Chapter 19

A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

LECTURE OUTLINE

earth
Portrait of a Planet
Third Edition
2008 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Prepared by

Ronald Parker
Earlham College Department of Geosciences
Richmond, Indiana

Groundwater
Significant amounts of water reside underground. It is
A major component of the hydrologic cycle.
A major source of water for a thirsty world.
Largely hidden from view.

Thus, groundwater is poorly understood by many people.

It is a precious resource that is susceptible to contamination.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

The Hydrologic Cycle

Groundwater is a component of the hydrologic cycle.
Hydrologic cycle processes.
Evaporation.
Transpiration.
Precipitation.
Infiltration.
Runoff.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

The Underground Reservoir

Some precipitation enters the subsurface via infiltration.
Soil properties and vegetation govern infiltration rate.
Infiltrated water adds to soil moisture and groundwater.
Soil moisture wets the soil.
Some is wicked up by roots, some is evaporated.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

The Underground Reservoir

Some infiltrated water percolates to a deeper level.
It is added to water that fills subsurface void spaces.
This is groundwater.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Porosity
Groundwater resides in subsurface pore spaces.
Pores are open spaces within any sediment or rock.
The total volume of open space is termed porosity.
Geologic materials exhibit a wide range of porosities.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Porosity
Two categories of

porosity: primary and

secondary.
Primary porosity
Originally formed with
the material.

Voids in sediment.
Vesicles in basalt.
Open reef framework.
Primary porosity may

decrease.

With burial
compaction.
With cementation.
Crystalline rocks have

very little primary

porosity.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Porosity
Two categories

of porosity.
Secondary

porosity
Developed
after rock
formation.

Fracturing.
Faulting.
Dissolution.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Permeability
The ease of water flow due to pore interconnectedness.
High-permeability material allows water to flow readily.
Water flows slowly through low-permeability material.
Many large and straight flow paths enhance permeability.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Aquifers and Aquitards

Aquifer Sediment or rock that transmits water easily.
Aquitard Sediment or rock that hinders water flow.
Aquifers and aquitards are commonly interlayered.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Aquifers and Aquitards

Unconfined An aquifer that intersects the surface.
In contact with the atmosphere.
Easily contaminated.
Confined An aquifer beneath an aquitard.
Isolated from the surface.
Less susceptible to pollution.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Aquifers and Aquitards

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

The Water Table

The water table is a subsurface boundary.
Above the water table, pores are mostly filled with air.

This is called the vadose (or unsaturated) zone.

Below the water table, pores are filled with water.

This is called the phreatic (or saturated) zone.

The capillary fringe separates the two zones.

Formed of moisture wicked upward above the water table.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

The Water Table

The depth to the water table is variable.
In humid settings, the water table is closer to the surface.
In arid settings, it may be 10s to 100s of meters down.
Perennial surface water exposes the water table.
Streams.
Lakes and ponds.
Wetlands.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

The Water Table

The water table is the top of the zone of saturation.
Water table position changes with rainfall.
During seasonally rainy periods, the water table rises.
During prolonged droughts, the water table falls.
Ponds dry up if the water table falls below the bottom.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Water Table Topography

The water table is not flat; it is a sloping surface.
The water table is a subdued replica of the topography.
The water table is high where the land is high.
The water table is low where the land is low.
Water flows from higher elevations to lower elevations.
Topography is useful for estimating groundwater flow.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Perched Water Tables

Discontinuous

aquitards may exist in

the subsurface.
These arrest
downward infiltration
to the water table.
These aquitards form
perched water tables.
Overlie
unsaturated
material.
Represent a false
water table.
More easily
dewatered.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Groundwater Flow
Groundwater

flows slowly
under the
influence of
gravity.
Flow in the
unsaturated
zone is
straight
downward.
In the
saturated
zone, flow is
more
complicated.
Governed
by gravity
and
pressure.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Groundwater Flow
Hydraulic head, potential

energy driving flow, is due

to
Elevation above sea level.
Pressure exerted by
weight of overlying water.
In the illustration below, the
hydraulic head at p1 > p2.
They have the same
elevation.
The weight of water over
p1 is greater than that over
p2.
A piezometer is used to
measure hydraulic head.
An open-ended pipe.
Installed below the water
table.
Water level is the
hydraulic head.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Groundwater Flow
Groundwater flow occurs on a variety of scales.
Local Shallow flow over short times and distances.
Intermediate Flow of moderate depth, time, and distance.
Regional Deep, long-distance, long-duration flow.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Groundwater Flow Rates

Groundwater movement is slow relative to surface water.
It must percolate through pore openings.
Flow is further slowed by friction and electrostatic forces.
Typical rates of flow.
Ocean currents
3 km / hour
Steep river channel 30 km / hour
Groundwater
0.00002 km / hour

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Groundwater Flow
Geologic

conditions vary in
the subsurface.
Darcys law
predicts flow
increase with an
increase in
Hydraulic
conductivity,
or
Hydraulic
gradient.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Tapping Groundwater
With drawdown, the water table near the well drops.
Water table decline forms a cone of depression.
A downward-pointed cone-shaped surface.
Steepest near the well; flattens with distance.
The cone may expand outward with continued pumping.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Tapping Groundwater
Drawdown from multiple wells in an area is additive.
Cones of depression often interfere.
A small well creates a small cone.
A large well creates a large cone.
One may dewater the other.
Competing uses often conflict.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Groundwater Depletion
Severe water table decline can alter surface water flow.
By capturing flow, wells may dewater streams and lakes.
Especially problematic in
arid and semi-arid regions.

San Pedro River,

SE Arizona.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Groundwater Depletion
Cones of depression are capable of reversing flow.
An expanding cone may capture pollutants.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Groundwater Contamination
There are many sources of groundwater contamination.
Pollution is often not recognized until damage occurs.
Groundwater cleanup is slow, expensive, and limited.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Groundwater Contamination
Sanitary wastes.
Failing septic systems.
Animal feedlot runoff.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Groundwater Contamination
Toxic chemicals.
Industrial wastes.
Paints and thinners.
Degreasers and solvents.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Sources of Contamination
Toxic chemicals.
Petroleum storage.

Underground storage tanks (USTs).

Gas stations.
Petroleum terminals.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Sources of Contamination
Toxic chemicals.
Landfill leachate.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Sources of Contamination
Toxic chemicals.
Mining wastes

Mine overburden and spoil.

Mill processing tailings.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Groundwater Contamination
Two broad categories of contaminant introduction.
Point source A contaminant plume emanates from 1 spot.

Concentrations are highest near the source. Concentrations decrease with distance
Nonpoint source Pollution introduced over a broad area.

Concentrations diffused across a region. More difficult to identify and address.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Groundwater Contamination
Groundwater contaminant plumes change over time.
They grow in length with groundwater flow.
They grow in width by diffusion and dispersion.
Large plumes pollute large areas and affect many people.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater

Groundwater Contamination
Contaminant remediation is expensive.

Most remedial strategies include removing the source.

Pump and treat.
Volatilize and vaporize.
Steam clean.

Bioremediation utilizes bacteria to clean groundwater.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 19: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater