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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY
A. DEFINITION/MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy comes from the Greek words (philos) which means love and (sophia)
which means wisdom
It is a branch of human science which deals with the formal reasons and formal principles of things
knowable through the natural light of human reason alone.
It is a human science because philosophy is not just a gathering of knowledge but a organized body of
knowledge.
It deals with the proper reasons and formal principles of things because philosophy searches for what is
essential and it is more on formal features rather than with the physical or material features of a thing.
o
This makes philosophy different from the positive sciences such as Biology, Chemistry, and
Physics etc. Positive sciences deal with the physical or material constituents and physical principles of
things, while philosophy goes beyond the physical or the material features of a thing and it studies the
nature of life and its principle.
o
Take for example the definition of man.
Positive science: Man is a member of the Genus Homo, Family Hominidae, Order Primates, Class
mammalia, characterized by erect posture and opposable thumb, distinguished by the ability to
communicate by means of organized speech and to record information in a variety of symbolic systems
Philosophy: Man is a rational animal, that is, a being having an organic sensitive body and a rational
soul, which through the specific rational faculties of reason and will is capable of abstract knowledge
through discovery, inference or education, and is also capable of discretionary free action, of culture and
progress, and of communicating with his kind by means of articulate voice and other meaningful signs.
Knowable through the natural light of human reason alone because man alone has the capability to think
and rationalize.
According to Blaise Pascal, The heart has reason in which reason itself cannot understand
PHILOSOPHY is the science of things. Philosophy includes everything as its object as seen in their
final causes. It tries to go down into the foundational principles.
PHILOSOPHY is also an attempt to reach a systematic knowledge of the different aspects of reality. It is
an attempt to reach answers, and conclusions which can still be open for revisions.
o Because philosophy is systematic, it should be orderly, consistent, comprehensive and logical
knowledge. That is why we cannot understand something if it is disorderly.
2.
Where am I going?
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With this, we can conclude that philosophy is all about the MEANING OF LIFE. To see the meaning of life, the
following questions must be asked again of ourselves:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Name: ____________________________Date:_________________
Course: ____________________________________
Answer the following comprehensively:
Define and explain philosophy in your own words.
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What is your philosophy in life?
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What is the importance of studying philosophy and logic in your life as a student?
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B. BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
1. LOGIC
Gk. (logike) which means word or thought
the science and art of correct thinking
2. COSMOLOGY
Gk. (kosmos) which means universe
a study on the universe or the physical world
3. PSYCHOLOGY
Gk. (psyche) which means mind or soul
on living beings, vital operations and the principle of life (soul)
4. ETHICS
Gk. ethos) which means morality
On the morality of human acts
6. THEODICY
Gk. (theos) which means God
on the First Cause of universal contingent beings
7. EPISTEMOLOGY
Lt. episteme which means knowledge
on the validity of human knowledge
8. ANTHROPOLOGY
Gk. (anthropon) which means man
a study about man
9. POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY
a study about the state or government
11. AESTHETICS
study of art and beauty
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C. MEANING/DEFINITION OF LOGIC
science and art of correct thinking
It is an organon meaning instrument. It is an instrument for discovering and presenting truths.
It is through logical methods that sciences discover truths.
The ability to reason is inherent to man. We have this so called COMMON SENSE. This is what we call
Natural Logic and this guided man to the use of fire, of water etc.
But common sense is prone to mistakes; we need therefore a systematized instruction on how to build up
our natural talents and how to use them effectively.
Therefore, we need the science and art of logic to develop the habit of confident reasoning.
Logic is a SCIENCE.
SCIENCE is a systematic body of knowledge.
Logic is a science because it is a body of knowledge that is systematically arranged and confirmed to be
true.
Logic is an ART
ART is the habit of doing something with a certain degree of order and harmony. It is also a normative
science which means it uses rules to be followed.
Logic is an ART because it is a practical science which leads to the formation of the habit of thinking
easily, orderly and properly.
Logic is the science and art of correct THINKING.
Thinking refers to any or to all the movements of the mind such as imagining, recalling, memorizing,
comprehending, analyzing, day-dreaming or solving problems.
In logic, thinking means inference.
INFERENCE- getting a truth or conclusion from something formerly known to the thinker.
2 KINDS OF INFERENCE
1. Inductive Inference draws a universal or general conclusion from a series of individual interrelated facts.
2. Deductive Inference draws a particular conclusion on the basis of assumed common or universal principles.
Premises (statements) Evidence
Conclusion (statement) What is claimed to follow from the evidence
Examples:
All cats are animals.
Felix is a cat.
Therefore, Felix is an animal.
premise
premise
conclusion
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CHAPTER TWO
TERMS
A. MEANING/DEFINITION
Terms are verbal or written words or signs communicative of a concept or idea. The spoken word is an
articulated human voice and the written word is the sign of the spoken word.
SIGN is something that manifests a different thing aside from itself.
Examples:
Color red is a sign of martyrdom.
Kinds of Signs:
1. Natural signs are signs whose connection with the objects they manifest is provided by nature.
Examples:
1. A heavy dark cloud is a natural sign of an oncoming rain.
2. Smoke is a natural sign of fire.
2. Conventional sign is a sign whose connection with the thing it manifests is provided by common
understanding or agreement.
Examples:
1. Flag
2. Traffic lights
Spoken/Written Words, therefore, are conventional signs. Thus, different peoples have different words to designate
the same object.
B. CLASSIFICATION OF TERMS
A. ACCORDING TO MEANING
1. Univocal term expressing the same meaning as applied to several subjects.
Ex. Man, podium, stone
2. Analogous term expressing cognate or related meaning.
partially different, partially the same.
Ex. Beautiful song- beautiful lady
Good mother- good heart.
3. Equivocal term that is outwardly and externally identical or the same but expressing different meanings.
Ex. son-sun, hot-hat-hut, bottle- battle
B. ACCORDING TO COMPREHENSION
1. Concrete these are terms that can be perceived; they are sensible and tangible.
Examples:
House
Church
Animal
Horse
River
2. Abstract signifies a nature or quality though it exists on its own right and apart from the individual or subject.
Examples:
Friendship
Humanity
Love
Manhood
Authority
Loyalty
C. ACCORDING TO EXTENSION
1. Singular signifies one, definite, specific individual.
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____________________
7. Honest____________________
8. Brother____________________
9. King
____________________
10. Abandon____________________
Identify whether the following are Identical, Similar, Compatible, Incompatible, Relative,
Privative, Contradictory or Contrary Terms.
1. poor-rich
_________________
2. something-nothing_________________
3. full-empty
4. doctor-patient
5. cause-effect
_________________
_________________
_________________
6. owner-proprietor _________________
7. small-terrible
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8. president-ruler
_________________
9. perfect-imperfect_________________
10. loser-winner
_________________
CHAPTER THREE
PROPOSITION
A proposition is an expression of judgment. It may be something that is stated for the purpose of discussion
or something to be dealt with as a statement of fact or truth.
It is a statement in which something is affirmed or denied.
A proposition is different from a sentence because a sentence is a word or a group of words expressing a
complete thought. An example of a sentence is RUN! This is a single word expressing a complete
thought and therefore a sentence.
Therefore, all propositions are sentences but not all sentences are propositions.
RUN! is not a proposition because it does not express a judgment.
A. CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
Elements of a Categorical Proposition
1. Quantifier part of the CP that tells the quantity of the proposition
2.) Subject and Predicate Termsmatter of the proposition
materials from which the proposition is made
3.) Copulabonding verb- form of the CP
Unifying principle that maintains the structure of the proposition
Quality of a Proposition
1.) Affirmative the predicate is affirmed of the subject
from the Latin word affirmo which means I agree. The first 2 vowels of the word are A and I. They are the
affirmative propositions.
Example: GMA is the president of the Philippines
2.) Negative the predicate is denied of the subject.
from the Latin word nego which means I deny. The two vowels of the word are E and O. They are the negative
propositions.
Example: ERAP is not the President of the Philippines.
Quantity of a Proposition
1.) Universalthe predicate is affirmed or denied of the whole of the subject.
Example: All mothers are loving parents.
2.) Particular the predicate is affirmed or denied of only part of the subject.
Example: Some politicians are corrupt officials.
4 TYPES OF CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
1. Universal Affirmative (A)
All lawyers are politicians.
2. Universal Negative (E)
No lawyers are politicians.
3. Particular Affirmative (I)
Some lawyers are politicians.
4. Particular Negative (O)
Some lawyers are not politicians.
B. LOGICAL OPPOSITIONS
1. Contradiction/Contradictories
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No S is P.
C O N T RAR I E TY
C
O
S
U
B
A
L
T
E
R
N
A
T
I
O
N
I
Some S are P.
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T
O
R
I
A
T
D
A
R
T
N
O
C
C
I
D C
T
I
O
N
S
U
B
A
L
T
E
R
N
A
T
I
O
N
S U B- C O N T R A R I E T Y
O
Some S are not P.
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________________________
13. All except Louisians are CICians.
All Louisians are CICians.
________________________
14. All pupils are active children.
No pupils are active children.
________________________
Name: ___________________________________Date: ____________________
Course: __________________________________
Complete the sentence by indicating whether it is true, false or doubtful and write on the
space before each number the type of opposition (contradiction, contrariety, subalternation, sub-contrariety)
:
____________1. If Some glasses are breakable is true, then No glass is
breakable is ______________.
____________2. If All dogs are animals is true, then No dog is an animal
is ___________.
____________3. If No fruit is a chocolate is true, then Some fruits are
chocolate is ____________.
____________4. If Some actions are not charitable is true, then All actions
are charitable is ___________.
____________5. If Some students are wage-earners. is true, then Some
students are not wage-earners is ___________.
____________6. If Some writers are good is false then, No writer is good
is ___________.
____________7. If No voter is an alien. is false, then, Every voter is an
alien is _____________.
____________8. If Some religious beliefs are not false is false, then Some
religious beliefs are false is ____________.
____________9. If No teacher is patient and kind is false, then All teachers
are patient and kind. is ____________.
____________10. If Some actions are legal is true, then All actions are
illegal is ___________.
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_______________
_______________
No citizen is an executive.
____ ___________________
_______________
_______________
_______________
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CHAPTER FOUR
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISMS
Categorical syllogism is a deductive argument consisting of 3 categorical propositions which contain exactly 3
terms.
Example:
All Filipinos are hospitable persons
All Ilocanos are Filipinos
Therefore All Ilocanos are hospitable persons
HOW TO IDENTIFY THE TERMS IN THE SYLLOGISM?
1.) Major Term (P)
found in the major premise as either the subject or the predicate
the predicate of the conclusion.
*In the example above, the major term is hospitable persons because it is the predicate of the conclusion.
2.) Minor Term (S)
found in the minor premise as either the subject or predicate
the subject of the conclusion.
In the example above, the minor term is Ilocanos because it is the subject of the conclusion
3.) Middle Term (M)
the only term which is not found in the conclusion and the only term which appears twice in the premises.
In the example above, the middle term is Filipinos because it is found in the two premises.
Example
All lawyers are politicians.
Some lawyers are liars
Therefore some liars are not politicians
Major term: politicians
Minor term: liars
Middle term: lawyers
A. FORM OF CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
Figure of the categorical syllogism
Mood of Categorical Syllogism
I. FIGURE OF CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
it refers to the way the middle term is arranged in the syllogism.
Fig. 1 ( sub-pre) M P
SM
-------SP
Fig. 2 (pre-pre)
PM
S M
-------SP
Fig. 3 (sub-sub) M P
Fig. 4(pre-sub)
PM
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MS
--------S-P
EXAMPLES:
Some students are academic scholars
All students are hardworking persons.
Therefore some hardworking persons are academic scholars.
IAI
Only men are priests
Mark is a man.
Therefore Mark is a priest
AAA
A
E
I
O
DISTRIBUTION OF TERMS
Subject Term
Predicate Term
Distributed
Undistributed
Distributed
Distributed
Undistributed
Undistributed
Undistributed
Distributed
GENERAL RULES FOR A VALID SYLLOGISM
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8. No ____________ is a fly,
But some ___________ are ____________,
Therefore some insects are not spiders.
B. VENN DIAGRAM
A Venn diagram is a drawing, in which circular areas represent groups of items sharing common properties. The
drawing consists of two or more circles, each representing a specific group. This process of visualizing logical
relationships was devised by John Venn (1834-1923).
A-proposition is diagrammed as:
X
P
S
O-proposition is diagrammed as:
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Since a syllogism is VALID if and only if the premises entail the conclusion, diagramming the premises will reveal
the logical geography of the conclusion in a valid syllogism. If the syllogism is invalid, then diagramming the
premises is insufficient to show the conclusion must follow.
*Certain guidelines must be observed in connection with Venn diagram Test:
1. The Universal Premise should be diagrammed first if the syllogism contains a particular premise.
2. The Letter X should be placed on the line dissecting an area if the whole area is so designated in the
premise. If part of the area has been shaded, the X goes in the unshaded part.
3. Only the premises should be diagrammed. If a syllogism is valid, the conclusion will be self-evident.
Steps in Diagramming:
Let us diagram this syllogism and check if it is valid or invalid:
All whales are mammals.
No frogs are mammals.
Therefore, no frogs are whales.
Since we have three terms, we expect to have three overlapping circles.
The first step in the diagramming process is to diagram the major premise, as follows:
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M
The conclusion should not be diagrammed. In fact, it can be read off in the diagram. The diagram shows that the
area FW is empty: No frogs are whales. The syllogism is VALID.
THE VALID MOODS
x x
xx
xxx
A A A A E E E E I I I I OOOO Major Premise
AE I O AE I O
A E I O AE I O Minor Premise
These are the possible valid moods in every figure. But applying the general rules to these moods, those with mark
x are terminated because they violate one of the general rules. So the remaining possible valid moods are as
follows:
A A A A E E I I O O Major Premise
A E I O A I A E A E Minor Premise
*With these possible valid moods, let us apply the specific rules for each figure.
VALID MOODS FOR THE FIRST FIGURE
Rules:
1. The major premise must be universal.
2. The minor premise must be affirmative.
AAA, EAE, AII, EIO
(BARBARA, CELARE, DARII, FERIO)
VALID MOODS FOR THE SECOND FIGURE
Rules:
1. One premise must be negative.
2. The major premise must be universal.
EAE, AEE, EIO, AOO
(CESARE, CAMESTRE, FESTINO, BAROCO)
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___________________
10. No lazy person is resourceful.
But some resourceful individuals are students.
Therefore, some students are not lazy persons.
___________________
CHAPTER FIVE
FALLACY
Fallacy comes from the Latin word fallo or fallere which means to deceive.
It refers to any error in reasoning. Fallacies may be formal or informal.
Formal- refers to errors in relation to the form or structure of reasoning or argument. The point in question is
not whether a conclusion is true or false but whether the form of argument is correct or incorrect, valid or
invalid.
Informal- refers to errors with regard to the content or the meaning of the argument. It is committed when
factors contributing to reasoning are distorted.
Some Informal Fallacies which are frequently committed:
Argumentum Ad Misericordiam (Appeal to Pity or Sympathy)
This is the error of by-passing logic and the point at issue by appealing to pity or sympathy.
Example:
Sir, maawa napo kayo sa akin, Ipasa nyo napo ako! May tatlong anak po akong pinapag-aral at sinusuportahan.
Argumentum Ad Populum ( Appeal to the People)
This is committed when one evades the point under discussion and instead appeals to the opinions,
passions or prejudices of the people.
Example:
Migz Zubiri is sure to win the senatorial position because he has been consistently topping election surveys.
Argumentum Ad Hominem (Argument Against the Person)
This happens when the person of the arguer is attacked, rather than his argument.
Example:
Wag ninyong pinaniniwalaan yung sinasabi ni Peter, pasaway, bolero at tsaka hindi maganda ang background ng
pamilya niya.
Mali ang sinabi nya dahil estudyante lang siya.
Argumentum Ad Baculum (Appeal to Force or Threat)
This is committed when one seeks to establish a conclusion by resorting to force or intimidation.
Examples:
Kapag hindi ka nakuha sa santong dasalan, kukunin kita sa santong paspasan.
Kapag hindi mo ako minahal, hindi kita ipapasa.
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BRAINTEASERS
HOUSE
1
Color
Country
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Drink
Pet
HOUSE
2
HOUSE
3
HOUSE
4
HOUSE
5
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3. In a certain mythical community, politicians never tell the truth, and nonpoliticians always tell the truth. A
stranger meets three natives and asks the first of them, Are you a politician? The first native answers the question.
The second native then reports that the first native denied being a politician. The third native says that the first native
is a politician.
How many of these three natives are politicians?
4. Mr. Short, his sister, his son, and his daughter are fond of golf and often play together. The following statements
are true of their foursome:
a) The best players twin and the worst player are of opposite sex.
b) The best player and the worst player are of the same age.
Which one of the foursome is the best player?
5.Benno Torelli, genial host at Hamtramcks most exclusive night club, was shot and killed by a racketeer gang
because he fell behind in his protection payments. After considerable effort on the part of the police, five suspects
were brought before the district attorney, who asked them what they had to say for themselves. Each of them had
made three statements, two true and one false. Their statements were:
Lefty:
I did not kill Torelli. I never owned a revolver in my life. Spike did it.
Red:
I did not kill Torelli. I never owned a revolver. The others are all passing the buck.
Dopey:
Spike:
I am innocent. Butch is the guilty one. Lefty did not tell the truth when he said I did it.
Butch:
I did not kill Torelli. Red is the guilty one. Dopey and I are pals.
Which of them is the guilty one?
6.Of three prisoners in a certain jail, one had normal vision, the second had only one eye, and the third was totally
blind. All were of at least average intelligence. The jailer told the prisoners that from three white hats and two red
hats he would select three and put them on the prisoners heads. Each was prevented from seeing what color hat was
placed on his own head. They were brought together, and the jailer offered freedom to the prisoner with normal
vision if he could tell what color hat was on his head. The prisoner confessed that he couldnt tell. Next the jailer
offered freedom to the prisoner with only one eye if he could tell what color hat was on his head. The second
prisoner confessed he couldnt tell. The jailer did not bother making the offer to the blind prisoner, but he agreed to
extend the same terms to him when he made the request. The blind person then smiled broadly and said:
I do not need to have my sight;
From what my friends with eyes have said,
I clearly see my hat is ______!
How did he know?
(FROM A TEXT MESSAGE)
Crime Scene: In a condo unit, a dead man with a gun in one of his hands and a recorder on the other. A gunshot
through his head. No sign of violence. The detective in charge took the recorder and played it. Im tired of my life,
I wanna die. *gunshot* the detective asked the dead mans roommate is this his voice? he replied. yes the
detective said we must find the murderer
How did the detective know it was murder and not a suicide?
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Agapay, Ramon B. Logic: The Essentials of deductive Reasoning., Pasig City: Capitol Publishing
House. Inc., 1991.
Bachhuber, Andrew H. Introduction to Logic., New York: Appleton-Century-Cofts, Inc., 1967.
Copi, Irving M. Introduction to Logic, 4th ed., New York: The MacMillan Co., 1972.
Liwanag, Rhodel T. Philosophy and Logic: An Introduction to Philosophy, Logic and Symbolic
logic, Philippines: Liwanag Gen. Merchandizing, 2006.
Oesterte, John A. The Art of Defining and Reasoning, 2nd ed. USA: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1963.
Osborne, Richard. Philosophy for beginners., USA: Writers and readers Publishing Incorporated,
1992.
Pion, Fr. Manuel OP., Logic primer, Manila: Rez Printing Company, Inc., 1979.
Salvador, Martinez T. Logic: A Textbook in deductive Reasoning, Quezon City: Publishing
House, Inc., 1980.
http://www.geocities.com/oosterwal/puzzle.htm
http://www.geocities.com/heartland/plains/4484/lp9702.htm
http://www.freeinternet.co.uk/users/ambrose.jones/Headscratch_stickman.jpg
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