Matthew O'Donnell Analyzes Revolutionary Violence in Ireland

Faculty of Arts, Celtic Studies & Philosophy NUIM
Revolution
Author(s): Matthew O'Donnell
Source: The Maynooth Review / Revie Mh Nuad, Vol. 2, No. 1 (Jun., 1976), pp. 3-21
Published by: Faculty of Arts, Celtic Studies & Philosophy NUIM
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20556880
Accessed: 27-05-2015 14:07 UTC
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/
info/about/policies/terms.jsp
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content
in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship.
For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
Faculty of Arts, Celtic Studies & Philosophy NUIM is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The
Maynooth Review / Revie Mh Nuad.
http://www.jstor.org
This content downloaded from 197.210.197.27 on Wed, 27 May 2015 14:07:08 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Matthew
O'Doimell
Revolution
'revolution' has been devalued

spread.
by being so widely
and tech
not only in political organisation
One hears of revolutions
nology, but also in tastes and toothpaste. Even when one confines the
term to political
the phenomenon
is still one of impressive
revolution
and variety. In this article I shall not attempt any com
complexity
The
word
treatment of revolution,
prehensive
of it which I believe
characteristics
but only to indicate certain general

to be relevant to its evaluation.
CONDEMNATION AND ACCLAMATION

are frequently
if successful,
subsequently,
has
Revolution
American
of
Revolution
and the Irish
Revolutions
and
greeted, at the time, by condemnation;
1976
In
this
the
of
acclamation.
year
by
and the French Revolution
few detractors,
1916 have equally few. But in their various

times
very generally condemned.
of revolution
This suggests that the evaluation
presents a problem.
some way where
be
If it is right, it is right in its time; and there should
by that Tightness can be recognised at the time. The later emergence
who must decide
is of no use to the contemporaries
of a consensus
they were
whether
to support, resist or ignore the revolution.

In fact it seems that
in its time; which
seldom recognise a good revolution
for recognition
is not generally
handicapped
by one's
contemporaries
is remarkable,
being present.
I would suggest that there are a number of reasons why people
to condemn a revolution
in its time and acclaim it subsequently.
tend
revolution
itself in the traditions of
(1) The successful
incorporates
a people, and thus acquires a kind of sanctity. Veneration
is paid to it
as one source of the values enshrined
in one's society. This veneration
however, does not necessarily
imply that the present supporters of the
historic revolution would have been supporters at the time; nor does it
in the present
guarantee that they would support revolutionary measures
THE MAYNOOTH
REVIEW
condemna
situation. Contemporary
in any conceivable
not
are
are
not
continuous;
judgements
they
tion and later veneration
about the same thing. The o??q is a judgement about a revolution which
in the
the other is a component
is currently
impinging on the judger,
reaction of a citizen.
overall patriotic
is that people
of explanation
line
Another
judge badly in areas
(2)
to making
where they are unaccustomed
judgements. An ornithologist
will recognise a bar-tailed godwit, a fisherman the signs of an approach
in
an attractive
investment prospect, because
ing storm, a stockbroker
to making
such judgements. As the citizen
each case he is accustomed
situation
or
it is not really surprising

to judging of revolutions,
is not accustomed
that he should judge badly.
the old
is that we tend to favour
(3) A third line of explanation
is a kind of principle of inertia in our judgements
familiar ways. There
the obvious virtues of
the familiarity of the old can outweigh
whereby
the new. The dice will always be loaded against the approval of re
volution by the people
it affects, simply on account of the radically
disturbing nature of revolution. This influence, however, does not bear
on subsequent generations;
for the radical disturbance
is away in the
and
it
to
state
has
the
of affairs.
contributed
past,
present
producing
The past revolution
It
is tame and familiar.
is entirely understandable
that it does not produce
the fear and hostility generated by a presently
operative revolution.
to its con
is that revolution,
consideration
(4) A fourth explanatory
is a project, a promise, a hope. It is an offering on the
temporaries,
altar of an idealised future. The future may be better or worse than the
is in pro
present as a result of the revolution; but while the revolution
no
one
It
easier
knows.
is
for
later
to
much
gress
approve
generations
on account of the changes which
of the revolution
it has wrought.
ADMIRATION AND REVULSION

The
variation
in people's
historical
of revolution
is paral
judgement
leled by an ambivalence within the individual's
The
revolu
judgement.
and revulsion
admiration
in the
tionary may provoke
simultaneously
same
person.
is a natural sympathy with the revolutionary

as the underdog.
is the one on the run, living in fear and discomfort,
who survives
the odds.
is also admiration
There
for the revolutionary.
against
to his efficiency,
This
relates
even more
but
to
importantly
his qualities
of courage
and
In fact admiration
self-sacrifice.
is
There
He
REVOLUTION
is lack
even if efficiency
to courage and self-sacrifice
out
broken
has
one
who
is also admired as the
ing. The revolutionary
exhilaration,
is seen as a life of excitement,
intensity,
of the rut. His
that he
the violence
to the dullness of routine. And
which contrasts
con
can be seen as a kind of thrust and initiative which
practises
no
need
is
lives. There
trasts to the passivity and drift of most men's
even though they
admire revolutionaries
to labour the point. People
of
might not ever join them, or support them or even formally approve
what they do.
This admiration however
is balanced by revulsion at the revolution
often
accorded
It is sadden
but not cancelled.
balanced,
ary's killing and destroying;
- should
men
it
men
reason.
And
and
for
that
die;
any
any
ing
that men - any men - should kill; and for any reason.
is saddening
The destruction
of property is saddening
is the spore
too, for property
of human living. Its destruction
it deprives some
is saddening because
one not of a possession but of part of what his life has been. Politically
is only incidentally a modification
destruction
of the material
it
is
the hurting of people
in order to coerce
environment;
essentially
them. To stamp out a child's sandcastle
to deprive
is not principally
him of something but rather to negate what he has done. It is less a
than an affront.
deprivation
motivated
revulsion because he is a destroyer. He

provokes
revolutionary
and the better may be badly needed,
to
rebuild
better,
may destroy
remains and will
and there may be no better way. But the revolution
the
in
the
realm
of
remain
regrettable.
always
The
is quite independent of
of revolution, however,
to it. The person who is appalled by it is not
to moral disapproval,
and the person who admires it is not
committed
to moral approval. Furthermore,
committed
these opposite
emotional
Both the admiration
reactions are not incompatible.
and the revulsion
are uncritical
untutored
and neither determines
the moral
reactions,
The moral evaluation
emotive reaction
one's
judgement.
Prior to detailed
reflection one is then inclined to regard revolution
as
neither
is a question mark
simply right nor as simply wrong. There
against it. Such question marks may be left there for ever, unless one
feels called on to take a stand. Most of us do not feel obliged to hold
views on the value of the cultural achievements
of the Ming
dynasty.
But in this country at this time one surely is called to try to arrive
at some rational convictions
the morality
of revolutionary
concerning
violence.
To
do
this one must
first stand back
a little from
the problem,
to
THE MAYNOOTH
enquire what kind of

is.
its purpose
what
thing
revolution
REVIEW
is, why
it is engaged
in and
SOCIETY AND PATRIOTISM

a state for the
for drastically
is a procedure
Revolution
reorganising
benefit of its people. It is a truism that men are social beings but not a
character
of human
to the essential
It points
triviality.
sociability.
to
an
which
not
is a
is
individuality
something
superadded
Sociability
to
be
what
rather
of
it
is
is
total humanity;
human.
part
sociability
is both a unity
So society, in the sense of a coming together of men
It is not the nominal unity and real multiplicity
and a multiplicity.
of a
nor
a
of
instinctive
of
Neither
is
it
the
herd.
the
stones,
unity
heap
- like the class of whole numbers
a
of
humans
of
class
logical unity
- with
as the membership
for belonging
to
determinant;
humanity
is
a
ex
cf
union
which
is
of
part
society
persons
humanity.
Society
of the many.
presses itself as the equality and interdependence
Such an approach
to society is, no doubt, an attractive
ideal, but it
is not what happens.
In fact people are jealous, selfish, uncooperative
and
these qualities.
lazy, and society is the area in which they exercise
own destruction.
its
seeds
of
the
contains
in
other
words,
Society,
survive
it must be made
is that it survives at all. But
The wonder
it. The state is the necessary
because men would be truncated without
to ensure that the
source of supervision and coercion which are needed
in society what he can
individual has a reasonable chance of achieving
tendencies
and should achieve. It is there to ensure that the anti-social
that human fellowship will have an oppor
of men shall not prevail;
tunity to flourish.
This is the line of thought that is summed up in the old adage 'the
state is a natural society'. It is in the nature of things that there be
states; it is not the result of chance or human decision. That there be
for human
states is dictated by the imperative need of association
of
and by the need for the organisation
and supervision
development,
such association.
States are inevitable; but the number, extent and political
structure
can
of individual
states are not predetermined
in any way. These
in the course of history.
very radically
changed
of
for
it was
in
with what
instance,
map
Compare
today's
Europe,
Roman
times and in the early years of this century.
States change
for many
wars,
reasons, because of empire-building,
economic
not
decadence
accidents,
factors,
dynastic
and,
least, by
change,
and
have
REVOLUTION
is always
the sheer coup d'etat, revolution
If we discount
revolution.
it
is
not
state's
with
the
dissatisfaction
doing
performance;
motivated
by
in
traditional
the
Its
function
to
do.
what
is
there
citizens
is,
it
for its
the common good' or, in the words of the 1916
'to promote
phrase,
cherish
'to
all the children of the nation equally'.
Proclamation
further in
to
It is hardly possible
specify this function very much
and
terms. The stats is not directly concerned with organising
general
the
rather
role
is
Its
of individuals.
the perfecting
provision
directing
to human
conducive
of an environment
the establishment
of facilities,
and development.
on in this way, from the viewpoint of the relation of a state
itself as a technique for the reform
to its citizens, revolution presents
to its citizens as it should; a reform that
it minister
of society to make
contrasts to the more usual evolutionary
type.
happiness
Looked
from the opposite point

One can, however, also consider revolution
of view, that of the citizen relating himself to the state. The correct or
ideal attitude towards one's country has been given a name
patriotism.
It is important to realise that the fixing of a definition does not prove
'patriot
anything or close any questions. By resolving to use the word
to one's country, one has not
ism' to refer to an admirable
attitude
determined what this attitude is. One must still enquire what patriotism
- whether
to die or to refuse to die, to over
is and what it demands
throw or to improve from within, to adulate or criticise, to work for or
avail of.
In fact, however, patriotism as it occurs is always something less than
in fact be a very unadmirable
the ideal. It may
thing, a boastful over
to the hatred of
weening attitude of superiority, or it may be degraded
a neighbouring
nation. This
is a human
failing; but the failure to
ideals shows their importance,
not their irrelevance.
achieve
or
Revolution
may appear as a patriotic action by the revolutionary,
even a patriotic
an
un
as
it
be
duty. Alternatively
may
regarded
But in either
patriotic action, or even as a crime against patriotism.
case it presents
itself as patriotic;
this is the standard by which
it
to be judged.
wishes
then is patriotism?
The word
What
itself provides
one's country as a fatherland,
nominates
and suggests
tude towards it should be a filial one, a mixture
of
affection. Everyone
derives very real benefits from his
ment. He takes on the identity and character of a people;
by a history, a literature, a language, an economy. What
a key. It de
that one's atti
and
gratitude
social environ
he is moulded
he is and can
THE MAYNOOTH
REVIEW
is largely determined
by the society that supports and
hope to become
challenges him.
is a realistic thing. The patriot realises
In this viewpoint
patriotism
to acknowledge
it, and is willing
that he has benefitted; he appreciates
to requite
it, and perhaps even to
in some measure
it, to attempt
the benefits are
is realistic because
sacrifice himself for it. Patriotism
real.
of horse-trading,
about this
an air of business,
a
contract
like
do ut
to
made
It
is
to
appear
patriotism.
approach
relations.
If
relations with one's parents are not business
des. One's
business
A
were
be
would
relationship
utterly degraded.
they
they
There
is however
be similarly depraved.
with God would
of favours there is also in patriotism
to the recognition
In addition
The medievals
had a
a kind of personal
and emotional
attachment.
conno
the
lacked
which
called
exclusively
religious
pietas
concept they
tone of the derived English word
tation and the rather depreciative
as pietas
of benefits received com
is a recognition
*piety\ Patriotism
is emotional
and personal. Patriotism
bined with an attachment which
is a feeling for the people,
the race, the nation.
Let me emphasise
the contrast between the two elements of patriotism
as they emerge here. Patriotism
is least of all a hard-headed,
realistic
assessment of benefits received, and a recognition
that a certain response
is due : a response of loyality, cooperation
and perhaps sacrifice. All of
this is on the level of calculation. Notice
that the assessment must be
critical. No country is perfect; all are to some extent warlike, barbaric,
illiberal. Patriotism
not only permits of but demands
the recognition of
faults. We have inherited some of our faults as well as some of our
values.
is loyalty to one's country, even in spite of

In addition, patriotism
is the affective,
emotional
its faults. It is loved 'warts and all'. This
It
is non-rational,
non-critical,
non-calculating.
aspect of patriotism.
it irrational, any more
than the love of a parent
This does not make
it is a relation of service which is essen
for a child is irrational. Rather
of any mutual
benefit.
tially independent
I would suggest that these twin elements
in patriotism - the calcula
tion of utility and the personal
that spurns calculation
involvement
are matched
the object of patriotism.
by a parallel distinction within
One's
is or should be both state and nation. The patriotic
country
attitude to the state is critical and calculating;
the patriotic attitude to
the nation is affective.
one speaks of love of country,
When
the word
'country' is ambig
REVOLUTION
- call it the nation; and there

of people
uous. There is the community
of the people. That we do regard
is the state, which is the organisation
illustrated. For
state and nation as different
things may be variously
to their own
as still belonging
instance, we regard recent emigrants
nation even though they become
subjects of a new state. Similarly,
?
such as the United
several distinct nations
in states that comprise
or
to
the
1916,
prior to
Empire
Austro-Hungarian
prior
Kingdom
- such as
1918 - and in nations comprising
several states
Germany
then
anti-state.
is inevitably
nationalistic
Clearly
patriotism
today
can
distinct entities. Patriotism
state and nation must be recognisably
to a
it is not directed primarily
be for or against a state. Therefore
state at all, but to something else which the state is regarded as serving
well or ill. That something else is what I am calling the nation.
'Nation' is a very vague word
indeed. Various
attempts have been
to define it, most commonly
made
in terms of race, language, culture
or religion. But perhaps
can
from the
it
be adequately
distinguished
a
state in
simpler way.
state is the organisation
of ad
The
of the people,
the machinery
and law. This is a technical thing, of which one can think
ministration
It seems to me that there is little scope for emotion
dispassionately.
here. Every
state is imperfect and in need of constant
repair. It may
become so decrepit that replacement
is the sensible course. In particular
it will be necessary
to think of replacing it if it becomes an instrument
of repression,
if it is restricting
instead of promoting
the development
of the people.
on the other hand, is the people apart from their political
together by a state; the state
organisation.
people are not brought
of people who already possess some kind
is the subsequent organisation
of unity. People are social, and new people are born into this society.
remnants
They grow in a people,
just as a plant grows in the decayed
The
nation,
For
of former growth. It is with the nation

that one's loyalty lies. There
to it. There should be a feeling for the
is no disowning
it, no alternative
is the origin of the affective
nation, for it is one's own people. This
in patriotism.
element
I do not mean
that there should be no critical component
However,
in one's attitude to the nation. Of course there must. Some peoples are
are dull or ambitious
or unreliable;
all have a
and
lazy, others
selection of skeletons in their historical cupboards. One is not called on
to give unconditional
approval.
it is not
Similarly
to the state. Clearly
true that there should be no emotional

there will be. Such things as the flag,
attachment
the national
REVIEW
THE MAYNOOTH
10
anthem
and
traditional
ceremonials
will
be
valued
independently
of
considerations.
the parallel here suggested is not rigid, it is worth stressing
Although
from the
that follow
on account
of the disastrous
consequences
nation.
An
state
and
to
reversal of the appropriate
patriotic attitudes
the organising
to the state
attachment
coercing
unduly emotional
militarism.
element - will surely lead to totalitarianism,
expansionism,
to the nation could lead to
critical attitude
And an unduly detached
and in the long run, a
rootlessness,
cosmopolitanism,
exaggerated
of
the
spirit through the loss of the sense of
general impoverishment
it is a poor
to pure individuality
reduced
If
is
humanity
belonging.
and stunted thing.
of patriotism which I think is worth
There is one other characteristic
- that
it
is
autocratic,
intolerant; and that it is an
stressing
relatively
utilitarian
of democracy.
uneasy bedfellow
Patriotism
is intolerant of oppositon
and of indifference. The reason
If
is that it is felt to be something
imposed, not in any way optional.
it is imposed on me, then it is imposed on all, because all have bene
fited
and all belong
to the nation. Simple
lack of interest is not
as
a
regarded
good defense. The person who is bored by football or
be pitied or despised, but he is not usually dragooned
He
to be uninterested.
is perfectly
But
entitled
patriotism does not admit a right to be unpatriotic.
of patriotic
intolerance
is even more
In some ways
the problem
intolerance. For one can claim that
intractable than that of religious
is
for the individual, whereas
patriotism
religion is largely a matter
com
with
the
Hence
the
concerned
precisely
community.
political
bull-fighting may
into conformism.
munity
can
grounds
formism
concern.
Furthermore
or
on
indifference
of patriotic non-con
and not a communal
to attempt a clear partition
tolerate
non-conformism
religious
in justification
that cannot be adduced
or indifference - i.e. that it is a private
it is possible at least
no such partition
and
is possible
politics
religion, whereas
between politics and patriotism.
Patriotism
itself as a protestation
that we are all our
presents
a person does on patriotic grounds he does
brothers' keepers. What
not for himself but for the community;
and the community may not
want it. But the fact that what he does for the community
is repudiated
between
does not apparently prevent his doing it on patriotic

by the community
to 'awaken' his community
endeavours
grounds. The patriot who
in his patriotism
appears untroubled
by the fact that the community
regards itself as wide awake already, or by their emphatic preference
11
REVOLUTION
then can be an un
state. Patriotism
unawakened
the allegedly
can
be tempted to act on behalf of
democratic
thing, in that the patriot
the people without asking the people, or even against the wishes of the
He knows what is good for the people, and the fact that they
people.
it shows that they need to be coerced, not consulted. At its
repudiate
of good health prove the
the patient's
furthest extreme
protestations
of his illness.
seriousness
Of course one should not regard the difficulty that patriotism has in
as automatically
it. As far as
condemning
getting along with democracy
not
does
in the world
claim to
that
I know there is no country
today
must
be
almost
In that case the word
be a democracy.
'democracy'
own
even
our
of
is
in
it
And,
type
society,
only in a
meaningless.
are taken by popular vote.
rather global way that political
decisions
for
im
is particularly
Nevertheless
the relative intolerance
of patriotism
a
in
have
that
There
be
revolutions
situation.
may
portant
revolutionary
on patriotic
massive
defended
popular
support; but there are many,
that
lack
It should however
be
any substantial
grounds,
support.
remembered
that generally
cannot campaign for sup
the revolutionary
port. The surprise on which he relies for success is also liable to ensure
lack of popular
support.
revolutions sometimes occur in situations where there are
Furthermore,
no accepted democratic
procedures. For instance, supposing there were
into Spain by revolutionary means,
an attempt to incorporate Gibralter
out
be
that there are no recognised
it might
pro
reasonably
pointed
can
be
and
Britain
the citizens of Gibralter,
cedures whereby
Spain
instead and the wishes of each given their proper weight.
consulted
for a small number of people to take on
It is a fearful responsibility
to destroy
the society that most people are content to live
themselves
and die in. No doubt that society is not perfect; no society ever was or
will
be,
in spite of all the best-intentioned
revolutions.
VARIETIES AND STATISTICS

of revolution
let me say some
going on to speak of the morality
thing of its varieties and statistics.
- the
are two general categories
There
of revolution
nationalistic
and the reformist. All nationalistic
revolutions
spring from the alleged
state and nation. Where
between
several nations are in
discrepancy
in a single state or empire there is pressure by the various
corporated
Before
to achieve
nations
are often the first
statehood. The more

independent
to succeed, for instance the United
distant
States
colonies
and
the
THE MAYNOOTH
12
in
Spanish possessions
have been concentrated
left to occur; but there
is still very much with
in a strongly centralised
more difficult to achieve
REVIEW
These de-clonising
South America.
revolutions
in the past century, and there can be very few
revolution which
is another type of nationalistic
us. Nations
which have become
incorporated
and geographically
compact state find it much
examples would
independence. Contemporary
and Basques.
the Scots, Serbs, Croatians
and
that generate most passion,
revolutions
It is these nationalistic
war
when
to
into
civil
which are the most
they are
likely
degenerate
an
and a
freedom
successful.
from
of
idealogy
partly
They
spring
be
distinctiveness.
This becomes
sufficiently disseminated
long-remembered
a
in turn
the
to
movement.
This
among
generate
people
political
a
some
movement
to
the
aim.
When
further
produces
military
political
success
a
can
has
been
clash
between
achieved
there
arise
the
military
and the ideology. The
is an idealism which, while
ideology
to
on
be
is in fact condit:oned
timeless,
striving
by the past. Politics,
the other hand, is the art of what
is possible now. The acceptance
of
a partial independence which
is offered can be seen as the repudiation
of the ideal which
is not fully attainable
now. People who share a
common
ideology can differ on matters of political decision, and even
resort to arms to 'settle' their differences.
politics
I call reformist. In this there are no

other kind of revolution
or
is rather that the state
of
territory; the grievance
nationality
problems
can
several forms.
One
is not functioning
distinguish
satisfactorily.
There
is first of all a radical changing of the whole form of the state,
or outdated
on the grounds that the existing structures are unsuitable
or instruments
Cuban
revolution
is an
of repression. The modern
The
in which
the structures are left
example. There are other revolutions
are
to
who
be
in some
the
but
leaders,
alleged
misbehaving
unchanged,
are
is
the
sheer
there
of
take-over
power, by
way,
replaced. Finally
interest.
power. This is of no theoretical
to be more
common
The reformist type of revolution
in
promises
the future than the nationalistic. Nationalism
to
be evolving
in
appears
the direction of internationalism,
whereas
reform is a perennial need.
tend to ossify, whereas
the ensuring
Systems of political
organisation
a constant
of justice and liberty demands
to changing
adaptation
It is contended,
for instance, that Western
circumstances.
society today
a gross maldistribution
is lacking in justice because
it perpetuates
of
wealth on a global scale. It is further contended
that it is lacking in
it is based on the creation of artificial needs and the
liberty because
pressuring
of people
to pursue
them. Where,
it is asked,
is the liberty
13
REVOLUTION
else, work the same

of people who will inevitably waste like everybody
and communica
same
education
to
the
submit
as
hours
everybody else,
same
suburban
in
the
Jeisure,
living, commuting,
tions, and indulge
else?
insuring and labour saving as everybody
is a constant political demand. Ideally it should be a rational
Reform
is frustrated revolution presents itself as an
evolution; but if evolution
means.
alternative
- consider Barrabbas
for in
have always been revolutions
but they have
in unusual circumstances
stance who was amnestied
successful
and less dangerous.
common, more
recently become more
of frus
The old-style revolution was often a spontaneous demonstration
to strengthen
induced by the government
tration, and often deliberately
There
it was unsuccessful,
and was followed by
its own position. Typically
and indiscriminate
savage, extensive
revenge. But things have changed.
skill
The coup d'etat type of revolution has now become much more
ful. Ideally nobody should be killed, and shooting has gone quite out
of fashion. The important elements are closing airports, capturing radio
stations
and
issuing proclamations.
area of the world
in recent times has been
revolutionary
1945
1964
there were forty six
to
In
the
South America.
twenty years
nine
the re
whereas
revolutions
succeeded;
there, of which
twenty
shared forty two in that time, of which
of the world
mainder
twenty
seven succeeded. Africa
and Asia are the next most prolific continents.
on the other hand, have had no revolu
and Australia,
North America
The most
in recent times. We
tend not
in
fact
has been
but
there
area,
volutionary
even
in
if you
this
there
century,
activity
a
had
revolution
last
year,
Portugal
Spain
tions at all
to think of Europe as a re
a great deal of revolutionary
leave Ireland out of account.
in the 1930s, Greece

in 1946
and 1967, Czechoslovakia
in 1948 and 1968, Hungary
in 1956, Turkey
in 1960, Cyprus
in the 1950s and again in 1972; and there has been
trouble in Brittany,
sporadic revolutionary
Gibralter,
Spain, Greece,
That is a formidable
Wales,
Scotland, Italy and Yugoslavia.
tally for an
area which we tend to regard as politically
stable.
While
possible
A
revolution
is a very varied phenomenon,
it is nevertheless
to define the term: I would suggest the
following:
is a violent and allegedly patriotic

to radi
attempt
the state with which a nation coexists
cally reorganise
territorially,
on the grounds
that the common good is being neglected and will
be better promoted
state
by the post-revolutionary
revolution
THE MAYNOOTH
14
REVIEW
variety of revolution.
is really geared to the nationalistic
which
of
arguably should not be
It excludes the sheer take-over
power,
non-radical
to
fit
the
reformist
it
if
is
called revolution at all. Finally,
on
the
not
insist
one
should
'radically re
phrase
type of revolution
This
definition
organise'.
MORALITY AND REVOLUTION

In the early stages of the Christian era the moral
theory of revolution
in
its
main
It
received
little
attention.
only
development
very
got
was
times. Early Christianity
in modern
and more especially
medieval
the earthly city as
not political
and in any case regarded
reformist,
came in medieval
times with the
rather unimportant. The breakthrough
or
a
God
that
ruler
who
commanded
what
prohibited,
recognition
or even super
vice versa, had no standing. Ha could be disobeyed,
seded. Aquinas
reached this point, a very limited and reluctant allow
ance of revolution.
the theory, for it was itself a
further developed
The Reformation
with
it you regarded it as justified; if you did
If you agreed
revolution.
as
most
the
not you regarded it
against a mere
unjustified of all. Revolt
to revolt against
compared
palled into insignificance
earthly potentate
for salvation.
God's arrangements
in another way. They ac
revolution
The reformers respectabilised
of control over religious
to the civil ruler a large measure
corded
that the ruler should be suitably
affairs, with the proviso
'godly'. The
effect of this was to reverse the control; for certain religious persons
their ruler was a suitable person
to
would
have to decide whether
that in certain circum
exercise religious power over them. This means
stances one might be obliged to revolt against one's ruler and to replace
It is this aspect of the theory that is operative
in seventeenth
on
of
where,
century England
largely
grounds
religion, one king was
and another
forced to flee: and this in a country that has
executed
not been revolutionary
before or since. At the end of the seventeenth
in
of the morality
century
England you get some very careful discussion
of revolution.
It has to be careful, lest the theory which
justifies the
of the former king might also justify the deposition
of his
deposition
him.
successor.
The next epoch of revolutionary

and
theory centres on the American
French
and
more
the
revolutions,
outbreak of nationalism
generalised
in Europe
in the mid-nineteenth
century. Thereafter
you are down to
our own times. This is the era of nationalist,
anti-colonial
revolutions,
REVOLUTION
15
and of revolutions
and Angola,
and Cyprus
such as those in Algeria
Cuba and China.
in
from a demand for reform such as those
springing
of other new revolutionary
theories, such as
is the emergence
There
that concerned with the unequal division of wealth
that of communism,
on a world-wide
scale, and that which claims the need for revolution to
character of western
break the depersonalising
capitalism.
Over the centuries there lias evolved a theory of the morality of revolu
It is closely akin to the
tion which has won very general acceptance.
as per
and like it regards revolution
traditional Just War Theory,
is no definitive
missible provided certain conditions are fulfilled. There
I
but the following would,
of these conditions,
list or formulation
be
believe,
generally accepted.
1. There
2. Other
must be a situation of grave tyranny.

means of redress must have been exhausted.
must be some probability
of success.
3. There
4. The evil caused by the revolution
should be outweighed
by
good that will be done or the evil that will be suppressed.
5. There must be some popular
support.
the
In evaluating a theory of this sort one must first of all determine what
then refrain from
it is that the theory can offer. One must
precisely
one must equally
more
can
as
than
and
it
it
deliver;
offering
presenting
refrain from criticising it for not being what it does not purport to be.
are all sorts of situations where a decision
Let me explain. There
tests. The
of objective,
by the application
impersonal
of
acids and alkalis; and the make-up
litmus paper will differentiate
Such procedures
the spinal fluid will tell if its owner has meningitis.
to one's wishes. You may
provide an answer which is totally unrelated
can be reached
has nothing whatever

like or dislike what you find out, but preference
or
to do with what you find out. Your personal
attitude of approval
of
condition of spinal fluid is totally irrele
the meningitic
disapproval
vant to your judgement
that the person has or has not meningitis.
One
does of course speak of evaluating
the results of tests in such situations.
This
is merely
a perversity
of usage. The whole point of such tests is

within
the factual realm. Non-factual
they take place exclusively
evaluations
are out of order.
('my favourite virus'!)
The
traditional moral
itself as a test
theory of revolution
presents
to determine whether
is
whereby one is enabled
any given revolution
justifiable or not. But here the test is not, and cannot be, a purely
factual one. One man's
'firm govern
'grave tyranny' is another man's
that
THE MAYNOOTH
16
REVIEW
'virus X'
is
it is not the case that one scientists
on
the
were
total
there
if
4virus Y\ Even
another scientist's
agreement
this political
the question whether
situation,
facts of a given political
situation constituted
grave tyranny could not be resolved by a defini
judgement
tion, as it can be in the case of scientific tests. An evaluative
situa
must
intervene. It is because, among other reasons, the political
in the cir
that revolution
tion is adjudged
iniquitous or intolerable
In contrast
ment'.
In other words,
the
as morally
is regarded
permissible.
are moral
of revolution
the morality
critera, not factual
if we supposed
criteria. Nor is this difference an accidental one. Even
was
on
what
in all circumstances
that everyone
and was not
agreed
cumstances
criteria
of
for
the scientific
situation;
grave tyranny, one still has not matched
the criterion of grave tyranny is still an evaluative
and not a factual
one.
insist that the moral

theory of revolution presents a, moral rather
not
to dismiss
the theory either as false or as
than a scientific test is
as a moral
true
character
theory. It
useless, but rather to point to its
of politi
valuations
for instance, that people whose
is to be expected,
cal situations and revolutionary
practices differ will also differ in the
from this theory - even if they all equally
conclusions
they derive
if
be unacceptable
accept the theory. Such a state of affairs would
To
dealing with a scientific test.

traditional theory of revolution does not provide a test of such
that if several people apply it to the same situation and arrive at
different judgements,
the test is not thereby shown to be inadequate or
or deceitful. What
the users of it incompetent
the theory does is to
one were
The
a kind
a
present the various values that must be taken into account in making
moral evaluation
of revolution. As such it is a series of headings;
these
matters
of great complexity.
In pointing
to this
headings denominate
one
is
not
the
but
rather
and
complexity
refuting
theory,
explaining
it.
expanding
All five conditions
point, in different ways, to the central role of the
common good. Tyranny
is the spurning of it. Non-revolutionary
means
are to be preferred as less disruptive
of it. Probability
of success
is
demanded
because one may not take foolish risks with it. The reason
for the insistence that the good must
the evil is that otherwise
outweigh
it will suffer. And
the demand
for consent emphasises
its communal
nature.
In addition,
these five traditional criteria point to certain values and
anti-values which help to indicate whether a revolution will
promote or
militate against the common good. Let us consider these in turn.
17
REVOLUTION
of
the demands
tyranny is restriction of liberty beyond
(1) Grave
kind
the
The
judgement concerning
efficiency.
security and organisational
situation which constitutes
grave tyranny, while not arbit
of political
is no factual system
rary, it still a matter of personal evaluation. There
of how
how much
which will determine
of measurement
oppression
many for how long will constitute grave tyranny. This condition presents
to
the claims of liberty. This is a value which must not be sacrificed
is not saved by being benevolent,
security and efficiency. Despotism
nor foreign domination
its
providing efficient administration,
by
is
means be exhausted before revolution
that
demand
other
The
(2)
is an anti
embarked on is an insistence that the violence of revolution
but only with
such it is never accepted with enthusiasm
value. As
of other
the exhaustion
reluctance and as a last resort. Of course
means
and agitation may go
is metaphorical,
for political organisation
on endlessly.
when
It is people who become exhausted,
they demand
success in the short term. There
how
is no factual way of determining
many people must have tried for how long and with what degree of
success for this demand
it
actual and prospective
to be met. What
does is not to present a factual test, but rather to insist that violence,
because
it is an anti-value,
to unless one is
should not be resorted
no
satisfied that
other means has any prospects of success*
that there be some probability
of success,
third condition,
It is
instrumental
character
of
revolution.
the
subordinate,
emphasises
not
for
what
what
at
for
it
if
it
but
is
all,
is,
acceptable
only
acceptable,
but
is another factor to be taken into account,
This
it accomplishes.
no
measurement
cannot
there
One
is
system.
quantify
again
applicable
(3) The
the chances of success, nor the degree of success. There

and great scope for disagreement.
precision
Inevitably,
success that will satisfy one person
of
degree
prospective
is no scope for
the kind and
will not satisfy
It is even possible
to rate total military
failure as adequate
on the grounds
that it may keep alive the spark of national
demands
is to be
that if revolution
identity. In general, this condition
success
the
of
and
success
the
of
prospects
justified,
degree
envisaged
must be such as would
a
man.
reasonable
The reasonable man,
satisfy
in this context,
is he who assigns due weight
to all the relevant values.
another.
success,
Such
judgements cannot be cut and dried and beyond controversy.

that the good to be achieved by revolution
(4) The fourth condition,
should outweigh
the harm that it causes, is an insistence that revolution
is a mixture
of good and bad, and that one cannot
justify it without
regarding the evil as tolerable for the sake of the good. This patently
evaluative procedure
is expressed
as the comparison
of
metaphorically
18
THE MAYNOOTH
REVIEW
but there are no units of good and evil and no

quantities;
of comparison.
method
observable
externally
That revolution may do good is the whole purpose of it. The good
and the resultant benefits accruing
is the social reform that is envisaged,
to the citizen. But the evil is equally real, and much of it is ineradicable.
of im
There
is the obvious harm of injury and death and destruction,
two
of the disruption of business and family life,

and outlawing,
prisonment
and hatreds. There
is also the more
of lasting bitterness
far-reaching
a
delicate web of relationships
harm of social disruption.
is
Society
and trusts which once fractured is not easily repaired. The laws may be
to them than
harsh and cruel but there may still be more discernment
to a gun in the hands of a man grown callous of violence. Society is a
delicately balanced fragile thing, and it is easier to bring violence into it
than to take it out again. The confidence
that lets men sleep unafraid
of every sound in the night, that lets them walk the streets or speak
their minds without
fear - these are delicate and valuable
things, and
are
not
restored.
they
easily
that there be some degree of popular support,
(5) The final condition,
nature of revolution.
It is concerned with the
communal
the
emphasises
for
of the people's
the people's
benefit.
better organisation
society
a
a
function
not
in
other
is
words,
Revolution,
private
representative
initiative. There are many
things that do not need to be justified; one
and family
does not argue for the toleration of virtue and education
Even
not
in
is
this category.
though it presents
loyalty. But revolution
and unselfishness
into the petty
itself as the irruption of heroism
it is not there as of right. Its standing derives from
wrangle of politics,
its necessity as recognised by the people.
to the people, he stands
is not merely accountable
The revolutionary
in need of some kind of mandate
from the people. However,
revolu
tionaries are not elected, and frequently they dare not canvass support.
In fact the more need and justification
there is for revolution
the less
the support is liable to be. The really efficient tyranny is the one that
stifles the will for freedom.
Here again we encounter
the impossibility
of precision. To demand
in
advance
of
revolution
is
in
support
majority
many cases to demand
the impossible; and it would be a very unreasonable moral theory which
extend moral
support to a tyrannical regime on account of its
in
the will to resist. To delete the demand for
efficiency
suppressing
on
the
other
hand, would be to ignore the communal
popular support,
nature of revolution. Between
these extremes one must
insist on such
would
19
REVOLUTION
Here again
in the circumstances.
support as can be reasonably expected
for
no
for
much
there is
disagreement.
scope
precision and
leaves many
of revolution
traditional
This
theory of the morality
or
some
incomplete.
way inadequate
people with the feeling that it is in
reason for dissatisfaction
One main
is, I think, the misunderstanding
I have been referring.
of moral
of the possibilities
theory to which
is the feeling that the theory con
A more
important source, however,
stitutes only the final stage of a more complete
theory. Such a theory
in three stages as follows:
might be outlined
is a resort to violence, and violence
is an anti-value,
(1) Revolution
a failure of human relations. Even if it is the best available alternative
is still regrettable;
in a robe of
it should not be clothed
revolution
are bad. This
destruction
is the primary moral
tends to be forgotten on account of its simplility.
(2) Society must exert itself to establish procedures which will make
and preferably
revolution unnecessary
impossible. This might be done
and
glory. Killing
consideration
which
and perhaps better, itmight

by an international authority. Alternatively,
This
of course, present enor
an
intra-state
be done by
would,
body.
mous difficulties, but one should not assume that these are insuperable.
to im
and authority
Such a body would need sufficient independence
on
both
and
the
the state organisation
its will
prospective
pose
and power presently afforded to the
The independence
revolutionaries.
the Director
of Public Prosecutions,
and
the Ombudsman,
judiciary,
commission
the electoral boundaries
(in Britain) would suggest that the
project is not entirely unrealistic.
are established,
such time as such alternative
(3) Until
procedures
there will
revolution,
traditional
One
out
be situations
which
will
theory are
in which
then be
there
justified
is no
reasonable
provided
alternative
the conditions
of
to
the
fulfilled.
is that it rules
advantage of the traditional theory, however,
of
revolution
issues.
is
It
that
judgement
by peripheral
important
revolution
be not condemned
on
or
of
solely
grounds
malpractice
accident.
regrettable
rebellion of 1916, according toMrs. Hamilton
During the Easter Week
a
at
the
horses
behind the GPO were burnt to
Norway,
riding-school
great
death, and various of her valuables were stolen by the insurgents.

If
these things happened
but they are not central.
they are regrettable,
Terrible
but one is not thereby com
things happen in all revolutions,
mitted
to condemning
all revolutions.
the most common ground for the condemnation
Probably
of revolution
REVIEW
THE MAYNOOTH
20
of one
sort or another
other
and assorted
vendettas,
forms of
rackets
theft, protection
intimidation,
in
which
no
a
revolution
there has never been
injustice. I suppose
however,
scores have been settled and no nests feathered. Revolution,
lose cases
beset by human frailty. Lawyers
is not the only enterprise
that should not be lost; teachers sometimes
lose patients
and doctors
to be
is not automatically
But
the practice
impress by obfuscating.
on account of the malpractice.
condemned
Revolutionary
malpractice
the
must be taken into account as one of the kinds of evil which
of malpractice
is the occurrence
revolution
will,
hopefully,
counterbalance
by
the
reforms
which
it
induces.
of the traditional
theory is that it invites com
advantage
of violence,
and
forms
other
revolution
between
particularly
parison
a
Just
for
there
is
War
war;
Theory.
parallel
it has
people are inclined to regard war as justified because
Many
as
not
has
because
official authorisation,
and revolution
it
unjustified
This is perverse; principally because the nature of revolution precludes
official authorisation,
but also because, morally
speaking, war is worse
Another
than revolution.
in this
Wars
have killed
twenty-five million
people
it is hard to see that they have produced
any counter
no Utopias,
have produced
but some of
good. Revolutions
balancing
them have been influential
for good in spite of their failures. The
French Revolution
into terror and eventually
into despo
degenerated
tism, yet the world has been the better of it.
century,
and
of the revolutionary
than of the soldier.
There
is more demanded
with no time limit. If one attempt
commitment
His
is an open-ended
does not succeed he may spend twenty years in prison, and then feel
to start again - a terrifying prospect
for a young man.
compelled
an
a
isolation
and
silence
There
is
imposed,
living out of one's own
resources that does not belong in war. The revolutionary must make his
own decision
to cross the line between law and outlaw. It is a decision
which
is beset with uncertainties.
The grievances may be imaginary or
the constitutional way may be better; the revolu
inevitably disappearing;
tion may make
it may be contra-indicated,
things worse,
unnecessary,
or misinformed.
He will,
tragic; the rebel may be duped or misguided
at least ideally, weigh all of these factors, and his decision
to be dictated by self-interest or conformism.
is unlikely
LONGTERM DANGERS
In conclusion
liable to flow
I would
from
stress
revolution.
two unfortunate
which
consequences
The first is its tendency to promote
are
the
21
REVOLUTION
recurrence of revolutions;
the second its tendency to depreciate
periodic
of politics.
the profession
is designed
to establish a new and better political order
A revolution
which will render revolution uncalled for. The revolution will, at best,
it establishes
order which
will,
only partly succeed; yet the political
like any conceivable
political order, ban revolution. The original, rela
will inevitable resist any revolutionary
revolutionaries
tively successful,
to
can
oust
it
them; yet
attempt
reasonably be claimed that the relative
to
of
the
revolution
failure
original
attempt
justifies a revolutionary
renew or complete or reorientate or update it, or rescue it from devia
tionists, foreign lackeys
said, is like a runaway
difficult
extraordinarily
until people recognise
and
and enslavement
and running dogs. Revolution,

it has been well
train; it acquires an impetus of its own and is
to stop. I can see no solution
to this problem
that revolution ?
and ransom
like assassination
-
is an improper
such machi
and, having recognised
that, establish
political procedure;
nery for the redress of grievances as will render it both impossible and
torture
and
lettres de
cachet
unnecessary.
to
it its tendency
of revolution
unfortunate
consequence
con
are
committed
to
status
Revolutionaries
the
of
politics.
downgrade
the politics of their time as futile and impotent. Their revolu
demning
tion is based on the claim that politics has utterly failed to make any
ideals which
towards the laudable
they profess. But in de
progress
a
failure
of
the revolutionary
local
and
contemporary
politics,
nouncing
A
further
of the contemporary
may slip into quite unjustified denunciation
poli
ticians. The practice of politics is always demanding, but never more so
of
has no monopoly
times. The revolutionary
than in revolutionary
courage and idealism.
The denunciation
of the failure of politics may extend even to the
of
devaluation
itself.
This
is
for
wrong;
politics
certainly
is a perennial
revolution
is tolerable only for
need, whereas
politics
the political
it can, sometimes,
the
objectives which
promote. When
is over somebody will have
revolution
to pick up the pieces. The
the politicians
of the new
practice of politics must go on. Hopefully
order will include both the politicians
and the revolutionaries
of the
old.
Matthew
St. Patrick's
College,
O'Donnell,
Professor
B.D.,
Ph.D.
of Philosophy
Maynooth.

Matthew O'Donnell Analyzes Revolutionary Violence in Ireland

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Matthew O'Donnell Analyzes Revolutionary Violence in Ireland

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Faculty of Arts, Celtic Studies & Philosophy NUIM

'revolution' has been devalued

but only to indicate certain general

CONDEMNATION AND ACCLAMATION

1916 have equally few. But in their various

to support, resist or ignore the revolution.

it is not really surprising

ADMIRATION AND REVULSION

is a natural sympathy with the revolutionary

revulsion because he is a destroyer. He

this one must

first stand back

enquire what kind of

SOCIETY AND PATRIOTISM

from the opposite point

is loyalty to one's country, even in spite of

- call it the nation; and there

of former growth. It is with the nation

true that there should be no emotional

does not apparently prevent his doing it on patriotic

in spite of all the best-intentioned

VARIETIES AND STATISTICS

statehood. The more

I call reformist. In this there are no

else, work the same

in the 1930s, Greece

is a violent and allegedly patriotic

MORALITY AND REVOLUTION

The next epoch of revolutionary

must be a situation of grave tyranny.

has nothing whatever

of usage. The whole point of such tests is

insist that the moral

dealing with a scientific test.

the chances of success, nor the degree of success. There

judgements cannot be cut and dried and beyond controversy.

but there are no units of good and evil and no

of the disruption of business and family life,

and perhaps better, itmight

death, and various of her valuables were stolen by the insurgents.

and running dogs. Revolution,

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen