STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN

CHAPTER 2
SPECIFICATIONS, LOADS, PHILOSOPHIES OF
DESIGN

Department of Civil Engineering, University of North Sumatera

Ir. DANIEL RUMBI TERUNA, MT;IP-U HAKI

TABLE OF CONTENTS
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Building codes and specifications

Design loads
Current and future design philosophies
Safety factor
The philosophy of LRFD
The principles of LRD
Realibility index
Resistance factor
Load factor
Load combinations

BUILDING CODES AND SPECIFICATIONS

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Structural Loads are usually determined by one of the following codes

n

Uniform Building Code (UBC 1997)

n ASCE Minimum design loads (ASCE 2003)
n Standard Perencanaan Ketahanan Gempa Untuk Bangunan Gedung
(SNI 03-1726-2002)
n Tata Cara Perencanaan Dan Pembebanan Untuk Rumah dan Gedung
(SNI 03-1727-1989-F)
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Design specifications are provided by the following guidelines according

to the project
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Hot Rolled Steel (AISC Manual -1993)

AASHTO 2000 (Highways)
AREMA 2000 (Railways)
Concrete structures (ACI 318, 2002)
Tata Cara Perencanaan Struktur Baja Untuk Bangunan Gedung
(SNI 03-1729-2002)
n Baja Bentuk I Bertepi Bulat Canai Panas, Mutu Dan Cara Uji (SNI 07-0329-1989)
n Tata Cara Perencanaan Struktur Beton Untuk Bangunan Gedung
(SNI 03-2846-2002)

DESIGN LOADS
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Dead Loads (DL)

Live Loads (LL)

Occupancy load (L)
Roof load (Lr)
Snow load (S)
Rain loads (R)
Trucks and pedestrians

q Wind Loads (W)

q Earthquakes (E)
* It is the most critical job for the structural Engineer to accurately
calculate the load

DEAD LOAD

Fixed position,constant magnitude, gravity

service loads (permanent)
Structural members
Brick wall
Plumbing
HVAC
Floor coverings
Suspended ceilings
Etc.

LIVE LOAD

Gravity loads acting when the structure is in

service, but varying in magnitude and
location.
Human occupants
Furniture
Stored goods
Vehicles
Environmental Loads

WIND LOAD
All structures subject to wind load
Wind is a highly dynamic natural phenomenon
The wind forces fluctuate significantly
The magnitude are influenced by the geometry of the
structures (height, width, plan, and elevation shape)
The basic approach to wind load analysis is to treat the
phenomenon as a static problem, using Bernoulli equation to
translate wind speed into wind pressure.
The data that have been provided for win loads are all based
on measured wind speed

V yti c ol eV

WIND LOAD

Time t

Time VS Wind Velocity

WIND LOAD
q

Peraturan Pembebanan Indonesia Untuk Gedung 1983

Wind pressure equation:
V2
P=
16
V = wind speed (m / det)
P minimum is taken 25kg / m 2

Uniform Building Codes 1997

P = C e C g C p ( 12 V 2 )

= density of air
V = wind speed
C e = exposure factor (height, location of building and surrounding landscape)
C g = gust factor ( wind turbulence , interaction between the wind and the structure)
C p = pressure coeficient

EARTHQUAKE
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Ground shaking may be produced by sudden fault

rupture slip, volcano activities, or underground
explosion
Earthquake is a highly dynamic natural phenomenon
An earthquake consist of horizontal and vertical ground
motions
Vertical ground motion usually having much smaller
magnitude
The magnitude are influenced by the Earthquake
characteristic, Site location, Soil condition, and fundamental
periode of building.
The basic approach to earthquake load analysis is to treat
the phenomenon as a static and dynamic problem,
The data that have been provided for earthquake loads are
based on measured ground acceleration

EARTHQUAKE

EARTHQUAKE

SEISMIC ZONE

EARTHQUAKE

W ila y a h G e m p a 3
C =

0 .7 5

0 .7 5
T

C =

0 .5 5

(T a n a h L u n a k )

0 .3 3
T

C =

0 .2 3
T

(T a n a h S e d a n g )

(T a n a h K e ra s )

0 .4 5

0 .3 0
0 .2 3
0 .1 8

0 0 .2

0 .5 0 .6

1 .0

RESPONSE SPECTRA

2 .0

3 .0

EARTHQUAKE
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Standard Perencanaan Ketahanan Gempa Untuk Bangunan

Gedung (SNI 03-1726-2002)
Seismic base shear :

V=

CIW
R

Where C = Seismic coeficient

I = Important factor
W = Total dead load of building and portion other loads
T = Fundamental periode of building

CURRENT AND FUTURE DESIGN

PHILOSOPHIES
Current and future design philosophies can be
classified as:
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Working / Allowable stress design

Plastic design with load factor
LRFD with elastic analysis
Plastic design with LRFD
Advanced inelastic analysis

ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN

q Service loads are calculated as expected in service
q Linear elastic analysis is performed
q The formula is
m
Rn
Qni
F .S i =1

where Rn = nominal resistance or strength of the

component or system
FS = safety factor
Qn = nominal working stress cumputed under working load
i = type of load
q A design is satisfied if the Maximum stress < Allowable Stress

PLASTIC DESIGN

q Service loads are factored by a load factor

q The structure is assumed to fail under this loads thus,

plastic hinges will form under this loads plastic

analysis
q The cross section is designed to resist the moments
and shear forces obtained from the plastic analysis
q The formula is
m

Rn Qni
i =1

where
effect

is load factor =1,7,

isnnominal load or load

Q

LOAD RESISTANCE AND FACTOR DESIGN (LRFD)

LRFD is similar to plastic design is that it performs design under

failure conditions
Service loads are multiplied by load factors ( ) and linear
elastic analysis is performed
Materials strength is reduced by multiplying the nominal

The design rule is

q
q

Rn i Qni
i =1

Where Rn is the nominal strength and Qn is the nominal load or

load effect

SAFETY FACTOR

q The primary goals of a structural design is to ensure that structures

shall have a suitable safety factor against failure throughout its

service life, providing comport and safety for the occupants.
q There will be a small probability that the structure will fail or
malfunction during its service life.
q It should be be clearly understood that no design philosophy is
founded on an absolute guarantee that failure cannot take place.
q If the strength of a structure is indicated by R and load effect by Q.
For a safe structure it is required that:

RQ

SAFETY FACTOR
R R Q + Q
or
Q
R

R 1
Q1 +
R
Q

Required factor of safety (FS)

Q
Q

R 1+
=
Q 1 RR

SAFETY FACTOR
q CASE 1.

The structures has a strength deficiency of 10%, occuring with a

relative frequency of 1/1000, as well as an overload of 40%,
occuring with the same frequency.

R = 0.10
Q = 0.40
Joint probability of R and Q
(1/1000)x(1/1000)=1.10-6

occur simultaneously is

1 + 0,4
= 1,55
FS =
1 0,10

SAFETY FACTOR
q CASE 2.
The structures has a strength deficiency of 20%, occuring with a
relative frequency of 1/1000, as well as an overload of 40%, occuring
with the same frequency.

R = 0.20
Q = 0.40
Joint probability of R and Q
(1/1000)x(1/1000)=1.10-6

occur simultaneously is

1 + 0 .4
= 1,75
FS =
1 0 .2

SAFETY FACTOR

yc ne uqer F

Case 1
Area = 1/1000
Case 2

R - 0,10R

Resistance, R

R - 0,20R

Figure 1. Case 1 distribution vs Case 2 distribution

SAFETY FACTOR

q Since R2 R1, but occur with the same frequency,

the spread or variability of the case 2 distribution is

greater than that of case 1
q The required safety factor of case 2 is significantly
higher than of case 1, as a result of the fact that the
strength variability case 2 is much larger
q It is possible that cases with the same probability of
occuring would have different factor of safety
q The factor of safety approach does not produce
consistent safety for the structure and its component

Probabilistic Basis for LRFD

The basic statistical information we can get are the mean and
the standard deviation

Mean of a sample population

1 n
= xi
n 1
Standard deviation of a sample population

1 n
( x i )2

n 1

(n-1) for samples of less than 30 observations

The coefficient of variantion is given as

V =

Probabilistic Basis for LRFD

Cumulatif density function

Probability density function

(( x ) )
2

p( x) =

exp

p (a < x < b) = p ( x )dx

b

) x( P

1 n
2
(
)

x
i
n 1

THE PHILOSOPHY OF LRFD

LRFD is based on the concept that the structure will not exceed the
limit state that govern its strength and behavior for any realistic load
or load combination
There are two categories of limit state are pertinent to the structural
design process:

Ultimate limit state

Frame instability
Column buckling
Lateral torsional beam buckling
Yielding on gross section of tension member

Serviceability limit state

Excessive elastic deflection of member
Excessive rotation in a connection
Excessive vibration in a floor system

THE PRINCIPLES OF LRFD

If we have the probability distribution of the load effect (Q) and the
material resistance (R) then:
The probability of failure can be represented by observing the
probability of the function (R-Q)
The probability of failure PF can be represented as below:
Frequency
f(R)

f(Q)
Probability
of failure

Qm

Rm

Resistance, R
Load, Q

THE PRINCIPLES OF LRFD

q The safety criterion

Safe structures : ( R Q) > 0

Failed structures : ( R Q) 0
q

The failure criterion

PF = P[(R Q ) 0]
which gives
R
R
PF = P 1 0 = 1
Q
Q
or
R

PF = P ln 0
Q

THE PRINCIPLES OF LRFD

pF

f(R-Q)

yc ne uqer F

( RQ )

0
Failure
(R-Q)< 0

Survival

(R-Q)m

(R-Q)> 0

Characteristic of (R -Q)

(R-Q)

THE PRINCIPLES OF LRFD

pF

f[ln(R/Q)]

yc ne uqer F

ln ( R / Q )

Failure
ln(R/Q)< 0

Survival

[ln(R/Q)]m

ln(R/Q)> 0

Characteristic of (R Q)

ln(R/Q)

RELIABILITY INDEX
By considering the previous graph
failure PF

[
ln ( )]m
=
R
Q

ln ( R / Q )

or

Rm Qm

R2 + Q2

The load effect Q and the resistance R and their

probability distributions.
By targeting a specific Reliability index for all the design
elements, a consistent level of safety in design can be
achieved

RELIABILITY INDEX

LRFD TARGET REALIBILITY INDEX

q

Design using AISC or SNI LRFD will target a specific probability of failure
combinations and limit states

Loading Condition

Where
Dead loads (D)
Live loads (L)
Wind Loads (W)
Earthquakes (E)

D+L

D+L+W

D+L+E

Members

3.0

2.5

1.75

Connection

4.5

4.5

4.5

RESISTANCE FACTOR
The resistance factor reflect the random variability of the strength of a
structural component
Material properties variations
Variation in cross sectional size of member
Variation in internal stresses
Variation in beam span, column length, etc.
Diffrences between assumed and real loading points.
Diffrences between theoretical and real member strength.

Rm 0.55 V
e
=
Rn

V R is the coefficient of variation of the resistance

LOAD FACTOR
The load factor reflect the random variability of the loads on the
structures.
q Variation in magnitude at any given time
q Diffrences between assumed and real load type
q Diffrences between assumed and real loading position
q Combination of loads to produce effects that may not appear for
other load criteria.
Load factor is determined as follows

Rm
Qm

LOAD COMBINATIONS
SNI-LRFD considers the following load combinations in design
U = 1,4 D
U = 1,2 D + 1,6 L + 0,5 ( La or H )
U = 1,2 D + 1,6 ( La atau H ) + ( LL or 0,8 W )
U = 1,2 D 1,0 E + L L
U = 0,9 D ( 1,3 W or 1,0 E )
Where L = 0,5 for L < 5 kpa, and L = 1,0 for L 5 kpa
Dead loads (D)
Live loads (LL)
Occupancy load (L)
Roof load (La)
Rain loads (H)

Wind loads (W)

Earthquakes (E)

Example
Sambungan pada struktur rangka seperti gbr

S
q Record gaya aksial pada batang akibat beban bergerak
selama 10 tahun digunakan untuk menentukan pengaruh
beban maksimum
q Hasil experimental kekuatan tarik profil baja batang bawah

Diminta tentukan
The probability of failure
Load and resistance factors for a
probability of failure of 0.01%

test

R(KN)

Rec
.1

S(KN)

46.4

44.3
41.6

36.8
35.2

47.2

33.2

42.8
46.1.

32.4
31.6

6
7
8

47.4

6
7

44.5

35.3

27.2
29.8

Example
Menentukan parameter statistik dari Q dan R
Q m = 32 .68 KN

R m = 45 .03 KN

Q = 3.16 KN

Rn = 46.2 KN

R = 2.1KN
V R= 0.05

V Q= 0.09

Probabilitas kegagalan bila Qm > Rm

Rm Qm

+
2
R

2
Q

= 3.25

POF = 0.05%

Menentukan faktor beban dan faktor tahanan agar dicapai POFT 0.01%

POF T = 0 .01 % = 3.72

RT Qm = R2 + Q2

Inverse of cummulatif normal

distribution
RT = 46.78

Example
Menentukan faktor beban (load factor)

RT
= 1 .4
Qm

Menetukan faktor tahanan (resistance factor)

Rm 0.55 V
e
= 0.87
Rn
R