Traditional Knowledge Systems For Biodiversity Conservation

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TraditionalKnowledgeSystemsforBiodiversityConservation
byDeepNarayanPandey1
Introduction
Traditionalknowledgeisvitalforsustainabilityofnaturalresourcesincludingforests,water,and
agroecosystemsacrosslandscapecontinuumspanningfromhouseholdsthroughfarms,village,commonsand
wilderness.Here,Iexaminethetraditionalknowledgeonbiodiversity,particularlyinthelightofcontemporary
researchontraditionalandformalknowledgesystemsanddemonstratethevalueoftraditionalknowledgefor
biodiversityconservation.Ialsorevisittheefficacyoftraditionalknowledgesystemsforconservation.Iidentify
recentdevelopmentsinlocalknowledgeresearchandinterfacethiswiththechallengesthatcontemporary
societyfacesinIndiaandhowlocalknowledgecanbeusefultoaddressthebiodiversityconservation.
Humanityfacesexceptionalchallengeoferodingnaturalresourcesanddecliningecosystemsservicesduetoa
multitudeofthreatscreatedbyunprecedentedgrowthandconsumerism.Alsoimperilledisthebiodiversityand
sustainabilityoftheessentialecologicalprocessesandlifesupportsystems(Chapinetal.,2000)inhuman
dominatedecosystemsacrossscales(Vitouseketal.,1997).Indeed,humandominationofearthisevidentin
globalchange(Ayensuetal.,1999Lawtonetal.,2001Phillipsetal.,1998Schimeletal.,2001Forestetal.,
2002),biodiversityextinctions(BawaandDayanandan1997Salaetal.,2000Singh,2002)anddisruptionof
ecosystemfunctions(Loreauetal.,2001).Ecologicalproblemscoupledwithunequalaccesstoresourcesresults
inhumanillbeingandthreatstothelivelihoodsecurityoftheworld'spoorest(Pandey,1996Balvaneraetal.,
2001).
TraditionalKnowledgeforSustainability
Toavertthethreats,naturalandsocialscienceshavehelpedbyacquiringandapplyingknowledgeabout
ecosystemconservationandrestorationandbystrengtheningthepolicyandpracticeofsustainabledevelopment.
Scientificresearchonhumanenvironmentalinteractionsisnowabuddingsustainabilityscience(Katesetal.,
2001).Theconceptrecognisesthatthewellbeingofhumansocietyiscloselyrelatedtothewellbeingof
naturalecosystems.Theintellectualresourcesonwhichthesustainabilityscienceisbuildingonneedtotakeinto
accounttheknowledgeoflocalpeopleaswell.Weneed,therefore,tofosterasustainabilitysciencethatdraws
onthecollectiveintellectualresourcesofbothformalsciences,andlocalknowledgesystemsofknowledge
(oftenreferredasethnoscience)2(Pandey,2001).Indeed,peoplehavearguedthatweneedtoinstallaNobel
Prizeforsustainability(SnooandBertels,2001).
Drivenbythesituationscientificresearchonhumanenvironmentalinteractions(Stern,1993)hasdeveloped
intothenewbranchofknowledgeknownastheSustainabilityScience(Katesetal.,2001).Theconcepthas
developedonthebasisoftherecognitionthatthewellbeingofhumansocietyiscloselyrelatedtothewell
beingofnaturalecosystems.Sustainabilityscienceseekstocomprehendthefundamentalcharacterof
interactionsbetweennatureandsociety,specificallytheinteractionofglobalprocesseswiththeecologicaland
socialcharacteristicsofparticularplacesandsectors.
Itwillbeusefultosuggestthatscienceisnotamonolithicentityrather,asHenryBauernotes:itis"amosaicof
thebeliefsofmanylittlescientificgroups"withavarietyofperspectivesthatindividualscientiststhemselves
possesandthestudiedobjectsbestowonthem(Pielke2002).Ithasbeenstatedthatscienceisobjectiveand
valuefree,andlocalknowledgeissubjectiveandvalueladen.Nothingcouldbefartherfromthetruth,indeed.
Allscienceisnotnecessarilyvaluefree,andlocalknowledgeisnotalwaysvalueladen.Innumerousinstance
sciencehasjustrediscoveredwhatwasalreadyknowninlocalknowledgesystems.Theonlydifferencethatmay
standanygroundisthewayknowledgeiscreatedandtosomeextentthewayitistransmittedinbothways
ofknowing.Adetaileddiscussiononlocalandformalmethodsisbeyondthescopeofthispaper3,nonetheless,
sufficeittonoteherethatoncedataandinformationaregeneratedandgetconvertedintoknowledgeby
innumerablecombinationsthecreatedknowledgeremainsknowledgeregardlessofmethodologyfollowedto
http://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/t_es/t_es_pande_conserve.htm
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createit.Thus,topositlocalknowledgeasanonscienceisnonsense.Butthatdoesnotguaranteeanexclusive
truthclaimtoeithertolocalknowledgeortoscience.Anyattempttoinhibitknowledgefromreexamination
andscrutiny,eitherbylocalpeoplethemselvesorbyacuriousresearchersattemptingtolearnanewway
knowingisnottobeunderstoodasanattempttodiscreditaparticularsystemofknowledge.
Adiscussiononlocalknowledgeisusefulatthisjunctureforotherreasonsaswell(see,forexample,adetailed
discussiononthisissue,Pandey,2002a).First,inadequacyofeconomicincentivestoconservebiodiversityas
demonstratedrecentlybyKleijnetal.,(2001)compelsrethinkingclassicalutilitarianapproachtoresource
management.Second,anemergingsustainabilityscience(Katesetal.,2001)willneedallstocksofknowledge
andinstitutionalinnovationstonavigatetransitiontowardsasustainableplanet.Third,rediscoveryoftraditional
ecologicalknowledgeasadaptivemanagement(Berkesetal.,2000)andneedtoapplyhumanecological(Bews,
1935East,1936Muller,1974)andadaptivestrategiesfornaturalresourcemanagement(Bates,2000)offers
prospectsforscientiststoaddresstheproblemsthatbesetconservationbiologistsandrestorationecologists.
Fourth,thereisanincreasingrealizationthatweneedinnovativeethicsandpolicytoconservebiodiversityand
maintainecosystemfunctions(Tilman,2000)andthatsuchethicsneednotcomefromthegodrather,society
cancultivatethem.Fifth,localknowledgesystemsaredisappearingataratethatmaynotallowuseventoknow
whatvalue,ifany,suchsystemshad(Cox,2000Brodt,2001Pandey,2002a).Finally,inathoughtprovoking
discussion,Cavalcanti(2002)notesthatalimitationofeconomicdevelopmentisthatitispursuedwithoutany
considerationsinpracticeastoitsimplicationsonecosystems.Theprevailingeconomictheoriestreatthe
economicprocessfromapurelymechanisticstandpoint.Differentwaysexist,however,todealwiththechoices
thathumanshavetomakewithrespecttotheallocationofresources,thedistributionofitsreturnsandthe
fulfilmentofpurposesofmaterialprogress.Tounderstandhowlocalpeoplesolvetheireconomicproblemsina
sustainablefashionisaseriouschallengeinthiscontext.Abettergraspofthisissuecouldpossiblybe
accomplishedwiththeuseofethnoeconomicsorethnoecologicaleconomics(Cavalcanti,2002).
Managementofnaturalresourcescannotaffordtobethesubjectofjustanysinglebodyknowledgesuchasthe
Westernscience,butithastotakeintoconsiderationthepluralityofknowledgesystems.Thereisamore
fundamentalreasonfortheintegrationofknowledgesystems.Applicationofscientificresearchandlocal
knowledgecontributesbothtotheequity,opportunity,securityandempowermentoflocalcommunities,aswell
astothesustainabilityofthenaturalresources.Localknowledgehelpsinscenarioanalysis,datacollection,
managementplanning,designingoftheadaptivestrategiestolearnandgetfeedback,andinstitutionalsupportto
putpoliciesintopractice(Getzetal.,1999).Science,ontheotherhand,providesnewtechnologies,orhelpsin
improvementtotheexistingones.Italsoprovidestoolsfornetworking,storing,visualizing,andanalyzing
information,aswellasprojectinglongtermtrendssothatefficientsolutionstocomplexproblemscanbe
obtained(Pandey,2002a).
Localknowledgesystemshavebeenfoundtocontributetosustainabilityindiversefieldssuchasbiodiversity
conservationandmaintenanceofecosystemsservices,tropicalecologicalandbioculturalrestoration,sustainable
watermanagement,geneticresourceconservationandmanagementofothernaturalresources.Localknowledge
hasalsobeenfoundusefulforecosystemrestorationandoftenhasingredientsofadaptivemanagement.
TraditionalKnowledgeonBiodiversityConservation
Inordertobeeffective,effortsonbiodiversityconservationcanlearnfromthecontextspecificlocalknowledge
andinstitutionalmechanismssuchascooperationandcollectiveactionintergenerationaltransmissionof
knowledge,skillsandstrategiesconcernforwellbeingoffuturegenerationsrelianceonlocalresources
restraintinresourceexploitationanattitudeofgratitudeandrespectfornaturemanagement,conservationand
sustainableuseofbiodiversityoutsideformalprotectedareasand,transferofusefulspeciesamongthe
households,villagesandlargerlandscape.Thesearesomeoftheusefulattributeoflocalknowledgesystems
(Pandey,2002a).TraditionalknowledgeonbiodiversityconservationinIndiaisasdiverseas2753communities
(Joshietal.1993)andtheirgeographicaldistribution,farmingstrategies,foodhabits,subsistencestrategies,and
culturaltraditions.
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LocalVegetationManagement:Overthousandsofyearslocalpeoplehavedevelopedavarietyofvegetation
managementpracticesthatcontinuetoexistintropicalAsia(Pandey,1998),SouthAmerica(Atranetal.,1999
GomezPompaandKaus,1999),Africa(Getzetal.,1999Infield,2001),andotherpartsoftheworld(Brosius,
1997Berkes,1999).Peoplealsofollowethicsthatoftenhelpthemregulateinteractionswiththeirnatural
environment(Callicott,2001).Suchsystemsareoftenintegratedwithtraditionalrainwaterharvestingthat
promoteslandscapeheterogeneitythroughaugmentedgrowthoftreesandothervegetation,whichinturn
supportavarietyoffauna(Pandey,2002a).
InIndiathesesystemscanbeclassifiedinseveralways:
Religioustraditions:templeforests,monasteryforests,sanctifiedanddeifiedtrees
Traditionaltribaltraditions:sacredforests,sacredgrovesandsacredtrees
Royaltraditions:royalhuntingpreserves,elephantforests,royalgardensetc.
Livelihoodtraditions:forestsandgrovesservingasculturalandsocialspaceandsourceoflivelihood
productsandservices
Thetraditionsarealsoreflectedinavarietyofpracticesregardingtheuseandmanagementoftrees,forestsand
water.Theseinclude:
Collectionandmanagementofwoodandnonwoodforestproducts
Traditionalethics,normsandpracticesforrestraintuseofforests,waterandothernaturalresources
Traditionalpracticesonprotection,productionandregenerationofforests.
Cultivationofusefultreesinculturallandscapesandagroforestrysystems
Creationandmaintenanceoftraditionalwaterharvestingsystemssuchastanksalongwithplantationof
thetreegrovesintheproximity
Thesesystemssupportbiodiversity,whichisalthoughlessthannaturalecosystemsbutithelpsreducethe
harvestpressure.Forinstance,thereare15typesofresourcemanagementpracticesthatresultinbiodiversity
conservationandcontributetolandscapeheterogeneityinaridecosystemsofRajasthan.Environmentalethicsof
Bisnoicommunitysuggestcompassiontowildlife,andforbidfellingofProsopiscinerariatreesfoundinthe
region.Bisnoiteachingsproclaim:"Ifonehastolosehead(life)forsavingatree,knowthatthebargainis
inexpensive"(Pandey,2002a).
InIndia,localpracticesofvegetationmanagementperhapsemanatefromthebasicecologicalconceptsoflocal
communitiesreflectedin"ecosystemlikeconceptsintraditionalsocieties"(Berkesetal.1998).Twokey
characteristicsofthesesystemsarethattheunitofnatureisoftendefinedintermsofageographicalboundary
andabioticcomponents,plants,animals,andhumanswithinthisunitareconsideredtobeinterlinked.Many
localknowledgesystemsaresimilarintemperamenttotheemergingscientificviewofecosystemsas
unpredictableanduncontrollable,andofecosystemprocessesasnonlinear,multiequilibrium,andfullof
surprises(Berkesetal.1998).
BiodiversityinSacredCliffs:Cliffsarecompletelyforgottenculturallandscapeelementsthatsupportavariety
ofspeciesofplantsandanimalsinIndia.Ashumanshavespecialfascinationstosuchareasoftencliffsacross
thecountryareconsideredsacred.Cliffselsewherehavebeenfoundtosupportundisturbedancientwoodland,
dominatedbytiny,slowgrowingandwidelyspacedtrees.Verticalcliffsoftensupportpopulationsofwidely
spacedtreesthatareexceptionallyold,deformedandslowgrowing.Someofthemostancientandleast
disturbedwoodedhabitatsonEartharefoundoncliffs,evenifsuchsitesareclosetointensiveagriculturaland
industrialdevelopment.Theageofthetreesoncliffsmayindicatetheageandgrowthratesoftheentireplant
communitiesonthecliffs.Cliffsacrosstheworldmaysupportancient,slowgrowing,openwoodland
communitiesthathaveescapedmajorhumandisturbance,evenwhentheyaresituatedclosetoagriculturaland
industrialactivity,whichhasdestroyedoralteredmostothernaturalhabitats(Larsonetal.,1999,2000a&b
Peterken,1996).ExamplesofsuchhabitatinIndiaabound.CliffsinUdaipurandKotadistrictsofRajasthan
weresurveyed(7cliffwithancientvegetation).Cliffswerefoundtohavemorethan25speciesoftrees,several
speciesofshrubsandherbs.AreasclosetoBhopalhavemorethan50cliffsincentralIndiainaradiusofabout
100kms.Allthe7cliffssurveyedinRajasthanaresacred.Theyareoftenpartofthesacredcorridorsalongthe
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riverbankescarpmentwithseveralmetersofprecipitousfall.Attemptshavebeenmadetoregeneratethe
GaipernathCliffwiththetraditionalspeciesoccurringinthearea(Lanneacoromandelica,Boswelliaserrata,
Sterculiaurensetc.about25species).Theresultwasverypoorinitially.Butlocalethnoforestrytechniquesof
tuckingthebranchcuttingsofcoppicingspeciesinwhateverlittlecrevicesareamayhaveweresuccessful.Also,
depositingtheseeds(samespeciesthatoccur)increviceswiththeballofmoistearthhasbeenfoundpromising.
FarmBiodiversity:ThroughouttheIndianfarmsandfieldonefindsstripsofvegetationcontainingseveral
speciesofplantsandsmallanimals.Thesestripsarebeneficialinseveralways.Suchstripsontropicallands
havebeenfoundtoacceleratenaturalsuccessionalprocessesbyattractingseeddispersinganimalsand
increasingtheseedrainofforestplants.Effectsofthesestripsresemblethewindbreaksonseeddeposition
patterns(Harvey,2000).Isolatedtreesprovideseedintheareafornaturalregeneration.Thestripsenhanceseed
rain,andconnectivity.Becausesuchstripstraplargenumberofseedsofseveralspeciestheyhelpinfurthertree
growth.Comparedtoopenfields,farmboundarieswithvegetationreceiveseedingreaterdensitiesandspecies
richnessthanopenfarmsandpastures.Allformsofseeddispersalhelpintheprocessbutanimaldispersed
(birds,bats,mammalsetc.)seedsoftenoccuringreaterdensitiesandspeciesnumbers.Presenceofisolatedtrees
andshrubsorremnanttreeshelps.Farmboundariesmaintainedthroughoutthecountryareoftenself
regeneratingandrequireonlymanagementasthesebarriersconsiderablyincreasethedepositionoftreeand
shrubseedswithintheculturallandscape.Indeedconsiderablebiodiversityisfoundwithinthesestrips.Thisisa
practicethatneedstobemaintainedasithasseveralsocioeconomicbenefitsaswell.
Valueoftraditionalagroecosystemsinsupportingtheplantandanimaldiversity(seeforexample,Kunteetal.
1998)isimmense.Treediversityinfarmsandagroecosystemsisoftentheproductofinteractionoflocaland
formalknowledge.ArecentstudybyShastrietal.(2002)providesinterestinginsightsonthetreegrowing
practicesandassociatedbiodiversityinKarnataka.Shastrietal.(2002)foundtreesbelongingto93speciesina
sampledareaof1.7haofSirsimakkiagroecosystem.Additional44specieswerenotedonnonagricultural
landsinthevillageecosystem,whichincludedsoppinabetta,minorforestandreserveforest.Theoverall
agroecosystemhad556trees/ha,whilethenonagroecosystemhadonly354trees/ha.Theoverall,treedensityof
418.8perhawaspresentinthevillage.Therewere144speciesinthevillageecosystemwith2238individualsin
thesampledareaof5.34ha.Thetotalnumberofspeciesinnonagroecosystemwas104with1286individuals.
Homegardensarenotablewith93treespeciesinjustabout1.7ha.Thenumberoftreespeciesvariesbetween
20and40inhomegardens,indicatingthathomegardensinKarnatakavillagesarehighlybiodiversein
comparisontothoseinMexicoandBrazil(Shastrietal.2002).
Farmsthemselveshavedomesticatedbiodiversityessentialforsurvivalandsubsistence.Onesuchexampleisby
Kimataetal.(2000)formSouthIndiaonthecultivationandprocessofdomesticationofBrachiariaramosa
cultivatedinpurestands.ItsgrainsareusedinninetraditionalfoodpreparationsinSouthIndia.Anothercrop
Setariaglaucaiscultivatedinmixedstandsalongwithlittlemillet(Panicumsumatrense).InOrissastateandin
SouthernIndiathegrainsareusedtomakeatleastsixtraditionalsupplementaryfoods.Theweedyformsof
thesespecieswerefoundbytheresearchersgrowingwithuplandriceandsomemilletsindiverseagro
ecologicalniches.Thedomesticationprocessissupposedtohavegonethroughthreephases:firstgrowingin
associationwithweedandwithuplandriceandothermilletsasecondarycropmixedwithkodomilletand
finallyasanindependentcrop.
CultivationofMedicinalplants:Therearenumerousexamplesofmedicinalplantcultivationbylocalpeople
inIndia.Socioculturallyvaluedspeciesfindplaceinhomegardensandcourtyards.Forexample,Aroundthe
NandaDeviBiosphereReserveinthewesternHimalaya,theBhotiyacommunity,whoselivelihoodisdepends
onlocalnaturalresources,practicesseasonalandaltitudinalmigrationandstayinsidethebufferzoneforonly6
months(MayOctober).Asurveyin5villagesinPithoragarhDistrict,foundthatBhotiyapeoplecultivate
medicinalplantsontheiragriculturefields.Ofatotalof71families,90%cultivatedmedicinalplantson78%of
thetotalreportedcultivatedarea(15.29ha).Around12speciesofmedicinalplantswereundercultivation.
SurveyalsofoundthatafamilyearnedaboutRs.2423+/376.95perseasonfromthesaleofmedicinalplantsin
1996(Rs.38=US$1in1996).Thus,supportingmedicinalplantcultivationathighaltitudesintheHimalayas
mayhelptogenerateadditionalsupporttopeopleaswellasconservethespeciesinthewild(SiloriandBadola,
2000,seealso,Maikhurietal.1998).Anotherstudy(Satyaletal.2002)ontraditionalknowledgeofKumaun
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HigherHimalayafoundthatBhotiatribesuse34speciesofmedicinalplantsnativetotheregion.Amongthese,
AngelicaglaucaandAlliumstracheyiarenarrowrangeendemicandAlliumstracheyi,Picrorhizakurrooaand
NardostachysgrandiflorahavebeenrecordedintheRedDataBookofIndianPlants.Interestingly,theannual
productionofmedicinalplantshasbeenfoundtobecomparablewiththeannualproductionoftraditionalcrops.
Thus,cultivation,andharvestingcanhelpinlivelihoodsecurityandinsituconservationofthesespecies.
Similarly,juangandMundatribesoftheKeonjhardistrictofeasternIndiause215plants,belongingto150
generaand82families(MahapatraandPanda2002).Thissuggestsawealthoftraditionalknowledgeon
biodiversityandherbalhealthcareintribesofeasternIndia.Tribesintheregionaredependentonforestsfor
otherspeciesasspeciesofmushrooms,wildberries,tubers,andflowersthatareincludedintheirdietincluding
cookingoil.Understandingoftraditionalknowledgeonbiodiversityoftheregionwillbemosthelpfulin
planningforsustainableforestmanagement.
TraditionalEthos:Similarly,inspiteofthemodernization,traditionalecologicalethoscontinuetosurvivein
manyotherlocalsocieties,althoughofteninreducedforms.Investigationsintothetraditionalresourceuse
normsandassociatedculturalinstitutionsprevailinginruralBengalsocieties(DebandMalhotra,2001)
demonstratethatalargenumberofelementsoflocalbiodiversity,regardlessoftheirusevalue,areprotectedby
thelocalculturalpractices.Someofthesemaynothaveknownconservationeffect,yetmaysymbolically
reflect,acollectiveappreciationoftheintrinsicorexistencevalueoflifeforms,andtheloveandrespectfor
nature.Traditionalconservationethicsarestillcapableofprotectingmuchofthecountry'sdecimating
biodiversity,aslongasthelocalcommunitieshaveevenastakeinthemanagementofnaturalresources.
Traditionalethosisreflectedinavarietyofpracticesincludingsacredgrovesandsacredlandscapes.Theyare
fairlywelldescribed(seeforexample,Debetal.1997,Pandey1996&1998).
OneexamplefromnortheastIndiaisparticularlynotable(see,Tiwarietal.1998).Thetribalcommunitiesof
MeghalayaKhasis,Garos,andJaintiashaveatraditionofenvironmentalconservationbasedonvarious
religiousbeliefs.AselsewhereinIndia,particularpatchesofforestsaredesignatedassacredgrovesunder
customarylawandareprotectedfromanyproductextractionbythecommunity.Suchforestsareveryrichin
biologicaldiversityandharbormanyendangeredplantspeciesincludingrareherbsandmedicinalplants.Tiwari
etal.(1998)identified79sacredgrovesandtheirfloristicsurveyrevealedthatthesesacredgrovesarehometo
atleast514speciesrepresenting340generaand131families.Thestatusofsacredgroveswasascertained
throughcanopycoverestimate.About1.3%oftotalsacredgroveareawasundisturbed,42.1%hadrelatively
denseforest,26.3%hadsparsecanopycover,and30.3%hadopenforest.Notably,thespeciesdiversityindices
werehigherforthesacredgrovethanforthedisturbedforest.
AnothernotableexampleisfrompeninsularIndia.Study(RamanujamandKadamban2001)ontwosacred
groves,OoraniandOlagapuram,situatedonthenorthwestofPondicherryfoundatotalof169angiosperms
frombothsites.TheOoranigrove(3.2ha)had74floweringplantspeciesdistributedin71generaand41
families30ofthemarewoodyspecies,8arelianasand4areparasites.TheOlagapuramgrove(2.8ha)was
morespeciesrichwith136speciesin121generaof58familieswoodyspecieswerefewer(21)while9lianas
and3parasitesoccurred.Associatedlocalknowledge,culturalandreligiousritualsoflocalpeoplesustainsuch
diversity.
Anothertraditionworthmentionisuseofplantsinmuralpainting.Suchpaintingsarefound,forexample,inthe
Ajantanmuralart.ThepracticespannedawholemillenniumfromthesecondcenturyB.C.totheeighthcentury
A.D.ThetraditioncontinueduptothenineteenthcenturyunderthesupportofdifferentdynastiesinIndia,but
declinedbytheendofthatcentury.Nayaretal.(1999)notethattheartiskeptalivebyafewartistsinKerala
whopracticeeventodaythemethodsandtechniquesofmuralpaintingssimilartothosepracticedbytheAjantan
muralpainters.Variousplantspeciesprovidedmaterialsformuralpainting.Suchknowledgecanbeveryhelpful
inprovidinglivelihoodsecuritytopractitioners.
Traditionalwaterharvestingstructurestooarealsohabitatforavarietyofspecies.Evenifpondsizeissmall,as
isthecaseinabout60%(outof1.5milliontotaltanks)inIndia(Pandey,2001)itmaystillbeusefulhabitatfor
manyspeciesinruralecosystems.Indeed,theislandbiogeographytheoryvalidinnumerouscases
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suggestingthatlargerareassupportmorespeciesdidnotstandincaseof80pondsinSwitzerland(Oertlietal.,
2002).
Theoreticalpredictionsandempiricalsupportsuggeststhatalthoughintentional4conservationmayberare
amongsmallscalesocietiesasSmithandWishnie(2000)havepointedout,butpracticesthatactuallyresultin
whatwetodaycall'sustainableuseandmanagement'ofresourcesandhabitatsbylocalpeopleiswidespread
globallythatcontributetoinbiodiversityconservationandenhancementthroughcreationofhabitatmosaics
(SmithandWishnie,2000).
FormalconservationeffortsinIndiahavereliedheavilyontherecentlydeclaredofficialprotectedareasin
variouscategoriesforbiodiversityconservation.However,ancientandwidespreadhumanpracticetosetaside
areasforthepreservationofnaturalvaluesinIndiacanbeseeninseveralexamplesofsacredgroves,royal
huntingforests,andsacredgardens(Gadgil1982,Pandey,1991Gadgiletal.,1993Kanowskietal.,1999
ChandrashekaraandSankar,1998).Severaloftheseareasbecamenationalparksandwildlifesanctuariesin
Indiaandelsewhere(Pandey,2001).ItmustbenotedherethatmuchoftheIndia'sbiodiversityliesoutsidethe
officiallydeclaredprotectedareas.Indeed,biodiversityoccursinlandscapecontinuum(figure1table1&2).
Otherareasprotectecosystemservicessuchasthedeliveryofcleanwaterorthesupplyoftimber,ormitigate
theexpectedadverseeffectsofoverclearing(Grove,1992).Othersprotectrecreationalandscenicvaluesand
somehavebeenplannedtofosterinternationalcooperation(Hanks,1997).ManyoftheseareasmeettheWorld
ConservationUnion'sdefinitionofastrictlyprotectedarea(IUCNcategoriesIIV)(IUCN,1994).
Inviewofacceleratingbiologicalandculturallandscapedegradation,abetterunderstandingofinteractions
betweenlandscapesandtheculturalforcesdrivingthemisessentialfortheirsustainablemanagement.Weneed
environmentalandculturalrevolution,aimingatthereconciliationofhumansocietywithnature(Naveh,1995).
TraditionalKnowledge,Water,andBiodiversity
Simplelocaltechnologyandanethicthatexhorts"capturerainwhereitrains"havegivenriseto1.5million
traditionalvillagetanks,pondsandearthenembankmentsthatharvestsubstantialrainwaterin660,000villages
inIndia(Pandey,2001a),andencouragegrowthofvegetationincommonsandagroecosystems.IfIndiawereto
simplybuildthesetankstodayitwouldtakeatleastUS$125billion(Pandey,2002a).
Humanshavevirtuallyappropriatedfreshwater.Humanitynowuses26percentoftotalterrestrial
evapotranspirationand54percentofrunoffthatisgeographicallyandtemporallyaccessible.Newdam
constructioncouldincreaseaccessiblerunoffbyabout10percentoverthenext30years,whereaspopulationis
projectedtoincreasebymorethan45percentduringthatperiod(Posteletal.,1996).
Overthousandsofyearssocietieshavedevelopedadiversityoflocalwaterharvestingandmanagementregimes
thatstillcontinuetosurvive,forexample,inSouthAsia,Africa,andotherpartsoftheworld(Agarwaland
Narain,1997).Suchsystemsareoftenintegratedwithagroforestry(WagachchiandWiersum,1997)and
ethnoforestrypractices(Pandey,1998).Recentlyithasbeensuggestedthatmarketmechanismsforsustainable
watermanagementsuchastaxinguserstopaycommensuratecostsofsupplyanddistributionandofintegrated
watershedmanagementandchargingpollutersforeffluenttreatmentcansolvetheproblem(Johnsonetal.,
2001).Suchmeasuresareessentialalthough,buttheyareinsufficientandwouldneedtodrawonthelocal
knowledgeonrainwaterharvestingacrossdifferentcultures(Pandey,2001).
RainwaterharvestinginSouthAsiaisdifferentfromotherpartsoftheworldinthatithasacontinuedhistoryof
practiceforatleastover5000years.Similarly,Balinesewatertemplenetworksascomplexadaptivesystemsare
alsoveryusefulsystems(Falvo2000).Althoughhydraulicearthworksareknowntohaveoccurredinancient
landscapesinmanyregions,theyarenolongeranoperationalsystemsamongthemassesinthesameproportion
asinSouthAsia.Forinstance,remainsofearthworksandwaterstorageadaptationsarefoundinMayan
lowlandsinSouthAmerica(Mann,2000).SuchsystemshadbeenusedforprehistoricagricultureinMayan
lowlands(Turner,1974Coe,1979),andforfishcultureinBolivianAmazon(Erickson,2000).
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Rainwaterharvestinghavebeenfoundtobescientificandusefulforrainfedareas(Lietal.,2000).Forinstance,
avalidationcomesfromtheNegev.Ancientstonemoundsandwaterconduitsarefoundonhillslopesoverlarge
areasoftheNegevdesert.Fieldandlaboratorystudiessuggestthatancientfarmerswereveryefficientin
harvestingwater.Acomparisonofthevolumeofstonesinthemoundstothevolumeofsurfacestonesfromthe
surroundingareasindicatesthattheancientfarmersremovedonlystonesthathadrestedonthesoilsurfaceand
lefttheembeddedstonesuntouched.Accordingtoresultsofsimulatedrainfallexperiments,thisselective
removalincreasedthevolumeofrunoffgeneratedoveronesquaremeterbyalmost250%forsmallrainfall
eventscomparedtonaturaluntreatedsoilsurfaces(Laveeetal.,1997).
OneoftheprincipletreegenusgrowinginassociationwithtanksandpondsinIndiaisFicuswhichisculturally
valuedthroughoutthecountry.Itisakeystonegenusandsupportsavarietyofotherspecies.Recordsof
frugivoryfromover75countriesfor260Ficusspecies(approximately30%ofdescribedspecies)suggestthatin
additiontoasmallnumberofreptilesandfishes,1274birdandmammalspeciesin523generaand92families
areknowntoeatfigs(Shanahanetal.2001).
ConservationPrinciplesinAncientTexts
NaturalResourceManagementhasbeeninthetraditionsoftheIndiansociety,expressingitselfvariouslyinthe
managementandutilizationpractices.Thisevolvedthroughthecontinuedhistoricalinteractionofcommunities
andtheirenvironment,givingrisetopracticesandculturallandscapessuchassacredforestsandgroves,sacred
corridorsandavarietyofethnoforestrypractices.Thishasalsoresultedinconservationpracticesthatcombined
water,soilandtrees.Naturesocietyinteractionalsobroughtaboutthesocioculturalbeliefsasaninstitutional
frameworktomanagetheresultantpracticesarisingoutofapplicationoftraditionalknowledge.Theattitudeof
respecttowardsearthasmotheriswidespreadamongtheIndiansociety.
LocalknowledgehasprovedusefulforforestrestorationandprotectedareamanagementinRajasthanoneof
thedriestregionsofIndiawithscantyrainfall.Culturallandscapesinruralandurbanareasandagroecosystems,
createdbytheapplicationofscientificandlocalknowledge,alsosupportavarietytrees,birdsandotherspecies,
andprovideopportunityofintegrationofnatureandsociety(Taylor,2002).
Ancienttextsmakeexplicitreferencesastohowforestsandothernaturalresourcesaretobetreated.
Sustainabilityindifferentformshasbeenanissueofdevelopmentofthoughtsinceancienttimes.Forexample,
robustprinciplesweredesignedinordertocomprehendwhetherornottheintricatewebofnatureissustaining
itself.Theseprinciplesroughlycorrespondwithmodernunderstandingofconservation,utilization,and
regeneration.
ConservationPrinciples:AtharvaVeda(12.1.11)hymn,believedtohavebeencomposedsometimeataround
800BC,somewhereamidstdeepforestsreads:"OEarth!Pleasantbethyhills,snowcladmountainsandforests
Onumerouscoloured,firmandprotectedEarth!OnthisearthIstand,undefeated,unslain,unhurt."Implicithere
arethefollowingprinciples:
Itmustbeensuredthatearthremainsforested.
Itmustbeunderstoodthathumanscansustainonlyiftheearthisprotected.
Toensurethathumansremain'unslain'and'unhurt',theecosystemintegritymustbemaintained.
Evenifvaguely,italsomakesreferencetoecology,economyandsocietyconcurrently.
UtilizationandRegenerationPrinciples:AnotherhymnfromAtharvaVeda(12.1.35)reads:"WhateverIdigout
fromyou,OEarth!Maythathavequickregenerationagainmaywenotdamagethyvitalhabitatandheart".
Implicitherearethefollowingprinciples:
Humanbeingscanusetheresourcesfromtheearthfortheirsustenance,
Resourceusepatternmustalsohelpinresourceregeneration,
Intheprocessofharvestnodamageshouldbedonetotheearth,
Humansareforewarnednotagainsttheuseofnatureforsurvival,butagainsttheoveruseandabuse.
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Althoughnotinmodernterminology,thethreesegmentofsustainabilityecology,economyandsocietyseem
togetaddressedsimultaneously.
Similarly,watermanagementandassociatedtreegrowinghasbeenthesubjectofancienttext.Tankshavebeen
themostimportantsourceofirrigationinIndia.SometanksmaydateasfarbackastheRigVedicperiod,around
1500BC.TheRigVedareferstolotusponds(5.78.7),pondsthatgivelifetofrogs(7.103.2)andpondsof
varyingdepthsforbathing(10.71.7).ReferencetothetanksisalsofoundintheArthashastraofKautilya5
writtenaround300BC(Rangarajan1987:231233).TheArthashastrareferstotheownershipandmanagement
ofthevillagetanksinthefollowingverses:
Waterworkssuchasreservoirs,embankmentsandtankscanbeprivatelyownedandtheownershall
befreetosellormortgagethem(3.9.33)6.
Theownershipofthetanksshalllapse,iftheyhadnotbeeninuseforaperiodoffiveyears,
exceptingincaseofdistress(3.9.32).
Anyoneleasing,hiring,sharingoracceptingawaterworksasapledge,witharighttousethem,
shallkeepthemingoodcondition(3.9.36).
Ownersmaygivewatertoothersinreturnforashareoftheproducegrowninthefields,parksor
gardens(3.9.35).
Intheabsenceofowners,eithercharitableindividualsorthepeopleinvillageactingtogethershall
maintainwaterworks(3.10.3).
Noonewillsellormortgage,directlyorindirectly,abundorembankmentbuiltandlongusedasa
charitablepublicundertakingexceptwhenitisinruinsorhasbeenabandoned(3.10.1,2).
TheearliestscholartohavecommentedontherelationshipoftanksandtreesisVarahamihirawhodescribedthe
detailedtechnicalinstructionsforthetankconstructionsinhisfamousworkBrahatsamhita(550AD):
Withouttheshadeofthetreesontheirsides,waterreservoirsdonotlookcharmingtherefore,one
oughttoplantthegardensonthebanksofthewater(55.1)7
Commentingonthespeciestobeplantedontheembankmentsofthetank,afteritsconstruction,Varahamihira
writes:
Theshoreline(banks)ofthetanksshouldbeshaded(planted)withthemixedstandsofArjun
(Terminaliaarjuna),Vata(Ficusbenghalensis),Aam(Mangiferaindica),Pipal(Ficusreligiosa),
Nichul(Naucleaorientalis),Jambu(Syzygiumcuminii),Vet(Calamus?),Neep(Mitragyna
parvifolia),Kurvak(?),Tal(Borassusflabellifer),Ashok(Saracaasoka),Madhuk(Madhuca
indica),andBakul(Mimusopselengi)(54.119).
Forexample,thereisaconsiderableoverlapintheformalandscientificforestrypolicyandpractice,which
provideshopethattraditionalknowledgesystemscancontributetothemanagementofnaturalresources.It
wouldbepertinenttoquoteGadgilandGuha(1992:51)inthiscontext:
"Indeedonecouldarguethatscientificprescriptionsinindustrialsocietiesshowlittleevidenceof
progressoverthesimpleruleofthumbprescriptionsforsustainableresourceuseandthe
conservationofdiversitywhichcharacterizedgathererandpeasantsocieties.Equally,thelegaland
codifiedprocedureswhicharesupposedtoensuretheenforcementofscientificprescriptionswork
littlebetterthanearlierproceduresbasedonreligionorsocialconvention".
IntegrationofTraditionalandFormalScience
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Arethereanypossibilitiesofintegrationofscienceandethnoscience?Empiricalevidencesuggestsin
affirmative.Traditionalknowledgemayindeedcomplementscientificknowledgebyprovidingpractical
experienceinlivingwithinecosystemsandrespondingtoecosystemchange.But,asBerkesetal.(1998)note
the"language"oftraditionalecologyisdifferentfromthescientificandgenerallyincludes"metaphorical
imageryandspiritualexpression,signifyingdifferencesincontext,motive,andconceptualunderpinnings".
Indictraditionsandlocalknowledgehaveoftenpavedthewayformanydiscoveriesinscience.Forexample,
progressofscienceinIndiahasbuiltonthefoundationsofknowledgeandwisdomthatwascreatedinancient
timesonavarietyofdisciplinesincludingmetallurgy,mathematics,medicine,surgeryandnaturalresource
management(Rao,1985Gandhi,1982TunonandBruhn,1994).Traditionalskills,localtechniquesandrural
craftprovideawidespectrumofknowledgeinIndia,andsince"knowledgecannotbefragmented"(Gandhi,
1982)wehavetotakethevalidatedlocalknowledgeintoaccounttogetherwithscienceforevolvingarobust
sustainabilityscience.Sharpboundariesbetweenformalandlocalsystemsofknowledge,andnaturalsciences
andsocialsciencesmayindeedbeimaginary.Perceivedconfinesmayjustbetheunexploreddomainthatdefies
cognitionforwantofinterdisciplinaryexplorations.Thisishoweverchanging,asWilson(1998)notes,
disciplinesarebeingrendered"consilient".Scientificcommunityisincreasinglyrealizingthat"thereisa
continuumbetweenartificiallydichotomizedaspectsofscience:objectiveversussubjective,valuefreeversus
valueladen,neutralversusadvocacy"(Rykiel,2001).Thisdisciplinarymosaicwillhaveprofoundimpacton
scienceandpolicydevelopment.
SincelocalknowledgesystemsinIndiaarestillbeingpracticedamongthemasses,theycancontributeto
addressthechallengesofforestmanagement(Pandey,1998),sustainablewatermanagement(Pandey,2001),
biodiversityconservation(Pandey,2002a),andmitigationofglobalclimatechange(Pandey,2002b&c,Magistro
andRoncoli,2001).Ecologicalconsequencesofclimatechange(McCarty,2001Pandey,2002cWaltheretal.,
2002)requirethatweaccessallstocksofknowledgeformitigationstrategies.
BiodiversityConservation
Strategiesemployedforconservationandmanagementofnaturalresourcesprominentlyrelyonnaturereserves,
nationalparks,wildlifesanctuariesandothersuchcategoriesofprotectedareas(Seeforexample,Inamdaretal.,
1999Sarkar,1999Myersetal.,2000Pimmetal.,2001Robertsetal.,2002Sechrestetal..,2002Briers,
2002Wilson,2002).Protectedareaaloneapproachfornatureconservation,however,hasseriousflaw(Pandey,
1993)asithasfurtherexacerbatedtheproblemofhumananimalconflicts,andamajorityofreserveshave
failedtoachievetheconservationgoalsinmarine(Tupper,2002)aswellasterrestrial(Rajpurohit,1999,
Vanclay,2001RawalandDhar,2001MadhusudanandKaranth,2002)ecosystems.Suchanapproachhasalso
"ledtoconflictsbetweenthelocalcommunitiesandthemanagementauthorities"(AshishKothari,pers.comm.)
Further,applicationofislandbiogeographytheorytoconservationpracticehasbeencontendedsincelong.As
SimberloffandAbele(1976)note"theoreticallyandempirically,amajorconclusionofsuchapplicationsthat
refugesshouldalwaysconsistofthelargestpossiblesingleareacanbeincorrectunderavarietyof
biologicallyfeasibleconditions.Thecostandirreversibilityoflargescaleconservationprogramsdemanda
prudentapproachtotheapplicationofaninsufficientlyvalidatedtheory."Protectingbiodiversityinprotected
areasindeedhasremainedachallengeacrossnations.
Ontheotherhandtherearedetailedaccountsofavarietyofmechanismsandcontextsthroughwhichlocal
peopleconserveandmaintainbiodiversityacrosslandscapecontinuum(seeforexample,ArnoldandDewees,
1997Kothari1996,20002002Kotharietal.2001KothariandAnuradha1999Pandey,1996,1998Berkes,
1999CollinsandQualset,1998Ramakrishnanetal.,1998MedinandAtran,1999Nazarea,1999Posey,
1999Venkataraman,2000Hartley,2002DanielsandVencatesan,1995seefigure1).
PracticetosetasideareasforthepreservationofnaturalvaluessuchhassacredgrovesofAsiaandAfricaand
royalhuntingforestsinIndiaaresomehistoricalexamples(Kanowskietal.,1999ChandrashekaraandSankar,
1998)ofnatureconservation.SeveraloftheseareasbecamenationalparksandwildlifesanctuariesinIndiaand
elsewhere.
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Consensusthatseemsemergingisthatwemightneedmultipleconservationandsustainablemanagement
approaches(DinersteinandWikramanayake,1993ChandrashekaraandSankar,1998Schellnhuberand
Wenzel,1998MargulesandPressey,2000NRC,1999Clark,2001)Underthesecircumstances,insteadofan
exclusiveapproach,bothprotectedareasandcommunityareasseemcomplementarystrategies.
Asthehumanandlivestockpopulationgrowsandnaturalresourcesdeclinecommandandcontrolmanagement
ofnaturalresourcestendstobecomethenorm.Stricterenforcementofprotectedareasagainisgainingcurrency
asamanagementproposalduetoperceivedfailureofpeopleorientedapproachestosafeguardbiodiversity.
Unfortunately,suchanapproachusuallyresultsinadverseconsequencesfornaturalecosystemsandhuman
welfareintheformofcollapsingresources,socialandeconomicconflict,andlossofbiologicaldiversity
(HollingandMeffe1996Meffeetal.1998).Additionally,thisresurgentfocusonauthoritarianprotection
practiceslargelyoverlookskeyaspectsofsocialandpoliticalprocessincludingclarificationofmoralstandpoint,
legitimacy,governance,accountability,learning,andexternalforces(Brechinetal.2002).Asinglestockof
knowledgeisinadequatetoaddressthechallengesthatsustainabilitysciencefacestoday(Pandey,2002a).
WaterHarvestingandBiodiversityConservation
Revivaloflocalrainwaterharvestinggloballycouldprovidesubstantialamountsofwaterfornatureandsociety.
Forexample,ahectareoflandinJaisalmer,oneofIndia'sdriestplaceswith100millimetersofrainfallperyear,
couldyield1millionlitersofwaterfromharvestingrainwater.Evenwiththesimpletechnologysuchasponds
andearthenembankmentscalledtanks,atleasthalfamillionlitersayearcanbeharvestedfromrainfallingover
onehectareofland,asisbeingdoneintheThardesert,makingitthemostdenselypopulateddesertinthe
world.Indeed,thereare1.5millionvillagetanksinuseandsustainingeverydaylifeinthe660,000villagesin
India(Pandey,2001).
IntheNegevDesert,decentralizedharvestingthroughthecollectionofwaterinmicrocatchmentsfromrain
fallingovera1hectarewatershedyielded95cubicmetersofwaterperhectareperyear,whereascollection
effortsfromasinglelargeunitratherthansmallmicrocatchments345hectarewatershedyieldedonly24
cubicmetersperhectareperyear(Evenarietal.,1982.).Thus,75%ofthecollectiblewaterwaslostasaresult
ofthelongerdistanceofrunoffinlargerwatershed.Indeed,thisisconsistentwithlocalknowledgedistilledin
Indianproverbs:"capturerainwhereitrains"(Pandey,2001).ThisisalsoinconsonancewithWaterand
civilizationswithapromiseofusinghistorytoreframewaterpolicydebatesandtobuildanewecological
realism(Priscoli,1998).
Thereisanurgentneedtopolicyinnovationsonrainwaterharvestingthathasbeenfoundusefulbymany
studies(BoersandBenAsher,1982).Inthecities,rainwatercouldbeharvestedfrombuildingrooftopsfor
residentialuse,andanysurpluscouldbechanneledthroughborewellstoreplenishthegroundwater,avoiding
losstorunoff.However,ifrainwaterharvestingistobeusedtotheirfullpotential,policyinnovationsmust
includeinstitutionalchangessothatsuchresourcesareeffectivelymanaged(Ostrametal.,1999Pandey,2000).
InRajasthan,tanksandpondshavebeenamainstayofruralcommunitiesforcenturies.Strategiesfortank
rehabilitation(suchasproposedfor1200largetanksinRajasthan)mustnottreattanksonlyasflowirrigation
systemssuchanapproachisverylikelytoresultinaflawedstrategy.Astrategythatconsiderstanksas
multipleusesocioecologicalentities,andwhichrecognizesmultiplestakeholdergroupsismorelikelyto
enhancethesocialvalueoftanks(ShahandRaju,2002).
Inordertofullyrewardthecontextspecificculturalresources,suchaslocalknowledge,governmentsubsidies
needtoberemovedtoallowmarketmechanismstoruntheircourseandsurplusrevenuegeneratedcanbegiven
tothecommunitieswhoownthesystemssuchastanks.
Lowintensityagriculture
Sincelowintensityagriculturepromotesbiodiversefarmsacrosslandscape,suchsystemsneedtobesupported
andpromoted.Agriculturalintensificationhasbeenfoundtoimpactbiodiversityinfarmsbadly(Donaldetal.
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2001).CropanimalsystemsinAsia,where95%ofruminantsarefoundinthemixedfarmingsystemsisfamous
fordiversity.CropanimalsystemsareprojectedtoseegrowthandremainthedominantsysteminAsia.
Biodiversityinsuchmixedfarmingsystemsarevitalforfoodproduction(Devendra,2002).Cropanimal
systems,inwhichlivestockplayamultipurposerole,arethebackboneofAsianagriculture.Increased
productivityfromlivestockwillbenecessaryinthesesystemstomeettheincreaseddemandforanimal
products,toalleviatepovertyandtoimprovethelivelihoodsofresourcepoorfarmers(DevendraandThomas,
2002).Inthefaceoflanddegradationnativefarmvegetationwillplayamajorroleinthesustainabilityofthe
farmingsystems.
IncorporatingTraditionalKnowledgeinPractice
Anyattempt,endeavouringtointegratetraditionalknowledgeforbiodiversityconservationandsustainabilityof
naturalresourcesshouldbebasedontheprinciplethattraditionalknowledgeoftencannotbedissociatedfrom
itsculturalandinstitutionalsetting.Regardingtheculturalandinstitutionalthefollowingsuggestionsmaybe
useful:
1.Eachprogrammeaimingatthepromotionoftraditionalknowledgeshouldbebasedontherecognition
thatnaturalresourcerightsandtenurialsecurityoflocalcommunitiesformsthefundamentalbasisof
respectingtraditionalknowledge.
2.Moreattentionisneededonprotectionofintellectualpropertyrightsoftraditionalpeople.
3.Innovativeprojectsmayneedtobedevelopedthataimattheenhancementofthecapacityoflocal
communitiestouse,expressanddeveloptheirtraditionalknowledgeonthebasisoftheirownculturaland
institutionalnorms.
ThereisanurgentneedfortheintegrationofTraditionalandformalsciences.Followingconsiderationsmaybe
usefulinthisregard:
1.Developmentofmethodsformutuallearningbetweenlocalpeopleandtheformalscientists.
2.Stateforestpoliciesandsustainableforestmanagementprocessesneedtogivefullattentiontoethforestry
andlocalinstitutionalarrangementstoincorporatetraditionalknowledgeinforestmanagementand
developmentprojects.
3.Traditionalknowledgeandtraditionscancontributetothepreparationofvillagemicroplans,whichare
preparedforecodevelopment,jointforestmanagementandruraldevelopment.Theplansshouldbebased
onbothgeographicandtraditionalcommunityboundariesratherthanonlyonadministrativeboundaries.
4.Revivalofthetraditionalwatermanagementsystemsthathaveservedthesocietyforhundredsofyears
butarecurrentlythreatened
5.Thereisaclearneedtointegratetraditionalandformalsciencesforparticipatorymonitoring,andtaking
feedbacktoachieveadaptivestrategiesformanagementofnaturalresources.
Inspiteofthevalueoftraditionalknowledgeforbiodiversityconservationandnaturalresourcemanagement
therestillisaneedtofurtherthecause.Thefollowingconsiderationmaybeusefulinthisrespect:
1.Encouragingthedocumentationofindigenousknowledgeanditsuseinnaturalresourcemanagement.
Suchdocumentationshouldbecarriedoutinparticipationwiththecommunitiesthatholdtheknowledge.
DueattentionshouldbegiventodocumenttheemicperspectivesregardingIKratherthanonlythe
perspectivesofprofessionaloutsiders.Thedocumentationshouldnotonlyconsistofdescriptionsof
knowledgesystemsanditsuse,butalsoinformationonthethreatstoitssurvival.People'sbiodiversity
registersareacaseinpoint(Gadgil1994&1996,Gadgiletal.2000).TheprogramofPeople's
BiodiversityRegisterspromotesfolkecologicalknowledgeandwisdombydevisingaformalmeansfor
theirmaintenance,andbycreatingnewcontextsfortheircontinuedpractice.PBRsdocumenttraditional
ecologicalknowledgeandpracticesonuseofnaturalresources,withthehelpoflocaleducational
institutions,teachers,studentsandNGOsworkingincollaborationwithlocal,institutions.Suchaprocess
andtheresultingdocuments,couldserveasignificantrolein"promotingmoresustainable,flexible,
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participatorysystemsofmanagementandinensuringabetterflowofbenefitsfromeconomicuseofthe
livingresourcestothelocalcommunities"(Gadgiletal.2000).
2.FacilitatingthetranslationofavailableandnewdocumentsdescribingIndictraditionssuchasancient
textsonmedicinalplants,intolocallanguagesanddisseminationofthesedocumentsamongstlocal
people.Suchatranslationisindeedrequiredbecausetextsareoftenavailableinlanguages(e.g.Sanskrit)
notunderstoodbymanyincontemporaryIndia.Ontheotherhand,translationoflocalknowledgeinto
formalscientificterminologywillprovidespacetoexternalresearchers,policymakers,andpractitioners
tocomprehendandsupportpeople'sknowledgesystemsandinitiatives.
3.Facilitatingtheexchangeofinformationamongstpractitionersoflocalknowledge.
4.Developingclearandconciseeducationalmaterialontraditionalknowledgesystemstobeusedin
communicationprogrammestoimpartinformationregardingthemeritsandthreatstoindigenous
knowledgesystemstobothpolicymakersandthegeneralpublic.
Scientificinstitutionshaveanimportantroletoplayinsupportingtheknowledgesystems.Ashasbeenpointed
outearlier,itisnowrecognisedthatadichotomybetweenlocalandformalsystemsofknowledgeisnotreal,
andthatanyknowledgeisbasedonasetofbasicvaluesandbeliefsandparadigms.Therefore,thereisadefinite
needtofurtherdevelopsystematicinsightintothenatureandscopeoftraditionalknowledge.Thefollowing
activitiesmaybeusefulinthisregard:
1.Developingcurriculaandmethodsforprovidingformaltrainingandeducationintraditionalknowledge
systemstoagencies,researchersandpractitionerswhoworkincollaborationwithcommunities.Inthis
context,theIndianHimalayanRegion,whichrepresentsauniquebiogeographicentity,newinitiativesby
G.B.PantInstituteofHimalayanEnvironmentandDevelopmenthaveyieldedpositiveresults(seeDharet
al.2002).
2.Developingresearchprojectsaimedatassessingthepossibilitiesandconstraintsofusingtraditional
knowledgeunderspecificconditions.Suchresearchprojectsshouldmovebeyondthefirstgeneration
researchprojects,whichaimedatdemonstratingthevalueoflocalknowledgesystemsbyfocusingon
successfulcasesofapplication.Secondgenerationresearchprojectsshallfocusoncomparingapplication
ofknowledgesystemsacrossarangeofcircumstancesandacrossdisciplinestocraftthetraditional
sustainabilityscience.
3.Developingnewmethodsforincorporatinglocalknowledgesystemsinnaturalresourcemanagement
regimesthroughactionresearch.
Conclusion
Alongwithscience,localtechnologies(Gandhi,1982)andpeople'sknowledgesystemssuchasethnoforestry
haveanimportantroletoplayforbiodiversityconservationandsustainability.Tribal'sbag(Cox,2000)and
ancienttexts(TunonandBruhn,1994)maystillbethebestwaytoscreenfornewherbalmedicinesthatmaybe
usefulinthetreatmentofdiseasesintheeraofglobalclimatechange.Villagecommunitiesandothersmall
scalesocietiesresidingcontinuouslyoveraterritorycreate,transmitandapplycomprehensiveknowledgeabout
theresourcescontainedintheterritory.Invillageswherewomentakeactivepartinnaturalresource
managementincludingagricultureandforestrytheydeveloprepositoriesoflocalknowledgethatiscontinuously
applied,testedandimprovedovertime(Harding,1998).
The1992ConventiononBiologicalDiversityrequiresthateveryContractingPartyshouldrespect,preserveand
maintainknowledge,innovationsandpracticesoftraditionalandlocalcommunitiesandpromotethewider
applicationwiththeapprovalandinvolvementoftheholderofsuchknowledge,innovationsandpracticesand
encouragetheequitablesharingofthebenefits.AsnationsimplementtheConventiononBiologicalDiversity
(CBD)workprograms,applyitsguidelines,andexecutenationalstrategies,itsinfluenceonscienceislikelyto
grow.CBDcompliantnationallawsandpoliciesalreadysetprioritiesforresearchandaffectthewayinwhich
scientistscanaccessandusegeneticresources(Kate,2002).
Byacknowledgingandmakinguseofpeoples'knowledgeweshallalsopromotetheprincipleofequityof
knowledge(Pandey,1998).Equityofknowledgebetweenlocalandformalsciencesresultsinempowerment,
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securityandopportunityforlocalpeople.Ifthestateandformalinstitutionsincorporatepeople'sknowledgeinto
theresourcemanagementdecisions,itreducesthesocialbarrierstoparticipationandenhancesthecapacityof
thelocalpeopletomakechoicestosolvetheproblem.Traditionalsocietieshaveaccumulatedawealthoflocal
knowledge,transmittedfromgenerationtogeneration.Experiencehastaughtthemhowthewater,trees,and
othernaturalresourcesshouldbeusedandmanagedtolastalongtime.Equityofknowledgecanalsoenhance
thesecurityinitsbroadestsense.Bycapitalizingonthecollectivewisdomofformalandtraditionalsciences,we
shallbeabletohelppeopleaddresstheproblemofglobalwarmingaswellastomanagetheriskstheyface
becauseofthedestructionofthelocalresources.Collectivewisdomcanhelpintheplanningand
implementationofsuitableprogrammesformanagingtheagroforests(Pandey,2002b).Thisresultsin
ecological,economic,andsocialsecurity.
Equityofknowledgealsoprovidesopportunityforlocalpeopletoparticipateinthemanagementoflocalaffairs
withglobalimplications.Italsoprovidestheopportunityforselfdetermination.Theprocessofacquisition,
transmission,integration,andfieldapplicationoftraditionalknowledgeontreegrowingwithformalscience
promisestoenhancetheproductivityandefficiencyofmanagingthenaturalresource.Humanecological
perspectiveisvitalincraftingthesustainabilitysciencefornaturalresourcemanagement.
Therehasbeenaconcernthatcareneedstobetakentodistinguishvaluableknowledgefrommyth(Nature
2000).Thismaybeusefulfromadifferentperspectiveaswell:thattheusefulknowledgeisnotlost.
Identificationofsciencebehindtraditions(Arunachalam2001)isamoreconstructiveendeavorthanentering
intothe'indigenousvs.scientific'or'traditionalvs.western'arguments(Agrawal1997).Scientistsneednot
encountertraditionalknowledgesystemsuncritically,justaslocalpeopleneednotapproachformalscience
uncritically.Politicallystridentadvocatesoflocalknowledgesystemsaswellasformalsciencehavedonemore
harmthangoodbydefendingtheexclusivetruthclaimsonthepartoftheirdiscipline."Exclusivetruthclaims
assertionofepistemologicalprivilegearenownottenableeitheronthepartofscienceorlocalknowledge
systems"(Pandey2002a).
Nonetheless,itneedstobereiteratedthatformallytrainedscientistsaswellasresearchersontraditional
knowledgesystemshaveoftenmisinterpretedtheprocessofwhatisoftenreferredasvalidation.Theterm
'validation'neednotbeunderstoodfromanarrowreductionistperspectiveofdisciplinaryconfines.Itcan,and
should,drawoncomplimentarityandthe"consilience"acrosslocalandformalsystems.Thus,bothformaland
localmethods,aswellaslocalpeopleandformallytrainedscientists,shallcontributetocomprehendthedata,
informationandknowledge.Incollaborativeeffortsofsuchkindperhapseveryoneinvolvedmaystandto
benefit.Bothlocalpeopleaswellasexternalexpertsneedaccesstothelatestscientificdevelopmentsandseeif
itcanhelpimproveexistingconservationknowledgeandpractices.Thepolicymakersneedreadyaccesstothe
scienceaswellasunderstandingthedifficultiesofitsapplication(Kohmetal.2000).
Indeed,therearenumerousexampleswherelocalknowledgederivedfromlongtermnaturesocietyinteraction
hasbeenextremelyusefulinvalidatingscientifichypothesesandsuggestingnewresearchdirections(seefor
examplearecentanalysisbyKimmerer2002,amongothersseealsoRobertsonandHull2001).Likewise,
formalscientificmethodshavebeenextremelyvaluableinvalidatingthetraditionalethnopharmacological
knowledgebyidentifyingtheactiveingredients(chemicals)inplantsusedinethnomedicine.Onesuchexample
ofsignificantcontributionthatestablishedtheancientmodernconcordancecamewiththeisolationofthe
hypertensivealkaloidfromthesarpagandhaplant(Rouwolfiaserpentina),valuedinAyurvedaforthetreatment
ofhypertension,insomnia,andinsanity.Severalsuchisolationsofactiveingredientshavebeenmadesincethen
(Dev1999,Mishraetal.2001)9.Anotherexamplepertainstotheconservationofethnomedicinalspeciesthat
arealsogloballytraded,and,therefore,havebecomeendangeredinIndia."Areasonabledegreeofscientific
rigour"isrequiredtoassessthethreatstatusofspeciestobebannedintrade(Vedetal.1998)aswellasto
monitor,learnandcraftstrategiesforcontextspecificadaptivemanagementbyusingformalandlocalsciences.
Theimportantissuetobeguardedhereisthatthebenefitsmustgotothecommunity.
IntellectualPropertyRightsarenowbeingextendedtobeyondtheconventionaldomainofmechanicaland
chemicalinnovationstoincludebiologicalresources.NationalBiologicalDiversityActofIndiainresponseto
ourcommitmenttotheConventiononBiologicalDiversityandintellectualpropertyrightsmust,therefore,
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deviseoperationalmechanismstosharebenefitsofcommercialapplicationsoftraditionalknowledgeon
biodiversitywithlocalcommunities.Alsousefulshallbetoensureaharmonizedbasketofrulesmadeunderthe
PatentAct,ProtectedPlantVarietiesAct,andtheBiologicalDiversityAct(see,Utkarshetal.1999forfurther
discussion).
Ultimately,itdoespreciouslittletopresentmodels,concepts,andresultsofstudiesinacademicdiscoursesif
thoseeffortsarenottestedunderrealconservationsituations(Kohmetal.2000).Conservationscientistsmust
makeatransitionfrom"staidobservertoparticipantatsomelevel"(Meffe1998).Gonearethetimeswhen
scientistscouldaffordtosaythattheirworkistocreateknowledge,transmititandleaveapplicationtopolicy
makersandpractitioners.Scientistsshallhavetocollaboratewithpeopletoputforthnewhypothesesthat
incorporateaspirationsofformalandlocalsystemsofknowingandmodifytheirmethodologiesaccordingly.
Iwould,therefore,forewarnagainstthefutilephilosophicalargumentsthatengageinthequestionsof
supremacyofonefaithovertheother,or,aparticularknowledgesystemovertheother.Humanityneedstogo
beyonddisciplinarydivideandfindacommongroundacrosscultures,faithsanddisciplines(Pandey,2002a).
Collectivewisdomofhumanityforconservationofbiodiversity,embodiedbothinformalscienceaswellas
localsystemsofknowledge,therefore,isthekeytopursueourprogresstowardssustainability.
Acknowledgements
IamgratefultotheMinistryofEnvironmentandForests,GovernmentofIndiaforsupportingthisworkinpart
undertheNationalBiodiversityActionProgrammeProject.IwouldalsoliketothankShriN.K.Joshi,Director,
IndianInstituteofForestManagement,BhopalandAdditionalDirectorGeneral,MinistryofEnvironmentand
Forests,GovernmentofIndia,Dr.RamPrasad,PCCF,MP,Dr.AshishKothari,Coordinator,NBSAP,Kanchi
Kohli,SeemaBhatt,NeemaPathak,MadhuSarin,DarshanShankarandP.V.Satheeshforsuggestionsonan
earlierversionofthepaper.SupportoftheWorldBankWWFGlobalAllianceforForestConservationand
SustainableUse,theFordFoundationandWonrockInternationaltoprogrammesontraditionalknowledgeand
sustainabilityatIndianInstituteofForestManagement,Bhopalisgratefullyacknowledged.
Table1:Humanecologicalandindigenousperspectiveforbiodiversitymanagement
No
1.
Keychallenges Suggestionsforpolicyandpractice*
Biodiversity
Applicationoftheprinciplesofsustainabilityscience
Conservationand
forforestmanagementattemptingtoaddressthe
maintenanceof
naturesocietyinteractionwillneedan
ecosystem
interdisciplinaryapproachaswellasmultiplestocks
functions
ofknowledgeandinstitutionalinnovationsto
navigatetransitiontowardsustainableforest
management(Pandey,2002c).
Representationofallforesttypesinprotectedareas,
bothformalandethnoforestryregimes,whichare
managedcollaboratively(Reid,2001)andlink
cultureandconservation(Byersetal.,2001).
Protectionofnaturalforestsagainstwildfires,
grazing,andunmanagedremovalswiththehelpof
localstrategiesofherders,andresidentcommunities
(Coppolillo,2000).Aslocalpeopleoftenhave
awarenessabouttheapplicationoffire,thedifferent
fireusepracticescanbeidentifiedforgrassland
management.Thesepracticesreflectawelladapted
productionstrategy.Policydecisionsshouldasfaras
possiblebeflexibleinthelightoflocal
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2.
Providinggoods
andservicestothe
society
understandingoffireuse(Mbowetal.,2000)
whereverpossible.
Preventingfragmentationandprovidingconnectivity
toconservebiodiversityinlandscapecontinuum.
Improvementofexistingshiftingcultivationmethods
withintegrationoftraditionalknowledgeandnew
practicescanbehelpfulinaddressingtheproblem
(Gupta,2000).
Maintenanceofgenepooldiversityinnaturaland
culturallandscapes(Saleh,2000).Elementsto
conservecanbeidentifiedwiththehelpofthelocal
ethnoecologicalperceptions(Johnson,2000).
Restorationofdegradedforestswithmultipleuse
trees,shrubsandherbsalongwithregeneration
regimesthatnecessarilycombinerainwaterharvest,
directseeding,resprouting,andplantationsifneeded.
Maintenanceofwoodyvegetationinethnoforestry
regimesinlandscapecontinuum(households,
culturallandscapes,agroecosystems,and
wilderness).
Protectiontoavarietyofwoodyvegetation
managementregimesinagroecosystemstomaximize
socialandeconomicbenefitstothepeopleaswell
maintenanceofecosystemsfunctionssuchasnatural
pestcontrol,pollination,carbonstorage,regulation
ofhydrologicalcycleetc.
Protectiontolargetreesinnatural,culturaland
humanmodifiedlandscapesaswellasagroforestry
systems(Castro,1991Chandler,1994Chepstow
LustyandJonsson,2000)astheyactasseedsource,
conservecarbonpool,andactashabitatforseed
dispersingbirds,smallmammals,andotherfaunal
species.
Soilconservation,andenhancementofsoilfertility
throughconservation/restorationofwoody
leguminousspeciesacrosslandscapecontinuum.
Swiddenfarmingthatisoftencentraltothecultural
identityofmanyindigenouspeople,continuestobe
viableinseveralcases,despiteincreasingpopulation
densityandthecontinuingdepletionofmature
forests.Byintegratingcommerciallyvaluable
perennialleguminoustreeswithcrops,soilfertility
canbemaintainedalongwithimprovementtosocio
economicconditionofthepeople(Iskandarand
Ellen,2000).
Communitybasedmanagementregimesand
commonpropertymanagement(Lu,2001Burke,
2001)builtontheprincipleofequityofknowledge
amongstakeholders,andthatrelycapitalizingon
naturalrecoverymechanismswillpreventfurther
catastrophicshiftanddegradationandretainthe
multiplevaluesofland.Communityconservation
initiativesseekingtomakeconservationworthwhile
tolocalpeoplehaveastrongeconomicdimension.
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3.
Socialwellbeing
ofthepeople
4.
Economicwell
beingofpeople
But,thechoicesmadebylocallandownersarenota
simplefunctionoftheeconomicreturnspotentially
accruingfromaparticularenterprise.Theyareas
muchormoreinfluencedbywhoisabletocontrol
thedifferentflowsofreturnsfromthesedifferent
typesofenterprise(ThompsonandHomewood,
2002).
Securelandtenureforindigenouspeople,who
otherwiseperceiveconservationasluxury(Marcus,
2001).
Maintainingthegenderequityasameansto
redistributeaccesstoproductiveresourcesand
householdbenefits(AhmedandLaarman,2000).
Institutionalcoordinationofpastoralmovements
overformaltenureforpasturelands(Fernndez
Gimnez,2002).
Theadoptionofagroforestryisdeterminedbythe
farmers'attitudetoagroforestry,whichinturnwas
shapedbyinformationreceivedthroughfarmerto
farmerandfarmertoextensioncontact
(Glendinningetal.,2001).Aclearextension
programme,therefore,shallalwaysbehelpfulfor
designingthemultifunctionalagroforestrysystems.
Adaptivestrategiesforresourcemanagement(Bates,
2000)
*Column3providesconsolidatedsuggestionsbecauseeachoneoftenaddressesmorethanonekeychallenge.
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Foradditionalexamples,see,AshishKothariandPriyaDas.LocalCommunityKnowledgeandPractices:
ImplicationsforBiodiversity.2ndCongressonTraditionalSciencesandTechnologies,Chennai.(AlsoinDarrel
Posey(ed.),CulturalandBiologicalDiversity,UNEP.).
SeealsoNBSAPthematicaswellasregionalreportsforvariousregionsthathavespecificexamplespertaining
toregionsandecosystemsdiscussed.
Notes:
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1.IndianForestService,AssociateProfessor,Coordinator,IUFROResearchGrouponEthnoforestry(6.19.00)
IndianInstituteofForestManagement,Bhopal,India462003,Email:dnpandey@ethnoforestry.org
2.Adetaileddiscussiononthedichotomyofknowledgesystemsisbeyondthescopeofthispaperbutsee
Agrawal(1995a&b)andAgrawal(1997)amongothers.
3.ItispertinenttonotethereviewcommentsbyPVSatheeshandMadhuSarinonlocalknowledgesystems:
"Withinthecosmosofpeople'sknowledgesystemsthereisanempiricalassemblageofhypothesis,observation,
experimentationandultimateacceptancethatcoverperiodsofcenturies.Ithasitsownbuiltinpeerreview
system".
4.Intendedconservationisunderstoodhereasapracticethatisdesignedbasicallyforbiodiversityconservation.
Althoughthecontrarymaybearguedonthisissue(see,SmithandWishnie,2000)butthisarticleassumesthat
notwithstandingthecontendingclaimsonwhetherthebiodiversityconservationbylocalpeopleisanintended
orincidentalconservation,examplesoflocalresourcemanagementsystemsandbiodiversityconservationare
availableextensivelyinAsia,Africa,Americas,EuropeandOceania.Thus,severalindigenouspracticeson
resourcemanagementdoresultintobiodiversityconservation.
5.KautilyawasapoliticaleconomistofancientIndiawhocompiledtheArthashastraaround300BC.
6.Numbersrefertothebooknumber,chapterandversenumberandtranslationreferredhereisbyRangarajan
(1976).
7.ArrangementsoftheversesarebasedontheBhat(1981)translationoftherelevantSanskrittextofthe
Brahatsamhitaisbytheauthor.
8.ThisarticledoesnotdiscussIPRsinanydetailasthefocusislittledifferent.Nonetheless,issueofIPRisvery
crucial.See,otherthematicpaperontheissue.SeealsoMashelkar,(2001),andUtkarshetal.(1999)for
multifacetedanalysis.
9.ForadditionalresourcesonAyurveda,see,forexampleDev(1997),Valechaetal.(2000),andPal(2002).
Becauseplantsareusefulandneededduringurgencyasystemofprotectionthatensurestheiravailabilityin
neighbourhoodpromotesbiodiversityconservation.
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DeepNarayanPandey,IFS
AssociateProfessor
Coordinator,IUFROResearchGroup6.19.00Ethnoforestry
Coordinator,InternationalNetworkonEthnoforestry
IndianInstituteofForestManagement
Bhopal,India462003
Phone:91755763490Fax:91755772878
Email:dnpandey@ethnoforestry.org
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