Reduction in the Modulus of Elasticity in Orthodontic Wires

A. JON GOLDBERG,* R. VANDERBY, JR.,t and C. J. BURSTONEt

Department of Restorative Dentistry, University of Connecticut Health Center,*
Farmington, Connecticut 06032, Institute of Materials Science, Storrs, Connecticut 06068 and
Department of Orthodontics, University of Connecticut Health Center,t Farmington,
Connecticut 06032, USA
The modulus of elasticity of stainless steel orthodontic wires was found to be 20% below the
normally assumed range of 19.3 to 20.0 X 104
MPa (28.0 to 29.0 X 106 psi). Use of the latter
value can result in significant computational
errors in orthodontic applicance mechanics.
The loweer modulus was attributed to severe
cold drawing.
J Dent Res 56(10):1227-1231 October 1977.

Optimum control of tooth movement requires

the application of specific orthodontic force
systems. Therefore, a knowledge of the mechanics of orthodontic appliances is essential in
achieving desirable and predictable treatment
results. The recent trend in orthodontic mechanics has been to utilize an analytic approach
for appliance design and analysis.1-2 In attempting to corroborate analytic results with experimentally determined forces and moments,
the experimental values were found to be
consistently lower in absolute value than their
analytic predictions. The search for an explanation of this discrepancy eventually led to an
investigation of the material properties of the
18-8 stainless steel orthodontic wire used in
experimental appliance fabrication.
A traditional assumption of mechanics is
that for stainless steel materials, the modulus of
elasticity (Young's modulus) is an invariable
physical property of the material4 and nearly
always assumed to be from 19.3 to 20.0 X 104
MPa (28.0 to 29.0 x 106 pSi).5 On occasion,
lower values for the modulus of elasticity have
appeared in the literature.6-8 A lower modulus
Received for publication November 10, 1976.
Accepted for publication January 19, 1977.
This research was supported by Research Grant
DE-03953-03 from the National Institute of Dental Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland.
* Standard Permachrome, Unitek Corp., Monrovia,
Ca.
t Instron Universal Testing Machine, Canton, Ma.

would explain the discrepancy between analytic

and experimental data.
Furthermore, the load per given activation, which can be used as a design criteria for
orthodontic springs,9 will be strongly affected
by modulus changes. Assuming a value for the
modulus of elasticity that is too high would
result in the selection of a wire with an unnecessarily large cross section.
The purpose of this work was to accurately
measure, and determine the causes for any depression of the elastic modulus of standard orthodontic stainless steel wire. The percent offset
yield strength at which permanent deformation
initiates was also measured.

Materials and Methods

Tests were performed with standard orthodontic stainless steel wires* having crosssectional dimensions of 0.24 mm X 0.508 mm
(0.010 x 0.020 in), 0.406mm (0.016 in) diameter, 0.762 mm (0.030 in) diameter, and
0.914 mm (0.036 in) diameter. Samples were
evaluated both in the as-received condition, and
after a heat treatment of five minutes at 1010 C
(1850 F), followed by air cooling. In addition,
two groups of 0.406 mm (0.0 16 in) wire were
heated at 454 C (850 F) and 400 C (750 F) for
3 minutes, typical clinical heat treatments used
to stress-relieve orthodontic spring.
Five samples of each dimension and condition wvere measured in tension on a constant
strain-rate testing machine.t Standard grips
and one-half inch strain gauge extensometer
were employed, although the clips on the extensometer had to be slightly modified to accommodate the unusually narrow specimens. As
shown in Figure 1, the clips were rotated 90
and filed to the size of the wires. This arrangement worked satisfactorily, and no extensometer slippage was experienced during the
tests.

1227

GOLDBERG, VANDERBY & BURSTOANE

1228

In order to determine the stress at which

periianient deformation initially occurred, a
series of tensile tests wvere made with the asreceived 0.406 mim (0.016 in) round wrire. For
each test, curves were recorded during both
loading anid unloading. The first sample was
tcsted well below the proportional limit. Eacl
successixe sample xxas tested at higlher loads, in
increments of five kilograms, until the breaking
st less wvas reached. Near the clastic limit tests
were made at onc kilogram increments. This resulted in a serics of stress-strain plots with increasingly larger areas between the loadin(g and
unloading curves. For samples tested belowv the
elastic limnit, this amrea xw as rclatively smiiall and
conastant and due to hystcrysis loss. The first
inmeasrlal e perimianent deformation occurred at
a stress of approximnately 10.4 X 102 MPa (15.0
X 101 psi). This corresponded to a yield point
offset of 0.01%, and this value, along with
0.10% offset vield strenogth, was imeasured for
-all otlher samnples usin, the convenational
metlhod.
Moduluis of clasticity was determinied from
the initial slope of the load-deflection curve.
This Iinicar rmegion w-as expanded over at least
1 0 cmi of cliart paper to allow- aecturate in ea
suireiiient. To obtain this expanision ftull scale
load cldeHetions of 10, 50, or 200 kg wcre used
aloing xxith strain magnifications of 400: 1 and
1000: . The latter setting resulted in a 0.01%
offset of approximately 1.25 mm. All samples
were tested using a crosslhead speed of 0.5

cim'/min.
All samples failed within the grips (as

Nxxoul d be expected wxith thin xx ire specimens),

so that ultimate strengtlhs could not be determ-iined. Flowever, the straini in the gauge region
was sufficient for measuring up to 0.20%, offset.
As-received and heat-treated samples were
mouinted longituidinally in hakelite, metalloaraphically polislhed, etched, and microscopically examined. Microstruictures were examiinled
for cold-ws.ork and presence of twinningv. A
cross-sectional sample of the rectangular xx ire
wvas moiunted, polished, and measuired at 10 X
imagnification using a filar eyepiece. The rectano-ular w-ires wN-ere slightly rounded, and the
mic rosnc opic evaluation was necessary to obtain
an- act urate measurement of the area.
The presence of preferred crystallographic
oi-ientation, or texturing, in the 0.254mm X
5083 mml (0.010 in X 0.020 in) wire was examinied using a photographic x-ray techniique.10
I hle xwire xw as sufficiently thinned in an electro-

J Dent Res Octobei- 1977

polishing mixture of 87%Jo methanol, 8% sulfuric, 3% nitric, and 2%c hydrochloric acid so
that a transmiission mode couild be used. Initial
attempts xx ith a Iback1reflection tecl nique were
unsuccessful due to the low levels of back reflected radiation. The wire was rotated at 4
rpm betwN een the x-ray souirce and a 10 X 13 cm
plhotographic plate. A 30-KY potential xxvas
used with a cobalt x-ray tube, and 4-hour exposurcs. Botlh as-received an-d heat-treated wires
ere examined.
Results

The clastic ilmodulluis of the ais-received orthodolntic xx ires was uiniformnly low for each
cross section. Modulis xalues for tlhese wires
ranged from 14.7 to 17.1 x 101 AIPa (21.3 to
24.8 X 106' psi). This value is 20% belowx the
generally accepted 19.3 to 20.0 X 10' MPa
(28.0 to 29.0 x 106, psi). The miaean xalue for
the samples heat treated at 101.0 C xxas 19.0 X
10' MPa (27.6 x 106 psi). A two-xsax analysis
of xvariance of the data showxed that the differenlce in elastic moduilus betxsrecn thle as-received
and heat-treated grotups xvas significant at the
0.0005 level. Simiiilar results wvere obtained for
each particular xvire size. T here was no statistically significant intel action betwveen wire size
anid condition.
The yicld strength values for the asreceived and heat-treated samples fell within
generally accepted bounds.- The mean O.01%
and 0J10% offset yield strengtlhs for the asreceived wires wvere 10.5 1.0 X 102 MPa
1.5 X 102
15.2 - 1.4 x 10' psi) anid 16.8
MPa (24.4 2.2 x 10-' psi) respcttivcly. Similar results xNicre obtained for each w-vire size. The

FiG 1.- Modification and placement of the

strain gauge extensometer on the wire samples.

MODULUS OF ORTHODONTIC WIRES

Vol. 56 No. 10

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severe heat treatment of 5 minutes at 1010 C

(1850 F) caused complete recrystallization of
the microstructure, as discussed below, and the
associated large decrease in yield strength. The
mean 0.01% and 0.10% offset yield strengths
for the heat-treated wires were 2.72 + 0.41 X
102 MPa (3.94 + 0.59 X 104 psi) and 3.35
0.54 X 104 MPa (4.87 + 0.78 X 104 psi) respectively. All wire sizes experienced similar
decreases in yield strength. The mean and
standard deviation of the elastic modulus as
well as 0.01% and 0.10% offset yield strengths
for each size and condition are summarized in
Table 1. Figure 2 compares representative
stress-strain curves for the as-received and heattreated wires, depicting the increased elasticmodulus and decreased yield strength in the
sample heated for 5 minutes at 1010 C (1850

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The 0.406 mm (0.016 in) wires given
clinical stress-relief of three minutes at 400 C
showed no statistically significant (0.05 level)
change in either modulus or yield strength
compared to the same wire in the as-received
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FIG 2. Linear region of representative

stress-strain curves for as-received and heattreated (1010 C, 5 minutes) stainless steel orthodontic wires showing increase in modulus after
heat treated.

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1230

GOLDBERG, VANDERBY & BURSTONE

J Dent Res October 1977

TABLE 2
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF 0.406 mm (.016 inch) ORTHODONTIC WIRES
AFTER STRESS-RELIEVING TREATMENTS
Mechanical
Property

As-Received

Elastic Modulus
15.6 0.8*
X 104 MPa
(X 106 psi)
(22.6 1.2)
0.1% Offset
Yield Strength
10.4 0.9
X 102 MPa
(15.0 4- 1.4)
(X 104 psi)
0.10% Offset
Yield Strength
18.8 1.5
X 102 MPa
(x 104 psi)
(27.2 + 2.2)
* Mean 4- standard deviation.

400 C
3 Minutes

454 C
3 Minutes

14.9 0.6
(21.5 0.8)

16.9 + 0.8
(24.5 1.1)

9.5 +- 1.5
(13.8 2.2)

8.5 0.8
(12.4 -+- 1.2)

17.0 2.1
(24.6 3.0)

15.1 0.8
(21.9 4- 1.2)

treatment did cause a small increase in modulus

Discussion
and decrease in 0.01% and 0.10% offset yield
The observed elastic modulus of 15.5
strengths. These results are listed in Table 2.
Statistical differences were determined by a X 104 MPa (22.5 X 106 psi) for the as-received
two-way analysis of variance. The higher re- wires is considerably below the normally assilience of the wire given the 400 C treatment sumed value of 19.3 to 20.0 X 104 MPa (28.0
is in accord with the work by Marcotte,1' who to 29.0 X 106 psi). Since it is difficult to measreported improved spring properties with a ure the modulus of thin wires, erroneous ex400 C (750 F), 6-minute heat treatment com- perimental results are sometimes possible. Howpared to a 454 C (850 F) cycle for the same ever, in this study, the low coefficient of varilength of time. In that study, the springs were ation and the agreement of the data from the
fabricated from 0.016 inch 18-8 austenitic samples heat treated at 1010 C with normally
assumed modulus values lends validity to the
stainless steel.
Microscopic and x-ray evaluation of the results from the as-received orthodontic wires.
as-received wire indicated a typical drawn Furthermore, as discussed earlier, Hunt6 has restructure. The wire contained elongated grains ported a modulus of elasticity of 25.2 X 106
with a <111> preferred crystallographic ori- psi for highly drawn 18-8 stainless steel wire.
entation. The x-ray data indicated a face- The same wire had a modulus of 28.4 X 106
centered cubic (FCC) lattice, but the magnetic psi after a 2-hour, 850 F heat treatment. The
nature of the as-received wire suggested that a current study was limited to materials from one
body-centered cubic (BCC) lattice was also manufacturer and four different cross sections,
present. The presence of both lattice structures but the results strongly suggest that the elastic
in as-received orthodontic wires is well estab- modulus of orthodontic wires is 20% below the
lished.8'12 The transformation from FCC to generally accepted values. Furthermo;re, the
BCC during drawing contributes significantly modulus is unaffected by a clinical stress-relievto the strain hardening of this alloy, and aids in ing treatment of 400 C for three minutes.
The depression of the modulus is undoubtdeveloping high yield strength.
A similar analysis of the heat-treated edly due to severe cold drawing. Stress-induced
samples indicated that the wire had been com- changes in the lattice, residual micro-strains,
pletely annealed. The microstructure consisted and preferred crystal orientation can all modify
of recrystallized equiaxed grains containing mechanical properties. Changes in modulus are
annealing twins. The x-ray data, presence of most likely associated with preferred crystalannealing twins, and the nonmagnetic quality lographic orientation, although other effects
of the heat-treated wire indicated a predom- may contribute. Unfortunately, the x-ray exinantly FCC lattice. The heat-treated wire also periments were inconclusive in identifying the
had a preferred crystallographic orientation in cause of the lower modulus. Both the asthe < 11 1> direction.
received and heat-treated wires showed similar

Vol. 56 No. IO0

MODULUS OF ORTHODONTIC WIRES

preferred orientations. This effect is not unusual

and many cold-worked metals recrystallize
with a specific preferred crystallographic direction.13 It would be necessary to determine the
degree of texturing, and not just its presence,
in order ot associate this structural change with
the observed lower modulus. More extensive
x-ray tests, including a quantitative distrbution
of crystallographic texturing (pole figures),
might identify the cause of the lower modulus
in the as-received wires. Williams et al8 recently completed a metallurgical characterization of stainless steel orthodontic wires, and suggested that the ferrite-austenite transition was
a major factor in determining tensile properties.

Regardless of its cause, the lowering of the

elastic modulus can result in significant computational error in orthodontic appliance mechaniCs. In an ideal case where orthodontic
spring activations are small and stress levels remain below the proportional limit, the low observed modulus (Table 1) will cause the delivered forces and moments to be approximately 20(% below analytic predictions. If
spring rate is the analytic design criteria,
section modulus of the appliance must be proportionally increased to compensate for a low
elastic modulus. In most cases, however, large
spring activations result in geometrically nonlinear mechanical behavior and would cause
even larger discrepancies. The elastic limit was
exceeded and permanent deformation occurred
at stress levels as low as 10.0 X 102 MPa (14.6
X 104 psi). This stress corresponded to a 0.01%
offset yield point, and suggests that the 0.10%,
and most definitely the more commonly reported 0.20% offset yield strength, occur too
far into the region of plastic deformation to
serve as design criteria for elastically linear orthodontic appliances.
Conclusions
The modulus of elasticity of the asreceived orthodontic wires was 14.7 to 17.1 X
104 MPa (21.3 to 24.8 X 106 psi). This is approximately 20% below the generally accepted
values of 19.3 to 20.0 X 104 MPa (28.0 to 29.0
X 106 psi) and can result in significant computational errors in orthodontic appliance mechanics. Furthermore, these materials exceed
their elastic limit at a stress which corresponds
to a 0.01 % offset yield strength.
All wires heat-treated at 1010 C were completely annealed with FCC lattices, lowered

1231

yield strengths, and a mean elastic modulus of

19.0 X 104 MPa (27.6 X 105 psi). Both the asreceived and heat-treated wires showed preferred crystal orientation.
Specific causes for the lowered modulus
could not be identified, although stress-induced
changes in the microstructure, residual strains,
and crystallographic texturing may all contribute.

References
1. KOENIG, H.A., and

BURSTONE, C.J.: Analysis of Generalized Curved Beams for Orthodontic Application, J Biomech 7:429-435,

1974.
2. DEFRANCO, J.C.; KOENIG, H.A.; and BURSTONE, C.J.: Three-Dimensional Large Displacement Analysis of Orthodontic Appli-

ances, Submitted fcr publication.

3. YANG, T.Y., and BALDWIN, J.J.: Analysis of
Space Closing Springs in Orthodontics, J
Biomech 7:21-28, 1974.
4. THUROW, R.C.: Edgewise Mechanics, 2nd
ed, St. Louis: C. V. Mosby Co., 1966, pp
51-53.
5. Metals Handbook, Vol. 1: Properties and
Selection of Metals, 8th ed., Metals Park,
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408-432.
6. HUNT, J.M.: Designing with Cold Rolled
Stainless Steel, Technical Horizons, Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corp., Pittsburgh, 1962.
7. DOVE. A.B.: Steel Wire Hanidbook, Branford,
Conn.: The Wire Association, Inc., 1969, p
291.
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DAVIES, E.H.: Metallurgical Characterization of High Resilience Stainless Steel Orthodontic Wires, J Appl Chem Biotechnol,
25:913-934, 1975.
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Forces of Orthodontics, Angle Orthod, 31:
1-14, 1961.
10. CULLITY, B.D.: Elements of X-ray Diffraction, R?ading, Mass.: Add son-Wesley Co.,
1967, pp 276-280.
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Temperature for Stress Relief Heat Treatment of Stainless Steel Wire, J Dent Res
51:1171-1175, 1973.
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Metals, 1973.