Introduction to Engineering Design D-1

Book 11: Engineering Skills and Quadcopter Missions

APPENDIX D
FLUID MECHANICS AND DESIGN ANALYSIS
D.1 INTRODUCTION
Developing new products requires a close relationship between design and analysis. When
designing, we select components, layout the structure, place components, test subsystems, etc. At
the same time engineers perform analyses to insure that all aspects of the design will function
correctly and that the system will meet specifications. The quadcopter development provides an
opportunity for your team to design a unique vehicle and to perform a few analyses to confirm the
validity of the design. For example, before you can select an electric motor, an analysis must be
performed to determine if it will produce sufficient torque to drive the propeller at the high speeds
required for lift off. You must also determine if the thrust developed by the motor/propeller
combination is adequate for lift-off and flight with sufficient margin. You should also determine the
power requirements, plan the time of the mission and select a battery with sufficient capacity to
insure that the flight can be completed before the battery becomes exhausted. Weight analyzes are
also important because the weight of the quadcopter is an extremely important parameter. Thrust
capability and quadcopter weight must be in proper proportions.
In design you often find that several different solutions are possible. Again analysis aids you
in selecting the solution that is the most suitable, while simultaneously considering the constraints on
your design. As we introduce analysis methods, we will describe solution space. Solution space
covers a very wide range of analytical possibilities. At its center are the parameters that insure a
successful design. At its extremes are the parameters that will lead to a design that may possibly fail
to meet its objective.
In this chapter we will introduce the theories necessary to perform several different design
analyses associated with the development of a quadcopter. We will then perform the analyses to
insure that the functions (systems and processes) involved in designing a quadcopter operate
satisfactorily. These functions are listed below:
1. The structural system supports all of the components, such as motors, propellers, flight
controller, the microcontroller, batteries, sensors, etc.
2. The lift system includes the four rotors and the controls for the rotors.
3. The propulsion system includes a means of providing thrust and the control of the
magnitude and direction of the thrust vector.
4. The power system includes power supplies and control of these supplies.
5. The sensing system provides feedback signals enabling control of the quadcopters
speed and direction.

D-2 Appendix D
Fluid Mechanics and Design Analysis

6. The radio control (RC) control system enables and operator to fly the quadcopter.
7. The Arduino control system enables autonomous control to successfully complete the
cargo delivery system.

Lets consider a body of water that is at rest as shown in Fig. D.1. From the surface, lets place a
reference axis y that points downward into the depth of the water. Next examine a small element
that is y thick with a cross sectional area of A, located on the left side of this figure. A pressure p
acts downward on its top surface and a pressure p + p acts upward on its bottom surface. Note the
pressure always act perpendicular to the surface upon
which it acts and is increasing with the depth of the
y1
water. In addition to these pressures, a downward
y2
force W acts on the element, this is due to the weight
p1
p
of the water contained within the element.
h
y

Fig. D.1 Pressures created at depth in a static pool of

water.

p2

p + p W
y

Lets write the equilibrium equation for the elemental volume of water depicted in Fig. D.1. The
equilibrium equation implies that the sum of the forces upward equal the sum of the forces
downward. Thus, we write:
(p + p)A (upward) = p A + W (downward)
This equation reduces to:
pA = W

(D.1)

The weight of the water in this elemental volume is given by:

W = A y

(a)

where = g is the specific weight, g is the gravitational constant and = /g is the mass density
(mass/volume) of water.
Substituting Eq. (a) into Eq. (D.1) yields:
p = y = gy

(D.2)

Summing both sides of Eq. (D.2) gives:

p2

y2

p1

y1

p= y

(b)

Equation (b) reduces to:

p2 p1 = (y2 y1) = h = gh

(D.3)

Gravity

D.2 PRESSURE-MASS DENSITY-HEIGHT RELATIONSHIPS

Introduction to Engineering Design D-3

Book 11: Engineering Skills and Quadcopter Missions

Equation (D.3) indicates that the pressure at some point in a liquid with a specific weight is
dependent only on the height of the liquid above that point. This fact allows the vertical height or
head of a specified liquid to be used as a measurement of pressure. These equations are valid for
o
gases such as air if its mass density is used for . Note = 1.225 kg/m3 at sea level and 15 C

D.3 MANOMETERS
There are many transducers that can be employed to measure pressure. However, if the pressure is
relatively low and constant, a manometer is a simple and
effective instrument. To show this simplicity, consider the Upx
tube manometer illustrated in Fig. D.2. The U-tube, a
transparent glass or plastic tube, is filled with a colored liquid
and then inserted into a chamber with an unknown pressure px.
1

Fig. D.2 A U-tube manometer measuring the unknown pressure

px.

p1

p2
2

The chamber pressure forces the liquid down on one leg of the U tube and up on the other leg. It is
evident that p1 = p2 because they are at the same datum plane (level). From Eq. (D.3) we can write:
p1 = p x + 1 s
Equating p1 and p2 leads to:

and p2 = 0 + 2 h

(a)

px = 2h 1s

(D.4)

If the liquid in the manometer is colored water and the fluid in the pressure chamber is air, then it can
be assumed that the specific weight 1 << 2 and Eq. (D.4) reduces to:
px = 2h = 2 gh

(D.5)

It is clear from Eq. (D.5) that a simple U-tube manometer can be used to measure the air pressure in
the plenum chamber under steady state conditions if the dimension h can be measured.

D.4 LIFT FORCES

Lets next consider the lift forces that are generated when the propellers are rotating at high speed in
each of the four rotor assemblies. The quadcopter will be in equilibrium in the vertical direction
when the sum of the four lift forces developed
by the propellers equals the total weight W of
FL1 + FL2
FL4 + FL3
the quadcopter, as indicated in Fig D.3.
M4

CG

M3

Fig. D.3 Equilibrium diagram for the

quadcopter (vertical direction).

W
L

M1
M2

D-4 Appendix D
Fluid Mechanics and Design Analysis

Before it is possible to proceed with either the design or the analysis of the design, it is necessary to
estimate the weight of the quadcopter structure and all of its components. A preliminary weight
estimate includes a selection of the components that were described previously in Chapters 3 and 6.
Your first compilation of the weight may be excessive. More time devoted to finding lighter weight
components may be required to improve the design. It may prove necessary to change components if
the design analysis shows that the lift forces generated by the four propellers are not sufficient to lift
the quadcopter with some margin for propelling the quadcopter forward.

D.4.1 Lift and Propulsion Forces

The four rotors provide both lift and propulsion forces. If the quadcopter is tilted so that it has an
attitude with an angle , as shown in Fig.D.4, the rotors produce forces FL1, FL2, FL3 and FL4 which
have components in both the horizontal and vertical directions. Lets sketch a vector diagram to
illustrate the forces and their directions in Fig. D.5.

FL4 + FL3

Fig. D.4 Propulsion forces are developed when

the quadcopter tilts or assumes an attitude.

FL4 + FL3

FL1 + FL2

CG

FL = W
Fig. D.5 Vector diagram of the four rotors producing lift and
propulsion forces.

FL1 + FL2
FP

The sum of the forces from the four rotors produces a force FR, which is given by:
FR = FL1 + FL2 + FL3 + FL4

(D.6)

The vertical component of FR is equal to the lift force FL, which is given by:
FL = FR cos

(D.7)

The horizontal component of FR is equal to the propulsion force FP, which is given by:
FP = FR sin

(D.8)

Introduction to Engineering Design D-5

Book 11: Engineering Skills and Quadcopter Missions

The acceleration of the quadcopter depends on propulsion and the drag forces. When the quadcopter
is at rest or hovering, it is not moving and the drag forces are zero. At this instant the acceleration ax
of the quadcopter may be written as:
ax = FP/m = FR sin /m

(D.9)

The quadcopter gains velocity due to the acceleration and initially the velocity is written as:
v = ax dt

(D.10)

When the quadcopter gains velocity v the drag forces begin to increase. The drag forces FD are
often written as:
FD = CD Av2 /2

(D.11)

where CD is the drag coefficient and A is the frontal area of the airframe structure. The drag
coefficient depends on the shape of the airframe and Reynolds number. For a flat plate, with the air
flow normal to plate area, the value of C ~ 2 for Reynolds number from 3 103 to 3 105.
For a specific attitude and propeller speed the quadcopter will initially accelerate from a hover state
and achieve a stable velocity vS, when the propulsion force FP and the drag force FD become equal.
At this velocity the power P required to maintain the velocity is given by:
P = FD vS = CD AvS3 /2

(D.12)

It is evident from Eq. (D.12) that the power requirements at a constant stable velocity for the
quadcopter increase as the cube of the velocity. Power conservation is another reason for carefully
controlling the velocity of your teams quadcopter.

D.5 DETERMINING FLOW RATES

Continuity Equation
To determine the flow rates associated with the operation of the quadcopter, it is necessary to
introduce two very important equations used in fluid mechanicsthe conservation of mass relation
and Bernoullis equation. Lets consider the flow of a fluid through a stream tube as illustrated in
Fig. D.6. Under steady state conditions, the
mass 1 of fluid entering the stream tube is the
V2
same as that leaving it.
A
2

V1

Fig. D.6 Flow into and out of a stream tube.

A1

This statement is based on the principle of conservation of mass.

D-6 Appendix D
Fluid Mechanics and Design Analysis

Because no fluid is lost or stored as it passes through the steam tube, we can write the equation for
the conservation of mass as:
(D.13)
A1V11 = A2V22
where V is the velocity of the flow.
If we assume the flow is incompressible, 2 1 = 2 and Eq. (D.13) reduces to:
A1V1 = A2V2 = Q

(D.14)

where Q is the flow rate.

It is evident from Eq. (D.14) that the product of the velocity of the air flow and the cross sectional
area of the stream tube is a constant everywhere along its length.

Bernoullis Equation
Bernoullis equation is based on the principle of conservation of energy. To illustrate this concept,
consider frictionless flow though the piping system shown in Fig. D.7. At station 1, the fluid flowing
with a velocity v1 is at a pressure p1 and a specific weight 1. As the fluid travels from station 1 to
station 2, the pipe changes elevation and the cross sectional area of the pipe decreases. The fluid at
station 2 is flowing with a velocity v2 and it exhibits a pressure p2 with a specific weight 2. If
energy is not added or lost as the fluid
STATION 2
moves from station 1 to station 2, then the
2 p2
V2
principle of conservation of energy leads to
Bernoullis equation that is written as:

STATION 1

Fig. D.7 Flow conditions in a piping system

without energy added or lost.

z2

p1
V1

1
z1

DATUM PLANE

p1

V12
p V2
+ z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2
2g
2 2g

(D.15)

In this analysis, we assume that air is incompressible. Of course air is compressible, but we can make this
assumption because the changes in pressure encountered when pressurizing the plenum chamber are very small.
In other words, the low pressure air generated by the fan can be treated as an incompressible fluid without
introducing serious errors in the analysis.

Introduction to Engineering Design D-7

Book 11: Engineering Skills and Quadcopter Missions

The first term in Bernoullis equation

may be considered as the work that can be performed by a

fluid with a pressure p. The second term

V2
is related to the fluids kinetic energy. Finally, the
2g

third term z is the fluids potential energy relative to a defined datum plane. Each of these terms can
also be considered as headsthe pressure head, the velocity head and the potential head. It is
evident from Eq. (D.15) that the sum of the three terms involving pressure, velocity and height
above a datum plane are constant at every point along a stream tube.

D.7 DETERMINING THE PROPELLER THRUST FORCE

Lets determine the force developed by a propeller rotating at relatively high speed. The forces
developed by the propellers are necessary to lift and propel the quadcopter. Recall that the
quadcopter is relatively light (low weight) and travels at low velocities so it can hover and fly with
relatively small forces.
For a quadcopter, lift and propulsion forces are generated by momentum transferred due to
air flow. This air flow is produced by the four propellers that rotate at relatively high speed. The
change in momentum due to the airflow produces thrust forces that act to lift the quadcopter. Finally,
tilting the quadcopter (pitching down by a small angle ) resolves the thrust force into lift and
propulsion force components that were described previously.
Lets consider the analysis by considering a stream tube as shown in Fig. D.8.

p1

p1

V1

p2

p2

V2

V2

p3
3

p3

p4

V3
V3

V4

V4

p4

Fig. D.8 A stream tube where the pressure and velocity are indicated at points 1, 2, 3 and 4 along the
length of the tube.
For the analysis lets consider that the flow is steady state, which implies that a fixed point the
parameters p and V are constant with respect to time. We will also assume incompressible flow with
the density is approximately constant as the fluid moves through the steam tube. Finally we note
that we have potential flow, where the flow occurs in a stream tube, which is removed from regions
with velocity gradients normal to the flow direction.
Under these conditions, the Bernoulli equation (Eq. D.15) reduces to:

1
p + V 2 =
po
2

(D.16)

D-8 Appendix D
Fluid Mechanics and Design Analysis

Under the condition of steady state, incompressible potential flow, Eq. (D.16) is valid at any point
along the stream tube (invariant) and we can write:

1
1
1
p1 + V12 =+
p2
V22 =+
p3
V32 ==
..... po
2
2
2

(D.17)

Next lets model the rotor with its propeller as a stream tube, as shown in Fig. D.9.

Fig. D.9 A rotating propeller creating a stream

tube.

The symbols used in Fig. D.9 are defined as:

T: Thrust force, A: Propeller disc area, A2: Area downstream Vi: Induced velocity, V2: Downstream
velocity, pU : Pressure above the propeller, pL Pressure below the propeller, p Pressure below the
propeller.
Bernoullis equation can be used to represent flow in the stream tube containing the propeller, which
is shown in Fig. D.9. Note that the flow stream lines are directed downward and the thrust force T is
upward. Writing Eq. (D.16) for a point slightly above the propeller gives:

1
p=
pU + Vi 2

(a)

Writing Eq. (D.16) for a point slightly below the propeller gives:

1
1
pL + Vi 2 =
p + V2 2
2
2

(b)

Combining Eq. (a) with Eq. (b) gives:

1
pL pU =
V2 2
2

(D.18)

Introduction to Engineering Design D-9

Book 11: Engineering Skills and Quadcopter Missions

According to the impulse- momentum principle, we can write the rotor thrust as:

T = AVi V2

(D.19)

However, the thrust force can also be expressed in terms of a pressure difference as:

T = A (pL pU)

(D.20)

Combining Eqs. (D.18), (D.19) and (D.20) we find that:

and

V2 = 2Vi

(D.21)

T = 2AVi2

(D.22)

From Eq. (D.22) it is evident that it is necessary to determine the velocity Vi generated by the
rotating propeller to calculate the thrust force. To begin this determination, lets introduce a nondimensional velocity ratio defined as:
i = Vi /VT
(D.23)
where

is the velocity at the tip of the propeller, which is given by:

VT = R

(D.24)

where is the angular velocity of the propeller and R is its radius.

Next lets consider the thrust coefficient for the propeller that is defined as:

CT =

T
1
VT2 A
2

(D.25)

Substituting Eq. (D.22) into Eq. (D.25), simplifying and noting Eq. (D.23) yields:

CT = 4 i2

(D.26)

Next lets consider the rotor solidity that is defined as the ratio of the blade area to the disk area.

s
=

NcR Nc
=
R2 R

where N is the number of blades, R is the radius of the propeller and c is its chord.

Fig. D.10 Schematic of propeller blade showing its

radius and chord.

(D.27)

D-10 Appendix D
Fluid Mechanics and Design Analysis

A section of the propeller blade shown relative to the disc plane is presented in Fig. D.11. This
illustration defines the pitch angle of the
blade section relative to the disc plane.

Fig. D.11 The center line of the blade section

relative to the disc plane defines the pitch
angle .

The parameter , a function of and , is given by blade element theory as:

s
64
1
1+
16
3s

(D.28)

where is the two dimensional lift slope factor that usually has a value of 5.7 and s is the rotor
solidity factor defined in Eq. (D.27).
Combining Eq. (D.25) and Eq. (D.26) gives:

T
= 4i2
1
VT2 A
2

CT
=

(D.29)

Substituting Eq. (D.29) into Eq. (D.28) yields:

2

64
s
=
1
4 =
4 1+
1
3s
16

VT2 A
2

2
i

(D.30)

Recall that VT = R and substitute this relation into Eq. (D.30) gives:
2

s

64
=
1 (R) 2 A
T 2
1+
3s
16

(D.31)

Recall that the power P is given by:

P = T Vi
But

Vi = VT

(D.32)

Introduction to Engineering Design D-11

Book 11: Engineering Skills and Quadcopter Missions

Hence, we may write:

P = T VT

(D.33)

Substitute Eq. (D.31) and Eq. (D.28) into Eq. (D.33) and recall that VT = R. The result for the
power required to achieve is given by:
3

s

64
=
P 2
1+
1 (R)3 A
3s

16

(D.34)

D.8 EXAMPLE DETERMINING THE THRUST FORCE AND POWER

Lets consider a single rotor with a five in. diameter propeller having two blades. It has a cord
dimension of 0.58 in. and a pitch angle = 20 degrees. We will use the equations present above to
determine the thrust force from a single rotor as a function of the propeller speed (RPM). We will
also compute the power required as a function of the RPM.
Begin by using Eq. D.27 to calculate the rotor solidity that is defined as the ratio of the blade area to
the disk area.

=
s

NcR Nc 2(0.58)
= =
= 0.1477
R 2 R (2.5)

(a)

Next lets convert the pitch angle to radians.

= 20 (/180) = 0.3491 radians.

(b)

The parameter , a function of and , is given by Eq. (D.28) as:

(0.1477)(5.7)

64
(64)(0.3491)
s
1
=
1
1+
1+
16
3s
16
3(0.1477)(5.7)

= (0.05262)[3.1379 1] = 0.1125

(c)

(d)

From Eq. (D.30) it is evident that:

T = 22 VT A

(D.35)

where , the mass density of air at room temperature and at sea level, is 11.744 10-8 lb-s2 /in4
A, the disc area given by A = R2 = (2.5)2 = 19.63 in2
VT the tip velocity is given by VT = R = (2.5)(2)n/60 = 0.2618 n where n is in RPM
Entering these quantities into Eq. (D.35) yields:
T = 2(0.1125)2 (0.2618)2 (19.63)n2 = 0.03406 n2

(e)

D-12 Appendix D
Fluid Mechanics and Design Analysis

Substituting the value for into Eq. (e) yields:

T = 3.998 10-9 n2 4 10-9 n2

(f)

We have solved for the thrust force T as a function of n over the range from 1,000 to 20,000 RPM.
We have also prepared a graph showing these results in Fig. D.12.
n (RPM) T (lb.)
1000
0.004
2000
0.016
5000
0.100
10000
0.400
12000
0.576
15000
0.900
18000
1.296
20000
1.600

Fig. D.12 Thrust as a function of propeller speed (RPM) for a two bladed propeller.
Two facts are evident from these results. First, the thrust force increases as the square of the
propeller speed. Second, high speeds in excess of 10,000 RPM are required before the thrust
exceeds 0.4 lb. per rotor.
You can now calculate the thrust that a given motor and propeller combination provides, which is
essential for selecting both of these components. We recommend that you devote 10 minutes and
watch the youtube video found at the URL listed below. Note that the speaker recommends the use
of margins, which is sizing components somewhat more robust than your calculations indicate.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HSQGI6u2DlMhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HSQGI6u2DlM

Introduction to Engineering Design D-13

Book 11: Engineering Skills and Quadcopter Missions

You might also be interested in the calculator, found at the URL below, for determining many
important parameters associated with component selection in the design of your quadcopter.
http://www.ecalc.ch/xcoptercalc.php?ecalc&lang=en
Another method for determining thrust versus RPM is to conduct controlled experiments and
measure both thrust and speed over the intended operating range. An example of such an experiment
is presented in Fig. D.13.

Fig. D.13 Thrust force for

an 8 by 6 propeller as a
function of propeller RPM.

Lets continue our independent analysis by computing the power requirements for the single rotor.
Recall Eq. (D.33) and substitute numerical results for T, and VT into this relation.
P = T VT = (4 10-9 )(0.1125)(0.2618) n3

(g)

P = 1.178 10-10 n3
We have solved for the power P as a function of n over the range from 1,000 to 20,000 RPM. We
have also prepared a graph showing these results in Fig. D.14.
n (RPM) Power (lb.-in/s)
1000
0.1
2000
0.9
5000
14.7
10000
117.8
12000
203.6
15000
397.6
18000
687.1
20000
942.5

D-14 Appendix D
Fluid Mechanics and Design Analysis

Fig. D.14 Power as a function of propeller speed in RPM.

The units of the power from this calculation were in in.-lb./s, which is not convenient when
considering the supply requirements of an electrical motor. Lets convert the power at n = 12,000
RPM from 203.6 in-lb./s to the electrical unit for power the watt W.
P = 203.6 in-lb./s ft/12 in W s/0.7376 ft-lb = 23.00 W
The power required will be larger than this value because we have not accounted for the efficiency of
the motor.
To determine the power required to drive the electric motors that turn the propellers, we must
consider their efficiency. A well-designed propeller has an efficiency in the range of 70 to 80%.
The propellers efficiency depends of its helix angle (the angle between the resultant relative velocity
and the blade rotation direction) and the blades pitch angle. Very small pitch and helix angles
exhibit low drag forces but do not provide much thrust. Larger helix and pitch angles give more
thrust but with higher drag. The best helix angle is when the propeller blade acts like a wing that
produces significant lift with minimum drag.
A propellers efficiency E is defined as:

E = Pout / Pin

(D.36)

where Pout is the power output and Pin is the power input to the electric motor.
The power input Pin is given by:
Pin = T
where T is the torque applied to by the motor and is its angular velocity.

(D.36)

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Book 11: Engineering Skills and Quadcopter Missions

Combining Eq. (D.22) and Eq. (D.23) yields:

Pin = Pout / E

(D.37)

While relatively high efficiencies are cited for well-designed propeller blades the efficiencies are not
constant for a specific propeller configuration. The efficiencies depend on the speed RPM of the
rotor. Data 3 showing the lift force normalized with the input power W to the electric motor is
presented in Fig. D.15.

Fig. D.15 The lift force

developed per unit power input
drops with increasing RPM.

The data for Figs. D.9 and D.10, which is for an APC 86 E thin electric propeller with a Hacker
A20-22L brushless motor, is shown in Table D.1.
Volts Amps Watts RPM Thrust (g) g/W
Table D.1 Experimental data for a Hacker
brushless motor with an 8 by 6 E propeller.
Graphs and Table: Courtesy of DragonFly

10.9

13.55

148

8650

567

3.83

9.9

11.7

116

8100

484

4.17

8.9

9.85

88

7440

406

4.61

7.9

8.2

65

6780

333

5.12

6.9

6.65

46

6120

267

5.80

We have shown equations for estimating thrust force and power output and have shown experimental
results for the Hacker A20-22L brushless motor driving a 8 by 6 propeller. We will describe
laboratory experiments at the end of this appendix to measure thrust force, RPM, tip velocity, torque,
angular velocity and power input.

D.8 SIZING THE AUXILIARY POWER SUPPLY

It is clear that the power required to drive the rotors must be supplied from a battery supply. What is
the required capacity of this source? If we select a source that has excess capacity, we incur a weight
penalty. If we select one that is too small, we may exhaust the battery before the mission is complete.
The current drawn by the electric motor depends on its RPM with the power increasing as the cube
of the propeller speed. At high speeds with n = 15,000 RPM currents of 8 to 10 A and voltages of 10
3

See the URL: http://www.rctoys.com/pr/2012/05/07/rc-propeller-thrust-curve-and-efficiency-test-data-251unique-propellers-tested-including-quad-copter-counter-rotating-propellers.

D-16 Appendix D
Fluid Mechanics and Design Analysis

or more volts are common. Lets assume in operation we will draw a current of 10 A at a voltage of
8 V to drive a single electric motor. This control setting provides an input power of 8 10 = 80 W.
our e fan motor varies with the flow rate. We will operate each of the four rotors at the same setting;
hence we will require 4 10 = 40 A from our power supply. Consequently, we will need an battery
that can deliver about 40 A for sufficient time to complete a mission 4.
Lets assume that your team has a strategy for completing a mission in 36 minutes (1/20 h).
The capacity CB of the battery is given as the product of the amperes multiplied by the time that this
level of current is delivered.
(D.37)
CB = I t
where CB is the capacity measured in (Ah) and I is the current draw in A and t is the time in h.
For a 3 minute mission, the capacity of the auxiliary supply should be CB = 40 1/20 =2.0 Ah =
2,000 mAh. This value is small compared to the capacity of the battery in your automobile, but you
certainly do not want to deal with the weight of an auto battery.
There are four types of batteries that provide this capacity and current drainLi-Ion, Nickel
Metal Hydride, Nickel Cadmium and Sealed Lead Acid (SLA). All four of these types are
rechargeable, which is a requirement to avoid battery replacement after each mission. Go online and
explore the battery sizes available, weight of the battery packs and the cost of the installation before
making your selection. A Li-Ion battery, which is rechargeable, will deliver more power and weigh
less than your other choices, but it will cost more. The selection of the battery for the power supply
is an important design decision for your team.

D.9 SUMMARY
In this chapter we introduced the theory necessary to perform a few design analyses associated with
developing a quadcopter. We showed an example for computing thrust force and output power for a
five in two bladed propeller as a function of its speed (RPM). We also showed experimental results
for one motor and propeller combination to illustrate the relationships derived in this appendix.
Because the pressures developed by propellers are often expressed in terms of inches of
water, we derived the pressure height relation based on the equilibrium equation. Then we showed
how a manometer measures pressure with the height of a column of water. The continuity relation
was derived based on the principle of conservation of mass and Bernoullis equation was derived
based on conservation of energy. The thrust force developed by a two bladed propeller was
calculated based on the momentum-impulse principle and blade element theory. We used these
equations to calculate thrust and power output for a single rotor as a function of propeller speed n.
Guidance was provided for sizing the battery and the selection of its chemistry.

We assume that you will not rely on the 40 mA current available from the Arduino board to power the lift the
fan.

Introduction to Engineering Design D-17

Book 11: Engineering Skills and Quadcopter Missions

REFERENCES
1. Seddon, J. Basic Helicopter Dynamics, Blackwell Science Ltd, Cambridge, MA, 1990.
2. Cengel, Y. and J. Cimbala, Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, Mc GrawHill, New York, NY, 2013.

LABORATORY EXERCISES
D.1

D.2

D.3

Design a method to measure the thrust as a function of power input. Your instructor will
provide you with meters to measure current and voltage. However, your team is to design and
build the measuring system to determine the thrust. Construct a graph showing thrust as a
function of power input.
Using a pitot tube and a manometer measure the flow velocity from a rotor as a function of its
RPM. A strobe light can be employed as a non-contact method of measuring the RPM of the
propeller. Compare this value to that determined using one of the equations in this appendix.
Construct a beam that is representative of one the arms on your quadcopter that supports the
electric motor and extends back to the central cabin, which contains the power supply and
other components. Support one end of the beam as if it were a cantilever and load its free end
in increments. Measure the load deflection of the beam. Continue to load the beam until it
fractures. How does the fracture load compare with the thrust that will be developed by the
propeller and the motor? Does your beam exhibit a factor of safety???

EXERCISES
D.1
D.2
D.3
D.4

Determine the pressure in units of pounds per square inch (psi) of the water in a swimming
pool at a depth of 6 feet.
What is the pressure of air in Pascal (Pa) if a mercury barometer is reading 76.8 mm of Hg?
Based on the assigned mission, prepare a strategy for control of the quadcopter to complete
the mission in a minimum time.
A piston weighing 1.40 lb. slides freely within a cylinder as illustrated in Fig. Ex D.4.
a. What is the pressure in the cylinder in psi and Pa if the piston has a diameter of D =
4.0 in? [Draw a Free Body Diagram (FBD) to show
D
the relevant forces acting piston]

Fig. ExD.4
PISTON

AIR

D.5 Air at 300 K flows through a cylindrical pipe with an area change as illustrated in Fig.
Ex D.5. The velocity at station 1 is 12 m/s and the pressure is 2 atm.

D-18 Appendix D
Fluid Mechanics and Design Analysis

Fig. ExD.5

v = 12 m/s

v = ?? m/s

p = 2 atm

p = 1 atm

D = 4 IN.

What is the velocity at station 2 if the pressure there is 1 atm?

What is the volume flow rate at station 1?
What is the volume flow rate at station 2?
What is the mass flow rate at stations 1 and 2?

D = 6 IN.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

(2)
(1)

D.6 For a quadcopter with a mass of 0.8 kg and four rotors arranged in an X configuration,
specify the propeller and electric motor combination which enables the quadcopter to
hover at 1.2 m using only of the allowable input voltage to the motors.
D.7 For the propeller and motor combination selected in Exercise D.6, determine the flow
rate of the air as it exits the rotor. Also prepare a graph showing the thrust developed
by the four rotors as a function of the RPM.