r a vels in
t h ose 18 secon ds, we sh ou ld fin d
t h e a r ea u n der t h e velocit y cu r ve
fr om t 5 0 t o t 5 18:
18
1
~1989.36!
18
5 110.52 ft /sec.
Section II, Pa rt B
4. (a )
Th e ca r t r a vels 1,989.36 feet

wh ile slowin g down .
v ( 9 ) = 11 92 7 9 + 197.28
50
(b) Th e t wo cu r ves in t er sect a t (2,4).

Th e a r ea of t h e r egion R ca n be
det er m in ed u sin g t h e followin g
defin it e in t egr a l:
5 116.46
Th is t ells u s t h a t (9116.46) is on
ou r t a n gen t lin e. Now, det er m in e
t h e slope by eva lu a t in g t h e der iva t ive (wh ich we a lr ea dy kn ow
dV
=
fr om t h e pr oblem it self
dt
11
2 t 2 ~7! a t t 5 9:
25
f (9) =
11
9 7 = 10.96
25
A=
=
0 ( 8 x
2
x 2 dx
2
0 ( 8 2 x ) dx
2
= 8x
= 16
2x3
3
|0
16 32
=
3
3
Th e t a n gen t lin e pa sses t h r ou gh

(9116.46) a n d h a s a slope of
210.96. We ca n n ow wr it e it s
equ a t ion u sin g poin t -slope for m :
v 2 116.46 5 2 10.96(t 2 9)
or in slope in t er cept for m :
v 5 2 10.96t 1 215.1
pra ctice test 2
(c ) To wr it e t h e equ a t ion for a lin e,

we n eed a poin t on t h e lin e a n d
t h e slope of t h e lin e. To det erm in e t h e y coor din a t e of t h e
poin t , we will eva lu a t e v a t t 5 9:
a nsw ers
(d ) Th is pr oblem ca lls for t h e a vera ge va lu e for m u la a pplied t o t h e

velocit y equ a t ion you fou n d in
pa r t (A).
..............................................................................................
(b) Th is is a t wo-pa r t qu est ion .

F ir st , we sh ou ld det er m in e h ow
m u ch t im e it t a kes t h e ca r t o
st op, a n d t h en we sh ou ld in t egr a t e t h e velocit y cu r ve u sin g
t h a t va lu e. In or der for t h e ca r t o
st op, v(t) 5 0.
562
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
(c ) Th e volu m e is ea siest t o det erm in e u sin g t h e wa sh er m et h od.

Th e ou t er r a diu s, R (x), is 8 2 x 2 ,
a n d t h e in n er r a diu s, r(x), is x 2 :
) ( x ) dx
= (64 16x + x x ) dx
V =
8 x2
wh ich gives u s t h e volu m e of t h e

solid:
V=
= 128 128
3
= 256
3
(d ) Th e volu m e of a solid wit h
kn own cr oss sect ion s ca n be det er m in ed like t h is:
b
V = A( x )dx
a
Th e cr oss sect ion s a r e sem icir cles wh ose a r ea for m u la is A 5

1 2
pr .
2
Now, we n eed a n expr ession in
t er m s of x for t h e r a diu s of on e of
t h ese sem icir cles. Beca u se t h e
h eigh t of R is t h e dia m et er of a
sem icir cle, t h e r a diu s wou ld be
r( x) =
1
8 2x2 = 4 x2
2
Th is lea ds t o t h e a r ea of a sem icir cle:

1
A(x) 5 p(4 2 x 2 )2
2
1
5 p(16 2 8x 2 1 x 4 )
2
0 (16 8 x
2
+ x 4 dx
1
8x3 x5
16 x
+
2
3
5
64 32 128
.
+ =
32
2
3
5
15
= 64x 16 x 3 |0
|0
5. (a ) Th e loca l m a xim u m occu r s a t x 5

5 beca u se t h e der iva t ive ch a n ges
fr om posit ive t o n ega t ive t h er e.
Th is m ea n s t h a t t h e fu n ct ion
ch a n ges fr om in cr ea sin g t o decr ea sin g t h er e a s well.
(b) f(7) , f(4) , f(5)
Sin ce t h e fu n ct ion in cr ea ses over
[4,5] a n d decr ea ses over [5,7],
f(5) is t h e gr ea t est of t h e t h r ee.
To det er m in e wh ich is gr ea t er,
f(4) or f(7), we exa m in e t h e a ccu m u la t ed a r ea over [4,7]. Sin ce
t h is a r ea is n ega t ive, t h e fu n ct ion h a s a n et decr ea se over [4,7].
Th u s, f(4) . f(7).
(c ) f h a s t wo poin t s of in flect ion : on e
a t x 5 4 a n d on e a t x 5 7. P oin t s
of in flect ion a r e pla ces wh er e t h e
gr a ph ch a n ges con ca vit y. Th e
gr a ph ch a n ges con ca vit y wh en ever t h e der iva t ive ch a n ges fr om
in cr ea sin g t o decr ea sin g or fr om
decr ea sin g t o in cr ea sin g. Th e der iva t ive ch a n ges fr om in cr ea sin g
t o decr ea sin g a t x 5 4 a n d fr om
decr ea sin g t o in cr ea sin g a t x 5 7.
563
.................................................................
2xe xy
dy
dy
+ 2 ye xy
=0
dx
dx
dy
2xe xy 1 = 2 ye xy
dx
dy
2 ye xy
2 ye xy
=
=
xy
dx
2xe 1 1 2xe xy
dy b be 0
=
= b2
dx
1 0
Now, we wr it e t h e equ a t ion for a
lin e wit h y-in t er cept b a n d slope
b 2:
y 5 b 2x 1 b
(b) Differ en t ia t in g im plicit ly a ga in

yields
dy
bye xy
=
dx 1 bxe xy
(c ) To det er m in e t h e y-in t er cept , we
let x 5 0 a n d solve for y:
bexy 2 y 5 0
be0 5 y
So, t h e y-in t er cept is (0,b).
pra ctice test 2
y5b
a nsw ers
dy
dy
2e xy x
+ y
=0
dx
dx
(d ) We ju st n eed t h e slope wh en x 5
0 a n d y 5 b. We will su bst it u t e
t h ese va lu es in t o ou r expr ession
dy
for
:
dx
..............................................................................................
6. (a ) Sin ce t h e x a n d y a r e n ot sepa r a t ed, we sh ou ld differ en t ia t e

im plicit ly.
2exy 2 y 5 0
.................................................................
Section I, Pa rt A
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
1. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
11. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
20. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
3. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
13. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
22. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
2. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
4. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
5. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
6. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
7. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
8. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
9. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
10. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
12. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
14. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
15. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
16. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
17. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
18. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
19. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
21. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
23. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
24. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
25. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
26. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
27. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
28. O
Section I, Pa rt B
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
29. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
35. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
41. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
31. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
37. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
43. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
30. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
32. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
33. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
34. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
36. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
38. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
39. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
40. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
42. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
44. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
45. O
a nsw er sheet
..............................................................................................
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
565
566
Section II
.................................................................
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
.................................................................
567
a nsw er sheet
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
568
.................................................................
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
..............................................................................................

Ca lc ulus BC
....................................................................................
n u m ber.
1. Th e fu n ct ion f is given by f (x) 5
3x 4 2 2x 3 1 7x 2 2. On wh ich of
t h e followin g in t er va ls is f decr ea sin g?
2. Wh a t is t h e a r ea u n der t h e
cu r ve descr ibed by t h e pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s x 5 sin t a n d y 5
cos 2 t for 0 t 2 ?
(A) 1
3
1
(B )
2
(C) 2
3
(A) (2`,`)
(B ) (2`,0)
(C) 1 ,
3
(D ) 0, 1
3
(E) 1 , 0
3
(D ) 1
(E) 4
3
569
p ra c tic e test 3
SECTION I, PART A
570
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
3. Th e fu n ct ion f is given by f(x) 5 8x 3

1 36x 2 1 54x 1 27. All of t h ese st a t em en t s a r e t r u e E XCE P T
4.
QUESTIONS 6, 7, AND 8 REFER TO THE

DIAGRAM AND INFORMATION BELOW.
3
(A) 2 is a zer o of f.
2
3
(B ) 2 is a poin t of in flect ion of f.
2
3
(C) 2 is a loca l ext r em u m of f.
2
3
(D ) 2 is a zer o of t h e der iva t ive
2
of f.
(E) f is st r ict ly m on ot on ic.
x ln x dx =
2
2
(A) x ln x + x + C
2
4
2
(B ) x (2 ln x 1) + C
4
(C)
x
( x ln x 2 + C)
2
2
(D ) x ln x x + C
4
(E)
(ln x ) x
x
+C
5. Let h( x ) = ln g( x ) . If g is decr ea sin g

for a ll x in it s dom a in , t h en
(A)
(B )
(C)
(D )
h is st r ict ly in cr ea sin g.
h is st r ict ly decr ea sin g.
h h a s n o r ela t ive ext r em a .
bot h (B) a n d (C).
(E) n on e of t h e a bove.
Th e fu n ct ion f is defin ed on [0,7]. Th e

gr a ph of it s der iva t ive, f , is sh own a bove.
6. Th e poin t (2,5) is on t h e gr a ph of y 5
f (x). An equ a t ion of t h e lin e t a n gen t
t o t h e gr a ph of f a t (2,5) is
(A) y 5 2
(B ) y 5 5
(C) y 5 0
(D ) y 5 2x 1 5
(E) y 5 2x 2 5
7. H ow m a n y poin t s of in flect ion does
t h e gr a ph y 5 f (x) h a ve over [0,7]?
(A) 0
(B ) 1
(C) 2
(D ) 3
(E) 4
8. At wh a t va lu e of x does t h e a bsolu t e
m a xim u m va lu e of f occu r ?
(A) 1
(B ) 2
(C) 4
(D ) 6
(E) 7
Pra ctice Test 3: AP Ca lculus BC
571
.................................................................
1
x2 + 4
dx =
x
2
(A) e + 9
2
2
(B ) e 9
2
2
(C) e + 7
2
2
(D ) e + 8
2
2
(E) e 4
2
11. If y 5 2xy 2 x 2 1 3, t h en wh en x 5 1,
dy
5
dx
(A) 26
(B ) 22
(C) 2
2
3
(D ) 2
(E) 6
12. Th e len gt h of t h e cu r ve descr ibed by
t h e pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s x 5 2t 3 a n d
y 5 t 3 wh er e 0 t 1 is
(A)
10. Th e fu n ct ion f given by f(x) 5 3x 5 2

4x 3 2 3x is in cr ea sin g a n d con ca ve
u p over wh ich of t h ese in t er va ls?
2
(B )
, 0
5
(C) ( 2 1, 1)
2
(D )
,
5
(E) (1, `)
5
2
(B )
(C)
2
(A) ,
5
5
7
3
2
(D )
(E) 3
13. Wh a t is t h e a ver a ge va lu e of f(x) 5
3sin 2 x 2 cos 2 x over 0, 2 ?
[ ]
(A) 0
(B ) 1
(C)
(D )
(E)
p ra c tic e test
..............................................................................................
9.
572
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
17. If f(x) 5 secx, t h en f (x) h a s h ow

m a n y zer os over t h e closed in t er va l
[0,2p]?
(A) 0
(B ) 1
for som e con st a n t k . F or wh a t va lu e
of k will f be differ en t ia ble over it s
wh ole dom a in ?
(A) 22
(B ) 21
2
(C)
3
(D ) 1
15. Wh a t is t h e a ppr oxim a t ion of t h e

va lu e of e3 obt a in ed by u sin g a
fou r t h -degr ee Ta ylor polyn om ia l
a bou t x 5 0 for ex ?
16.
(A) 1 + 3 +
9 9 27
+ +
2 2 8
(C) 2
(D ) 3
(E) 4
18. Con sider t h e r egion in t h e fir st qu a dr a n t bou n ded by y 5 x 2 over [0,3].
Let L 3 r epr esen t t h e Riem a n n a ppr oxim a t ion of t h e a r ea of t h is r egion
u sin g left en dpoin t s a n d t h r ee r ect a n gles, R 3 r epr esen t t h e Riem a n n
a ppr oxim a t ion u sin g r igh t en dpoin t s
a n d t h r ee r ect a n gles, M 3 r epr esen t
t h e Riem a n n a ppr oxim a t ion u sin g
m idpoin t s a n d t h r ee r ect a n gles, a n d
T 3 r epr esen t t h e t r a pezoida l a ppr oxim a t ion wit h t h r ee t r a pezoids. Wh ich
of t h e followin g st a t em en t s is t r u e?
x 2 dx < M3 < L3
27
(B ) 1 + 3 + 9 +
8
(A) R3 < T3 <
27
(C) 1 + 3 +
8
(B ) L3 < M3 < T3 < R3 <
9 9 27
(D ) 3 +
2 2 4
(C) M3 < L3 <
27
(E) 3 + 9 +
8
6x e
3 3x
dx =
(A) e3x (9x 3 2 9x 2 1 6x 2 2) 1 C
4
(B ) e 3 x 2 x 3 2 x 2 x +
4
+C
9
(C)
2 3x 3
4
4
e 2x 2x2 + x + C
9
3
9
(D )
2 3x
e 9x3 9x 2 6x 2 + C
9
(E)
2 3x
e 9x3 9x 2 + 6x 2 + C
9
(D ) L3 < M3 <
(E) L3 < M3 <
x 2 dx
x 2 dx < T3 < R3
x 2 dx < R3 < T3
x 2 dx < T3 < R3
573
.................................................................
I.
2n
va lu e of k ?
1
(A)
8
3
(B )
8
(C) 2
n =1
II.
n
n =1
III.

n =1
cos 2 n
n2
(D ) 3
(E) 8
(A) I on ly
(B ) II on ly
(C) III on ly
(D ) I a n d II
22. Th e len gt h of t h e pa t h descr ibed by

t h e pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s x 5 2cos2t
a n d y 5 sin 2 t for 0 t p is given by
(E) I a n d III
20. Th e a r ea of t h e r egion in side t h e pola r cu r ve r 5 4sin u bu t ou t side t h e
pola r cu r ve r = 2 2 is given by
(A) 2
3 4
=x is in cr ea sin g. Wh a t is t h e
wh ich
n + 1
(4 sin
(A)
(B )
(C)
(D )
(E)
4 cos2 2t + sin 4 t dt
2 sin t cos t 4 sin 2t dt
1 d
2
3 4
(B ) 1
4 sin 2 2 d
2 4
3 4
(C) 1
4 sin 2 2 d
2 4
3 4
(D ) 1
16 sin 2 8 d
2 4
3 4
(E) 1
4 sin 2 1 d
2 4
4 sin 2 t cos2 t 16 sin 2 2t dt
4 sin 2 2t + 4 sin 2 t cos2 t dt
16 sin 2 2t + 4 sin 2 t cos2 t dt
23. Det er m in e t h e in t er va l of con vern+2

3x 2 )
(
gen ce for t h e ser ies
.
n5 2
n=0
1
1
(A) x
3
3
(B ) 1 < x < 1
3
(C) 1 x 1
3
(D ) 1 x 1
3
(E) 1 x 1
3
p ra c tic e test
21. Wh en x 5 16, t h e r a t e a t wh ich x 3/4 is

in cr ea sin g is k t im es t h e r a t e a t
..............................................................................................
19. Wh ich of t h e followin g ser ies con ver ge?
574
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
(3 x + 4)(2 x 1)
(2 x 3)(2 x + 1) h a s a h or izon t a l
a sym pt ot e a t x 5
24. f ( x ) =
(A)
3
2
26.
x2
x
2 e
dx =
5
e
(A)
(B ) 10e2
1
3
(B ) a n d 2
2
2
10
e2
(C)
(C) 0
1
3
(D ) 2 a n d
4
2
(D ) 2
(E) 5e
25.
27. Th e popu la t ion P(t) of a species sa t -
isfies t h e logist ic differ en t ia l equ a dP

dt
t ion
2
lim P (t ) ?
P . Wh a t
= 23 P 5 100
is
(A) 100
2
Sh own a bove is t h e slope field for

wh ich of t h e followin g differ en t ia l
equ a t ion s?
(A)
dy
= 1+ x
dx
(B )
dy
=xy
dx
(C)
dy x + y
=
dx
2
(B ) 200
(C) 300
(D ) 400
(E) 500
28. If
is a Ta ylor ser ies
t h a t con ver ges t o f(x) for ever y r ea l x,

t h en f (c) 5
(A) 0
(B ) n (n 2 1)a n
(C)
na ( x c )
n 1
n=0
(D )
dy
= y +1
dx
(E)
STOP
n=0
dy
(D )
= yx
dx
(E)
a (x c)
n= 0
n (n 1)a ( x c )
n=0
n 2

OF THE TEST.
575
.................................................................

THE EXAMINATION.
29. Th e gr a ph of t h e fu n ct ion r epr esen t ed by t h e Ta ylor ser ies, cen t er ed

a t x 5 1, 1 2 (x 2 1) 1 (x 2 1)2 2 (x
2 1)3 1 . . . 5 ( 2 1)n (x 2 1)n in t ersect s t h e gr a ph of y 5 ex a t x 5
(A) 29.425
(B )
(C)
(D )
(E)
0.567
0.703
0.773
1.763
30. If f is a vect or-va lu ed fu n ct ion defin ed by f(t) 5 ,cos 2 t, ln t., t h en

f (t) 5
(A)
(C)
2 cos t sin t,
(D )
2 cos 2 t + 2 sin 2 t,
(E)
2,
2
P
4
(B )
4
P
2
(C) 2P
(E)
1
t
2 cos t,
(A)
(D ) P
1
2 cos t sin t,
t
(B )
31. Th e dia gon a l of a squ a r e is in cr ea sin g a t a con st a n t r a t e of =2 cen t im et er s per secon d. In t er m s of t h e

per im et er, P, wh a t is t h e r a t e of
ch a n ge of t h e a r ea of t h e squ a r e in
squ a r e cen t im et er s per secon d?
P
2
1
t
1
t2
1
t2
p ra c tic e test
..............................................................................................
SECTION I, PART B
576
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
32. If f is con t in u ou s over t h e set of r ea l

n u m ber s a n d f is defin ed a s
2
x 3x + 2
x2
f ( x) =
for a ll x 2, t h en
(g( x ) h( x ))dx + 30
(E)
(g( x ) 2h( x ))dx + 30
f(2) 5
(A)
(B )
(C)
(D )
22
21
0
1
10
(D )
10
36. Use a fift h -degr ee Ta ylor polyn om ia l

cen t er ed a t x 5 0 t o est im a t e e2 .
(E) 2
33. If 0 k 2 a n d t h e a r ea bet ween t h e

cu r ves y 5 x 2 1 4 a n d y 5 x 3 fr om
x 5 0 t o x 5 k is 5, t h en k 5
(A)
(B )
(C)
(D )
(E)
7.000
7.267
7.356
7.389
7.667
37. Wh a t a r e a ll t h e va lu es of x for wh ich

( x + 2)n
t h e ser ies
n con ver ges?

n n 3 )
n =1 (
(A) 1.239
(B ) 1.142
(C) 1.029
(D ) 0.941
(A) 23 , x , 3
(E) 0.876
(B )
(C)
(D )
(E)
34. Det er m in e
dy
for t h e cu r ve defin ed
dx
by xsin y 5 1.
(A) tan y
x
(B ) tan y
x
(C) sec y tan y
x
(D ) sec y
x
(E) sec y
x
35. If f(x) 5 h (x) 1 g(x) for 0 x 10,

t h en
10
(A) 2
( f ( x ) 2h ( x ) + 3) dx =
0 (g( x ) h( x ) + 3)dx
10
(B ) g(10) 2 h (10) 1 30
(C) g(10) 2 h (10) 1 30 2 g(0) 2
h (0)
23
25
25
25
x3
,x,1
x1
x,1
38. Let f ( x ) = x 2 4 . Let R be t h e r egion bou n ded by f, t h e x-a xis, a n d t h e

ver t ica l lin es x 5 2 3 a n d x 5 3. Let
T 6 r epr esen t t h e a ppr oxim a t ion of
t h e a r ea of R u sin g t h e t r a pezoida l
r u le wit h n 5 6. Th e qu ot ien t
T6
=
3
3 f ( x )dx
(A) 0.334
(B ) 0.978
(C) 1.022
(D ) 1.304
(E) 4.666
577
.................................................................
[a,b]?
(A)
(( x + 1) (3 x ) ) dx
(( x + 1) (3 x ) ) dx
(A)
2 2
(B )
2 2
( (
))
(C) 2 x x 3 x 2 + 2 dx
0
(D )
(( x
+1
) (3 x ) )dx
2
( (
2 2
(B )
))
(E) 2 x x 3 + x 2 2 dx
0
(C)
a n d g be defin ed a s
g( x ) =
f (t )dt for 2 4 t 4.
Wh ich of t h ese is a n equ a t ion for

t h e t a n gen t lin e t o g a t x 5 2?
(A) 4x + 3 y = 4 2 + 72
(B ) 3x 2 3 y = 64 2 2
(D )
(C) 3x 2 3 y = 64 2 2
(D ) 3x 2 3 y = 64 + 2 2
(E) 4x + 3 y = 4 2 56
41.
(E)
Let
g( x ) = f (t )dt t, wh er e a x
a
b. Th e figu r e a bove sh ows t h e

gr a ph of g on [a,b]. Wh ich of t h e
p ra c tic e test
followin g cou ld be t h e gr a ph of f on
..............................................................................................
39. Let R be t h e r egion bou n ded by y 5 3

2 x 2 , y 5 x 3 1 1, a n d x 5 0. If R is
r ot a t ed a bou t t h e x-a xis, t h e volu m e
of t h e solid for m ed cou ld be det erm in ed by
578
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
42. Th e su m of t h e in fin it e geom et r ic se8 + 16 + 32 + . . . is

r ies 45 + 35
245 1715
44. Let F(x) be a n a n t ider iva t ive of f(x) 5

e2x . If F(0) 5 2.5, t h en F(5) 5
(A) 0.622
(B ) 0.893
(C) 1.120
(A) 150.413
(B ) 11013.233
(C) 11015.233
(D ) 1.429
(D ) 22026.466
(E) 22028.466
(E) 2.800
43. Let f be a st r ict ly m on ot on ic differ en t ia ble fu n ct ion on t h e closed in t er va l

[5,10] su ch t h a t f(5) 5 6 a n d f(10) 5
26. Wh ich of t h e followin g m u st be
t r u e for t h e fu n ct ion f on t h e in t er va l
[5,10]?
I. Th e a ver a ge r a t e of ch a n ge of f
is 4.
II. Th e a bsolu t e m a xim u m va lu e of
f is 26.
III. f (8) . 0.
45. Th e ba se of a solid is t h e r egion in

t h e fir st qu a dr a n t bou n ded by y 5
2x 2 1 3. Th e cr oss sect ion s per pen dicu la r t o t h e x-a xis a r e squ a r es.
F in d t h e volu m e of t h e solid.
(A)
(B )
(C)
(D )
(E)
3.464
8.314
8.321
16.628
21.600
(A) I on ly
(B ) II on ly
(C) III on ly
(D ) I a n d II
(E) I, II, a n d III
STOP

OF THE TEST.
579
.................................................................

1. Let f be a fu n ct ion t h a t h a s der iva t ives of a ll or der s for a ll r ea l n u m ber s. Assu m e f(1) 5 3, f (1) 5 21,
f (1) 5 4, a n d f (1) 5 22.
(a ) Wr it e t h e t h ir d-degr ee Ta ylor
polyn om ia l for f a bou t x 5 1,
a n d u se it t o a ppr oxim a t e
f(1.1).
(b) Wr it e t h e secon d-degr ee Ta ylor
f (1.1).
(c ) Wr it e t h e fou r t h -degr ee Ta ylor
polyn om ia l for
x
g( x ) = f (t )dt .
1
(d ) Ca n f(2) be det er m in ed fr om
t h e in for m a t ion given ? J u st ify
you r a n swer.
STOP

dy 3 x 2 + 2 x
=
.
dx
ey
(a ) F in d a solu t ion y 5 f(x) t o t h e
differ en t ia l equ a t ion t h a t
sa t isfies f(0) 5 2.
(b) Wh a t is t h e dom a in of f?
(c ) F or wh a t va lu e(s) of x does f
h a ve a poin t of in flect ion ?
3. Let R be t h e r egion en closed by t h e
gr a ph s of y 5 2x 2 1 3 a n d y 5
t a n 21 x.
(a ) Det er m in e t h e a r ea of R .
(b) Wr it e a n expr ession in volvin g
on e or m or e in t egr a ls t h a t gives
t h e len gt h of t h e bou n da r y of R .
Do n ot eva lu a t e.
(c ) Th e ba se of a solid is t h e r egion
R . Th e cr oss sect ion s per pen dicu la r t o t h e x-a xis a r e sem icir cles. Wr it e a n expr ession
in volvin g on e or m or e in t egr a ls
t h a t gives t h e volu m e of t h e
solid. Do n ot eva lu a t e.
OF THE TEST.
p ra c tic e test
..............................................................................................
SECTION II, PART A
580
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
SECTION II, PART B

dy
5 x(y 2 2).
dx
4.
3 2 1
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8
(a ) On t h e a xes pr ovided below,

sket ch a slope field for t h e
given differ en t ia l equ a t ion a t
t h e n in e poin t s in dica t ed.
3
Th e figu r e a bove sh ows t h e gr a ph of

f , t h e der iva t ive of som e fu n ct ion f,
for 2 3 x 8. Th e gr a ph of f h a s
h or izon t a l t a n gen t lin es a t x 5 2 1
a n d x 5 2, a ver t ica l t a n gen t lin e a t
x 5 3, a n d a cu sp a t x 5 5.
(a ) F in d a ll va lu es of x for wh ich f
a t t a in s a r ela t ive m in im u m on
(23,8). E xpla in .
(b) F in d a ll va lu es of x for wh ich f
a t t a in s a r ela t ive m a xim u m on
(23,8). E xpla in .
(c ) F or wh a t va lu e of x, 2 3 x
8, does f a t t a in it s a bsolu t e
m in im u m ? E xpla in .
(d ) F or wh a t va lu e(s) of x, for
23 , x , 8, does f (x) n ot
exist ?
2
1
(b) Let y 5 f(x) be a pa r t icu la r

solu t ion t o t h e given differ en t ia l equ a t ion wit h t h e in it ia l
con dit ion f(0) 5 3. Use E u ler s
m et h od st a r t in g a t x 5 0 wit h a
st ep size of 0.2 t o a ppr oxim a t e
f(0.4). Sh ow t h e wor k t h a t
lea ds t o you r a n swer.
(c ) F in d t h e pa r t icu la r solu t ion
y 5 f(x) t o t h e differ en t ia l
equ a t ion wit h t h e in it ia l
con dit ion f(0) 5 3.
6. A m ovin g pa r t icle h a s posit ion (x(t),
y(t)) a t t im e t. Th e posit ion of t h e
pa r t icle a t t im e t 5 1 is (7,0), a n d t h e
velocit y vect or a t a n y t im e t . 0 is
given by 3
3
t2
,4 +
2
t2
(a ) F in d t h e posit ion of t h e pa r t icle

a t t 5 3.
(b) Will t h e lin e t a n gen t t o t h e
pa t h of t h e pa r t icle a t (x(t), y(t))
ever h a ve a slope of zer o? If so,
wh en ? If n ot , wh y n ot ?
STOP
END OF SECTION II, PART B. IF YOU HAVE ANY TIME LEFT, GO OVER YOUR
WORK IN THIS PART ONLY. DO NOT WORK IN ANY OTHER PART OF THE TEST.
581
.................................................................
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
D
C
C
B
C
B
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
C
B
C
E
E
D
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
1. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). To det er m in e wh er e t h e der iva t ive of a

fu n ct ion is in cr ea sin g, we sh ou ld fin d
t h e zer os of t h e secon d der iva t ive
a n d exa m in e a wiggle gr a ph .
f(x) 5 3x 4 2 2x 3 1 7x 2 2
f (x) 5 12x 3 2 6x 2 1 7
B
E
A
E
D
E
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
C
D
D
E
D
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
4. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (B ). Use in t egr a t ion by pa r t s. Let t in g u 5 ln x

a n d d v 5 x d x yields
x ln x dx =
+
1
3
Th e secon d der iva t ive is n ega t ive

over 0, 13 .
( )
2. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). We ca n
con ver t t h ese pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s
in t o t h e followin g Ca r t esia n equ a t ion : y 5 1 2 x 2 . So, t h e a r ea u n der
t h e cu r ve wou ld be given by
A=
(1 x )dx
1
2
= .
3
3. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). Al3
t h ou gh 2 is a zer o of t h e der iva t ive,
2
t h e der iva t ive does n ot ch a n ge sign s
t h er e.
x2
dx
(2 x )
x2
x2
+C
ln x
2
4
x2
(2 ln x 1) + C.
4
5. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). Let s

begin by exa m in in g h (x):
g ( x )
.
g( x )
In or der for h t o h a ve a n y r ela t ive
ext r em a , it s der iva t ive, h , wou ld
h a ve t o equ a l zer o a t som e poin t .
Sin ce g is a lwa ys decr ea sin g, g is
n ever zer o a n d sin ce g is t h e n u m er a t or of h , h is n ever zer o. Th er efor e, h h a s n o r ela t ive ext r em a .
h ( x ) =
6. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (B ). By
r ea din g t h e gr a ph , we lea r n t h a t f (2)
5 0. Usin g poin t -slope for m , we get
a n equ a t ion of t h e t a n gen t a t (2,5) t o
be
y 2 5 5 0(x 2 2)
wh ich becom es
y55
7. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). P oin t s
of in flect ion cor r espon d wit h h or izon t a l t a n gen t s of t h e der iva t ive.
Sin ce t h er e a r e t wo su ch t a n gen t s,
t h er e a r e t wo poin t s of in flect ion .
pra ctice test 3
x2
ln x
2
f (x) 5 36x 2 2 12x 5 0

Th e secon d der iva t ive is equ a l t o
1
zer o wh en x 5 0 a n d wh en x 5 . By
3
exa m in in g t h e wiggle gr a ph below,
we ca n det er m in e t h e in t er va l on
wh ich t h e der iva t ive is decr ea sin g.
A
C
C
E
A
a nsw ers
Section I, Pa rt A
..............................................................................................
582
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
m a xim u m a ccu m u la t ed a r ea u n der
t h e gr a ph of f occu r s a t x 5 2.
dy
dy
= 2x
+ 2y 2x
dx
dx
dy 2 y 2 x
=
1 2x
dx
let x = 1 and y = 2
9. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). Sin ce

t h e degr ee of t h e n u m er a t or is
gr ea t er t h a n t h e degr ee of t h e den om in a t or, we sh ou ld fir st divide
a n d in t egr a t e t h e qu ot ien t .
x 2 + 4 dx
=
x
=
x + 4 dx
e2
1 e2 + 7
+4 =
2
2
2
10. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E). Th is

qu est ion is a skin g for a n in t er va l
wh er e bot h t h e fir st a n d secon d der iva t ives a r e posit ive.
dy
= 6.
dx
len gt h of a cu r ve defin ed pa r a m et r ica lly is given by
2
2
dx + dy dt
dt
a dt
Applyin g t h e for m u la a bove gives u s
l=
f (x) 5 15x 2 12x 2 3 5 0
+
1
f (x) 5 60x 3 2 24x 5

2
12x(5x 2 2) 5 0
x=
2
,0
5
36t 4 + 9t 4 dt
t dt
2
= 5.
(15x 2 1 3)(x 2 2 1) 5 0
=3 5
x561
l=
f(x) 5 3x 5 2 4x 3 2 3x
4

we a r e a sked for t h e a ver a ge va lu e,
we u se t h e MVT for in t egr a ls.
2 2
3 sin 2 x cos 2 x dx
0
We n eed t o u se power r edu cin g form u la s.
f (c ) =
3 sin 2 x cos2 x
1 cos 2x 1 + cos 2x
3
2
2
By exa m in in g bot h of t h e pr ecedin g

wiggle gr a ph s, we ca n see t h a t t h e
cu r ve in cr ea ses a n d is con ca ve u p
fr om 1 t o in fin it y.
11. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E). F ir st ,

let s det er m in e t h e va lu e of y wh en
x 5 1.
2
y 5 2xy 2 x 1 3
let x 5 1
y 5 2y 2 1 1 3
y522
Now, we differ en t ia t e t h e equ a t ion
wit h r espect t o x:
3 3 cos 2x 1 cos 2x
2
2 4 cos 2x
2
1 2 cos 2x
Now, in t egr a t e t o get t h e a n swer.
(1 2 cos 2 x )dx
2
=1
2
14. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E). F or

wh a t va lu e of k will t h e left - a n d
r igh t -h a n d der iva t ives be equ a l? If
2
k 5 , t h en t h e der iva t ives will be
3
t h e sa m e; h owever, t h e fu n ct ion is
583
.................................................................
x2 x3 x4
e =1+x +
+
+
2! 3! 4 !
Su bst it u t in g 3 for x yields
x
ex = 1 + 3 +
=1+3+
9 27 81
+
+
2
6
24
9 9 27
+ +
2 2
8

a ver y in volved in t egr a t ion -by-pa r t s
pr oblem . Use a ch a r t .
= 2 > 1, so I. is diverrgent
Applyin g t h e com pa r ison t est t o t h e
secon d ser ies a n d com pa r in g it t o t h e
h a r m on ic ser ies h elps u s con clu de
t h a t II. is diver gen t a s well.
Th e t h ir d ser ies is r ea lly ju st
n=1
1
n2
wh ich is a p-ser ies wit h p . 1, so it is

con ver gen t .
and
t wo cu r ves in t er sect a t =
4
3
=
. So, t h e a r ea wou ld be given
4
by
A=
1 3 4
16 sin 2 8 d
2 4
21. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). We
m u st set t h e t wo der iva t ives equ a l t o
ea ch ot h er a n d solve for k .
= 2x 3e3x 2x 2e3x +
4xe
3
3x
4 3x
e +C
9
2
= e 3 x 9x 3 9x 2 + 6x 2 + C
9
f(x) 5 secx, f (x) 5 secxt a n x. secx is
n ever zer o, a n d t a n x 5 0 wh en x 5 0,
x 5 p, or wh en x 5 2p. So, t h e a n swer is 3.
18. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E). To det er m in e R 3 , L 3 , a n d M 3 , we n eed t o
be a ble t o su m t h e a r ea s of t h e r ect a n gles. R 3 5 14, L 3 5 5, a n d M 3
35
. To det er m in e T 3 , we n eed t o
5
4
fin d t h e a r ea of a t r ia n gle a n d t wo
19
. Usin g t h e fu n t r a pezoids. T 3 5
2 3
da m en t a l t h eor em ,
x 2 dx = 9.
19. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). Applyin g t h e r a t io t est t o t h e fir st ser ies,
k = 3.
22. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E). We a pply t h e followin g for m u la :
2
2
dx + dy dt
dt
a dt
x 5 2 4sin 2t a n d y 5 2sin tcost. So,
l=
l=
16 sin 2 2t + 4 sin 2 t cos 2 tdt
23. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). F ir st ,
well t a ke t h e lim it of t h e r a t io t est :
((3x 2) )
lim
n+3
(n )
5
2
((n + 1) ) ((3x 2) )
5
2
n+2
= 3x 2
3x 2 < 1
1
< x <1
3
In or der t o t est t h e en d poin t s, we
su bst it u t e ea ch en d poin t in t o t h e
pra ctice test 3
k
3 1 4
x
=
4
2 x
a nsw ers

a Ta ylor or Ma cla u r in ser ies t h a t you
sh ou ld com m it t o m em or y.
2n +1 n + 1
n n + 2
2n
( n + 1) = 2
= lim 2
n
(n + 2)
lim
..............................................................................................
t h en discon t in u ou s beca u se t h e left a n d r igh t -h a n d lim it s a r e differ en t .
584
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
or igin a l ser ies a n d t est for con ver1

gen ce. By let t in g x 5 , we get
3
(n1)
n+2
52
, wh ich con ver ges.
n=0
If we let x 5 1, we get
n1
52
wh ich con ver ges a s well.
n= 0
So, t h e in t er va l of con ver gen ce is

1 x 1.
3
24. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (A). H or izon t a l a sym pt ot es a r e det er m in ed by

fin din g t h e lim it a t in fin it y. If we
m u lt iply t h e bin om ia ls we ca n see
t h a t t h e r a t io of t h e lea din g coeffi3
cien t s is .
2
25. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). Not ice
t h a t a ll of t h e slopes on t h e lin e y 5
2x a r e zer o (h or izon t a l). An y poin t
x+y
be
on t h is lin e wou ld m a ke
2
zer o, sin ce x a n d y a r e opposit es.

a n im pr oper in t egr a l a n d a t r icky
in t egr a t ion -by-pa r t s pr oblem . F ir st ,
well dea l wit h t h e im pr oper in t egr a l
by t a kin g t h e lim it of a defin it e in t egr a l:
p x2
x2
x dx = lim
x dx.
p 2 e
2 e
We n ow h a ve t o u se in t egr a t ion by
2
pa r t s on xex dx . Well ch oose u 5 x 2
a n d d v 5 e2x d x a n d get
x2
x2
x
x dx =
x + 2 xe dx.
e
e
Now, well let u 5 2x a n d d v 5 e2x d x
a n d get
x 2 2x
x + 2 e x dx
ex
e
2
2x
2
x
= x x x
e
e
e
Now, we h a ve t o eva lu a t e t h e in t egr a l u sin g t h e lim it s of in t egr a t ion
a n d t a ke t h e lim it a s p goes t o in fin it y, so
=
lim
p 2
x 2 2x
x2
2 p
dx = lim x x x |2
x
p e
e
e
e
p2 2 p 2
= lim p p p
p e
e
e
2
4 4
2 2 2
e
e
e
4
4
2
= 2 + 2 + 2
e
e
e
10
= 2
e
27. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E). If we

1 fr om t h is expr esfa ct or ou t a 100
sion , we get
dP
2
=
P (500 P )
dt
300
Th is in dica t es t h a t t h e m a xim u m
popu la t ion , P, wou ld be 500; a n yt h in g gr ea t er a n d t h e gr owt h r a t e
wou ld be n ega t ive.
28. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (A). f (x) 5
(n 2 1)n a n (x 2 c)n 2 2 . So, f (c) 5 (n
2 1)n a n (c 2 c)n 2 2 5 0.
585
.................................................................
B
D
E
D
33.
34.
35.
36.
A
A
D
B
37. D
38. B
39. D
1
t h e Ta ylor ser ies for y 5 . We ca n
x
u se ou r ca lcu la t or t o det er m in e t h a t
t h ese t wo gr a ph s in t er sect a t x 5
0.567.
40. D
41. A
42. C
43. E
44. C
45. B
n eed
x 2 3x + 2
lim
.
x 2
( x 2)
If we fa ct or a n d ca n cel, we get
lim ( x 1) = 1
a secon d der iva t ive pr oblem .
f (t ) = 2 cos t sin t,
1
t
f (t ) = 2 cos2 t + 2 sin 2 t,
1
t2
dA
dx
=x
dt
dt
Sin ce we kn ow t h a t dx
dt
(1)
= 2,
dA
=x 2
dt
Now, we h a ve t o expr ess x, t h e dia gon a l, in t er m s of P, t h e per im et er.
x = s 2 wh er e s is t h e len gt h of
a side.
So,
P=
4x
2
33. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (A). F or t h is

pr oblem , we h a ve t o solve a n equ a t ion for a lim it of in t egr a t ion . Th is is
t h e equ a t ion we m u st solve:
(x
k
+ 4 x 3 dx = 5.
If we in t egr a t e a n d a pply t h e fu n da m en t a l t h eor em , we get
k3
k4
+ 4k
5=0
3
4
We ca n u se ou r ca lcu la t or t o det erm in e t h a t k 5 1.239.
m u st differ en t ia t e im plicit ly wit h r espect t o x.
x sin y = 1
x cos y
dy
+ sin y = 0
dx
dy
sin y
=
dx
x cos y
tan y
=
x
and
x=
P 2
4
Su bst it u t in g gives u s
dA P
=
dt
2
pra ctice test 3
31. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E). Th e form u la for t h e a r ea of a squ a r e is A 5

x 2 , wh er e x is t h e len gt h of t h e di2
a gon a l. If we differ en t ia t e t h is form u la wit h r espect t o t, we get
x 2
a nsw ers
29.
30.
31.
32.
..............................................................................................
Section I, Pa rt B
586
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
pr oblem in volves sim ple su bst it u t ion
a n d t h e pr oper t ies of t h e defin it e in t egr a l.
( f ( x ) 2h ( x ) + 3) dx
= (h ( x ) + g ( x ) 2h ( x ) + 3 )dx
10
10
( g ( x ) h ( x ))dx + 3dx
= ( g ( x ) h ( x )) dx + (3x |
)
10
Now, we ca n u se ou r ca lcu la t or t o
divide
15
3
3
x 4 dx
. Th is com es ou t
t o 0.978.
39. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). If we
exa m in e t h e figu r e, well see t h a t y 5
3 2 x 2 is t h e t op cu r ve.
10
10
( g ( x ) h ( x )) dx + 30
10
fift h -degr ee Ta ylor polyn om ia l for ex
cen t er ed a t x 5 0 is
f ( x) = 1 + x +
x2 x3 x4
x5
+
+
+
2
6 24 120
So,
f (2 ) = 1 + 2 + 2 +
4 2 4
+ +
3 3 15
fir st wa n t t o t a ke t h e lim it of t h e
r a t io t est .
n +1
lim
n
(( n + 1 )
= lim
n
n + 1 3n +1
) ((
( x + 2) n n
( n + 1) n + 1 3
)
) )
n3
x +2
x+2
3
x+2
<1
3
So,
2 5 , x , 1.
If we t est t h e en d poin t s, well fin d
t h a t t h e ser ies con ver ges a t bot h of
t h em , so t h e r a diu s of con ver gen ce is
25x1
38. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (B ). F ir st ,
figu r e t h e t r a pezoida l a ppr oxim a t ion
u sin g n 5 6:
T6 =
1 5 + 2 ( 0 ) + 2 (3 ) + 2 ( 4 ) +
2 2 (3 ) + 2 ( 0 ) + 5
= 15
(3 x ) ( x
1
2
+ 1 dx.
Sin ce t h is is n ot a ch oice, we sh ou ld
swit ch t h e lim it s of in t egr a t ion a n d
fa ct or ou t a n ega t ive t o get
V =
= 7.267.
(( x + 2 ) )
Sin ce t h e t wo cu r ves in t er sect a t

(1,2), t h e lim it s of in t egr a t ion a r e 0
a n d 1. Usin g t h e wa sh er m et h od, t h e
volu m e wou ld be
V =
2 2
( x
0
) (
2
2
+ 1 3 x 2 dx.
40. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). In order t o det er m in e t h e t a n gen t lin e, we

n eed t wo t h in gs: a poin t a n d t h e
slope. To fin d t h e slope, let s fin d
g(2). Th is is a sim ple a pplica t ion of
t h e secon d fu n da m en t a l t h eor em :
g ( 2 ) = 2
To fin d a poin t on t h e t a n gen t lin e,
we n eed t o eva lu a t e g(2):
g (2) =
( x ) dx +
0
xdx
4 2 64
3
So, we wr it e t h e equ a t ion for t h e lin e
=
t h r ou gh
2.
(2,
4 2 64
3
) wit h
a slope of
4 2 64
= 2 ( x 2)
3
Th is ca n be t r a n sfor m ed in t o
y
3x 2 3 y = 64 + 2 2
587
.................................................................
a
S=
1 r
Su bst it u t in g
gives u s
S=
4 and
5
a=
4
5
2
7
r=
2
7
28
= 1.120
25
43. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E). Th e a ver a ge r a t e of ch a n ge is ju st t h e slope

of t h e seca n t , wh ich is
44. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). We a r e

goin g t o fin d t h e a n t ider iva t ive of
f(x) 5 e2x .
F( x ) = e 2 x dx
1
F( x ) = e 2 x + C
2
Sin ce we a r e given t h e in it ia l con dit ion t h a t F(0) 5 2.5,
1 0
e +C
2
C = 2.
Su bst it u t in g t h is gives u s
2.5 =
+ 3 dx
= 8.314
Section II, Pa rt A
1. (a ) Th e for m u la for a Ta ylor ser ies
expa n sion is
n=0
f (n ) ( a )
( x a )n =
n
f (a ) + f (a ) (x a ) +
f ( a )
2
2! ( x a ) + +
f n (a )
n
n ! ( x a ) +
We a r e given t h e va lu es of t h e
fu n ct ion a n d t h e fir st t h r ee der iva t ives wh en x 5 1. We ca n ju st
plu g t h ese in t o t h e for m u la a n d
get
f ( x ) 3 + ( 1) ( x 1) +
4 ( x 1)
( 2) ( x 1)
+
2
6
2
= 3 ( x 1) + 2 ( x 1)
2
( x 1)3
3
Now, we u se t h is polyn om ia l t o
fin d f (1.1) ' 2.920.
(b) Th is is t h e der iva t ive of t h e polyn om ia l in pa r t A.
f (x) ' 21 1 4(x 2 1) 2
(x 2 1)2
f (1.1) ' 20.61
1 2x
e +2
2
Now, u sin g ou r ca lcu la t or, we ca n det er m in e F(5) t o be 11015.233.
F( x ) =
pra ctice test 3
26 2 6
=4
10 2 5
Sin ce it is st r ict ly m on ot on ic a n d
f(10) . f(5), t h en f is in cr ea sin g over
t h e in t er va l [5,10] a n d t h e a bsolu t e
m a xim u m m u st occu r a t x 5 10. Th e
a bsolu t e m a xim u m is 26. Sin ce 8 is
on t h e in t er va l [5,10] a n d f is in cr ea sin g over t h is in t er va l, f (8) . 0.
m =
( x
V =
a nsw ers
42. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). Th e form u la for t h e su m of a n in fin it e geom et r ic ser ies is
45. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (B ). To fin d

t h e volu m e of a solid wit h kn own
cr oss sect ion s, we in t egr a t e t h e a r ea
of t h ese cr oss sect ion s. So, t h e volu m e wou ld be given by
..............................................................................................
41. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (A). We a r e

lookin g for t h e gr a ph of t h e der iva t ive of t h e given gr a ph . Sin ce g h a s
on ly on e h or izon t a l t a n gen t , we ca n
expect it s der iva t ive t o h a ve on ly on e
zer o.
588
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
(c )
t 1)
(
+
3t
2
3
x
x
2 (t 1 )
1 f (t ) dt = 3 1
(t 1 )
12
= 3x
( x 1)2
2
2 ( x 1)
3
3
12
(d ) Ca n f(2) be det er m in ed fr om t h e
in for m a t ion given ? J u st ify you r
a n swer.
No, we on ly h a ve in for m a t ion
a bou t f(1). We ca n on ly approxim ate va lu es ot h er t h a n t h a t .
dy 3x 2 + 2x
=
dx
ey
e dy = (3x
y
+ 2x dx
ey = x3 + x2 + C
Sin ce f(0) 5 2, we su bst it u t e 0 for
x a n d 2 for y:
e2 5 C
Su bst it u t in g ba ck, we get
ey 5 x 3 1 x 2 1 e2
Now, we solve for y by t a kin g t h e
n a t u r a l log of bot h sides:
(c ) Wh er e does t h e secon d der iva t ive ch a n ge sign s?
(
(3 x
y = ln x 3 + x 2 + e 2
y =
(x
+ 2x
+ x + e2
2
2 2
3x 4 4x 3 2x 2 + 6e 2x + 2e 2
(x
+ x 2 + e2
We a r e r ea lly con cer n ed a bou t

wh er e t h e n u m er a t or is zer o, so
well set it equ a l t o zer o a n d u se
ou r ca lcu la t or t o solve for x.
23x 4 2 4x 3 2 2x 2 1 6e2 x 1 2e2
50
Th e gr a ph of y 5 23x 4 2 4x 3
2 2x 2 1 6e2 x 1 2e2 cr osses t h e
x-a xis in t wo pla ces: x 5 20.331
a n d x 5 2.128. So, t h is fu n ct ion
h a s t wo poin t s of in flect ion :
x 5 20.331 a n d x 5 2.128.
3. (a ) We fir st u se ou r ca lcu la t or s t o
det er m in e t h e poin t s of in t er sect ion , wh ich a r e x 5 22.028 a n d
x 5 1.428. Also, we ca n t ell fr om
t h e ca lcu la t or t h a t y 5 2x 2 1 3 is
t h e t op fu n ct ion . So, t h e a r ea of
R cou ld be det er m in ed like t h is:
A=
1.428
2.028
( x
+ 3 tan 1 ( x ) dx
= 7.243
(b) We a r e goin g t o u se t h e for m u la
for a r c len gt h t wice, on ce for
ea ch cu r ve:
L=
y 5 ln (x 3 1 x 2 1 e2 )
(b) Rem em ber, t h e dom a in of a
n a t u r a l log fu n ct ion is t h e set of
a ll n u m ber s for wh ich t h e a r gu m en t is posit ive. So, u sin g t h e
ca lcu la t or, we ca n det er m in e
t h a t x 3 1 x 2 1 e2 is posit ive for
a ll x . 22.344.
( x 1)4
2. (a )
( x + x + e ) ( 6x + 2 )
(3x + 2x ) (3x + 2x )
y =
(x + x + e )
1.428
2.028
1 + 2x 2 dx +
2
1.428
2.028
1
1+
dx
2
1+x
589
.................................................................
2
1
dy
= x(y 2 2) = 0; Dy =
dx
(.2)(0) = 0. Th e n ew poin t will be
(0 + .2, 3 + 0) = (.2,3).
2
1 1.428 1 x + 3
dx
2 2.028 4 tan 1 x
dy
= x(y 2 2) = (.2)(1)
dx
= .2; Dy = (.2)(.2) = .04. Th e n ew
poin t will be (.2 + .2, 3 + .04) =
(.4,3.04).
P oin t (.2,3):
2
1.428 x + 3
dx
8 2.028 tan 1 x
Section II, Pa rt B
4. (a ) A r ela t ive m in im u m exist s wh erever t h e va lu e of t h e der iva t ive
ch a n ges fr om n ega t ive t o posit ive. Th is h a ppen s t wice: a t x 5
22 a n d a t x 5 6.
(c ) Th er e a r e fou r possible a bsolu t e

m in im u m s: x 5 23, x 5 22, x 5
6, a n d x 5 8. Th ese a r e t h e r ela t ive m in im u m s a n d t h e en d
poin t s. We sh ou ld exa m in e t h e
a ccu m u la t ed a r ea u n der t h e der iva t ives gr a ph for ea ch on e.
Upon doin g so, we see t h a t t h e
a r ea bet ween t h e der iva t ives
gr a ph a n d t h e x-a xis is lea st a t
x 5 22. So, t h e a bsolu t e m in im u m occu r s wh en x 5 22.
(d ) Sin ce t h er e is a ver t ica l t a n gen t
lin e a t x 5 3, t h e der iva t ive of
t h e der iva t ive does n ot exist
t h er e. Also, sin ce t h er e is a cu sp
a t x 5 5, f (5) does n ot exist
eit h er.
Th er efor e, f(0.4) ' 3.04.
dy
= x ( y 2)
dx
dy
= x dx
y2
dy
y 2 = x dx
(c )
ln y 2 =
x2
+C
2
Now, we will su bst it u t e in ou r

in it ia l con dit ion of x 5 0 a n d
y 5 3:
0
+C
2
C = 0.
ln 1 =
By su bst it u t ion ,
ln
y2 =
x2
2
y = ex
+2
pra ctice test 3
(b) A r ela t ive m a xim u m exist s wh erever t h e der iva t ive ch a n ges fr om
posit ive t o n ega t ive. Th is occu r s
a t x 5 4.
(b) P oin t (0,3):
V =
a nsw ers
5. (a )
..............................................................................................
(c ) We n eed t o in t egr a t e t h e a r ea of
a sem icir cle. Rem em ber, t h e form u la for t h e a r ea of a sem icir cle
1
is A 5 pr 2 . F ir st , we sh ou ld de2
1
the
t er m in e r. Th is sh ou ld be
2
dist a n ce bet ween t h e cu r ves. So,
1
r 5 (2x 2 1 3 2 t a n 21 x). So, t h e
2
volu m e of t h e solid is given by
t h e followin g
590
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
6. (a ) Th is in volves fin din g t h e a n t ider iva t ives of bot h com pon en t s

of t h e velocit y vect or :
3
x (t ) = 3 2
t
2
and y (t ) = 4 + 2
t
3
+ C1
t
2
and y (t ) = 4t + C2
t
x (t ) = 3t +
x (1) = 7 = 3 + 3 + C1
and y (1) = 0 = 4 2 + C2
C1 = 1
and C2 = 2
3
+1
t
2
and y (t ) = 4t 2
t
x (t ) = 3t +
x (3 ) = 9 + 1 + 1 = 11
and y (3 ) = 12
2
28
2=
3
3
So, t h e posit ion of t h e pa r t icle
28
wh en t 5 3 is 11, .
(b) Th e slope of t h e t a n gen t lin e is

equ a l t o
4 + 22
dy
t
=
3 32
dx
t
In or der for t h e slope t o be zer o,
we wou ld n eed t h e n u m er a t or of
dy
t o be zer o:
dx
2
=0
t2
H owever, t h er e a r e n o va lu es for
t t h a t wou ld m a ke t h is equ a t ion
t r u e. Th er efor e, t h e lin e t a n gen t
t o t h e pa t h of t h e pa r t icle will
n ever h a ve a slope of zer o.
4+
.................................................................
Section I, Pa rt A
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
1. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
11. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
20. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
3. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
13. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
22. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
2. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
4. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
5. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
6. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
7. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
8. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
9. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
10. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
12. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
14. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
15. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
16. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
17. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
18. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
19. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
21. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
23. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
24. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
25. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
26. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
27. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
28. O
Section I, Pa rt B
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
29. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
35. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
41. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
31. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
37. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
43. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
30. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
32. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
33. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
34. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
36. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
38. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
39. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
40. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
42. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
44. O
A O
B O
C O
D O
E
45. O
a nsw er sheet
..............................................................................................
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
591
592
Section II
.................................................................
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
.................................................................
593
a nsw er sheet
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
594
.................................................................
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
..............................................................................................

Ca lc ulus BC
....................................................................................
n u m ber.
1.
sin x cos x dx =
2. If x 5 ln t a n d y 5 e2t t h en
(A) 1
4
dy
5
dx
(A) 2e2t
(B ) 1
8
2t
(B ) 2e
t
(C) 1
8
(C) te2t
(D ) 1
4
(D ) 2te2t
(E) 3
8
2t
(E) te
2
3. Th e fu n ct ion
has
(A)
(B )
(C)
(D )
(E)
595
y=
( x 2)2
x 2 8x + 7
a loca l m in im u m a t x 5
1
2
1
2
7
Non e of t h e a bove
p ra c tic e test 4
SECTION I, PART A
596
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
4.
d x
e ln cos e x
dx
)) =
5. If f ( x ) = sin2 x , t h en f (p) 5
x
(A) 2e2x t a n ex
(B )
(A)
ex
+ e x ln cos e x
cos e x
2x
1
2
(B ) p2
(C) 12
(C) e t a n e
(D ) 21
2x
(D ) 2e t a n e 1 e ln (cos e )
(E) 0
(E) ex (ex t a n ex 1 ln (cos ex ))
6.
Th e gr a ph of y 5 h (x) is sh own a bove. Wh ich of t h e followin g cou ld be t h e gr a ph

of h (x)?
(A)
(B )
(D )
(E)
(C)
597
.................................................................
2
1
1
2
1 2
4 5 6
(A)
1
3
(B )
2
3
(C) 1
Th e fu n ct ion f is defin ed on t h e closed
in t er va l [0,6]. Th e gr a ph of t h e der iva t ive
f is sh own a bove.
7. Th e poin t (3,2) is on t h e gr a ph of y 5
f(x). An equ a t ion for t h e lin e t a n gen t
t o t h e gr a ph of f a t (3,2) is
(A) y 5 22x 1 4.
11.
(D )
4
3
(E)
5
3
ln x
2
3
dx =
(B ) y 5 2x 2 4.
(C) y 1 2 5 22(x 1 3).
(D ) y 2 2 5 22(x 2 3).
(A)
1
3
(E) y 5 2.
(B )
ln 3+1
3
(C)
ln 3
3
8. At wh a t va lu e of x does t h e a bsolu t e
m in im u m va lu e of f occu r ?
(A) 0
(B )
(C)
(D )
(E)
2
3
4
6
(D ) 1 1 ln 3
(E) It is diver gen t .
12.
x dx =
1
sec2 x 1 C
2
(B ) xt a n x 1 ln U sec x U 1 C
9. H ow m a n y poin t s of in flect ion does

t h e gr a ph of f h a ve?
(A) xt a n x 2
(A) Two
(B ) Th r ee
(C) F ou r
(D ) F ive
(E) Six
x sec
(C) xt a n x 2 ln U cos x U 1 C
(D ) xt a n x 1 ln U cos x U 1 C
(E) xt a n x 2 ln U sec x + t a n x U 1 C
13.
(ln x )2
lim 3
=
x 1 x 3 x + 2
(A)
1
3
(B ) 0
(C) 2
(D ) 6
p ra c tic e test
10. If 6x 2 1 3y 2 2xy 2 5 3, t h en wh en
dy
5
x 5 0,
dx
..............................................................................................
QUESTIONS 7 THROUGH 9 REFER TO THE

FOLLOWING GRAPH AND
INFORMATION.
598
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
14. What is the approximation of the value

of cos 2 obt a in ed by u sin g t h e sixt h degr ee Ta ylor polyn om ia l a bou t x 5 0
for cosx?
(A) 1 2 2 +
4
2
2
3
45
(B ) 1 + 2 +
64
16
+
24 720
16. A pa r t icle m oves on a pla n e cu r ve so

t h a t a t a n y t im e t . 0 it s posit ion is
defin ed by t h e pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s
2
x(t) 5 3t 2 2 7 a n d y (t ) = 4t + 1 . Th e
3t
a cceler a t ion vect or of t h e pa r t icle a t
t 5 2 is
1
(A) 6,
12
(C) 1 2
1
1
1
+
2
2 24
720
(B )
17,
17
6
(D ) 2 2
4
8
4
+
2
3 15
315
(C)
12,
47
12
(E) 2 +
32
128
8
+
+
6 120 5040
(D )
12,
33
12
(E)
6,
15. Wh ich of t h e followin g sequ en ce(s)

con ver ges?
3n2
I. 3
7n 1
II.
17
6
17.
{}
7
n
3n4
III. 2
7n
(A)
(B )
(C)
(D )
(E)
I on ly
II on ly
III on ly
I a n d II
I, II, a n d III
Sh own a bove is t h e slope field for

wh ich of t h e followin g differ en t ia l
equ a t ion s?
(A)
dy
511x
dx
(B )
dy
5x2y
dx
(C)
dy x + y
=
dx
2
(D )
dy
5y2x
dx
(E)
dy
5y11
dx
599
.................................................................
(A) 0.
(B ) 2.
19.
(A) 2
3
(C) 4.
(D ) 8.
(E) n on exist en t .
(B ) 2
9
x2 + 3
x dx =
(D ) 2
3
(A)
1 2
x 1 3x 1 C
2
(B )
1 3
x 1 3x 1 C
3
(C)
3 2
x 1C
2
(C) 2
9
(E) ln 9
22.
(B ) 0
(A)
(C) 1
2
(D ) 2
3
1C
x
20. If f(x) 5 sec2 x, t h en f =

3
3
2
=
lim
x ( x 2 ) ( 2x + 3 )
(A) 27
x2
+ 3ln U x U + C
(D )
2
(E) x 1
x x 2 + 7x 9
23.
2
d
(sec x 2 ln ecosx ) 5
dx
(A) 2 x sec x 2 sin x 2
(B ) 3 3
2
2
2
2
(B ) 2 x sec x tan x cos x
(C) 8 3
(D ) 0
(C) 21
(E) 1
(D ) 4 3
(E) 2 3
3
24. Wh a t is t h e a ppr oxim a t ion of t h e

a r ea u n der y 5 x 2 2 2x 1 1 for 0
x 4 u sin g t h e t r a pezoida l r u le wit h
4 su bin t er va ls?
(A)
4
3
(B ) 8
(C)
28
3
(D ) 10
(E) 16
p ra c tic e test
21. Wh a t is t h e in st a n t a n eou s r a t e of
ch a n ge of t h e der iva t ive of t h e fu n ct ion f(x) 5 ln x 2 wh en x 5 3?
..............................................................................................
x t 3dt
is
18. lim 22
x 2 x 4
600
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
25. Let f be t h e fu n ct ion given by t h e

fir st fou r n on zer o t er m s of t h e Ma cla u r in polyn om ia l u sed t o a ppr oxim a t e t h e va lu e of ex . Det er m in e t h e
a r ea bou n ded by t h e gr a ph a n d t h e
x-a xis for 0 x 2.
(A) 4
(B )
9e x
dx =
3
(A) e e
2
(B ) e3 2 e
(C) 2e(e2 2 1)
64
15
(D ) 2e3
(C) 5
3
(E) e
3
(D ) 6
(E)
27.
20
3
28. Th e len gt h of t h e pa t h descr ibed by

t h e pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s x = 43 t 2
a n d y = 12 t 3 , wh er e 0 t 2, is
26.
Th e gr a ph of a t wice-differ en t ia ble
fu n ct ion f is sh own in t h e a bove figu r e. Wh ich of t h e followin g is t r u e?
(A) f (2) , f(2) , f (2)
(B ) f(2) , f (2) , f (2)
(C) f (2) , f (2) , f(2)
(D ) f (2) , f(2) , f (2)
(E) f(2) , f (2) , f (2)
STOP
(A)
(B )
(C)
2
(D ) 1
2 0
64 2
t + 1 dt
9
9 4
t + 1 dt
4
64 2 9 4
t + t dt
9
4
64 2 9 4
t t dt
9
4
2
(E) 1 16 t 4 + 1 t 6 dt
0
4
9
4

OF THE TEST.
601
.................................................................

THE EXAMINATION.
29. F or wh a t in t eger k . 1 will bot h
( 1)kn and k n con ver ge?
3
n2
n =1
n =1
31. If f is a
defin ed by
f (t) 5
(A) 2
(B ) 3
(C) 4
(D ) 5
(E) 6
30. Th e volu m e of t h e solid for m ed wh en
2
t h e r egion bou n ded by y = 4 x ,
x 5 0, a n d y 5 0 is r ot a t ed a bou t t h e
lin e y 5 22 is given by wh ich of
t h ese defin it e in t egr a ls?
(A) 2
(B )
(C)
(D )
x 4 x dx
2
(E) 2
2e 2 t , 2 sin 2t
(B )
4e 2 t , 4 cos 2t
(C)
4e 2 t , 2 sin 2t
(D )
4e 2 t , 4 cos 2t
(E)
e 2 t , cos 2t
sin x dx =
1 x
e ~sin x 2 cos x! + C
2
1
(B ) ex ~sin x 1 2 cos x! + C
2
(C) 2ex cos x + C
(D ) ex (sin x 2 cos x) + C
4 x 2 dx
4 x + 2 4 dx
(A)
(A)
(4 x )dx
2
32.
vect or-va lu ed fu n ct ion

f (t ) = e 2 t , cos 2t , t h en
(E) ex sin x + ex cos x + C
x 4 x 2 dx
p ra c tic e test
..............................................................................................
SECTION I, PART B
602
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
33. Th e gr a ph of t h e fu n ct ion r epr esen t ed by t h e Ma cla u r in ser ies

( 1) n ( 2 ) 2 n ( x 2 n )
4
in t er1 2x2 + x4 + =
( 2 n )!
3!
3
sect s t h e gr a ph of y 5 3x 2 2x 2 1 7
36. Let f be defin ed a s t h e fu n ct ion f(x) 5

x 2 1 4x 2 8. Th e t a n gen t lin e t o t h e
gr a ph of f a t x 5 2 is u sed t o a ppr oxim a t e va lu es of f. Usin g t h is t a n gen t
lin e, wh ich of t h e followin g best a ppr oxim a t es a zer o of f?
at x 5
(A) 2 5.464
(B ) 21.500
(C) 0
(A) 21.248
(B ) 21.180
(D ) 1.464
(E) 1.500
(C) 21.109
(D ) 21.063
(E) 21.056
34. Th e a cceler a t ion of a pa r t icle is descr ibed by t h e pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s

2
x (t ) = t4 + t a n d y (t ) = 31t . If t h e
velocit y vect or of t h e pa r t icle wh en
t 5 2 is 4,1n 2 , wh a t is t h e velocit y
vect or of t h e pa r t icle wh en t 5 1?
37.
4x 2 3x + 3
dx =
x 2 + 2x 3
(A) 4x 2 12 ln U x + 3 U 1 ln U x 2 1 U
1C
(B ) 4x 2 12 ln U x + 3 U 2 ln U x 2 1 U
1C
(C) 4x 1 12 ln U (x + 3)(x 2 1)U 1 C
(A)
5 1
,
4 3
(D ) ln U x 2 + 2x 2 3 U 1 C
(B )
23 ln 4
,
12 3
3
2
(E) 8x 3 9x 2 + 18x + C
2x + 6x 18x
(C)
23 ln 2
,
12 3
(D )
5 2
, ln 2
4 3
(E)
23 1
, ln 2
12 3
38. Th e r even u e fr om t h e sa le of t h e widget s is 108x 1 1,000 dolla r s, a n d t h e

t ot a l pr odu ct ion cost is 3x 2 1 16x 2
500 dolla r s, wh er e x is t h e n u m ber of
widget s pr odu ced. H ow m a n y widget s sh ou ld be m a de in or der t o
m a xim ize pr ofit s?
(A) 0
35. Wh a t is t h e a ver a ge r a t e of ch a n ge of
f ( x) =
(A) 9
8
x 3
over [2,5]?
x 1
(B ) 3
2
(C) 3
(D ) 9
2
(E) 11
2
(B ) 10
(C) 15
(D ) 20
(E) 24
39. Wh a t a r e a ll t h e va lu es of x for wh ich
( 2x + 3)n con ver ges?

t h e ser ies
n
n =1
(A)
(B )
(C)
(D )
(E)
22
22
22
22
22
, x , 21
x 21
, x 21
x , 21
x,1
603
.................................................................
f (x ) =
t h en xlim
ln 2
(A) 1
2
(B )
(C)
(D )
(E)
ln 2
2
e2
It is n on exist en t .
2
41. lim ln x =
2
x 1 x 1
(A)
(B )
(C)
(D )
21
0
1
e
42. At wh ich poin t is t h e gr a ph of f(x) 5
x 4 2 2x 3 2 2x 2 2 7 decr ea sin g a n d
con ca ve down ?
43. A popu la t ion , P(t) wh er e t is in yea r s,

in cr ea ses a t a r a t e pr opor t ion a l t o it s
size. If P(0) 5 40 a n d P(1) 5 48.856,
h ow m a n y yea r s will it t a ke t h e
popu la t ion t o be dou ble it s or igin a l
size?
(A) 0.347 yea r s
(B ) 3.466 yea r s
(C) 3.792 yea r s
(D ) 34.657 yea r s
(E) 37.923 yea r s
44. Let f be a con t in u ou s a n d differ en t ia ble fu n ct ion on t h e closed in t er va l
[1,5]. If f(1) 5 f(5), t h en Rolles t h eor em gu a r a n t ees wh ich of t h e followin g?
(A) f(c) 5 0 for som e c on (1,5)
(B ) f (c) 5 0 for som e c on (1,5)
(C) f is st r ict ly m on ot on ic
(D ) If c is on [1,5], t h en f(c) 5 f(1)
(E) f (3) 5 0
(A) (1,210)
(B ) (2,215)
(C) (3,2)
(D ) (21,26)
(E) (22,17)
p ra c tic e test
e x, x < ln 2
2, x ln 2
..............................................................................................
40. If f (x) =
604
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
45. A pa r t icle st a r t s fr om r est a t t h e or igin a n d m oves a lon g t h e x-a xis wit h a n

in cr ea sin g posit ive velocit y. Wh ich of t h e followin g cou ld be t h e gr a ph of t h e
dist a n ce s(t) t h a t t h e pa r t icle t r a vels a s a fu n ct ion of t im e t?
(A)
(B )
(D )
(E)
STOP
(C)

OF THE TEST.
605
.................................................................

1. Let R be t h e r egion in t h e fir st qu a dr a n t en closed by t h e gr a ph s of

y 5 e2x 1 4 a n d y 5 3x .
(a ) Sket ch t h e r egion R on t h e a xes
pr ovided.
6
5
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(b) Det er m in e t h e a r ea of t h e
r egion R .
(c ) F in d t h e volu m e of t h e solid
gen er a t ed wh en R is r ot a t ed
a bou t t h e x-a xis.
(d ) Th e r egion R is t h e ba se of a
solid. E a ch cr oss sect ion per pen dicu la r t o t h e x-a xis is a n equ ila t er a l t r ia n gle. F in d t h e
volu m e of t h is solid.
2. Th e r a t e a t wh ich a ir is lea kin g ou t
of a t ir e is pr opor t ion a l t o t h e
a m ou n t of a ir in t h e t ir e. Th e t ir e
STOP
or igin a lly wa s filled t o ca pa cit y wit h

1,500 cu bic in ch es of a ir. Aft er on e
h ou r, t h er e wer e 1,400 cu bic in ch es
of a ir left in it .
(a ) E xpr ess t h e a m ou n t of a ir in
t h e t ir e in cu bic in ch es a s a
fu n ct ion of t im e t in h ou r s.
(b) A t ir e is sa id t o be fla t if it is
2
h oldin g of it s ca pa cit y or less.
3
Aft er h ow m a n y h ou r s wou ld
t h is t ir e be fla t ?
3. Con sider t h e cu r ve defin ed by 9x 2 1
4y 2 2 54x 1 16y 1 61 5 0.
dy 27 9 x
=
.
dx
4y + 8
(b) Wr it e t h e equ a t ion for ea ch
ver t ica l t a n gen t lin e of t h e
cu r ve.
(a ) Ver ify t h a t
(c ) Th e poin t s (3,1) a n d (1,22) a r e

on t h e cu r ve. Wr it e t h e equ a t ion for t h e seca n t lin e t h r ou gh
t h ese t wo poin t s.
(d ) Wr it e t h e equ a t ion for a lin e
t a n gen t t o t h e cu r ve a n d
pa r a llel t o t h e seca n t lin e fr om
pa r t C.
OF THE TEST.
p ra c tic e test
..............................................................................................
SECTION II, PART A
606
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
SECTION II, PART B

6. Let P ( x ) = ln 2 + ( x 1)
4.
( x 1)2
2
1 2 3
5 6
Above is t h e gr a ph of t h e velocit y of a
bu g cr a wlin g a lon g t h e x-a xis over a
six-secon d in t er va l.
(a ) At wh a t t im e(s) t, 0 , t , 6,
does t h e bu g ch a n ge dir ect ion s?
(b) At wh a t t im e t, 0 , t 6, is t h e
bu g fa r t h est fr om it s st a r t in g
poin t ? E xpla in you r r ea son in g.
(c ) Over wh a t in t er va l(s) is t h e
bu g slowin g down ?
( x 1)3
3
( x 1)4
4
be t h e fou r t h -
degr ee Ta ylor polyn om ia l for t h e

fu n ct ion f a bou t x 5 1. Assu m e t h a t f
h a s der iva t ives of a ll or der s for a ll
r ea l n u m ber s.
(a ) F in d f(1) a n d f (4)(1).
(b) Wr it e t h e t h ir d-degr ee Ta ylor
f (1.2).
(c ) Wr it e t h e fift h -degr ee Ta ylor
polyn om ia l for
x
g ( x ) = f (t ) dt a bou t x 5 1.
1
5. Th e pa t h of a pa r t icle fr om t 5 0 t o
t 5 10 secon ds is descr ibed by t h e
pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s x (t ) = 4 cos 2 t
a n d y(t ) = 3 sin 2 t .
( )
( )
(a ) Wr it e a Ca r t esia n equ a t ion for

t h e cu r ve defin ed by t h ese
pa r a m et r ic equ a t ion s.
dy
for t h e equ a t ion in
dx
pa r t A.
(c ) Det er m in e t h e velocit y vect or
for t h e pa r t icle a t a n y t im e t.
(d ) Dem on st r a t e t h a t you r a n swer s
for pa r t A a n d pa r t B a r e
equ iva len t .
(e ) Wr it e, bu t do n ot eva lu a t e, a n
in t egr a l expr ession t h a t wou ld
give t h e dist a n ce t h e pa r t icle
t r a veled fr om t 5 2 t o t 5 6.
(b) F in d
STOP
OF THE TEST.
607
.................................................................
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
D
D
A
D
C
A
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
D
D
B
B
B
D
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
a st r a igh t -for wa r d u -su bst it u t ion in t egr a t ion pr oblem . If we let u 5 sin x,
t h en du 5 cosx d x a n d
sin x cos x dx =
2 2
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
D
C
B
E
D
dx 1
=
dt t
dy
:
dt
y 5 e2t
dy
5 2e2t
dt
So,
2t
d y 2e
=
52te2t
dx
1
t
D
D
B
C
C
( x 2)2
y=
(x
y =
x 2 8x + 7
( x 2) ( 2x 8 )
2
(x
8x + 7 2 ( x 2 )
2
8x + 7
2 ( x 2 ) ( 2x 1)
(x
8x + 7
If we set y 5 0 a n d solve for x, we

1
see t h a t x 5 a n d x 5 2 a r e zer os
2
of t h e der iva t ive. By exa m in in g t h e
wiggle gr a ph below, we ca n see t h a t
1
t h e loca l m in im u m occu r s a t x 5 2 .
2
pr oblem ca lls for t h e pr odu ct r u le.
We m u st differ en t ia t e ea ch t er m
wit h r espect t o x.
))
d x
e ln cos e x
dx
e x sin e x
= ex
+ e x ln cos e x
cos e x
= e 2x tan e x + e x1n cos e x
3. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (A). To fin d

t h e loca l m in im u m , we n eed t o det erm in e wh en t h e der iva t ive ch a n ges
pra ctice test 4
2. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). Redy
dy dt
m em ber t h a t
= . F ir st , well
dx dx
dt
dx
:
fin d
dt
x 5 ln t
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
fr om n ega t ive t o posit ive. F ir st , we

det er m in e t h e der iva t ive:
u du
1
5
4
Now, well fin d
A
A
D
A
B
B
a nsw ers
Section I, Pa rt A
..............................................................................................
608
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
5. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). H er e,
we u se t h e qu ot ien t r u le t o det erm in e t h e der iva t ive; t h en , eva lu a t e it
a t x 5 p.
f (x ) =
f (x ) =
f () =
sin x
x2
x 2 cos x 2x sin x
x4
6x 2 1 3y 2 2xy 2 5 3
12x 1 3
dy
dy
2 4xy 2 2y 2 5 0
dx
dx
dy 2 y2 12x
=
dx
3 4xy
Now, we det er m in e t h e cor r espon din g y va lu e by su bst it u t in g x 5 0 in t o
t h e or igin a l equ a t ion .
0 1 3y 2 0 5 3
cos 2 sin
4
=
1
2
6. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (A). Th e
gr a ph of h (x) is con ca ve down for a ll
x , 0 a n d con ca ve u p for a ll x . 0.
Th is im plies t h a t t h e secon d der iva t ive is n ega t ive for a ll x , 0 a n d
posit ive for a ll x . 0. Ch oice (A) is
t h e on ly gr a ph t h a t m eet s t h is r equ ir em en t .
7. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). To
wr it e t h e equ a t ion of a t a n gen t lin e,
we n eed a poin t a n d t h e slope. Th e
poin t is given t o u s: (3,2). Th e slope
is m er ely t h e y-coor din a t e t h a t cor r espon ds t o x 5 3 on t h e gr a ph of f .
Sin ce f (3) 5 22, t h en t h e slope of
t h e t a n gen t lin e is 22. In poin t -slope
for m , t h e equ a t ion of t h e t a n gen t
lin e is
y 2 2 5 22(x 2 3)
a n a r ea a ccu m u la t ion pr oblem . We
ca n see t h a t t h e a ccu m u la t ed a r ea is
lea st wh en x 5 4.
9. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (B ). P oin t s
of in flect ion on t h e gr a ph of a fu n ct ion cor r espon d t o h or izon t a l t a n gen t s on t h e gr a ph of t h e der iva t ive.
Sin ce t h er e a r e t h r ee, t h e fu n ct ion
h a s t h r ee poin t s of in flect ion .
a n im plicit differ en t ia t ion pr oblem .
Rem em ber, we n eed t o u se t h e pr odu ct r u le t o differ en t ia t e 2xy 2 .
y51
F in a lly, we su bst it u t e x 5 0 a n d y 5
dy
1 in t o .
dx
2
dy
5
dx
3
11. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (B ). F or a n
im pr oper in t egr a l, we fir st ch a n ge it
t o a lim it of a defin it e in t egr a l.
ln x
dx = lim
p
x2
ln x
dx
x2
Now, we h a ve t o a ddr ess t h a t t r icky

in t egr a n d. We do in t egr a t ion by
pa r t s a n d let u 5 ln x a n d d v 5
x 22 d x. So,
p
lim3
p
ln x
lim
x
p
ln x
dx =
x2
p
3
x 2dx
ln x 1
= lim
x
x
p
p
3
ln p 1 ln 3 1
= lim

p
p 3
3
p
ln 3 + 1
3
ln p
= 0 by LH pit a ls
Not e: lim
p
p
r u le.
=
a n exa m ple of a st r a igh t for wa r d in t egr a t ion -by-pa r t s pr oblem . We let
u 5 x a n d d v 5 sec2 x d x.
609
.................................................................
x dx = x tan x tan x dx
5 xt a n x 1 ln U cos x U 1 C
13. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (A). If we

t r y t o eva lu a t e t h is lim it u sin g dir ect
su bst it u t ion , we will get a n in det er0
m in a t e for m : . So, we ca n u se
0
LH pit a ls r u le a n d t a ke t h e der iva t ive of t h e n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or ; t h en , eva lu a t e t h e lim it .
(ln x )2
lim x 3 3x + 2
x 1
= lim
2 ln x
x
2
x 1 3 x 3
If we eva lu a t e t h e lim it n ow, we st ill
0
get . So, we t r y LH pit a ls r u le
0
a ga in .
= lim
2 2 ln x
x2
6x
1
5
3
x 1
cos x = 1
x2 x4 x6
+
+
2
4! 6!
To fin d t h e va lu e for cos2, we su bst it u t e 2 for x:
12+
2
4
3 45
15. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). Bot h I.

a n d II. con ver ge t o 0, wh ile III. is
diver gen t .
a cceler a t ion is a ssocia t ed wit h t h e
secon d der iva t ive of posit ion , we
m u st det er m in e t h e secon d der iva t ive for ea ch of t h ese pa r a m et r ic
equ a t ion s a n d eva lu a t e t h em a t
x 5 2.
Rewr it e y(t) a s y(t ) =
y (t ) =
4
1
t + t 1.
3
3
4 1 2
t
3 3
y (t ) =
2 3
t
3
1
12
Th e a cceler a t ion vect or of t h e pa r1
.
t icle a t x 5 2 is 6,
12
y (2) =
17. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (B ). Not ice

t h a t a ll of t h e slopes on t h e lin e y 5 x
a r e zer o.
18. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (B ). Th is
is a well-disgu ised a pplica t ion of
LH pit a ls r u le. We sh ou ld t a ke t h e
der iva t ive of t h e n u m er a t or a n d t h e
der iva t ive of t h e den om in a t or a n d
t h en eva lu a t e t h e lim it .
x 3
t dt
x3
=
=2
lim 22
lim
x2 x 4
x2 2 x
Not ice we u se t h e F u n da m en t a l
Th eor em , P a r t Two t o det er m in e t h e
der iva t ive of t h e n u m er a t or.
19. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). Wh en
in t egr a t in g a r a t ion a l expr ession
wit h a n u m er a t or of gr ea t er degr ee
t h a n t h e den om in a t or, we fir st divide
a n d t h en in t egr a t e.
x2 + 3
3
dx = x + dx
x
x
x2
+ 3 ln x + C
2
x(t) 5 3t 2 2 7
x(t) 5 6t
pra ctice test 4
14. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (A). cosx

cen t er ed a t x 5 0 is on e Ta ylor polyn om ia l t h a t we sh ou ld be a ble t o gen er a t e fr om m em or y. It goes like t h is:
x(2) 5 6
a nsw ers
x(t) 5 6
..............................................................................................
x sec
610
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
20. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). We will

det er m in e t h e der iva t ive of t h is fu n ct ion by u sin g bot h t h e power a n d
ch a in r u les. Th en , we will eva lu a t e it
p
at x 5 .
3
f ( x ) = 2 sec x sec x tan x
f = 2 sec 2 tan
3
3
3
2x 2
=
x2 x
f ( x ) =
2
x2
2
f (3) =
9
22. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (E). Sin ce

t h e degr ee of t h e n u m er a t or is
gr ea t er t h a n t h e degr ee of t h e den om in a t or, t h e lim it a s x a ppr oa ch es
in fin it y does n ot exist beca u se it is
in fin it e.
t r ick t o t h is pr oblem is t o r ecogn ize
that
2
ln e cos x = cos x 2
So n ow a ll we n eed t o fin d is t h e
der iva t ive of secx 2 cosx 2 , wh ich is
equ a l t o 1. Th e der iva t ive of 1 is 0.
x2 x3 x4
x + 2 + 6 + 24
Applyin g t h is t o t h e fu n ct ion y 5 x 2
2 2x 1 1 over [0,4] wit h n 5 4 yields
4
AT = (1 + 2(0) + 2(1) + 2( 4) + 9) = 10
8
x3 .
6
2
0
4 2
+
3 3
56
26. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (B ). By
r ea din g t h e gr a ph , we ca n t ell t h a t
f(2) , 0. Sin ce t h er e is a h or izon t a l
t a n gen t lin e a t x 5 2, f (2) 5 0.
f (2) . 0 beca u se t h e cu r ve is
con ca ve u p a t x 5 2. Th er efor e,
f(2) , f (2) , f (2).
a r a t h er com plica t ed u -su bst it u t ion
in t egr a t ion pr oblem . If we let u =
dx
=x, t h en d u 5 2 x .
=
dx = 2 eudu
x
5 2e3 2 2e 5 2e(e2 2 1)
1
28. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). We

dy
dx
and
fir st .
n eed t o det er m in e
dt
dt
dx 8
= t
dt
3
dy 3 2
= t
dt
2
24. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). Rem em ber t h e t r a pezoida l r u le:
b a f ( a ) + 2 f ( x1 ) +
AT
2n 2 f ( x ) + f (b )
n 1
x2 x3
1 + x + 2 + 6 dx =
= 2+2+
a skin g for t h e der iva t ive of t h e der iva t ive wh en x 5 3. So, we n eed t h e
secon d der iva t ive of t h e fu n ct ion .
x2
2
We in t egr a t e t h is fr om x 5 0 t o x 5 2.
=8 3
f ( x ) =
f ( x) = 1 + x +
fu n ct ion is
Now, we in t egr a t e fr om x 5 0 t o x 5
2 t h e squ a r e r oot of t h e su m of t h e
dy
dx
and
.
squ a r es of
dt
dt
l=
64 2 9 4
t + t dt
9
4
611
.................................................................
A
D
B
A
33.
34.
35.
36.
B
B
B
E
37. A
38. C
39. D
29. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (A). If we

let k 5 2, t h e fir st ser ies becom es
n2
a n d con ver ges sin ce it is a
40. C
41. C
42. A
43. B
44. B
45. B
31. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (B ). We
m u st det er m in e t h e secon d der iva t ive for ea ch com pon en t :
n=1
p-ser ies wit h p . 1. If k 5 2, t h e
f (t ) = e 2 t , cos 2t
2
3 a n d
f (t ) = 2e 2 t , 2 sin 2t
con ver ges sin ce it is a geom et r ic

ser ies wit h R , 1.
f (t ) = 4e 2 t , 4 cos 2t
secon d ser ies becom es
n =1
30. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). Begin

by dr a win g a dia gr a m .

a n in t egr a t ion by pa r t s wit h a t wist
t owa r d t h e en d. Let s let u 5 sin x
a n d d v 5 ex d x, so
You cou ld u se t h e sh ell m et h od, bu t

well u se t h e wa sh er m et h od. Use
ver t ica l r ect a n gles, sin ce t h ey a r e
per pen dicu la r t o t h e h or izon t a l a xis
of r ot a t ion . R (x) is t h e ou t er r a diu s,
a n d R (x) is t h e in n er r a diu s.
R( x ) =
4 x 2 ( 2) =
4 x2 + 2
r( x ) = 0 ( 2) = 2
Now, a pply t h e wa sh er m et h od:
2
2
2
( R ( x )) ( r ( x )) dx
0
2
2
4 x 2 + 2 4 dx
0
Use you r gr a ph in g ca lcu la t or t o

eva lu a t e t h e in t egr a l. Th e volu m e
will be 56.234.
sin x dx = e x sin x e x cos x
sin x dx + C
H er es t h e t wist . We a r e goin g t o a dd
*(ex sin x) d x t o bot h sides of t h e equ a t ion :
2 e x sin x dx = e x sin x e x cos x + C

To solve for *(ex sin x) d x, we will divide bot h sides by 2:
sin x dx =
1 x
e sin x e x cos x + C
2
pra ctice test 4
We n eed t o in t egr a t e by pa r t s a ga in .
Well let u 5 cosx a n d d v 5 ex d x,
con t in u in g:
a nsw ers
29.
30.
31.
32.
..............................................................................................
Section I, Pa rt B
612
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
33. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (B ). In order t o su cceed wit h t h is pr oblem , we

m u st r ea dily r ecogn ize sligh t va r ia t ion s of ser ies t h a t we h a ve m em or ized pr eviou sly. Rem em ber t h e
Ma cla u r in ser ies for cosx:
x2 x3
cos x = 1
+
2! 3!
Th e ser ies in t h is pr oblem is t h e Ma cla u r in ser ies for cos2x. So, we a r e
bein g a sked t o det er m in e a t wh a t
x va lu e t h e gr a ph s of y 5 cos2x a n d
y 5 3x 3 2 2x 2 1 7 in t er sect . Ou r
ca lcu la t or s will t ell u s t h a t h a ppen s
wh en x 5 21.180.
34. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (B ). We a r e
goin g t o det er m in e t h e a n t ider iva t ive of ea ch com pon en t of t h e a cceler a t ion vect or, solve for t h e con st a n t s
of in t egr a t ion , a n d plu g a n d ch u g t o
det er m in e t h e velocit y vect or wh en
t 5 1. F ir st , we dea l wit h t h e x com pon en t :
x (t ) =
x (t ) =
t3 t2
+ + C1
12 2
x ( 2 ) = 4 =
C1 =
x (t ) =
x (1) =
t2
+t
4
2
+ 2 + C1
3
4
3
t3 t2 4
+ +
12 2 3
1 1 4 23
+ + =
12 2 3 12
Now, we do it a ll a ga in for y:
y (t ) =
1
3t
1
y (t ) = ln t + C2
3
y (2) = ln 2 =
1
ln 2 + C2
3
2
ln 2 = C2
3
y (t ) =
1
2
ln t + ln 2
3
3
y (1) =
1
2
ln 1 + ln 2
3
3
2
ln 2
3
ln 4
3
2
1
1
Not e t h a t ln 2 = ( 2 ln 2 ) = ln 4
3
3
3
(by log pr oper t ies).
=
F in a lly, t h e velocit y vect or of t h e

23 ln 4
, 3 .
pa r t icle wh en t 5 1 is 12
35. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (B ). To fin d
t h e a ver a ge r a t e of ch a n ge of a fu n ct ion over a n in t er va l, we n eed t h e
slope of t h e seca n t lin e over t h a t in t er va l.
m=
f (b) f ( a)
ba
=
11
2
1
3
3
2

n eed t o fin d t h e equ a t ion for t h e t a n gen t lin e of t h e gr a ph a t x 5 2 a n d
u se ou r ca lcu la t or t o det er m in e
wh er e t h a t lin e cr osses t h e x-a xis.
Rem em ber, t o wr it e a n equ a t ion for a
t a n gen t lin e, we n eed a poin t on t h e
lin e a n d t h e slope of t h e lin e. Sin ce
f(2) 5 4, (2,4) is on t h e lin e. Th e slope
is
f (x) 5 2x 1 4
f (2) 5 8
Usin g poin t -slope for m ,
y 2 4 5 8(x 2 2)
y 5 8x 2 12
613
.................................................................
4x 2 3x + 3
dx = 4x +
x 2 + 2x 3
11x + 15
( x + 3)( x 1) dx
11x + 15
dx , u se
To in t egr a t e
( x + 3)( x 1)
pa r t ia l fr a ct ion s:
A
B
11x + 15
=
+
( x + 3)( x 1) x + 3 x 1
Mu lt iply t h r ou gh by (x13)(x21) t o
get
= Ax A + Bx + 3 B
= x ( A + B) + ( A + 3 B)
Th is gives you t h e syst em of equ a t ion s A 1 B 5 211 a n d 2A 1 3B
5 15. Solvin g sim u lt a n eou sly, we get :
A 5 212 a n d B 5 1
Th e in t egr a l ca n n ow t a ke t h e ea sier
for m
11x + 15
( x + 3)( x 1) dx =
12x
x + 3 dx + x 1 dx
Con t in u in g wit h
fr om a bove:
the
12
4x +
in t egr a t ion
x + 3 + x 1 dx =
4x 12 ln x + 3 + ln x 1 + C
5 23x 2 1 92x 1 1,500

Th e der iva t ive is P(x) 5 26x 1 92.
Set t h is equ a l t o zer o, a n d we fin d
that
P(x)
is
m a xim ized
at
x = 92
=
15
.
333
.
6
39. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (D ). To det er m in e t h e in t er va l of con ver gen ce,
we t a ke t h e lim it of t h e r a t io t est .
lim
(2 x + 3)n +1
n
n +1
(2 x + 3)n
5 U 2x 1 3 U
U 2x 1 3 U con ver ges if it is less t h a n 1.

U 2x 1 3 U , 1
2 1 , 2x 1 3 , 1
22,x,21
By t est in g t h e en dpoin t s, we fin d
t h a t t h e ser ies con ver ges wh en x 5
22 a n d diver ges wh en x 5 21. So
t h e in t er va l of con ver gen ce is 22
x , 21.
40. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). In order for t h e lim it t o exist , t h e left - a n d
r igh t -h a n d lim it s h a ve t o exist a n d
be equ a l t o ea ch ot h er. Sin ce bot h of
f (x ) = 2 .
t h ese a r e equ a l t o 2, xlim
ln 2
41. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). Be0
ca u se we get wh en we t r y t o eva lu 0
a t e by dir ect su bst it u t ion , we n eed t o
u se LH pit a ls r u le on t h is lim it .
2x
2
ln x 2
= lim x
lim 2
x 1 x 1
x 1 2 x
= lim
x 1
1
x2
51
pra ctice test 4
11x + 15 = A( x 1) + B( x + 3)
P(x) 5 108x 1 1,000 2 3x 2 2

16x 1 500
a nsw ers

h a ve t o u se t h e m et h od of pa r t ia l
fr a ct ion s in or der t o get t h e in t egr a n d in t o a for m t h a t is in t egr a ble.
To st a r t , sin ce t h e degr ees of t h e n u m er a t or a n d den om in a t or a r e equ a l,
we u se polyn om ia l lon g division . So,
38. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (C). F or

t h is pr oblem , we n eed t o r ea lize t h a t
pr ofit s 5 r even u e 2 cost . So, t o fin d
pr ofit s,
..............................................................................................
Usin g t h e ca lcu la t or (or m a ybe you r

h ea d), x 5 1.5 is a zer o of y 5 8x
2 12.
614
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
42. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (A). Th e

qu ickest a n d ea siest wa y t o a t t a ck
t h is pr oblem is by gr a ph in g it . Wh ich
x-va lu e m a kes bot h t h e fir st a n d secon d der iva t ives n ega t ive?
43. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (B ). Wh en ever t h e r a t e of a fu n ct ion in cr ea sin g

or decr ea sin g is pr opor t ion a l t o it self, it m u st be a n expon en t ia l fu n ct ion of t h e for m P(t) 5 N ek t . N is t h e
in it ia l va lu e, so in t h is ca se, N 5 40.
We u se P(1) 5 48.856 t o det er m in e
t h e va lu e of k .
48.856 5 40ek
k = ln
48.856
40
5 0.200
To det er m in e h ow lon g it will t a ke
t h e popu la t ion t o dou ble,
80 5 40e0.200t
2 5 e0.200t
t =
ln 2
0.200
5 3.466 yea r s
44. Th e c o rre c t a n s w e r is (B ). Rolles

t h eor em dea ls wit h t h e idea t h a t if
t h e fu n ct ion pa sses t h r ou gh t h e
sa m e y-coor din a t e t wice, it m u st
h a ve a zer o der iva t ive som ewh er e
bet ween t h ese t wo poin t s.
t h e velocit y is posit ive, t h e posit ion
fu n ct ion m u st be in cr ea sin g. Sin ce
t h e velocit y is in cr ea sin g, t h e posit ion fu n ct ion m u st be con ca ve u p.
Th e on ly ch oice t o m eet bot h of t h ese
r equ ir em en t s is ch oice (B).
Section II, Pa rt A
1. (a )
6
5
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(b) A =
5.346
(e
+4
3x dx
= 8.106
(c ) We u se t h e wa sh er m et h od t o det er m in e t h e volu m e:
e x + 4
= 160.624
=
5.346
3x dx
(d ) It wou ld be good t o kn ow t h a t
t h e a r ea of a n equ ila t er a l t r ia n gle wit h side s is given by
A=
3 2 . So, t h e volu m e of t h is
4 s
solid wou ld be given by
3 5.346 e x + 4
4 0
= 8.511
V =
3x dx
2. (a ) Sin ce t h e r a t e of decr ea se is pr opor t ion a l t o t h e fu n ct ion it self,

we h a ve a n expon en t ia l fu n ct ion
of t h e followin g for m :
A(t) 5 N ek t
Sin ce t h e t ir e in it ia lly h a d 1,500
cu bic in ch es of a ir, C 5 1500. We
a r e given t h a t A(1) 5 1,400:
1,400 5 1500ek
Solvin g for k ,
14
= ek
15
14
ln
=k
15
615
.................................................................
A(t) 5 1, 500 t ln (14 15)
9x 2 2 54x 1 45 5 0
2
(b) Sin ce of 1,500 is 1,000, we ca n
3
su bst it u t e 1,000 in t o t h e for m u la
for A(t) a n d solve for t:
1,000 5 1,500et
ln (14/15)
2
t ln 14 15
=e ( )
3
2
14
= t ln
3
15
ln
x 2 2 6x 1 5 5 0
x 5 1 and x 5 5
So, t h e equ a t ion s for t h e ver t ica l
t a n gen t lin es a r e x 5 1 a n d
x 5 5.
(c ) We will fir st fin d t h e slope, wr it e
t h e equ a t ion in poin t -slope for m ,
a n d t h en con ver t t o slopein t er cept for m .
22 2 1
123
m 5
ln 2
3
t=
14
ln
15
y 1 =
5 5.877 h ou r s
18x + 8 y
dy
dy
54 + 16
=0
dx
dx
dy 54 18x
=
dx
8 y + 16
=
27 9x
4y + 8
(b) Ver t ica l t a n gen t lin es exist wh erever t h e den om in a t or of t h e der iva t ive equ a ls zer o, a n d t h e
n u m er a t or does n ot . So, we det er m in e wh er e t h e den om in a t or
is equ a l t o zer o.
4y 1 8 5 0
y 5 22
3
( x 3)
2
3
7
x
2
2
(d ) Sin ce t h e lin es a r e pa r a llel, t h ey
h a ve equ a l slopes. So, t h e slope
3
of t h e t a n gen t lin e is . Now, we
2
n eed t h e poin t (s) on t h e cu r ve
wh er e t h e der iva t ive is equ a l t o
3
. To det er m in e t h is, we set t h e
2
3
der iva t ive equ a l t o , solve for y,
2
su bst it u t e ba ck in t o t h e or igin a l
equ a t ion , a n d solve for x.
y=
dy 27 9x 3
=
=
dx
4y + 8
2
54 2 18x 5 12y 1 24
y=
5 3
x
2 2
Sin ce we a r e wr it in g t h e equ a t ion for on e or m or e ver t ica l

lin es, we r ea lly n eed t o kn ow t h e
cor r espon din g x-coor din a t e(s). To
t h is en d, we will su bst it u t e y 5
22 in t o t h e or igin a l equ a t ion
a n d solve for x.
pra ctice test 4
3. (a ) We h a ve t o u se im plicit differ en t ia t ion a n d differ en t ia t e wit h r espect t o x:

9x 2 1 4y 2 2 54x 1 16y 1 61 5
0
3
2
a nsw ers
9x 2 1 4(22)2 2 54x 1 16(22) 1

61 5 0
..............................................................................................
Su bst it u t in g t h is expr ession for

k yields
616
.................................................................
..............................................................................................
Th e velocit y is posit ive a n d decr ea sin g over t h e in t er va l (1.5,3),

a n d it is n ega t ive a n d in cr ea sin g
over t h e in t er va l (4,5). So, t h e
bu g is slowin g down over t h ese
t wo in t er va ls.
Su bst it u t in g t h is expr ession for y

in t o t h e or igin a l equ a t ion a n d
solvin g for x gives u s
2
5 3
9x 2 + 4 x 54x +
2 2
5 3
16 x + 61 = 0
2 2
5. (a ) We
wa n t t o t r y t o isola t e
cos2 t a n d sin 2 t in or der

2
2
t o u se t h e iden t it y sin 2 x 1 cos 2 x
5 1. Lookin g a t t h e x com pon en t
of t h e cu r ve, we fir st squ a r e bot h
sides:
Wit h h elp fr om ou r ca lcu la t or s,

x 5 1.586 a n d x 5 4.414. By su bst it u t in g t h ese x-va lu es in t o
5 3
y = x , we get t h e cor r e2 2
spon din g y-va lu es t o be y 5 0.121
a n d y 5 24.121, r espect ively. So,
t h er e a r e t wo t a n gen t lin es pa ra llel t o t h e lin e fr om pa r t C; t h ey
h a ve t h e followin g equ a t ion s:
y + 4.121 =
x = 4 cos t
2
x 2 = 16 cos 2 t
2
x2
= cos 2 t
2
16
3
( x 4.414)
2
An d n ow for t h e y com pon en t :
3
y 0.121 = ( x 1.586)
2
y = 3 sin t
2
Section II, Pa rt B
y 2 = 9 sin 2 t
2
4. (a ) Th e bu g ch a n ges dir ect ion s a t

t 5 3 a n d t 5 5. Th is is t r u e
beca u se t h e velocit y ch a n ges
fr om posit ive t o n ega t ive a n d
n ega t ive t o posit ive, r espect ively.
(b) Th e bu g is fa r t h est fr om it s
st a r t in g poin t a t t im e t 5 3. Th e
bu g is m ovin g in t h e posit ive
dir ect ion (a wa y fr om t h e st a r t in g poin t ) fr om t 5 0 t o t 5 3.
Th en , t h e bu g t u r n s a r ou n d a n d
m oves t owa r d t h e st a r t in g poin t
for t wo secon ds befor e ch a n gin g
dir ect ion s a ga in . By exa m in in g
t h e a r ea u n der t h e cu r ve, we
ca n see t h a t t h e bu g is closer t o
t h e st a r t in g poin t a t t 5 6 t h en
it wa s a t t 5 3.
(c ) Slowin g down m ea n s decr ea sin g speed, n ot velocit y. So, we
n eed t o in clu de n ot on ly wh er e
t h e velocit y is posit ive a n d decr ea sin g, bu t a lso wh er e t h e velocit y is n ega t ive a n d in cr ea sin g.
y2
= sin 2 t
2
9
By com bin in g t h ese equ a t ion s,
we get :
x 2 y2
+
=1
16 9
(b) Usin g im plicit differ en t ia t ion ,
x 2 y dy
+
=0
8 9 dx
dy
9x
=
dx
16 y
(c )
y (t ) =
cos t
2
2
V (t ) = 2 sin t , cos t
2 2
2
617
.................................................................
3
2
cos 2 t
=
2 sin 2 t
dy
dt
dx
dt
dy
=
dx
f ( x ) = f (1) + f (1) ( x 1) +
f (1) ( x 1)
f (1) ( x 1)
+
+
2
6
f (4 ) (1) ( x 1)
24
2
3
tan t
2
4
F r om pa r t B:
9 (4 cos ( 2 t ))
9x
=
16 y
16 (3 sin ( 2 t ))
=
Th is im plies t h a t f(1) 5 ln 2 a n d
f 4 (1) 5 26.
f (x) 5 1 2 (x 2 1) 1
(x 2 1)2 2 (x 2 1)3
(b)
3
tan t
2
4
f (1.2) 5 1 2 0.2 1
0.04 2 0.008
5 0.832
(e ) We will u se t h e for m u la for a r c

len gt h :
L=
dx + dy dt
dt dt
( x 1)
3 cos t
2
2
dt
f (t ) dt
2
x 1)
(
ln 2 +
( x 1)
+
12
5
x 1)
(
20
pra ctice test 4
2 sin t +
2
= ( x 1)
3
g (x ) =
(c )
a nsw ers
6. (a ) Reca ll t h e for m u la for a Ta ylor

polyn om ia l cen t er ed a t x 5 1:
..............................................................................................
(d ) F r om pa r t C:
..........................................................
APPENDIX
......................................................................
COLLEGE-BY-COLLEGE GUIDE TO AP CREDIT

AND PLACEMENT
Colleg e-b y-Colleg e

Guid e to AP Cred it
a nd Pla c em ent
....................................................................................
Use t h is ch a r t t o discover ju st h ow va lu a ble a good scor e on t h e AP Ca lcu lu s

Test ca n be!
621
a p p end ix
F or t h e pa st t wo deca des, n a t ion a l a n d in t er n a t ion a l pa r t icipa t ion in t h e AP

P r ogr a m h a s gr own st ea dily. Colleges a n d u n iver sit ies r ou t in ely a wa r d cr edit
for AP exa m scor es of 3, 4, or 5, depen din g on t h e exa m t a ken . Th e followin g
ch a r t in dica t es t h e scor e r equ ir ed for AP cr edit , h ow m a n y cr edit s a r e gr a n t ed,
wh a t cou r ses a r e wa ived ba sed on t h ose cr edit s, a n d ot h er policy st ipu la t ion s
a t m or e t h a n 400 select ive colleges a n d u n iver sit ies.
622
APPENDIX
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
AB
AB
45
BC
12w/AB3
BC
12w/AB4
MAT 118
BC
MAT 118
BC
45
MAT 118 &

119
Alba n y College of P h a r m a cy of
Un ion Un iver sit y (NY)
AB/BC
45
Alber t son College of Ida h o (ID)
AB/BC
35
AB
MATH 141
BC
45
MATH
141(4),
MATH
143(5)
Albr igh t College (PA)
AB/BC
45
Allegh en y College (PA)
AB/BC
45
AB
MATH 121
BC
34
MATH
121(3),
MATH
121,122(4)
AB/BC
35
School Name
Agn es Scot t College (GA)
Albion College (MI)
Alm a College (MI)
Am er ica n Un iver sit y (DC)

Asbu r y College (KY)
Au bu r n Un iver sit y (AL)
Au gu st a n a College (IL)
Au gu st a n a College (SD)
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
See
If st u den t t a kes MAT 119 & ea r n s a C
Depa r t m en t or a bove sh e will get 4 h ou r s & MAT
for
118 exem pt ion .
P la cem en t
MAT 118
See
If st u den t t a kes MAT 119 & ea r n s a
Depa r t m en t C- or a bove sh e get s 4 h ou r s & MAT
for
118 exem pt ion .
P la cem en t
AB
MAT 132
AB
MAT 181
BC
MAT 132
BC
MAT 181
AB
MATH 1120
& 1610
AB
MATH 1120
& 1610
AB
MATH 1120
& 1610
BC
35
MATH 1610
&1620
AB
MATH 219
BC
MATH 219
& 220
AB/BC
45
S tip u la tio n s
If st u den t t a kes MAT 119 & ea r n s a

C- or a bove sh e will get 4 h ou r s &
MAT 118 exem pt ion .
College-by-College Guide to AP Credit a nd Pla cement
623
School Name
Au st in College (TX)
Azu sa P a cific Un iver sit y (CA)
Ba bson College (MA)

Ba ldwin -Wa lla ce College (OH )
Ba r d College (NY)
Ba r n a r d College (NY)
Ba t es College (ME )
Ba ylor Un iver sit y (TX)
Belm on t Un iver sit y (TN)

Beloit College (WI)
Ben edict in e Un iver sit y (IL)
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
AB/BC
45
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
S tip u la tio n s
MATH 151
AB
34
MATH 251
AB
MATH 251
& 252
BC
MATH 251
BC
45
MATH 251
& 252
AB/BC
45
AB
35
MTH 141
BC
35
MTH 141 &

142
AB/BC
AB
45
E xem pt ion
fr om
Ca lcu lu s 1
BC
E xem pt ion
fr om
Ca lcu lu s 1
BC
AB
MATH 105
AB
MATH 105
BC
3w/AB 4 or
5
MATH 105
BC
45
MATH 105
& 106
6 pt s on com plet in g Ca lcu lu s III or

H on or s Ma t h III wit h C or bet t er.
E xem pt ion fr om Ca lcu lu s I, II. Also
eligible for H on or s Ma t h III.
AB
MATH 1321
BC
MATH 1321
& 1322
AB
45
MATH 1210
BC
MATH 1210
AB/BC
45
AB
Cr edit will be gr a n t ed on ce a st u den t

m a t r icu la t es t o Beloit College a n d
pr ovides officia l scor e r epor t s t o t h e
Regist r a r s Office.
MATH 110
AB
45
MATH 210
BC
35
MATH 210
& MATH
211
624
APPENDIX
School Name
Ben t ley College (MA)
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
AB/BC
45
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
H igh sch ool gr a du a t es wh o h a ve

t a ken t h e AP exa m s m a y be a wa r ded
cr edit for scor es of 4 or 5, on a n y
su bject t est .
Ber ea College (KY)
AB/BC
35
Ber n a r d M. Ba r u ch College of
t h e Cit y Un iver sit y of New
Yor k (NY)
AB/BC
45
AB
MATH 231
BC
MATH 231
& 232
AB/BC
Bir m in gh a m -Sou t h er n
College (AL)
Bost on College (MA)

Bost on Un iver sit y (MA)
AB
35
MA 123
BC
35
MA 123 &
MA 124
Bowdoin College (ME )
AB
35
Br a dley Un iver sit y (IL)
AB
MTH 121
AB
MTH 121 &

122
AB/BC
MTH 121
BC
45
MTH 121 &

122
Br a n deis Un iver sit y (MA)
AB
MATH 10a
AB
MATH 10a ,b
BC
MATH 10a
BC
45
MATH 10a ,b
AB
MATH 110
& MATH
111
AB
45
MATH 110
& MATH
112
BC
35
MATH 112
& MATH
113
Br ya n College (TN)
AB/BC
35
Br yn Ma wr College (PA)
AB/BC
Bu ckn ell Un iver sit y (PA)
AB
Ta ke MATH
205
AB
45
MATH 202
BC
MATH 202
BC
45
MATH 211
AB
45
MA 106
BC
45
MA 106 &
MA 107
Br igh a m You n g Un iver sit y (UT)
Bu t ler Un iver sit y (IN)
S tip u la tio n s
625
School Name
Ca lvin College (MI)
Ca n isiu s College (NY)
Ca r let on College (MN)
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
AB/BC
MATH 161
AB
F r ee elect ive
AB
45
MATH 111
or MATH
115
BC
12 w/AB
45
MATH 111
or MATH
115
BC
3 w/AB 3
2 F r ee
elect ives
BC
3 w/AB 45
MATH 111
or MATH
115 a n d 1
F r ee elect ive
BC
45
MATH 111
& MATH
112 or
MATH 115
& MATH
116
AB
35
Ca lcu lu s II
BC
35
12
Ca lcu lu s III 12 cr edit s gr a n t ed wh ich cou n t

t owa r d a m a t h em a t ics m a jor (for
Ca lcu lu s I a n d II) a ft er su ccessfu l
com plet ion of Ca lcu lu s III wit h gr a de
of C- or bet t er.
Ca r n egie Mellon Un iver sit y (PA) AB/BC
45
Ca r r oll College (MT)
AB/BC
35
Ca r son -Newm a n College (TN)
AB/BC
45
AB
45
MATH 121
& MATH
125
BC
MATH 121
& MATH
125
BC
45
MATH 121
& MATH
125 or
MATH 122
& MATH
126
AB
3 or 4
GMTH 1030
or GMTH
1040
Ca se West er n Reser ve
Un iver sit y (OH )
Ceda r ville Un iver sit y (OH )
S tip u la tio n s
6 cr edit s gr a n t ed wh ich cou n t t owa r d

a m a t h em a t ics m a jor (for Ca lcu lu s I)
a ft er su ccessfu l com plet ion of
Ca lcu lu s II wit h gr a de of C- or bet t er.
626
APPENDIX
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
AB
3,4, or
5
GMTH 1030 Ma y ch a llen ge MATH -1710 Ca lcu lu s I

or GMTH
wit h n o ch a r ge for cr edit s ea r n ed if
1040
pa ssin g scor e is a ch ieved.
BC
3,4, or
5
GMTH 1030 Ma y ch a llen ge MATH -1710 Ca lcu lu s I

or GMTH
wit h n o ch a r ge for cr edit s ea r n ed if
1040
pa ssin g scor e is a ch ieved.
BC
5 or 10 MATH 1710 Ma y ch a llen ge MATH -1720 Ca lcu lu s

II wit h n o ch a r ge for cr edit s ea r n ed if
pa ssin g scor e is a ch ieved a n d MATH
1710 Ca lcu lu s I.
Cen t r a l College (IA)
AB/BC
35
Cen t r e College (KY)
AB/BC
45
AB
MATH 110
BC
MATH 110
BC
MATH 110
& MATH
111
Ch r ist en dom College (VA)
AB/BC
45
Ch r ist ia n Br ot h er s
Un iver sit y (TN)
AB/BC
45
AB
45
P la cem en t in Ma t h 31. Cr edit for

Ma t h 30 if gr a de in 31 is B1 or
bet t er in t h e fr esh m a n yea r.
BC

bet t er in fr esh m a n yea r.
BC
School Name
Ceda r ville
Un iver sit ycon tin u ed
Ch a pm a n Un iver sit y (CA)
Cla r em on t McKen n a
College (CA)
Cla r kson Un iver sit y (NY)
Cla r k Un iver sit y (MA)
MATH 30
AB
45
MA 131
BC
MA 131
BC
MA 131 &
MA 132
AB/BC
45
AB
35
MTH SC 106
BC
35
MTH SC 106
& MTH SC
108
Coe College (IA)
AB/BC
45
Colby College (ME )
AB/BC
45
Colga t e Un iver sit y (NY)
AB/BC
45
Clem son Un iver sit y (SC)
College of Ch a r lest on (SC)
Th e College of New J er sey (NJ )
AB
MATH 120
BC
MATH 120
& MATH
220
AB
45
MAT 127 or
MAT 125
S tip u la tio n s

bet t er in fr esh m a n yea r.
AB su bscor e of 3 or 4 5 MATH 120
627
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
BC
MAT 127 or
MAT 125
BC
45
MAT 127 &

MAT 128
AB
45
MATH 119
BC
MATH 119
BC
45
MATH 119
& MATH
120
AB
45
MATH 2221
BC
45
MATH 2222
College of t h e At la n t ic (ME )
AB/BC
45
College of t h e H oly Cr oss (MA)
AB/BC
45
AB
45
A scor e of 4 or 5 on t h e Ca lcu lu s AB
exa m in a t ion will be a wa r ded 4 h ou r s
cr edit for Ma t h em a t ics 111.
BC
35
A scor e of 3 will be a wa r ded 4 cr edit s

for Ma t h em a t ics 111 a n d a scor e of 4
or 5 will be a wa r ded 8 cr edit s for
Ma t h em a t ics 111 a n d 112.
School Name
Th e College of New J er sey
con tin u ed
College of Sa in t Ben edict (MN)
Th e College of St .
Sch ola st ica (MN)
Th e College of Willia m a n d
Ma r y (VA)
Th e College of Woost er (OH )
AB/BC
45
Color a do Ch r ist ia n
Un iver sit y (CO)
AB/BC
35
Th e Color a do College (CO)
Color a do Sch ool of Min es (CO)
Color a do St a t e Un iver sit y (CO)
Colu m bia College (NY)
S tip u la tio n s
AB
35
P la cem en t in t o MA 128
BC
BC
45
AB
45
Ca lcu lu s I
BC
Ca lcu lu s I
BC
Ca lcu lu s I &
Ca lcu lu s II
AB
35
M CC 117,
118, 124,
125, 126,
160
BC
35
13
M CC 117,
118, 124,
125, 126,
160, 161
AB
45
Requ ir es com plet ion of MATH V1102

wit h a gr a de of C or bet t er.
BC

wit h a gr a de of C or bet t er.
BC

or V1207 wit h a gr a de of C or bet t er.
628
APPENDIX
School Name
Colu m bia Un iver sit y, Th e F u
F ou n da t ion Sch ool of
E n gin eer in g a n d Applied
Scien ce (NY)
Con cor dia College (MN)
Con n ect icu t College (CT)

Con ver se College (SC)
Cooper Un ion for t h e

Adva n cem en t of Scien ce a n d
Ar t (NY)
Cor n ell College (IA)
Cor n ell Un iver sit y (NY)
Cor n er st on e Un iver sit y (MI)
Coven a n t College (GA)
Cr eigh t on Un iver sit y (NE )
Da r t m ou t h College (NH )
Da vidson College (NC)
Den ison Un iver sit y (OH )
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
AB/BC
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
S tip u la tio n s
Requ ir es begin n in g wit h , a n d
com plet ion of, a t lea st Ca lcu lu s IIIA
(MATH V1201) wit h a gr a de of C or
bet t er.
AB
Ma t h 121AK
BC
Ma t h 121AK
BC
Ma t h
121AK/
122AK
AB/BC
45
AB
34
AB
BC
BC
45
BC
45
AB/BC
35
AB
35
MATH 106, P er m ission t o t a ke Ma t h 112, 122,

111112, & 190, 191, or 231. E n gin eer in g or BE E
MATH 121 st u den t s r eceive n o cr edit .
BC
45
MATH 106,
111112,
121122,
190 & 191
AB
45
MAT 131
BC
45
MAT 131 &

MAT 132
MA 111
AB
MAT 145
BC
MAT 145 &

MAT 146
AB
MTH 245
BC
MTH 245 &

MTH 246
AB
45
MTH 3
BC
45
MTH 3 &
MTH 8
AB
35 w/BC 3
MAT 130
E n gin eer in g or BE E st u den t s r eceive

on ly 4 cr edit s. P er m ission t o t a ke
Ma t h 213, 221, 223, or 231. St u den t s
wish in g t o t a ke en gin eer in g ca lcu lu s
will pla ce in t o Ma t h 192.
AB
45
BC
45
MAT 130 & MAT 139, a cr edit u sed on ly for AP

MAT 139
a n d ot h er t r a n sfer cr edit s, is for feit ed
if t h e st u den t t a kes MAT 235 a t
Da vidson .
AB/BC
45
MATH 199
MAT 130
If st u den t t a kes a n d su ccessfu lly

pa sses (gr a de of C or bet t er ) Ma t h
124 (Ca lcu lu s II), t h en MATH 199
will be con ver t ed t o MATH 123.
629
School Name
DeP a u w Un iver sit y (IN)
Dickin son College (PA)
Dom in ica n Un iver sit y (IL)
Dr a ke Un iver sit y (IA)
Dr ew Un iver sit y (NJ )
Dr exel Un iver sit y (PA)

Dr u r y Un iver sit y (MO)
Du ke Un iver sit y (NC)
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
AB
AB
45
BC
BC
45
AB
AB
MATH
Ma t h Gen er a l Cr edit ch a n ged t o
Gen er a l Cr. cr edit for 161 u pon su ccessfu l
com plet ion of 162.
AB
MATH 161
BC
MATH 161
BC
MATH 161 MATH Gen er a l Cr edit ch a n ged t o

& MATH
cr edit for 162 u pon su ccessfu l
Gen er a l Cr. com plet ion of 261.
BC
MATH 161
& MATH
162
AB
35
P la cem en t in t o MATH 262 in

con su lt a t ion wit h Ma t h F a cu lt y.
BC
35
P la cem en t in t o MATH 270 in

con su lt a t ion wit h Ma t h F a cu lt y.
AB
MATH 50
BC
MATH 50 &
MATH 70
AB
45
MATH 7
BC
MATH 7
BC
45
MATH 7 &
MATH 8
AB
45
BC
45
S tip u la tio n s
If MATH 152 is com plet ed wit h a C-
or bet t er, 1.00 cr edit will be a wa r ded
for MATH 151.
MATH 151
St u den t m a y en r oll in MATH 152.

If MATH 251 is com plet ed wit h a C-
or bet t er, 1.00 cr edit will be a wa r ded
for MATH 152.
MATH 151
& MATH
152
St u den t m a y en r oll in MATH 251.
Cr edit for 161 given u pon su ccessfu l

AB
45
MATH 231
BC
MATH 231
BC
45
MATH 231
& MATH
232
AB
MATH 31
BC
MATH 31
Cr edit for 162 given u pon su ccessfu l

630
APPENDIX
School Name
Du ke Un iver sit ycon tin u ed
Du qu esn e Un iver sit y (PA)
E a r lh a m College (IN)
E liza bet h t own College (PA)
E lm ir a College (NY)
E lon Un iver sit y (NC)
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
BC
45
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
S tip u la tio n s
MATH 31 &
MATH 32
AB
45
MATH 115
AB/BC
MATH 104
BC
MATH 115
BC
MATH 116
AB
45
BC
45
BC
AB su b 45
AB
35
MA 121
BC
35
MA 121 &
MA 122
AB
Regist r a r a n d Ma t h em a t ics fa cu lt y
will det er m in e pla cem en t .
AB
45
Regist r a r a n d Ma t h em a t ics fa cu lt y
will det er m in e pla cem en t .
BC
BC
45
P lea se n ot e t h a t if a st u den t ea r n s
cr edit s for t h e BC exa m , t h e AB
su b-scor e cr edit s a r e n ot a wa r ded. A
m a xim u m of six cr edit s will be
a wa r ded for a ll AP Ca lcu lu s scor es.
MAT 2010
MAT 2010 & AB a n d BC wit h a scor e of 5 will get
MAT 2020 9 cr edit s a n d Regist r a r a n d
Ma t h em a t ics fa cu lt y will det er m in e
pla cem en t .
AB
35
MTH 121
BC
35
MTH 121 &

MTH 221
E m br y-Riddle Aer on a u t ica l

Un iver sit y (AZ)
AB/BC
35
E m er son College (MA)
AB/BC
35
E m or y Un iver sit y (GA)
AB
45
BC
BC
45
E r skin e College (SC)
AB/BC
45
E u gen e La n g College Th e New

Sch ool for Liber a l Ar t s (NY)
AB/BC
45
If t h e Ca lcu lu s BC scor e is less t h a n a

3 bu t t h e su bgr a de for Ca lcu lu s AB is
a 3 or a bove, cr edit will be gr a n t ed for
MA121 on ly.
4
4
St u den t s wh o do n ot r eceive cr edit for

Ca lcu lu s BC bu t wh o scor e a fou r or
five on t h e Ca lcu lu s AB su b-gr a de of
t h e Ca lcu lu s BC exa m in a t ion will
r eceive fou r h ou r s of cr edit for
Ca lcu lu s AB.
St u den t s r eceivin g cr edit for t h e

Ca lcu lu s BC exa m in a t ion m a y n ot
r eceive cr edit for t h e Ca lcu lu s AB
exa m in a t ion a s well.
631
School Name
F a ir field Un iver sit y (CT)
F lor ida In st it u t e of
Tech n ology (F L)
F lor ida In t er n a t ion a l

Un iver sit y (F L)
F lor ida St a t e Un iver sit y (F L)
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
AB
45
MA 121 &
MA 122
BC
45
MA 171 &
MA 172
AB
45
Ca lcu lu s I
BC
45
Ca lcu lu s I &
Ca lcu lu s II
AB
35
MAC 2311
BC
MAC 2311
BC
45
MAC 2311
& MAC
2312
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
AB
35
MAC 2311
BC
MAC 2311
BC
45
MAC 2311
& MAC
2312
F or dh a m Un iver sit y (NY)
AB/BC
35
F r a n cisca n Un iver sit y of

St eu ben ville (OH )
AB/BC
45
F r a n klin a n d Ma r sh a ll
College (PA)
AB/BC
45
MAT 109
AB
45
MATH 11
F u r m a n Un iver sit y (SC)
Geor ge F ox Un iver sit y (OR)
Geor get own College (KY)

Geor get own Un iver sit y (DC)
S tip u la tio n s
Cu r r en t ly, a gr a de of 3 will be
a ccept ed a s elect ive cr edit . H owever,
gr a des of 4 or 5 m a y be a pplied
t owa r ds t h e cor e cu r r icu lu m .
BC
BC
45
MATH 11
AB
MATH 201
AB
45
MATH 201
& MATH
202
BC
45
11
MATH 201,
202, & 301
AB/BC
35
36
AB
45
MATH 11 & If a st u den t ea r n s less t h a n a 3 on

MATH 12 t h e BC exa m bu t m a kes a 4 or 5 on
t h e AB su bscor e of t h e BC exa m ,
cr edit ea r n ed is for Ma t h 11.
MATH 035
If a st u den t t a kes t h e Ca lcu lu s AB

a n d Ca lcu lu s BC t est s, t h e h igh er
scor e is u sed beca u se cr edit is
a wa r ded on ly on ce for bot h t est s.
632
APPENDIX
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
AB/BC
MATH 003

BC
45
MATH 035
& MATH
036

BC
AB 35
Th e Geor ge Wa sh in gt on
Un iver sit y (DC)
AB
45
MATH 31
Geor gia In st it u t e of
Tech n ology (GA)
AB
45
MATH 1501
BC
35
MATH 1501
School Name
Geor get own Un iver sit y
con tin u ed
S tip u la tio n s
F or a n AB su bscor e of 3, 4, or 5 in t h e
Ca lcu lu s BC t est , t h e st u den t sh ou ld
see t h e dea n s office for eva lu a t ion of
a n y cr edit a wa r d.
Geor gia St a t e Un iver sit y (GA)
AB/BC
35
Get t ysbu r g College (PA)
AB/BC
45
AB
45
MATH 157
St u den t s in t en din g t o u se AP ca lcu lu s

cr edit a s a pr er equ isit e for a dva n ced
m a t h em a t ics cou r se wor k m u st
con su lt Gon za ga s Ma t h em a t ics
Depa r t m en t fa cu lt y pr ior t o doin g so.
BC
MATH 157

BC
MATH 157
& MATH
258

Gon za ga Un iver sit y (WA)
Gor don College (MA)
AB/BC
45
Gosh en College (IN)
AB
45
H a lf of Ca lc
II
AB/BC
Ca lc I
BC
45
Ca lc II
Gou ch er College (MD)
AB/BC
45
Gr in n ell College (IA)
AB
45
BC
35
Gr ove Cit y College (PA)
AB/BC
45
Gu st a vu s Adolph u s
College (MN)
AB/BC
45
AB
45
MATH 1170
BC
45
MATH 1170
& MATH
1180
H a m lin e Un iver sit y (MN)
633
School Name
H a m psh ir e College (MA)
H a n over College (IN)
H a r din g Un iver sit y (AR)
H a r va r d Un iver sit y (MA)
H a r vey Mu dd College (CA)

H a ver for d College (PA)
H en dr ix College (AR)
H illsda le College (MI)
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
AB/BC
35
AB
35
BC
35
AB
MATH 201
BC
10
MATH 201
& MATH
251
AB
BC
If a st u den t h a s ea r n ed a 3 in a n
Adva n ced P la cem en t cou r se, t h e
decision a s t o a ccept a n ce for cr edit
will lie wit h t h e depa r t m en t
con cer n ed, wh ich m a y r ea d a n d
eva lu a t e t h e st u den t s Adva n ced
P la cem en t cou r se exa m in a t ion .
Ma t h 1a ,
Xa , Xb
P la cem en t in Ma t h 1b, 20
Ma t h 1a , 1b, P la cem en t in Ma t h 19, 20, 21a , 23a ,

Xa , Xb
25a , 55a (wit h per m ission of
in st r u ct or ).
BC
AB/BC
45
MATH 11
AB
45
MATH 130
BC
MATH 130
BC
45
MATH 130
& MATH
140
Th e r egist r a r will a wa r d on e cou r se

cr edit for a n AP scor e of 5 a n d
on e-h a lf cou r se cr edit for a scor e of 4.
No cr edit is a wa r ded for scor es u n der
4.
AB
MTH 213
AB
45
MTH 213 &

MTH 214
BC
35
MTH 213 &

MTH 214
H ir a m College (OH )
AB/BC
45
H oba r t a n d Willia m Sm it h
Colleges (NY)
AB/BC
45
H ope College (MI)
AB/BC
45
AB
45
Ca lcu lu s I
BC
45
Ca lcu lu s I &
Ca lcu lu s II
H ou gh t on College (NY)
S tip u la tio n s
Illin ois College (IL)
AB/BC
45
Illin ois In st it u t e of
Tech n ology (IL)
AB
35
MATH 151
BC
MATH 151
634
APPENDIX
School Name
Illin ois In st it u t e of Tech n ology
con tin u ed
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
BC
45
10
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
S tip u la tio n s
MATH 151
& MATH
152
Illin ois Wesleya n Un iver sit y (IL) AB/BC
45
Iowa St a t e Un iver sit y of Scien ce AB/BC

a n d Tech n ology (IA)
35
It h a ca College (NY)
AB
35
Ca lcu lu s I
313111
BC
35
Ca lcu lu s I
313111 &
Ca lcu lu s II
313112
AB
45
MATH 235
St u den t s wh o r eceive a scor e of 3 m a y

wa n t t o t a ke a depa r t m en t a l
exa m in a t ion t o ea r n cr edit in eit h er
MATH 205 or MATH 235.
BC
45
MATH 235
& MATH
236
St u den t s wh o r eceive a scor e of 3 m a y

wa n t t o t a ke a depa r t m en t a l
exa m in a t ion t o ea r n cr edit in eit h er
MATH 205 or MATH 235.
No cr edit for su bscor es.
J a m es Ma dison Un iver sit y (VA)
J oh n Br own Un iver sit y (AR)
J oh n Ca r r oll Un iver sit y (OH )
Cr edit will be gr a n t ed a n d r ecor ded

by IWU on ly a ft er t h e su ccessfu l
com plet ion of fou r cou r se u n it s of
st u dy in r esiden ce.
AB
35
MTH 1134
BC
MTH 1134
BC
45
MTH 1134
& MTH
1144
AB
MT 135
AB
45
MT 135 &
MT 136
BC
35
MT 135 &
MT 136
AB
45
MATH 110,
106 or 108
BC
MATH 110,
106 or 108
BC
45
MATH 110,
106 & 107
or MATH
110, 108 &
109
J u n ia t a College (PA)
AB/BC
45
Ka la m a zoo College (MI)
AB/BC
45
Th e J oh n s H opkin s
Un iver sit y (MD)
Ken yon College (OH )
AB
AB
45
MATH 111
P la cem en t in Ma t h 112
BC
MATH 111
635
School Name
Ken yon Collegecon tin u ed
Ket t er in g Un iver sit y (MI)
Kn ox College (IL)
La fa yet t e College (PA)
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
BC
45
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
MATH 111
& MATH
112
AB
35
MATH 101
BC
MATH 101
BC
45
MATH
101-MATH
102 &
MATH 122
AB
45
MATH 151
BC
MATH 151
BC
45
MATH 151
& MATH
152
AB
45
MATH 161
BC
35
MATH 161
& MATH
162
La ke F or est College (IL)
AB/BC
45
La wr en ce Tech n ologica l
Un iver sit y (MI)
AB
MCS 1254
AB
34
MCS 1224
or MCS
2313
AB
MCS 1414
BC
35
AB/BC
45
La wr en ce Un iver sit y (WI)

Leba n on Va lley College (PA)
Leh igh Un iver sit y (PA)
LeTou r n ea u Un iver sit y (TX)
S tip u la tio n s
E n r oll in MCS 1424. If t h e st u den t

ea r n s a C or bet t er in t h e fir st
a t t em pt , h e/sh e sh ou ld con t a ct t h e
Regist r a r s Office t o r equ est cr edit for
MCS 1414.
E n r oll in MCS 2424. If a st u den t

ea r n s a C or bet t er in t h e fir st
a t t em pt , h e/sh e sh ou ld con t a ct t h e
Regist r a r s Office t o r equ est cr edit for
MCS 1414 & MCS 1424.
AB
45
MAS 161
BC
45
MAS 161 &

MAS 162 or
MAS 111
AB
45
MATH 21
BC
45
AB
34
36
MATH 21 & Cr edit for Ma t h 21 a n d 22 or bot h

MATH 22 m a y a lso be ea r n ed by pa ssin g t h e
exa m in a t ion offer ed by t h e
Ma t h em a t ics Depa r t m en t du r in g
F r esh m a n Or ien t a t ion .
MATH 1903
or MATH
1603 &
MATH 1613
636
APPENDIX
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
LeTou r n ea u Un iver sit y

con tin u ed
AB
Lewis & Cla r k College (OR)
AB
P la cem en t in Ma t h 132. AP Ca lcu lu s

4 or 5: No m or e t h a n 8 cr edit s for
Ca lcu lu s AB a n d BC will be a wa r ded.
AB
P la cem en t in Ma t h 215 or 233. AP

Ca lcu lu s 4 or 5: No m or e t h a n 8
cr edit s for Ca lcu lu s AB a n d BC will
be a wa r ded.
BC
P la cem en t in Ma t h 132. AP Ca lcu lu s

4 or 5: No m or e t h a n 8 cr edit s for
Ca lcu lu s AB a n d BC will be a wa r ded.
BC
45
AB/BC
45
School Name
Lin field College (OR)

Lipscom b Un iver sit y (TN)
Lou isia n a St a t e Un iver sit y a n d

Agr icu lt u r a l a n d Mech a n ica l
College (LA)
Loyola College in
Ma r yla n d (MD)
Loyola Ma r ym ou n t
Un iver sit y (CA)
Loyola Un iver sit y Ch ica go (IL)
Loyola Un iver sit y New

Or lea n s (LA)
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
MATH 1903
& 2013 or
MATH 1603
& 1613
P la cem en t in Ma t h 215 or 233. AP

Ca lcu lu s 4 or 5: No m or e t h a n 8
cr edit s for Ca lcu lu s AB a n d BC will
be a wa r ded.
AB
35
MA 1314
BC
34
MA 1314
BC
MA 1314 &
MA 2314
AB
MATH 1431
or MATH
1441
AB
45
MATH 1550
BC
MATH 1550
BC
45
MATH 1550
& MATH
1552
AB/BC
45
AB
45
MATH 131
BC
45
MATH 131
& MATH
132
AB
MATH 131
AB
MATH 131
& MATH
132
BC
MATH 131
BC
45
MATH 161
& MATH
162
AB
45
MATH A257
S tip u la tio n s
637
School Name
Loyola Un iver sit y New
Or lea n scon tin u ed
Lu t h er College (IA)
Lycom in g College (PA)
Lyon College (AR)

Ma ca lest er College (MN)
Ma r ist College (NY)
Ma r lbor o College (VT)

Ma r qu et t e Un iver sit y (WI)
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
BC
45
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
MATH A257
& MATH
A258
AB/BC
45
AB
45
MATH 128
BC
45
MATH 128
& MATH
129
AB/BC
45
AB
35
P la cem en t in Ma t h 137. St u den t s wh o

t a ke a t lea st on e m a t h em a t ics cou r se
a t Ma ca lest er College will get cr edit
for MATH 194-Topics in College
Ca lcu lu s, wit h a gr a de of S.
BC
35
P la cem en t in Ma t h 236 or 237.

St u den t s wh o t a ke a t lea st on e
m a t h em a t ics cou r se a t Ma ca lest er
College will get cr edit for MATH
194-Topics in College Ca lcu lu s, a n d
for MATH 137-Sin gle Va r ia ble
Ca lcu lu s, wit h a gr a de of S for ea ch .
AB
35
MATH 241L
BC
35
MATH 241L
& MATH
242L
AB/BC
45
AB
35
MATH 80
BC
35
MATH 80 &
MATH 81
Ma r yville College (TN)
AB/BC
35
Ma r yville Un iver sit y of Sa in t

Lou is (MO)
AB/BC
35
AB
45
BC
45
Th e Ma st er s College a n d
Sem in a r y (CA)
AB/BC
45
McDa n iel College (MD)
AB/BC
45
McGill Un iver sit y (QC)
AB
45
MATH 140
BC
45
MATH 140
& MATH
141
AB
E lect ive
cr edit
AB
45
MTH 210
Ma ssa ch u set t s In st it u t e of
Tech n ology (MA)
McKen dr ee College (IL)
S tip u la tio n s
P la cem en t in t o t h e a cceler a t ed
ca lcu lu s sequ en ce 18.01A & 18.02A
18.01Ca lcu lu s I
St u den t s m a y r eceive a dva n ced

pla cem en t plu s u p t o 8 h ou r s cr edit .
638
APPENDIX
School Name
Mer cer Un iver sit y (GA)
Messia h College (PA)
Mia m i Un iver sit y (OH )
Mich iga n St a t e Un iver sit y (MI)
Mich iga n Tech n ologica l

Un iver sit y (MI)
Middlebu r y College (VT)
Milliga n College (TN)
Millsa ps College (MS)
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
AB/BC
35
AB
MAT 111
Ma y be cou n t ed t owa r d Gen er a l

E du ca t ion .
AB
45
MAT 111 &

MAT 112

E du ca t ion .
BC
MAT 111

E du ca t ion .
BC
MAT 111 &

MAT 112

E du ca t ion .
BC
45
12
MAT 111,
MAT 112 &
MAT 211

E du ca t ion .
AB
35
MTH 151
BC
MTH 151
BC
45
S tip u la tio n s
Th en en r oll in a Ca lcu lu s II cou r se.

P r oficien cy cr edit for MTH 251(4
h ou r s) m a y be possible; ch eck wit h
ch ief depa r t m en t a l a dviser.
MTH 151 & Th en en r oll in a Ca lcu lu s III cou r se

MTH 251 a n d/or MTH 222, or MTH 222.T a n d
331.T.
AB
MTH 132
AB
45
MTH 132
BC
2 w/AB 45
MTH 132
BC
35
MTH 132 &

MTH 133
AB
St u den t ca n be pla ced in t o MA 1160.
AB
St u den t m a y en r oll in MA 2160 bu t

will n ot be a wa r ded cr edit for MA
1160 u n less a gr a de of C or h igh er
is ea r n ed in MA 2160.
AB
45
MA 1160
BC
45
MA 1160 &
MA 2160
AB
45
MATH 0121
BC
MATH 0121
BC
45
MATH 0121
& MATH
0122
AB
35
MATH 211
BC
35
MATH 211
& MATH
212
AB
45
MATH 1220
St u den t is pla ced in t o MA 3160.

St u den t s scor in g 3 or lower will
r eceive cr edit ba sed on t h eir AB
su bscor e a n d t h e AB gu idelin es.
639
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
BC
45
MATH 1220
& MATH
2230
AB/BC
45
AB
45
MAT 121
BC
45
MAT 121 &

MAT 122
AB
35
MTH 261
BC
35
10
MTH 261 &

MTH 280
Mor a via n College (PA)
AB/BC
45
Mor eh ou se College (GA)
AB/BC
45
Mou n t H olyoke College (MA)
AB/BC
45
Mou n t Sa in t Vin cen t

Un iver sit y (NS)
AB/BC
45
Mu h len ber g College (PA)
AB/BC
35
AB
35
MAT 250
BC
MAT 250
BC
45
10
MAT 250 &

MAT 308
AB/BC
35
AB
MATH 111
& MATH
113 or
MATH 138
AB/BC
MATH 138
AB/BC
MATH 111
or MATH
113 or
MATH 138
BC
MATH 111
& 112 or
MATH 113
& 114
AB/BC
AB/BC
45
MATH 131
AB
45
V63.0121
BC
45
V63.0121
0122
School Name
Millsa ps Collegecon tin u ed
Mills College (CA)

Mississippi College (MS)
Missou r i St a t e Un iver sit y (MO)
Mu r r a y St a t e Un iver sit y (KY)
New College of F lor ida (F L)

New J er sey In st it u t e of
Tech n ology (NJ )
New Mexico In st it u t e of Min in g

a n d Tech n ology (NM)
New Yor k Un iver sit y (NY)
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
S tip u la tio n s
Receive 2 elect ive cr edit s in

m a t h em a t ics. St u den t s pr oceed
dir ect ly in t o MATH 131.
St u den t s pr oceed dir ect ly in t o MATH
132.
640
APPENDIX
School Name
Nor t h Ca r olin a St a t e
Un iver sit y (NC)
Nor t h Cen t r a l College (IL)
Nor t h west er n College (IA)

Nor t h west er n College (MN)
Nor t h west er n Un iver sit y (IL)
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
AB
P la cem en t in MA 241 or 231,

depen din g u pon cu r r icu lu m . Upon
com plet ion of t h is cou r se wit h a C- or
bet t er on t h e fir st a t t em pt , 4 h ou r s
cr edit will be a wa r ded for MA 141, or
3 h ou r s for MA 131, depen din g on
cu r r icu lu m .
AB
45
4 h ou r s cr edit for MA 141 or 3 h ou r s

cr edit for MA 131 or MA 121,
depen din g u pon cu r r icu lu m .
BC
P la cem en t in MA 241 or 231,

depen din g u pon cu r r icu lu m . Upon
com plet ion of t h is cou r se wit h a C- or
bet t er on t h e fir st a t t em pt , 4 h ou r s
cr edit will be a wa r ded for MA 141 or
3 h ou r s cr edit for MA 131 or 121,
depen din g u pon cu r r icu lu m .
BC
4 h ou r s cr edit for MA 141 or 3 h ou r s

for MA 131 or MA 121, depen din g on
cu r r icu lu m
BC
45
8 h ou r s for MA 141 a n d 241 or 7

h ou r s for MA 131 & 231, depen din g
on cu r r icu lu m .
AB
45
MTH 151 &

MTH 152
AB/BC
MTH 130
BC
MTH 151 & St u den t m a y en r oll in MTH 254. If

MTH 152 h e/sh e su ccessfu lly com plet es MTH
254 wit h a B- or h igh er, h e/sh e will
r eceive 3 a ddit ion a l cr edit h ou r s for
MTH 153. F u lfills m a t h em a t ics
r equ ir em en t .
BC
MTH 151,
152, & 153
AB
45
MAT 112
BC
35
MAT 211
AB
34
MAT 2121
AB
MAT 2121 &

MAT 2122
BC
MAT 2121
BC
45
MAT 2121 &

MAT 2122
AB
MATH 220
S tip u la tio n s
If st u den t en r olls in MTH 152 a n d

ea r n s a B- or h igh er, m a y r epla ce
cr edit wit h MTH 151 OR st u den t m a y
en r oll in MTH 153. If a gr a de of B- or
h igh er is ea r n ed, t h en MTH 130 m a y
be r epla ced wit h MTH 151 a n d 152.
F u lfills m a t h em a t ics r equ ir em en t .
641
School Name
Nor t h west er n Un iver sit y
con tin u ed
Occiden t a l College (CA)

Oglet h or pe Un iver sit y (GA)
Oh io Nor t h er n Un iver sit y (OH )
Th e Oh io St a t e Un iver sit y (OH )
Oh io Wesleya n Un iver sit y (OH )
Okla h om a Cit y Un iver sit y (OK)
Okla h om a St a t e
Un iver sit y (OK)
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
AB
MATH 220
& MATH
224
BC
45
MATH 220
& MATH
224
AB/BC
45
AB
35
MAT 131
BC
35
MAT 131 &

MAT 132
AB
34
MATH 163
AB
MATH 163
& MATH
164
BC
3 w/AB 34
MATH 163
BC
3 w/AB 5
MATH 163
& MATH
164
BC
4 w/AB 34
MATH 163
BC
4 w/AB 5
MATH 163
& MATH
164
BC
5 w/AB 5
12
MATH 163,
164, & 165
AB
35
10
MATH 150
& MATH
151
BC
10
MATH 150
& MATH
151
BC
45
15
MATH 150,
151, & 152
AB
45
MATH 110
BC
MATH 110
BC
45
MATH 110
& MATH
111
AB
45
MATH 2004
BC
45
MATH 2004
& MATH
2104
AB
35
MATH 2144
BC
35
MATH 2144
& MATH
2153
S tip u la tio n s
St u den t sh ou ld begin a n y fu r t h er
m a t h st u dy MATH 111.
St u den t sh ou ld be pla ced in MATH
210 or MATH 250.
642
APPENDIX
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
AB
35
MATH 151
BC
MATH 151
BC
45
MATH 151
& MATH
152
P a cific Un iver sit y (OR)
AB/BC
45
P ea body Con ser va t or y of Mu sic

of Th e J oh n s H opkin s
Un iver sit y (MD)
AB/BC
45
AB
45
MATH 140
BC
MATH 140
BC
45
MATH 140
& MATH
141
AB
35
MATH 214
& MATH
210.01
BC
35
MATH 210
& MATH
211
P it zer College (CA)
AB/BC
45
P oin t Lom a Na za r en e
Un iver sit y (CA)
AB/BC
AB/BC
45
AB
45
MA 1012 &
MA 1022
BC
45
MA 1012,
1022 & 1112
AB
45
On e cou r se cr edit is given for a scor e

of 4 or 5 on t h e Ca lcu lu s AB or t h e
Ca lcu lu s BC AB Su bscor e wh en
Ca lcu lu s II (Ma t h 31) or it s
equ iva len t h a s been t a ken a n d pa ssed
wit h a gr a de of C- or bet t er.
BC
45
Two cou r se cr edit s a r e given for

Ca lcu lu s BC wh en Ca lcu lu s III (Ma t h
32) or it s equ iva len t h a s been t a ken
a n d pa ssed wit h a gr a de of C- or
bet t er.
AB
34
MATH 201
AB
MATH 201
& MATH
202
BC
34
MATH 201
& MATH
202
School Name
P a cific Lu t h er a n
Un iver sit y (WA)
Th e P en n sylva n ia St a t e
Un iver sit y, Un iver sit y P a r k
Ca m pu s (PA)
P epper din e Un iver sit y (CA)
P olyt ech n ic Un iver sit y, Br ooklyn

Ca m pu s (NY)
P om on a College (CA)
P r esbyt er ia n College (SC)
S tip u la tio n s
643
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
P r esbyt er ia n Collegecon tin u ed
BC
P r in cet on Un iver sit y (NJ )
AB
45
MATH 103
BC
45
MATH 103
& MATH
104
AB/BC
45
School Name
P r oviden ce College (RI)

P u r du e Un iver sit y (IN)
Qu een s Un iver sit y a t

Kin gst on (ON)
Qu in cy Un iver sit y (IL)
Qu in n ipia c Un iver sit y (CT)
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
MATH 201,
202, & 301
AB
45
MA 165
BC
45
MA 165 &
MA 166
AB
45
BC
45
AB/BC
45
MATH 121
AB
45
MA 141
45
MA 141 &
MA 142
Ra n dolph -Ma con Wom a n s

College (VA)
AB/BC
45
Reed College (OR)
AB/BC
45
AB
45
Ca lcu lu s I
BC
Ca lcu lu s I
BC
45
Ca lcu lu s I &
II
Rh odes College (TN)
Rice Un iver sit y (TX)
Roch est er In st it u t e of
Tech n ology (NY)
Two u n it s gr a n t ed u pon su ccessfu l

com plet ion of t h e 200-level cou r se.
(St u den t s wh o do n ot t a ke t h e cou r se
will r eceive t h e AP u n it s t o wh ich
t h eir AB or BC exa m scor es ot h er wise
en t it les t h em .)
TBA
BC
Ren ssela er P olyt ech n ic

In st it u t e (NY)
S tip u la tio n s
AB
45
MATH 121
BC
MATH 121
BC
MATH 121
& MATH
122
AB
45
MATH 101
BC
45
MATH 101
& MATH
102
AB
45
1016281
BC
1016281
BC
1016
281,282
BC
1016
281,282, &
283
644
APPENDIX
School Name
Te s t
Rollin s College (F L)
Rose-H u lm a n In st it u t e of
Tech n ology (IN)
Re qu ire d
S c o re
45
AB
45
MA 111
BC
45
10
MA 111 &
MA 112
45
Ru t ger s, Th e St a t e Un iver sit y of AB/BC

New J er sey, New Br u n swick/
P isca t a wa y (NJ )
45
Sa in t J oh n s Un iver sit y (MN)
Sa in t J oseph s Un iver sit y (PA)
St . La wr en ce Un iver sit y (NY)
St . Lou is College of
P h a r m a cy (MO)
Sa in t Lou is Un iver sit y (MO)
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
AB/BC
Ru t ger s, Th e St a t e Un iver sit y of AB/BC

New J er sey, Newa r k (NJ )
Sa in t F r a n cis Un iver sit y (PA)
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
S tip u la tio n s
AB
MATH 105
& 106 or 111
& 112 or
121 & 122
Scor e of 3 r eceives wa iver fr om on e

of t h e followin g com bin a t ion s:
Ma t h em a t ics 105 a n d 106,
Ma t h em a t ics 111 a n d 112, or
AB
45
MATH 105
& 106 or 111
& 112 or
121 & 122
Scor e of 4 or 5 r eceives cr edit for

on e of t h e followin g com bin a t ion s:
BC
Scor e of 3 r eceives wa iver fr om on e

of t h e followin g com bin a t ion s:
Ma t h em a t ics 121 a n d 122, a n d a lso
r eceives a wa iver fr om Ma t h em a t ics
221 a n d 222.
BC
45
Scor e of 4 or 5 r eceives cr edit for

on e of t h e followin g com bin a t ion s:
Ma t h em a t ics 121 a n d 122, a n d a lso
r eceives cr edit for Ma t h em a t ics 221
a n d 222.
AB
45
MATH 119
BC
MATH 119
BC
45
MATH 119
& MATH
120
AB
45
MAT 1351
All except Biology m a jor s.
AB
45
MAT 1251
Biology on ly.
BC
45
MAT 1351 &

MAT 1361
AB
45
MATH 135
BC
45
MATH 135
& MATH
136
AB/BC
45
AB
45
MT A 142
645
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Sa in t Lou is Un iver sit y

con tin u ed
BC
45
MT A 142 &
MT A 143
Sa in t Ma r ys College (IN)
AB
MATH 105
AB
MATH 105
& MATH
106
AB
MATH 131
& MATH
132
BC
MATH 131
BC
45
MATH 131
& MATH
132
AB
MATH 00E
AB
45
MATH 27
BC
MATH 27
BC
45
MATH 27 &
MATH 28
St . Ma r ys College of
Ma r yla n d (MD)
AB/BC
45
St . Nor ber t College (WI)
AB/BC
35
AB
45
BC
3 w/AB 45
BC
45
Soph level
m a t h cou r se
AB
MATH 100
& MATH
101
Cr edit for Ma t h 100 plu s pla cem en t

in Ma t h 101.
AB
45
MATH 100
& MATH
101
Ma t h 100 plu s pla cem en t in Ma t h

101.
BC
MATH 100, Cr edit for Ma t h 100 a n d 101 plu s

101, & 102 pla cem en t in t o Ma t h 102.
BC
45
MATH 100, Ma t h 100 a n d 101 plu s pla cem en t

101, & 102 in t o Ma t h 102.
AB
35
MATH 240
BC
35
MATH 240
& MATH
260
AB
35
MATH 150
School Name
Sa in t Ma r ys College of
Ca lifor n ia (CA)
St . Ola f College (MN)
Sa lem College (NC)
Sa m for d Un iver sit y (AL)
Sa n Diego St a t e Un iver sit y (CA)
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
S tip u la tio n s
MATH 126
or MATH
128
E xem pt s fr om CSU E n t r y level

Ma t h em a t ics Test .
646
APPENDIX
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Sa n Diego St a t e Un iver sit y

con tin u ed
BC
35
MATH 150
& MATH
151
Sa n t a Cla r a Un iver sit y (CA)
AB
45
MATH 11 &
12 or MATH
30 & 31
BC
MATH 11 or
MATH 30
BC
45
12
Ma t h 11 or
30, 12 or 31,
a n d 13
School Name
Sa r a h La wr en ce College (NY)
AB/BC
45
Scr ipps College (CA)
AB/BC
45
Sea t t le P a cific Un iver sit y (WA)
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
AB
45
MAT 1225
BC
45
10
MAT 1225 &

MAT 1226
AB
MATH 130
AB
MATH 134
AB
10
MATH 134
& MATH
135
BC
MATH 134
BC
10
MATH 134
& MATH
135
BC
10
MATH 134
& MATH
135
Sewa n ee: Th e Un iver sit y of t h e

Sou t h (TN)
AB/BC
45
Sien a College (NY)
AB/BC
45
Sim pson College (IA)
AB/BC
35
AB
45
BC
45
Sea t t le Un iver sit y (WA)
Skidm or e College (NY)
AB/BC
45
Sou t h er n Met h odist

Un iver sit y (TX)
AB
45
MATH 1337
BC
3 w/AB 45
MATH 1337
BC
MATH 1337
BC
MATH 1337
& MATH
1338
AB
35
MAT 1195
If r equ est ed, Ma t h em a t ics

depa r t m en t ca n t est t o see if MATH
136 cr edit ca n a lso be a llowed.
In m ost ca ses su ch cr edit s will cou n t

on ly a s elect ive cr edit t owa r d t h e
degr ee a n d, wit h few except ion s, will
n ot r epla ce specific a ll-college or
m a jor r equ ir em en t s.
Sm it h College (MA)
Sou t h west Ba pt ist

Un iver sit y (MO)
S tip u la tio n s
647
School Name
Sou t h west Ba pt ist Un iver sit y
con tin u ed
Sou t h west er n Un iver sit y (TX)
St a n for d Un iver sit y (CA)
St a t e Un iver sit y of New Yor k a t

Bin gh a m t on (NY)
St a t e Un iver sit y of New Yor k a t

Bu ffa lo (NY)
St a t e Un iver sit y of New Yor k
College a t Gen eseo (NY)
St a t e Un iver sit y of New Yor k

College of E n vir on m en t a l
Scien ce a n d F or est r y (NY)
St et son Un iver sit y (F L)
St even s In st it u t e of
Tech n ology (NJ )
St on eh ill College (MA)
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
BC
35
10
AB/BC
45
34
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
S tip u la tio n s
MAT 1195 &

MAT 2255
AB
MATH 42
AB
10
MATH 51
BC
MATH 42
BC
45
10
MATH 51
AB/BC
34
Un specified
lower-level
math
AB/BC
MATH 221
& 4 cr edit s
of
Un specified
lower-level
math
AB/BC
35
AB
MATH 1TR
AB
45
MATH 221
BC
MATH 221
St u den t s wh o t a ke t h e Ca lcu lu s BC
exa m r eceive a Ca lcu lu s AB su bgr a de.
If a st u den t does n ot qu a lify for BC
cr edit , t h e AB su bgr a de will be u sed
t o det er m in e AB cr edit .
BC
45
MATH 221
& MATH
222
exa m r eceive a Ca lcu lu s AB su bgr a de.
If a st u den t does n ot qu a lify for BC
cr edit , t h e AB su bgr a de will be u sed
t o det er m in e AB cr edit .
AB/BC
45
AB
MS 101
AB
45
MS 201
BC
MS 201
BC
45
MS 201 &
MS 202
AB/BC
45
MA 115 or
MA 117
AB/BC
Ca lcu lu s I
AB/BC
Ca lcu lu s I &
II
BC
w/AB 45
Ca lcu lu s I &
II
648
APPENDIX
School Name
St on y Br ook Un iver sit y, St a t e
Un iver sit y of New Yor k (NY)
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
AB
Non e
S tip u la tio n s
AB
45
MAT 131
BC
45
MAT 131 &

MAT 132
AB/BC
45
AB
MATH 015,
t h e fir st h a lf
of 025, &
pla cem en t
026
AB/BC
MATH 015
BC
MATH 015
& MATH
025
Sweet Br ia r College (VA)
AB/BC
45
Syr a cu se Un iver sit y (NY)
AB
MAT 285 &

MAT 286
AB
45
MAT 285 & E n gin eer in g a n d Com pu t er Scien ce: 4

286 or MAT cr edit s a wa r ded for MAT 295 on ly
295
pen din g r esu lt s of t h e m a t h
pla cem en t exa m in a t ion .
BC
45
MAT 295 & E n gin eer in g a n d Com pu t er Scien ce:

MAT 296
Up t o 8 cr edit s a wa r ded for MAT 295
a n d 296 pen din g r esu lt s of t h e m a t h
pla cem en t exa m in a t ion .
AB
45
MA 106 &
MA 111
A scor e of 3 is su bject t o fa cu lt y
r eview.
BC
45
MA 111 &
MA 112
A scor e of 3 is su bject t o fa cu lt y
r eview.
AB
MAT 140
AB
MAT 151
AB
MAT 151 &

MAT 230
BC
MAT 140
BC
MAT 151
BC
45
MAT 151 &

MAT 230
AB
MATH 1830
AB
MATH 1910
AB
MATH 1910
(sect ion 800)
BC
MATH 1910
Su squ eh a n n a Un iver sit y (PA)
Swa r t h m or e College (PA)
Ta bor College (KS)
Ta ylor Un iver sit y (IN)
Ten n essee Tech n ologica l

Un iver sit y (TN)
In except ion a l ca ses, t h e depa r t m en t

m a y a lso r ecom m en d cr edit for scor es
of 3.
649
School Name
Ten n essee Tech n ologica l
Un iver sit ycon tin u ed
Texa s A&M Un iver sit y (TX)
Texa s Ch r ist ia n Un iver sit y (TX)
Texa s Tech Un iver sit y (TX)
Tr a n sylva n ia Un iver sit y (KY)

Tr in it y College (CT)
Tr in it y Un iver sit y (TX)
Tr u m a n St a t e Un iver sit y (MO)
Tu ft s Un iver sit y (MA)
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
BC
MATH 1910
& MATH
1920
BC
MATH 1910
& MATH
1920
(sect ion 800)
AB
45
MATH 151
Cr edit in MATH 151 m a y be

su bst it u t ed for MATH 131, 142, or
171. Cr edit in MATH 152 m a y be
su bst it u t ed for cr edit in MATH 172.
BC
MATH 151
Cr edit in MATH 151 m a y be

su bst it u t ed for MATH 131, 142, or
171. Cr edit in MATH 152 m a y be
su bst it u t ed for cr edit in MATH 172.
BC
45
MATH 151
& MATH
152
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
AB
35
10524
BC
34
10524
BC
10524,
20524
AB
45
MATH 1351
BC
45
MATH 1351
& MATH
1352
AB/BC
45
AB
45
MATH 131
BC
45
MATH 131
& MATH
132
AB
45
MATH 1311
BC
45
36
MATH 1311
& MATH
1312
AB
MATH 192
S tip u la tio n s
AB
45
MATH 198
BC
35
10
MATH 198
& MATH
263
AB
45
On e a cceler a t ion cr edit , equ iva len t t o

Ma t h em a t ics 11, a n d pla cem en t in t o
Ma t h em a t ics 12.
BC
3 w/AB 45

650
APPENDIX
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
BC
BC
AB
45
MATH 121
BC
MATH 121
BC
45
MATH 121
& MATH
122
Un ion College (NE )
AB/BC
35
Un ion College (NY)
AB/BC
35
AB
35
MAT 211
BC
35
MAT 211 &

MAT 212
AB
45
MA 171
BC
MA 171
BC
45
MA 171 &
MA 172
AB
35
MATH 125
BC
MATH 125
BC
45
MATH 125
& MATH
129
School Name
Tu ft s Un iver sit ycon tin u ed
Tu la n e Un iver sit y (LA)
Un ion Un iver sit y (TN)
Th e Un iver sit y of Ala ba m a in

H u n t sville (AL)
Th e Un iver sit y of Ar izon a (AZ)
Un iver sit y of Ar ka n sa s (AR)
S tip u la tio n s
MATH 11 & P la cem en t in t o MATH 13 or MATH

MATH 12 46
AB
34
MATH 2554
AB
MATH
2554H
BC
34
MATH 2554
& MATH
2564
BC
MATH
2554H &
MATH
2564H
Un iver sit y of Ca lifor n ia ,

Ber keley (CA)
AB/BC
35

Da vis (CA)
AB
Ma xim u m cr edit a llowed: 8 u n it s for

a ll Ma t h em a t ics exa m s
AB
45
Ma t h em a t ics Ma xim u m cr edit a llowed: 8 u n it s for

12, 16A, 17A a ll Ma t h em a t ics exa m s
or 21A
BC
34

12, 16A, 17A a ll Ma t h em a t ics exa m s
or 21A
651
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................

Da viscon tin u ed
BC

Ir vin e (CA)
AB
E lect ive
cr edit on ly
AB
45
MATH 2A
BC
MATH 2A
BC
45
MATH 2A & St u den t s wh o t a ke t h e Ca lcu lu s BC

MATH 2B exa m in a t ion a n d ea r n a su bscor e of 3
or h igh er on t h e Ca lcu lu s AB por t ion
will r eceive cr edit for t h e Ca lcu lu s AB
exa m in a t ion , even if t h ey do n ot
r eceive a scor e of 3 or h igh er on t h e
BC exa m in a t ion .
AB/BC
35
AB
35
MATH 009A Addit ion a l su bject cover a ge m a y be

gr a n t ed a ft er in dividu a l cou n selin g.
BC
35
MATH 009A Addit ion a l su bject cover a ge m a y be

& MATH
gr a n t ed a ft er in dividu a l cou n selin g.
009B
AB
35
Ma t h em a t ics
3A, 15, 34A,
or
equ iva len t
BC
35
Ma t h em a t ics
3A, 3B, 15,
34A, 34B, or
equ iva len t
AB
35
A m a xim u m of on e IN will be gr a n t ed
fr om m a t h em a t ics a n d st a t ist ics.
BC
35
E it h er AP exa m sa t isfies on e IN a n d
Q. Ma xim u m of 8 cr edit s gr a n t ed for
bot h AP exa m s. A m a xim u m of on e IN
will be gr a n t ed fr om m a t h em a t ics a n d
st a t ist ics.
AB
35
MATH 1591
BC
35
MATH 1591
& MATH
2561
AB
35
MAC 2311
School Name
Un iver sit y of Ca lifor n ia , Los

An geles (CA)
River side (CA)
Un iver sit y of Ca lifor n ia , Sa n t a

Ba r ba r a (CA)
Un iver sit y of Ca lifor n ia , Sa n t a

Cr u z (CA)
Un iver sit y of Cen t r a l

Ar ka n sa s (AR)
Un iver sit y of Cen t r a l

F lor ida (F L)
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
S tip u la tio n s

12, 16A-16B, a ll Ma t h em a t ics exa m s
17A-17B or
21A-21B
exa m in a t ion a n d ea r n a su bscor e of 3
or h igh er on t h e Ca lcu lu s AB por t ion
will r eceive cr edit for t h e Ca lcu lu s AB
exa m in a t ion , even if t h ey do n ot
r eceive a scor e of 3 or h igh er on t h e
BC exa m in a t ion .
652
APPENDIX
School Name
Un iver sit y of Cen t r a l F lor ida
con tin u ed
Un iver sit y of Ch ica go (IL)
Un iver sit y of Color a do a t

Bou lder (CO)
Un iver sit y of Con n ect icu t (CT)
Un iver sit y of Da lla s (TX)
Un iver sit y of Da yt on (OH )
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
BC
MAC 2311
BC
45
MAC 2311
& MAC
2312
AB
MATH
15100
A st u den t wh o wish es t o r eceive

cr edit for MATH 15300 or t o r egist er
eit h er for MATH 16100-16200-16300
or for P H YS 14100-14200-14300, or
bot h , is r equ ir ed t o t a ke t h e ca lcu lu s
pla cem en t t est du r in g Or ien t a t ion .
BC
MATH
15100

eit h er for MATH 16100-16200-16300
or for P H YS 14100-14200-14300, or
BC
MATH
15100 &
MATH
15200

eit h er for MATH 16100-16200-16300
or for P H YS 14100-14200-14300, or
AB
45
MATH 1300
or AP P M
1350
BC
12 w/AB
45
MATH 1300
or AP P M
1350
BC
3 w/AB 35
MATH 1300
or AP P M
1350
BC
45
18
MATH 1300
& MATH
2300 or
AP P M 1350
& AP P M
1360
AB
45
MATH 115Q
BC
MATH 115Q
BC
45
MATH 115Q
& MATH
116Q
AB
35
MAT 1404
BC
35
MAT 1404 & Th r ee cr edit s of a ppr oved m a t h m u st

MAT 1411 be t a ken a t t h e Un iver sit y.
AB
45
If a st u den t r eceives a scor e of 3 a n d

pa sses t h e Depa r t m en t of
Ma t h em a t ics t est , 4 cr edit h ou r s will
be given . St u den t s wit h a scor e of 5
m a y be eligible for a ddit ion a l cr edit .
S tip u la tio n s
Th r ee cr edit s of a ppr oved m a t h m u st

be t a ken a t t h e Un iver sit y.
653
School Name
Un iver sit y of Da yt on con tin u ed
Un iver sit y of Dela wa r e (DE )
Un iver sit y of Den ver (CO)
Un iver sit y of E va n sville (IN)

Un iver sit y of F lor ida (F L)
Un iver sit y of Geor gia (GA)
Un iver sit y of Illin ois a t

Ch ica go (IL)
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
BC
BC
AB
35
MATH 241
BC
MATH 241
BC
45
MATH 241
& MATH
242
AB
MATC 4
AB
MATC 4/ 4
elect ive
BC
MATC 4
BC
MATC 4/ 4
elect ive
BC
12
MATC 4/ 8
elect ive
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
S tip u la tio n s
AB/BC
45
AB
35
MAC 2311
Ma t h em a t ics Requ ir em en t .
BC
MAC 2311
BC
45
MAC 2311
& MAC
2312
AB
MATH 1113 St u den t s wh o scor e a 3 on t h e AB t est

sh ou ld be pla ced in t o MATH 2200 a n d
u r ged t o t a ke t h e MAT 1113 Au xilia r y
t est .
AB
45
MATH 2200
BC
34
MATH 2200
BC
MATH 2200
& MATH
2210
AB
12
AB
35
BC
St u den t s in t h is ca t egor y a r e in vit ed

t o t a ke a pr oficien cy exa m in a t ion in
Ma t h em a t ics 180. P a ssin g t h is
exa m in a t ion gives 5 sem est er h ou r s of
cr edit in Ma t h em a t ics 180 a n d
a dva n ced pla cem en t in Ma t h em a t ics
181.
5
MATH 180
Adva n ced P la cem en t in Ma t h em a t ics

181.
St u den t s in t h is ca t egor y a r e in vit ed
t o t a ke a pr oficien cy exa m in a t ion in
Ma t h em a t ics 180. P a ssin g t h is
exa m in a t ion gives 5 sem est er h ou r s of
cr edit in Ma t h em a t ics 180 a n d
a dva n ced pla cem en t in Ma t h em a t ics
181.
654
APPENDIX
School Name
Ch ica gocon tin u ed

Ur ba n a Ch a m pa ign (IL)
Th e Un iver sit y of Iowa (IA)
Un iver sit y of Ka n sa s (KS)

Un iver sit y of Ken t u cky (KY)
Un iver sit y of Ma r yla n d,

Ba lt im or e Cou n t y (MD)
Un iver sit y of Ma r yla n d, College

P a r k (MD)
Un iver sit y of Ma r y
Wa sh in gt on (VA)
Un iver sit y of Mia m i (F L)
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
BC
MATH 180
Adva n ced P la cem en t in Ma t h em a t ics

181.
BC
35
10
MATH 180
& MATH
181
Adva n ced P la cem en t in a n y cou r se for

wh ich Ma t h em a t ics 181 is a
pr er equ isit e.
AB
45
MATH 220
BC
3 w/AB 45
MATH 220
BC
45
MATH 220
& MATH
231
AB
45
22M:017,
22M:021,
22M:025,
22M:031
BC
35
22M:017,
22M:021
022, 22M:
025026,
22M:031
032
S tip u la tio n s
AB/BC
35
MATH 121
AB
35
MA 113
BC
35
MA 113 &
MA 114
4 cr edit h ou r s ea ch for MA 113, 114

wit h a gr a de of CR.
AB
MATH 150
If t h e Ma t h Depa r t m en t a ppr oves

pla cem en t in MATH 152, cr edit for
MATH 151 will be a ssign ed u pon
su ccessfu l com plet ion of MATH 152.
AB
45
MATH 151
BC
MATH 151
BC
45
MATH 151
& MATH
152
AB
45
MATH 140
MATH 141 m a y be com plet ed t h r ou gh

cr edit -by-exa m . MATH 140 fu lfills
bot h CORE -F u n da m en t a l St u dies
Ma t h r equ ir em en t a n d CORE -Ma t h &
F or m a l Rea son in g n on -la b
r equ ir em en t .
BC
45
MATH 140
& MATH
141
St u den t s wh o r eceive cr edit for

MATH 140 or 140 & 141 m a y n ot
r eceive cr edit for MATH 220 or 220 &
221.
AB
35
MATH 0121
BC
35
MATH 0121
& MATH
0122
AB
MTH 131
655
School Name
Un iver sit y of Mia m icon tin u ed
Un iver sit y of Mich iga n (MI)
Un iver sit y of
Mich iga n Dea r bor n (MI)
Un iver sit y of Min n esot a ,

Mor r is (MN)
Un iver sit y of Min n esot a , Twin

Cit ies Ca m pu s (MN)
Un iver sit y of
Missou r iColu m bia (MO)
Un iver sit y of Missou r iKa n sa s

Cit y (MO)
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
BC
MTH 131
BC
MTH 131 &

MTH 132
AB
45
MATH 120
No cr edit for eit h er Ma t h 120 or Ma t h

121 if Ma t h 105 or 115 is elect ed. 2
a ddit ion a l cr edit s for Ma t h 120
gr a n t ed a ft er su ccessfu l com plet ion of
t h is cou r se wit h gr a de of C or bet t er.
BC
45
MATH 120
& MATH
121
No cr edit for eit h er Ma t h 120 or Ma t h

121 if Ma t h 105 or 115 is elect ed. 2
a ddit ion a l cr edit s for ea ch of Ma t h
120 a n d Ma t h 121 gr a n t ed u pon
su ccessfu l com plet ion of t h is cou r se
wit h gr a de of C or bet t er.
AB
35
MATH 115
BC
MATH 115
BC
45
MATH 115
& MATH
116
AB
34
MATH 1021
AB
MATH 1101
S tip u la tio n s
BC
MATH 1101
BC
45
10
MATH 1101
& MATH
1102
AB
35
MATH 1271 F u lfills m a t h em a t ica l t h in kin g

r equ ir em en t .
BC
12 w/AB
35

r equ ir em en t .
BC

r equ ir em en t .
BC
45

& MATH
r equ ir em en t .
1272
AB
35
BC
35
13
AB
35
MATH 110
& MATH
1500
Ma t h 1100 (College Algebr a ) cr edit

will be a dded t o a st u den t s t r a n scr ipt
a t t h e en d of t h e fir st t er m of
en r ollm en t .
MATH 110, Ma t h 1100 (College Algebr a ) cr edit

1500 & 1700 will be a dded t o a st u den t s t r a n scr ipt
a t t h e en d of t h e fir st t er m of
en r ollm en t .
MATH 210
656
APPENDIX
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Un iver sit y of Missou r iKa n sa s

Cit ycon tin u ed
BC
35
MATH 210
& MATH
220
Un iver sit y of
Missou r iRolla (MO)
AB
45
Ma t h /St a t 8
BC
Ma t h /St a t 8
BC
45
10
Ma t h /St a t 8
& 21
AB
35
MATH 106
BC
35
10
MATH 106
& MATH
107
AB
35
MATH 191
BC
MATH 191
BC
45
MATH 191
& MATH
192
AB
35
MATH 110P
& MATH
231
AB
35
MATH 110P
& MATH
231 &
MATH 232
AB
35
MAT 161
BC
35
MAT 161 &

MAT 162
AB
35
MAC 2311
BC
MAC 2311
BC
45
MAC 2311
& MAC
2312
AB
45
MATH
10550
AB/BC
MATH
10250
BC
45
MATH
10550 &
MATH
10560
AB
35
MATH 1823
BC
MATH 1823
BC
45
MATH 1823
& MATH
2423
AB
School Name
Un iver sit y of Nebr a ska

Lin coln (NE )
Th e Un iver sit y of Nor t h

Ca r olin a a t Ash eville (NC)

Ca r olin a a t Ch a pel H ill (NC)

Ca r olin a Wilm in gt on (NC)
Un iver sit y of Nor t h F lor ida (F L)
Un iver sit y of Not r e Da m e (IN)
Un iver sit y of Okla h om a (OK)
Un iver sit y of P en n sylva n ia (PA)
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
n o cr edit
S tip u la tio n s
657
School Name
Un iver sit y of P en n sylva n ia
con tin u ed
Un iver sit y of P it t sbu r gh (PA)
Un iver sit y of P u get Sou n d (WA)
Un iver sit y of Redla n ds (CA)

Un iver sit y of Rh ode Isla n d (RI)
Un iver sit y of Rich m on d (VA)
Un iver sit y of Roch est er (NY)
Un iver sit y of St . Th om a s (MN)
Un iver sit y of St . Th om a s (TX)
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
BC
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
MATH 104
S tip u la tio n s
An in t er n a l depa r t m en t a l
exa m in a t ion is a lso a va ila ble for
cr edit .
AB
35
MATH 0220
BC
35
MATH 0220
& MATH
0230
AB
35
MATH 121
Cr edit is n ot a llowed for bot h AB a n d

BC exa m s.
BC
35
MATH 121
& MATH
122
Cr edit is n ot a llowed for bot h AB a n d

BC exa m s.
AB/BC
35
AB
35
MATH 111
& MATH
141
St u den t s scor in g a 3 on t h ese AP

t est s sh ou ld con su lt a URI a ca dem ic
a dvisor for a ppr opr ia t e cla ss
pla cem en t .
BC
35
MATH 141
& MATH
142
St u den t s scor in g a 3 on t h ese AP

t est s sh ou ld con su lt a URI a ca dem ic
a dvisor for a ppr opr ia t e cla ss
pla cem en t .
AB
45
MATH 211
BC
45
MATH 211
& MATH
212
AB
23
AB
45
BC
BC
BC
45
P la cem en t in MTH 161, 161Q or 162

det er m in ed by depa r t m en t . If pla ced
in MTH 162 a n d ea r n s C- or bet t er,
cr edit given for MTH 161.
MTH 161
P la cem en t in MTH 162 or 171Q.

P la cem en t in MTH 161, 161Q or 162
det er m in ed by depa r t m en t . If pla ced
in MTH 162 a n d ea r n s C- or bet t er,
cr edit gr a n t ed for MTH 161.
MTH 161
P la cem en t in MTH 162 or 171Q.
MTH 161 & P la cem en t in MTH 163, 164, 165, or

MTH 162 173Q by depa r t m en t . St u den t m a y
ch oose t o r egist er for MTH 171Q a n d
r eceive cr edit for MTH 161 bu t n ot
162.
AB
35
MATH 113
BC
35
MATH 113
& MATH
114
BC
35 w/AB
35
MATH 113
AB
45
MATH 1431
658
APPENDIX
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
BC
45
Un iver sit y of Sa n Diego (CA)
AB/BC
35
Th e Un iver sit y of Scr a n t on (PA)
AB/BC
45
AB
35
MATH 141
BC
35
MATH 141
& MATH
142
AB/BC
35
AB
35
MATH 151
& MATH
152
BC
35
MATH 151,
152, 161, &
162
AB
M 408C, B
AB
45
M 408C, A
BC
M 408C, B
or M 408K,
408L, B
BC
M 408C, A
or M 408K,
A; M 408L,
B
BC
M 408C, A
or M 408K,
408L, A
AB
MATH 2312
AB
45
MATH 2312
& MATH
1325
BC
MATH 2312
& MATH
1325
BC
MATH 2312
1 2417 or
MATH 2312
1 1325
School Name
Un iver sit y of St . Th om a s
con tin u ed
Un iver sit y of Sou t h

Ca r olin a (SC)
Un iver sit y of Sou t h er n

Ca lifor n ia (CA)
Th e Un iver sit y of Ten n essee a t
Ch a t t a n ooga (TN)
Th e Un iver sit y of Texa s a t

Au st in (TX)

Da lla s (TX)
S tip u la tio n s
MATH 1431 Th e Ma t h em a t ics Depa r t m en t offer s a

& MATH
collect ion of pla cem en t exa m s for
1432
en t r y-level st u den t s. An a pplica n t
wit h a scor e of 4 or 5 on a n AB
por t ion of t h e Adva n ced P la cem en t
exa m in Ma t h em a t ics will ea r n fou r
h ou r s of cr edit for MATH 1431.
36
St u den t s wh o scor e a 1 or 2 bu t
r eceive a 3 or a bove on t h e Ca lcu lu s
AB su bscor e will ea r n cr edit for
MATH 141.
659
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re

Da lla scon tin u ed
BC
Un iver sit y of t h e P a cific (CA)
AB
45
MATH 51
BC
45
MATH 53
Un iver sit y of t h e Scien ces in

P h ila delph ia (PA)
AB/BC
35
School Name
Un iver sit y of Tu lsa (OK)
Un iver sit y of Ut a h (UT)
Un iver sit y of Vir gin ia (VA)
Un iver sit y of Wa sh in gt on (WA)
S tip u la tio n s
MATH 2312
1 2417 or
MATH 1325
1 1326[]
AB
35
MATH 2014
BC
35
MATH 2014
& MATH
2024
AB
35
QA/QB
P la cem en t by Depa r t m en t . A scor e of
Requ ir em en t 2 in t h e Ca lcu lu s AB or Ca lcu lu s BC
will wa ive t h e QA Requ ir em en t bu t
n o cr edit h ou r s will be a wa r ded.
BC
35
QA/QB
A scor e of 2 in t h e Ca lcu lu s AB or
Requ ir em en t Ca lcu lu s BC will wa ive t h e QA
Requ ir em en t bu t n o cr edit h ou r s will
be a wa r ded. P la cem en t by
Depa r t m en t .
AB
45
MATH 131
BC
45
MATH 131
& MATH
132
AB
AB
34
MATH 124
AB
10
MATH 124
& MATH
125
BC
2 w/AB 35
MATH 124
F ir st qu a r t er of ca lcu lu s. Cou n t s
t owa r d Na t u r a l Wor ld gen er a l
edu ca t ion r equ ir em en t for gr a du a t ion .
Also sa t isfies Qu a n t it a t ive a n d
Sym bolic Rea son in g gr a du a t ion
r equ ir em en t .
BC
MATH 124
F ir st qu a r t er of ca lcu lu s. Cou n t s
r equ ir em en t .
BC
45
10
MATH 124
& MATH
125
F ir st t wo qu a r t er s of ca lcu lu s. Cou n t s
r equ ir em en t .
P la cem en t on ly in t o MATH 124.

P la cem en t in t o fir st qu a r t er of
ca lcu lu s.
F ir st qu a r t er of ca lcu lu s.
660
APPENDIX
School Name
Un iver sit y of Wiscon sin La
Cr osse (WI)
Un iver sit y of Wiscon sin
Ma dison (WI)
Un iver sit y of Wiscon sin River

F a lls (WI)
Ur sin u s College (PA)

Va lpa r a iso Un iver sit y (IN)
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
AB/BC
35
MATH 207
AB
AB
45
MATH 221
BC
MATH 221
BC
35
10
MATH 221
& MATH
222
AB
35
MATH 166
BC
MATH 166
BC
45
MATH 166
& MATH
167
AB/BC
45
Ma t h em a t ics E xem pt fr om Qu a n t it a t ive Rea son in g

E lect ives
P a r t A.
AB
MATH 131
AB
MATH 131
& MATH
132
BC
MATH 131
BC
45
MATH 131
& MATH
132
AB
45
MATH 150a
& MATH
150b
BC
3 w/AB 45
MATH 150a
& MATH
150b
BC
45
MATH 155a
& MATH
155b
Va ssa r College (NY)
AB/BC
45
Villa n ova Un iver sit y (PA)
AB/BC
45
AB
35
MA 115
BC
35
MA 115 &
MA 116
AB
35
MATH 1205
BC
MATH 1205
BC
45
MATH 1205
& MATH
1206
Va n der bilt Un iver sit y (TN)
Vir gin ia Milit a r y In st it u t e (VA)
Vir gin ia P olyt ech n ic In st it u t e

a n d St a t e Un iver sit y (VA)
S tip u la tio n s
661
School Name
Wa ba sh College (IN)
Wa gn er College (NY)
Wa ke F or est Un iver sit y (NC)
Wa r t bu r g College (IA)
Wa sh in gt on & J effer son

College (PA)
Wa sh in gt on a n d Lee
Un iver sit y (VA)
Wa sh in gt on College (MD)
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
AB
45
BC
45
AB/BC
45
AB
45
MTH 555
BC
MTH 555
MTH 111
Th e except ion bein g for E n glish

Com posit ion , Ma t h em a t ics, a n d
Moder n a n d An cien t la n gu a ges, wh er e
t h e depa r t m en t m a y gr a n t or den y
Adva n ced P la cem en t cr edit ba sed on
pr oficien cy exa m per for m a n ce a n d
m a y wa ive t h e a ddit ion a l cou r se
r equ ir em en t .
BC
45
AB/BC
MA 201
AB/BC
45
MA 201 &
MA 202
AB/BC
45
AB
MATH 101
BC
MATH 101
& MATH
102
AB
35
MAT 201
BC
35
MAT 201 &

MAT 202
AB
AB
BC
BC
AB
45
MATH 115
BC
MATH 115
BC
45
MATH 115
& 116 or
MATH 115
& 120
Wells College (NY)
AB/BC
45
Wesleya n College (GA)
AB/BC
45
AB
45
Wa sh in gt on Un iver sit y in St .
Lou is (MO)
Wellesley College (MA)
Wesleya n Un iver sit y (CT)
S tip u la tio n s
Ta ke Ma t h P la cem en t t est . You will

pr oba bly be pla ced in t o Ma t h 132.
3
MATH 131
You will be pla ced in MATH 132.

Ta ke Ma t h P la cem en t t est . You will
pr oba bly be pla ced in t o Ma t h 233.
MATH 131
& MATH
132
You will be pla ced in t o Ma t h 233. An

AB Su bscor e of 5 will ea r n 3 u n it s of
cr edit for Ma t h 131.
Wesleya n cou r ses r equ ir ed for cr edit :

St u den t m u st com plet e a n y 200-level
m a t h em a t ics cou r se wit h a gr a de of
C- or bet t er.
662
APPENDIX
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
BC

Th e st u den t pa sses Ma t h 122 or a
200-level Ma t h em a t ics cou r se wit h a
gr a de of C- or bet t er.
BC
45

St u den t m u st com plet e a n y 200-level
m a t h em a t ics cou r se wit h a gr a de of
C- or bet t er.
AB/BC
35
MATH 240
&
Qu a n t it a t ive
& Sym bolic
Rea son in g
AB
MATH 141
& MATH
100T
AB
45
MATH 141
& MATH
201
BC
MATH 141
& MATH
201
BC
45
MATH 201
& MATH
202
West m on t College (CA)
AB/BC
45
Wh ea t on College (MA)
AB/BC
45
Wh it m a n College (WA)
AB
45
MATH 125
BC
45
MATH 125
& MATH
126
AB
34
MA 110
AB
MA 110 &
MA 111
BC
35
MA 110 &
MA 111
AB
45
MATH 141
Cr edit for t h ese cou r ses m a y be

a pplied t owa r d t h e Qu a n t it a t ive a n d
An a lyt ica l Rea son in g r equ ir em en t .
BC
MATH 141

BC
MATH 141
& MATH
142

AB
45
GE N 104
BC
45
GE N 104 &
MAT 200
School Name
Wesleya n Un iver sit ycon tin u ed
West er n Wa sh in gt on
Un iver sit y (WA)
West m in st er College (UT)
Wh it wor t h College (WA)
Willa m et t e Un iver sit y (OR)
Willia m J ewell College (MO)
S tip u la tio n s
St u den t m a y r eceive cr edit for eit h er

AB or BC, bu t n ot bot h u n less
r ecom m en ded by Ma t h em a t ics
Depa r t m en t a ft er pla cem en t .
663
Cre d its
Gra n te d
.................................................................
Co u rs e
Wa iv e d
Te s t
Re qu ire d
S c o re
AB
23
MATH 104 If a scor e of 4 or 5 is ea r n ed on t h e

& STAT 101 Ca lcu lu sAB t est , t h e st u den t is
eligible t o r edu ce t h e r equ ir em en t s in
t h e Ma t h m a jor by on e cou r se. If
cou r se cr edit is bla n k, t h er e is n o
r edu ct ion in t h e n u m ber of cou r ses
r equ ir ed for t h a t m a jor.
AB
45
MATH 104,
105, 251, &
STAT 201
BC
12
MATH 104 If a scor e of 4 or 5 is ea r n ed on t h e

& STAT 101 Ca lcu lu sAB t est , t h e st u den t is
eligible t o r edu ce t h e r equ ir em en t s in
t h e Ma t h m a jor by on e cou r se. If
cou r se cr edit is bla n k, t h er e is n o
r edu ct ion in t h e n u m ber of cou r ses
r equ ir ed for t h a t m a jor.
BC
35
MATH 104,
106, 251 &
STAT 201
Win on a St a t e Un iver sit y (MN)
AB/BC
35
Wit t en ber g Un iver sit y (OH )
AB/BC
45
School Name
Willia m s College (MA)
Woffor d College (SC)
Wor cest er P olyt ech n ic

In st it u t e (MA)
Xa vier Un iver sit y (OH )
AB
45
MATH 181
BC
MATH 181
BC
45
MATH 181
& MATH
182
AB
45
MA 1021 &
MA 1022
BC
45
MA 1021,
1022, &
1023
AB
35
MATH 170
BC
MATH 170
BC
45
MATH 170
& MATH
171
S tip u la tio n s
NOTES
NOTES
NOTES
NOTES
NOTES
NOTES
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PETERSONS

ARCO is a r egist er ed t r a dem a r k of P et er son s, a n d is u sed h er ein u n der licen se by P et er son s.

Secon d E dit ion

OTHER RECOMMENDED TITLES

PART I: AP CALCULUS AB & BC BASICS

All About the AP Calculus AB & BC Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

PART II: AP CALCULUS AB & BC REVIEW

P a r a m et r ic E qu a t ion s (BC Topic On ly) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Limits and Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Advanced Topics in Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Applications of the Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Advanced Methods of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

H a n ds-On Act ivit y 7.1: Appr oxim a t in g Ar ea wit h

Tech n ology: Dr a win g Der iva t ive a n d In t egr a l Gr a ph s

Sequences and Series (BC Topics Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . .

PART III: FOUR PRACTICE TESTS

Practice Test 2: AP Calculus AB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Practice Test 3: AP Calculus BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569

Logist ic Gr owt h (BC Topic On ly) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Practice Test 4: AP Calculus BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ac know led g m ents

My bea u t ifu l br ide Lisa , wh o t ea ch es m e ever y da y t h a t bein g m a r r ied t o

Mom , wh o t a u gh t m e t o r ise a bove t h e cir cu m st a n ce.

My br ot h er Da ve (Th e Da wg), wh o t a u gh t m e t h a t life is pr et t y fu n n y

My best fr ien ds Rob H a lst ea d, Ch r is Sa r a m pot e, a n d Ma t t H a ln on , wh o

My pr in cipa ls, Geor ge Miller a n d Tom m y Tu cker, wh o h a ve given m e

My st u den t s, wh o m a ke m y job a n d m y life h a ppier t h a n t h ey cou ld ever

Su e St r ickla n d, wh o in spir ed in m e a love of t ea ch in g a n d wh o t a u gh t m y

Ma r k Wildin g, for n ot sa yin g, Ar e you cr a zy?

Th e F in ley boys: J a m es, for h is gr ea t qu est ion s, wr it t en specifica lly t o

Th e Big Ma t h em a t icia n in t h e Sky, wh o (m er cifu lly) m a kes st r a igh t t h e

F in a lly, wr est lin g legen d Koko B. Wa r e, beca u se Ch r is t h ou gh t t h a t wou ld

Before You Beg in

To p 10 S tra te g ie s to Ra is e Yo u r S c o re offer s you t r ied a n d t r u e

P a rt I in clu des t h e ba sic in for m a t ion a bou t t h e AP Ca lcu lu s t est t h a t you

P a rt II pr ovides r eviews a n d st r a t egies for a n swer in g t h e differ en t kin ds

Th e Ap p e n d ix is design ed t o pr ovide you wit h a n ea sy r efer en ce t o t h e

SPECIAL STUDY FEATURES

Before You Begin

con t en t of t h ese st r a t egy ch a pt er s. In a ddit ion , be su r e t o look in t h e pa ge m a r gin s of

Bonus Informa tion

YOURE WELL ON YOUR WAY TO SUCCESS

GIVE US YOUR FEEDBACK

Before You Begin

MIKE KELLEYS HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

Understa nding Versus Ma stering: Ca lculus Reform

Before You Begin

r a t h er t h a n a com plex a n d even bea u t ifu l logica l syst em . Ca lcu lu s is so m u ch m or e t h a n

Wha t Ma kes This Book Different

Before You Begin

H a n ds-on a ct ivit ies or gu ided pr a ct ice t o in t r odu ce a n d t ea ch a ll of t h e m a jor

Com m on E r r or s den ot ed du r in g pr a ct ice pr oblem s a n d n ot es so t h a t you ca n

E xer cises a t t h e en d of ea ch sect ion t o pr a ct ice t h e skills you ju st lea r n ed

Addit ion a l pr oblem s a t t h e en d of ea ch ch a pt er t o r eview you r skills a n d ch a llen ge you

J a m es Dia bolica l Dilem m a P r oblem s a t t h e en d of ea ch ch a pt er a r e wr it t en by a

Before You Begin

QUICK REFERENCE GUIDE

Before You Begin

*P a r a m et r ic der iva t ives:

Before You Begin

Deriva tive Applica tions

s t = 12 gt2 + v0t + h0 ; g 5 9.8 m /s 2 or 32 ft /s 2

P ower Ru le for In t egr a ls: xn dx = x

*csc x d x 5 2ln U csc x + cot x U 1 C

Peterson's Master AP Calculus

Peterson's Master AP Calculus

In t egr a t ion by P a r t s: u d v 5 u v 2 *vd u