Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
involve in mental illness and its consequences. Psychologists typically put emphasis
on internal mental processes; while, biologists centre on the function of physiological
aspects of mental illness. But though sociologists do not markdown biology and
psychology in studying mental illness, yet they believe that a critical social lens is
necessary to gaining the whole picture of mental illness.
Some sociologists focus on the socially constructed nature of the so called
mental illness. They call attention to historical changes that have led to a
redefinition of mental illness. Michel Foucault (1986), a French social philosopher,
studied the meaning of mental illness through history. The year 1656 was an
important date in the history of madness because in this year Hospital General * in
Paris was opened. In the age of reason, people who thought or acted unreasonable
needed to be separated from the masses.
1.1 Theoretical Perspectives of Mental Illness within Sociology
In this context four major sociological perspectives may be outlined (a) social
causation, (b) critical theory and (c) social constructivism.
1.1.1 Social Causation
The emphasis within a social causation approach is upon tracing the relationship
between social disadvantage and mental illness. Many sociologists have considered
the main indicator of disadvantage to be low social class and/or poverty. Social class
*
In 1656, when L' Hospital General was founded in Paris, it was in fact primarily a place of
confinement of the unproductive poor. The insane were confined, not because they were mad, but
because they were useless.
has not been the only variable investigated within this social causation perspective.
Disadvantages of other sorts, such as, those related to gender, community, age etc.
have also been of interest.
1.1.2 Critical Theory
During the twentieth century, a number of writers attempted to account for the
relationship between socio-economic structures and the inner lives of individuals. One
example is the work of Sartre (1963). This great philosopher has developed his
progressive-regressive method, which is an attempt to understand biography in
relation to its social context and to understand social context via the accounts of
peoples lives. Humanistic Marxism has been developed from this existential
philosophy. Marxism also has to compete with another and more involved set of
discussions about the relationship between unconscious mental life (Freud) and
societal determinants and constraints.
1.1.3
Social Constructivism
A central assumption within this broad approach is that reality is not self-
in a given time, the more likely he were to experience mental injury, to become ill, or
even to die.
Several studies reported the alliance of major life events with the onset of
depression, schizophrenia, and anxiety related other mental disorders. It has also been
discovered that undesirable events were more strongly associated with mental
disorders than were desirable ones.
According to the findings of Brown and Harris (1978) major negative life
events make an individual vulnerable to clinical depression. It has also been
established that certain types of life events are more likely to be associated with
development of mental disorders.
The researchers, using the social structure and personality approach, have
identified a number of stress related patterns of behaviour. The stress process model
attempts to help in understanding the social connections among stressful events and
strains.
1.2.2 Structural Strain Theory
This theory assumes that the origins of stress remain in broader organization of
society, where some groups have to stay in relatively disadvantaged conditions.
According to Mertons anomie theory
success and wealth, (ii) educational system is route to success and wealth, (iii) large
segments of society see themselves as blocked from education and therefore from
success (Merton, 1964).
There remains a gap between aspirations and means to achieve goals and this
leads those who are blocked into other routes, which may include crime, mental
illness, or substance abuse.
Societys organization puts some groups at an economic disadvantageous
condition. Economic disadvantage is a strain that leads to higher rates of
psychological breakdown.
1.2.3 Labelling Theory
Assumption of this theory is that the people who are labeled as deviant become
deviant. Everyone violates social norms at some time. When rule-breakers are low
status, higher status agents of social control (police, social workers, judges,
3
psychiatrists) can force rule-breakers into treatment. Individuals, who are as labeled
as mentally ill, become then stereotyped as dangerous, unpredictable and likely to
behave in bizarre ways.
Labelled people are (a) treated as irresponsible, (b) denied access to normal
activities, (c) forced to spend time with other deviants, (d) get socialized into mental
patient culture, adopting mental patient worldview and (e) take on identity of a mental
patient.
As this theory does not explain initial causes of deviant behaviour so it has
limited usefulness. But it has, however, sensitized mental health personnel to the
dangers of institutionalization.
Labelling theory emphasizes the processes by which an individual comes to
accept a negative characteristic as part of his/her identity. As applied to mental health,
labelling theory emphasizes different agents of social control employed to segregate
and label criminal versus ill groups.
1.3
illness.)
Four major sociological perspectives have been outlined in course of presenting
the theoretical perspectives of mental illness within sociology. The perspectives are
social causation, critical theory, social constructivism and social realism.
Again, three dominant theories have been presented in sociological approaches
to mental illness and these are stress theory, structural strain theory and labelling
theory.
Different perspectives and theories presented the social causes of mental illness
in different ways, but there is an agreement about profound influence of society in
producing mental illness. Thus, the Premise I (i.e., Society produces mental illness.)
may be established.
Neo-liberalism
Neo-liberalism is a thought that defences the free capitalist system appearing in
Indian Perspective
The Indian economy ran into a major systemic crisis in the late 1980s. Along
with the collapse of Soviet style command economies, it signalled the unsustainability of an economic system built on absolute or near total control of the state
over the economy. The philosophy of neo-liberalism was helped spread in India by
this crisis. This led to the lesson from the experience of centralized planning for the
goals of rapid economic growth and poverty reduction. As state control over the
market economy does not work and hence should be abandoned.
Since then a gradual process of two decades gives rise to a competitive market
economy, which has been incorporated into the global economy. Thus a structural
adjustment programme has been evolved. Against the privileged position of planners,
*
During the Great Depression of the 1930s, it was found that the market, by itself, could not manage
the economic chaos. Keynes was one of the firsts to advocate government spending as a means of
stimulating the economy (Stephen & Eugen, 1977) and creating employment opportunities.
this new paradigm also protracted the supremacy of the mass of homoeconomicus
(optimizing economic man, whether as consumers or producers). Their decision
making transpires in and through this global competitive market regime. (Chakrabarti,
2012).
Microeconomic environment constituted by the competitive market economy
and populated by free agents can and does produce economic and social disasters also.
Far from being self-regulating, markets (leaving people, regions and even nations
struggling to survive) may produce total self-destruction.
2.2
Mental and behavioural disorders are common, affecting more than 25% of all
people at some time during their lives (Regier, et al., 1988; Wells, et al., 1989;
Almeida-Filho, et al., 1997). These problems are also universal affecting
individuals of all countries and societies; at all ages and of both gender; being the rich
and the poor; coming from urban and rural environments. There are economic impacts
on societies and on the quality of life of individuals and families.
From WHO report (2001) we come to know (a) Mental and behavioural
disorders are present in about 10% of the adult population at any point in time; (b)
around 20% of all patients treated by primary health care professionals have one or
more mental problems; (c) one in four families is likely to have at least one member
with a behavioural or mental disorder; again these families not only provide physical
and emotional support, but also bear the negative impact of stigma and discrimination.
It was estimated that, in 1990, mental and neurological disorders accounted for
10% of the total DALY*s lost due to all diseases and injuries. This was 12% in 2000.
By 2020, it is projected that the problem of these disorders will have increased to
15%. Common disorders, usually causing severe disability, include (i) depressive
disorders, (ii) substance use disorders, (iii) schizophrenia, (iv) epilepsy, (v)
Alzheimers disease, (vi) mental retardation, and (vii) disorders of childhood and
adolescence.
Factors associated with the occurrence, onset and course of mental and
behavioural disorders include (i) poverty, (ii) gender, (iii) age, (iv) conflicts and
disasters, (v) major physical diseases, and (vi) the family and social environment.
(The World Health Report, 2001).
3.2
Disability-Adjusted Life Year (DALY), quantifying the burden of disease from mortality and
morbidity.
Definition One DALY can be thought of as one lost year of healthy life. The sum of these DALYs
across the population, or the burden of disease, can be thought of as a measurement of the gap between
current health status and an ideal health situation where the entire population lives to an advanced age,
free of disease and disability.
structural strain theory and labelling theory) in producing new type of mental
problems. This may be the justification of drawing the conclusion I (i.e., Severe
mental illness is being produced in modern times.).
Premise - III: Physical activity brings forth psychological wellbeing **.
4.
of physical activities can have harmful effects on physical health and mental
wellbeing. Absence of physical activities increases the risk for coronary heart disease,
diabetes, certain cancers, obesity, hypertension and all cause mortality (CDC, 1996).
Physical inactivity may also be associated with the development of mental disorders.
Some clinical and epidemiological (cross-sectional and prospective longitudinal
studies) studies have shown associations between physical activity and symptoms of
depression and anxiety (Abu-Omar, et al. 2004a, b; Bhui & Fletcher, 2000; Farmer,
et al. 1988; Dunn, et al. 2001; Goodwin, 2003; Haarasilta, et al. 2004; Lampinen,
et al. 2000; Motl, et al. 2004). Moreover, exercise is an integral part in the treatment
and rehabilitation of many medical conditions. Improving physical wellbeing may
also lead to improved psychological wellbeing and is generally accepted that physical
activity may have positive effects on mood and anxiety. Mental ill health is a shortlived occurrence of negative emotions such as stress, depression and anxiety (Biddle
& Mutrie, 2001).
In terms of the relationship between physical activity and mental health,
evidence suggests that in the conventional method of maintenance and treatment of
mental health problems physical activity can be used as an adjunct treatment (Scully,
et al, 1998).
Furthermore, physical activity is also known to be an effective coping strategy
to help minimize these negative emotions and therefore promotes good mental health
**
Psychological wellbeing or good mental health can be difficult to define as it can be determined by a
multiplicity of factors (European Commission, 2005). It has been said that it is related to self-esteem,
cognitive functioning, personality and mood, including positive effects such as happiness, vigour and
morale and negative effects such as depression and anxiety (Brown, et at, 1992). The negative effects
of mental health such as depression and anxiety can have a debilitative effect on our psychological well
being. Psychological well being can be associated with our health-related quality of life (HRQL;
Rejeski, Brawley & Shumaker, 1996). This is typically defined in terms of a persons perceptions of
their own functions which are outlined by a number of HRQL measures including physical symptoms
such as energy and fatigue, emotional symptoms such as depression and anxiety, social functioning
such as forming relationships with family and friends, and cognitive functioning such as attention span
and problem solving (Rejeski et al., 1996).
5.
Three Ways-aspects
It may be discussed as follows aspects (a) preventive, (b) curative, (c)
promotive.
(a) Preventive Sporting behaviour and physical education may bring forth
psychological wellbeing. A psychologically strong person can face the problem
cropped up in the new era as challenging but not as threatening. When one considers a
problem as a challenge s/he sets out for finding solutions with effective strategies and
not feels stress. But if a problem is considered as a threat it inevitably produce stress
and consequently anxiety.
10
(b) Curative A stress stricken person may be treated with the help of sporting
behaviour and physical education. A good number of allied literatures suggest the
curative aspects of physical activities.
(c) Promotive In some cases medicine is essential for treating a stress stricken
person. But most of the psychotropic medicines may produce obesity as one of the
major side effects. In managing this side effect physical activities help to promote
health. Again in the era of speed and machine dependency some life style diseases
like coronary heart disease, diabetes, certain cancers, obesity, hypertension and all
cause mortality may be managed by physical activities.
6.1
7.1
11
You the experts of physical education come forward to rescue people from the
plight caused by the recent socioeconomic change in the global society. You can also
avail the opportunities evolved through the expansion and revolution in information
technology. Please (i) restructure your curricular content and methodology to cater
the demand of the time, (ii) increase professionalism at par the requirement of modern
times, (iii) by taking the opportunities of modern information technology, disseminate
the literature in popular way and make the people (particularly, young students)
interested in physical education and sports, and thereby, in physical activities, (iv)
above all put thinking and not just duplicate, so on and so forth. There is no much
time to waste.
References
Abu-Omar, K., Rutten, A., Lehtinen, V. (2004a). Mental health and physical
activity in the European Union. Social and Preventive Medicine, 301309
Abu-Omar, K., Rutten, A., Robine, J.M. (2004b). Self-rated health and
physical activity in the European Union. Social and Preventive Medicine,
9: 235242
Ali, H. (1998). Dealing with Toxicity in the Risk Society: Community Response
to the Hamilton Plastics Fire, paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the
Canadian Sociology and Anthropology Association, Ottawa.
Almeida-Filho N., Mari, J.J., Coutinhom E., Franca, J.F., Fernandes, J.,
Andreoli, S.B., Busnello, E.D. (1997). Brazilian multicentric study of
psychiatric morbidity: methodological features and prevalence estimates.
British Journal of Psychiatry, 171: 524529
Beck, U. (1992). Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity, London: Sage.
Beck, U. (1995). Ecological Enlightenment: Essays on the Politics of the Risk
Society, New Jersey: Atlantic Press.
Bhui K, F.A. (2000). Common mood and anxiety states: gender differences in
the protective effect of physical activity. Social Psychiatry Psychiatr
Epidemiol, 35(1): 2835
Biddle, S. J. H. & Mutrie, N. (2001). Psychology of physical activity:
Determinants, well-being and interventions. London: Routledge.
12
13
14
Holmes, T.H. & Rahe, R.H. (1967). The social readjustment rating scale.
Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11: 213-218
Lampinen, P., Heikkinen, R.L., Ruoppila, I. (2000). Changes in intensity of
physical exercise as predictors of depressive symptoms among older
adults: an eight year follow-up study. Preventive Medicine, 12: 113180
Lawlor, D.A. & Hopker, S.W. (2001). The effectiveness of exercise as an
intervention in the management of depression: Systematic review and
metaregression analysis of randomised controlled trials. British Medical
Journal, 322, 18.
Malnes, R. (1998). Liberalismens mangfold; Statsvetenskaplig. Tidskrift, 101:
304-313.
McAuley, E. (1992). Understanding exercise behavior: A self-efficacy
perspective. In G. C. Roberts (ed.), Motivation in Sport and Exercise (pp.
10727). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Merton, R.K. (1964). Anomie, anrnnis, and sncird interaction: romexrs of
de.iam behsvicm, (Climrd M B, cd.) Anomie and dcviafu behavior.
Glencos, IL Free Press : 213-242.
Mises, L.V. (1962). The Free and Prosperous Commonwealth: An Exposition of
the Ideas of Classical Liberalism. Princeton, New Jersey: Van Nostrand.
Motl, R.W., Birnbaum, A.S., Kubik, M.Y., Dishman, R.K. (2004). Naturally
occurring changes in physical activity are inversely related to depressive
symptoms during early adolescence. Psychosomatic Medicine, 66: 336
342
Norberg, J. (2001). Till vrldskapitalismens frsvar. Stockholm: Timbro.
http://www.timbro.se/bokhandel/pdf/9175664917.pdf
Nozick, R. (1974). Anarchy, State and Utopia. Oxford: Blackwell.
Pilgrim, D. & Rogers, A. (1994). Something old, something new...: Sociology
and the organisation of psychiatry. Sociology, 28: 521-538.
Regier, D., Boyd, J., Burke, J., Rae, D., Myers, J., Kramer, M., Robins, L.
N., George, L. K., Karno, M., Locke, B. Z. (1988). One month
15
16