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L {;.{-:.
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*
lila!
j
f,.y-ii Cir
0it"iti^_:^"/u
ijii*rv\t
re"'Pcl
oj
'zn'
las poa,utes-'-"(
E
c-
Cdr'1i?s,,;,.i
-4i
TOpfC4 : STATES
of MATTEA
(i) of^the
^t "
ni
i:aiu,i\tJi
A1r :ot*a\ne r
\-r
1i';of Oiffere
) T,
.r, T,>Ta
'
Tr(T,
(0r ( t-l
r
.tlrat svrorf
Dortt(l
- GaS
randommotion
t hhv?
'
r"=lov?
\llv){
pruvrJ2J-11"u{en
%: ti, -o,J"lJj,::',;:Tll
.o4$4",F.
v^f
pv
/vx*
_ 3!t)
PV:nR
lt
For
sampfeof gas under
.a.given
two different sets of
conditions,
Prvr= PzVz
P'fvG n P,T
8.31JK-'mot
0.082dm=imrTm;r
: vqT
(constantp)
( 1cm'=1x10"m" ;
1 cm3= 1 x 1o-3dm3
1 atm = 101kPa )
lkPa=1x10"Pa)
t0lKPq=16o-nY
-l
[om,qttg -,
roIx ro 3 l) q
1 C I 0 n M l -jl+
?q
IUIYID3FqX'7OD
V
- = constant
T
For a givensampleof gas undertwo differentsetsof conditions
- lzox lost?
-b,o
\_b
Tr
T2
tr
ll
r+
tl
-l--F,
-i-t
v o n ( c o n s t a n t and p)
Statethe law:
Equalvolumeof all gases at the same temperatureand
Sanl\opressurecontain
numberof molecules.
+
2Oz )
e.g CHr
COz + 2HzO
1 mol
2 mol
1 mol
1o cm3 2o cm3
10 cm3
consrfont
P ond
r,'f;J,^.
+)
1r+
:{y.'J='u"
113 r +t
thatgasX doesnotreactwithgasYl
2.0+
)t
In3
(ftt*)"' (f,ri)-"r
)C
"---,
>L=
t, 01
pV.nR'T
aS CalCr r latlonlv^uo/ur
(i) To calculateM,
(ii)Todetermine
?V." RT
e . g : P = 1 0 1k P a
V = 800 cm3
Calculatethe numberof moles
ofgas at273K.
pv=[#)ut
pMt
RUrvt n0 unt*
Lnorqr M\ast619un*f,
T;
h:0'056
de'ruty
1*
aA
lVll':-
M{.7
Pv
PV.:ffi)ot
W--+
n n oI
pV--n RT
L,r
pV=n(f
=nt&g
( totrro:) [ &oxro-s)
Mr--rypv
3^
(iv) To describe
behaviourof an
--------1
1
lPi>l+','
t'
l/
/',
t,i
_l
tlt<
ro-trr)tr*t) 7s)(hroXrotxrO3XE
ft 3.s<rrf)t
' t5'q
| -l
3,'.o
t e3f) (21H
: t\[qt rs3M-3
sq6q6
Tr)1 ,
4
. t.)
T
'I
:0.0ffi
5Dv\-3
pO
7 6 0 " a ' lnl q : f o141e3
5oo n"n H
=6.1\xn,ap,
"{
PV=n R.T
l6.6qxr0+)v:
ffi)n..,,
V:,i.r3z<tO-'trn3
V : t3l cnnj
Es.whatfiAa chrorc#qas
is contain*in-d 10.0dm3ta;k
at27oCand 3.50atm of
pressure?
PV=n RT
(g.soxrotxror) [ rooxro-
+ ?o/ n81
'
ftcr\terra $ur phr-tial yrtssvre'
-)Mors lutd^ | typ( g{
X"t
saml?t/-)
Ust yrssvlz.
lx.t
5,
ESS-,IJRE
;i;;;#;".i"'",leq-Pgt,3
5.1Dalton'sLaw
rRct I I
5.2 Formula:
s*4 0[ tht
. M'firura of 4zuerti4aF
6sa$rt''on
reqcl!
-+hai
Jo not
o{ a ''uture 0l qli.s
(iii)Determin"fi6"?J
d 3;
Fno
li'G)+{0
I
1 2 , V , :P r V s
( : ) L r ) = P a( e t )
?+ = | alnt
'lv
PT
P , V ,I P 2V 2
61,
rB,6 6+il)
P, =Pr+.Pe -',$^
l= t+&-7-q
eg.^50.0
cm3of 02 at 1.0x10"Pa is miXcdwith150
cm" N2at the samepressure.What is the total
pressureof the mixtur'e?
Pro,
=ffx
-rr"boo)-;il^
(
1
.
5
{1
0
'#?o
PN, =
Irso)( t.oxres;'
,t*frgio.qffiffi
J c, s B
atnt, 2 dm3
\_,<,/2
- +
P i --_-
pV=nRT
- lf V, n and T is given
paVa=n6RTor
(p1V1=n1RT)
eg.
ns2= 0.00125mol
nH"= 0.00125mol
V = 2.00dm3
T = 15oC
Poz=?
Pg"=?
xrorxrt'pq
q
2.o2Xtp Pa
V:00" RT
P
rO)
tt-3)cti\
0 p,nn) fo.ool25)
5o.
-?tn
x rolxro3
ev
loo
?0,-- l.soxro'^Pq
(Pq
: g.o5xrD
?url)= flr'rtRT
3t
(lg) t )
: fo'oorzs)
>r.(rooxro-3)
? ' V r : P e VVol.of
. , co r t a i n e r = 4 dlmAr .
lz
t2)tt)--ra(.a) ) t l ) : P *n o )
a+'nt t,6 : l a t
?a=3
pq
rolxro3
: 3-03y.t}\ Pa
fo,'roo-o
tso'o)tr.oxres):
) ?r: ?.5{re
{.
Pur=
7 o r =) ' l r g k ?o
2 atm,1dm{
Sawr6 {366
Lz)e). ps B)
+|,fl
Pr= Pe+Pe
Gas B
2dm3 2 rt*
ssu.( after*eA
votv(r
GasA
1 dm3,3 atm
{a kac,+
""'n tradtort
d rnoto[ qasA
Boyle'shw--)
4(.{ vor4v{
sa rr\
=P4*P.tPc
(ii)Formura
(il)
Formula: P4
Jo nuf
f
rl
7(,,
l2rlc.n+qrr.8
:l.5oxt03Pq
La+ra
lar=4a+n
aKe
--note:
note:({ -thi
r\6'(,4h1
Thitr Pu,+
a'(,4 fu" 1
Pu,\ n
\at
e7va4ua
. 1 c m 3 = 1x 1 0 - 6 m 3 ; 1 d m 3 =1 x 1 6 3 m 3
r f i s m g c m - 3 = m xl o o g m - 3 ,p i n p a
lfJ ismg dm-3=m x 103gm{, p in pa
Finalanswerfor all calculationsmust be roundedup to the correctnumberof s.f with unit statedcleady
d-- JrnsilV
I
)s
l.u
LtR
qs
tQ"E#ts
ag
GAS
Meaning
-GAg
Factors:r*gqddtt
,'ff
1) Volumeof qas molecules
2) thereare ,...1Y.
intermolecular
forcesof
attraction/repulsion
between
molecules.((ailrt)
hi qh
Gasthatobeysthe gas lawsonlyat -presCures4ot^J
temperatures
ano
Conditions: at hightemperature
and lowpressure.
\-)rcal
Can kLavc ideailrl ,
\a9
J
Factors:
1) at hightemperature,
intermolecular
forces
are .......291,8."..
......( as the kineticenergyof the
moleculesis very high)
2) At lowpres$rre,the gas molecules
occupy ..lf$|l.q!!..... volufne.( as volumeoccupies
by
}ca,'
Aol?tdr!
the gas is laige)
t,{.{Ft
L1|_;
4at
'? '
Conditions: t0dtemperaturesand hiql.pressures.
o[ atfdcon y'.
Factors: ,.fr-'eq$,t*
,{o..tas
1) At low temperaturet,ii
are inlcrrt0lc t,rlar lorcrl.
"t"
2)' At hiohDressures.
the oas moleculesoccuDv
rs...2-?$...(.ryIqrbl
' u " ^"g" 'qgvrt )
Conditions
/
factorsnot to obey
gas laws
ie*-,
*ha t'm(
crannpV/RTvsp
Kg'JltlI.9JSVISgeJUi{ rcpu| 5i on
I
At highpressures,
-(ltt
moltrvlet 0
-
r,\'*,,.-[cl p{ \
itrcarr{
PV
&n,
pV/nRT
I qA!
,ideuiation -+
f-l't louJ +
-
tht
- {t(
ffiiffi.ffiffi-ffi
intcrno
ortrrurar h4!s
- thereare
4-
brtonne rrlrtthco
Tl,'t
c^{(_
Sot,aokdls
l2utl clsserl0 one aadb
*
,
,aR.f _
[cttrac*ton)
At low temperatures,
- the moleculesmoves Slodor
bf a++,qHN^
."+-
verlc/.ste
;ni-l
)rccryresrlhtit)
t4ctor
(.
intarv\oldcular$xr6
of attraction
d{epdsbn..
net aftractionforcestendto pull the gas molecules
inwardsawayfrom the wall of container.
lmpact of collisonmade by the moleculeson the wall is
smhtle(
od
exerted
is
Sglf
or
the attractiveforcespullthe moleculesnearerto each
other.So the measuredvolumeis smallerthanexpected.
- pV/nRT< 1
uJLrf al h;41npxesS"r<',fta\eqs
J
IJI
)
has
fosrtiw &,la*roa
--'lrfltr moleturrs
ortupyslnlf,ea+
-aI hr3Lyrcssu(, moreJrtcr
las
Ar< CIos< tO On< artolL,er
- Rtprtsion &c to Qkcw^ crqrd S
tlotcculrJ uccvr ( ia*ereqolerular
refulsron \
-TtliS fauK
.ttnr vOturyrc
OJ reo,f
V-r
- f fPi 2
1
tenlperature
intermolecular
fordes,the .LrzaiL(
the
deviation
(-T/.?frr:1,^,,\?rrets,
a) molecular 4ft
"ir"
size,
" The largerthe molecular
- hs g,a^qer
the van der Waals
forces, thd q46'la(
thedeviation.
{Foq
FdelnBo
cl-),+
/HLl3
t 0$/( (
'4r/ro,
the
" Thehigherthe pressure,
- Whentemperature
decreases,
the
- Whenpressureincreases, gasmolecules
m 9.Y1.
...$1.0.ry{f......
P N H s f o l a . . * Cot
r
thegasmolecules
are .9J.9i.{ Thereforetheyexeriencp
(Cl.l,+mo.t pol
more ..i.4.t9LglttV.l.S.{
.. .19.4.(.
. .9.t... . The rnorepolarthe molecule,
)
to oneanother.Hence,they
'
- the_--..i,_
Str044tr the intermolecular
forces,
Atlrag1i91l
'
experiencemore
- the
the deviation
Areaftr
.. .tttitrmptc
tt.lq{.
. ..4!.t.|4$!.%
Or (Pulsl0^ btt"tutt
MOr(
l''lHa 6sy;31s
Polarmolecules.
e.o
- nnolarvl(r.
rs
thannon-polar
molecules,
e.g L0'
co 7
Exercise:
1. Element
Y is a gasat roomconditions.
Thedensity
of Y is 1.11g dm-'ai25.0"C
and86.1kPa.
(i) Usingthe idealgasequation,
calculate
massof Y anddetermine
the relativemolecular
the identityof Y.
tY:l RT
l. o.*on,,
nr,.
f s d'
.* ,.
o,n"",,"n
o,,*"hl.H+.cnl"r,o.
,.o"""f;tt0r[]J;"';
"oir ,n"i"o;,";";
" r,",r,."
onesuchexperiment,
the arnmoniagas liberated
is driedand collected
in a 500.0cm3conlaineruntilits pressure
reaches'1
.5 x 10"Pa at 20o.C.
Calculate
theminimum,nrass
of anrmonium
chloride
neededin theexpeiiment
^::::k
i'it
r{alroI HHqcr
= a,0tr0:]x Il+t+tr)tii's]
51116s)(5u0:0x10,6)
I r'3/) (rrgilo)
':
3 . u r 1 r o 'n' , I
: l.{'S
3
(a
4. (i)Ammoniumnitrateis an explosive
compound
and it decomposes
at a hiqh
temoerature
-f".^n
'
accordingto the followingequation.Ta*-7 ) 5'C 911{t i^ tiq ,id
2NHrNOs(s)---*
(aHr9gl + 2Nz(9) + oz(g) ,__ Calculatethe totalvolumeof gases_colleiHfromthe decomposition 00glf ammoniumnitrateat 1.01x 105pa
f
and2loC.
\J
4[-Lo+ 2N) t 0a
"'fi'o'{l'r*ro}
cIii)i)ii)rJ)
:J
,f
on t^'alls A
Srr^.eifa
[r, rr^,,'rq,lr'5
-J
PrtAS*'{ rg.r.r0 b17!c\ ftl
[ . . 1 ], ] r o n r " a d r
50t
,.\.|H,l..ll,...P.q!.4I.'l\^.o|?.(yJ.q|.'Ll'.i5....1:l..'aA.,.i9.4.|33+
si1h.ii(a^t...i^trm9](.c.y!4{...f.'.t*s.'.q!...9|!rlc.+.).,4....r.t.h.l.t.ll.hY1pq9.1,,'6!F,'t3.....1.q
bc+NaaArnolc(vtcap.rrl {hc
ii rngrrsr
itunJix;;;,
""'1"
5. A realgasX behavesq!-most
likean idealgas Forn molof gasX at pressure
p, the graphof volunne
V versus
t
temperature
f is shov,,n
below.
Vollhe
Z/ce'
60.
,v'
/\
^l
P>r
,24
/'/'
40-
''dzal
it i\ an
3a\?
Lau]
t{ obzls C[no,'les'
t.t\'
,,t
a/"
\\'
a,)
6,tk+c7J, 7*L)''
-loo
Flttiunn'f-(rrrum..er$f.
w',tlna .v?,1)l....r.Yfll
fL.,.nqLq!+0n\.c..4r,$
.!:.l.g....Iro..ylf.
dz.f ,^J.a?tl
u-1y61;
ii
tt<qir;f
'
rrtn*1TtN
'-7
1.9
.: .y,v,1.(!.,
..i 1v.,.n9.F:
nRT
P\1.
i ifY'iod)
=i(t,lti)Fqt)
ici: u;b3
i: a,l1li,'!r?t
7. Ammoniais ciirectly
synthesised
from nitrogenand hydrogenby the Haberprocess.Ammoniais usedin the
manufactureof nitricacidand is alsoconvertedto nitrogenous
fertilisersto be usedin agriculture.
(a) Ammoniadoesnot exhibitan ioealbehaviouras assumetlby the kinetictheoryof gases.Explainwhy ammonia
showsthis behaviour'.[2]
Amrvtotuu
44s ho,s{*rt uotnrtre
'0""
-".l"deadf
"tt^rt"r
bufr,p!^
.W_tVg.l.:
;,"1
law. l1l
P:*q
LL
1-\.
(ci)Asampte
ofgases
.on*n=unu."1il"'\t,i,s"t
ndt)Jhanclnitrbd"en
Determine
thedensitv,
"rhlHi', of 30"Q.J3LJO3 K
of thissampleunderatnrosphe.ric_pEmfd a temperature.
R,is 6.3'lJ K'nrol-'and
pressure.
p,is-1.01'x
theatmospheric
t0t ea1
IThegasconstant,
lr.3t)(zlat-ao)
f,#Effiri{l0s
r6na14l
A.
--t. qild^-'
tffi\'
ffif"Ei-elf[_0-i!,,,
(oMPvetsl
bl( .
gasen.
__*__
__tiran
panicies
(ii;1"he
Conli4,v_oV-!-._
irttheliquidare,incor.rstant
rnGrion
Thekineticejergyof theparticles
inci'e
ases
_
Itr{Vuat'J((
witfr(iii)The pariiclesare heldtogettierh,yone of moie typesol __.jlt_ej11g(
!!lo!_ forces,butthssefoicesar:enotsti.onq
ertoughto tie thenrin fixedpcsiticn Hence,a tiq,ric,'r. .;ffii"]vwd_.4-yl
-.lq-fi_ngt-_hou(_ &jl_dg_ilgP(
(iv)The particles
canstillmcvepastoneanotf,eifre.eivTlieiefor'ea iiq;.tirj
6;-.r,
flow,can be tr-,cured
andassumesilre
the ceniair,er
.
---- ll_q!.(-___o{
L)
z,Xl#/1""1r^
*t?\
*,, 7.,rnn"q
l
'r
'P v l t vJ 5I,y,"r5
--'l
w 1 \lxwi
r o0: r 1 0O t a : l v r o c l u n
tzvlswl
1 v ) l I p tU
J0
tl
u
'
flrrorOE 7a- $\
nsllw,u. rtrd
('n,wrrl
'
OV \
io oU
4 4 ,",0c(n1
:,JlJ)
-nv'l'^ 3l+
*- E Pt't
[Dr* 110,qA
+2X l-ll?'Yrd
(?'"3,f
,rcd,trt
).,rs'azd
-Mt*
?rtan+vs
/1
/r
ilt
tft,.lOtvrl)vo)
slrn)orow
y,,.tbu
l$to.l J llnltlout
Jo ou)
\w l0 nv/
Jo't''
v/ns;il,r"'ba Ww).1
Uotl
(,r6i
1v5r,noJnn Y
@$avT,voJla ) la-t
s[,rol+uspodrn
1pr,lVSI
lo )+wI
llvoUqttnf,z
prnTu o+ z$uo1csnQnt
{+uor',nrrJrn vYL
lxvl?r {
' no.l'^ot
)Ja lrn s
'll::'Y"v7'nb11
-,''nJrn
l.,a
L*,V .ct f,1,,,00cnora9I
-rl tu','-n1
v^ocloJ
s oE l,oL,.!,\P
prnblt Ja ?'r^:saiJ'nodonT
vqt.4socl?p
I
n/
\vb < ,
j,
\ , 0t 1 | 0 w t l l n s
P\to;
ftzst irrfortanf)
ffi
Sutr'[aC(
(i) When particleson the
gainenoughenergyto overcomethe intemotec;ular
of the liquio.
forces
_
aHv4t*tuA
e1
theyv.rillEsr:ape6becorne -VaPilur patiites ,nJini. prccessis caiuJ _VgglIAt_U1_
(ii) In an opencontainer,the 6boveproiess ccntinue,s.g-r\ti!
no.___!fttd_
remairrs.But in a closed6cntained,
the
vapourparticles
aretraooedand tireywiil
- { 0llde ___ withwallsof the container.
A pressure
called
-----J!po"
exerted.
?'ess"c ol' ti4 ;e--;.is
(iii)some particles,
aftercolliding
withwailsof container
r0t(
or,-eg9h
other,vrill
. theirkineticenergtarrd
re-entertheliquid.Thisprocessis catled Condensj{19^
(iv) In the beginrring,
rateof evaporation
Vor llan
rateof condensation.
jll
Eventually,rateof evaporation
Z4
uA'li
rateof condensation
_
(
A constantand maximumvapourpressurecalled ea+w6IeA Vc+?ovr
PreSSvr
of the liquidis obtained.
A dynamic
ea , u i l t v t v { t
is achisvedbetweenthe liquidand its vaoour
vit)
I Vapourpressure
I a liquid
()
/apour pressureo
a solid
Pressureexertedby a vapourvrhen
rblJre
'i
{ stvie
Pressu
re exertecl
by a vapourwhen solld
and
V4|
- i _ uvr
- - - . - +6921151!
.---_--l In
? qvribrr,A I
Boilingpoint
no r r n a \b ' P
{h (
Nla,aal
'thu
s!ur( 0l
Thetemperature
at *n;.6 tht
Qt
,al(
+O
1)rrl
Melting
freezingpoinl
vn* ,
A moreQolat$)liquid
-76-Na( has
ta/a4kI----rnrermolecular
boilingpninthut
L,ql^r-{
!k_
forcesbetweenmclecules,so ii has
vapourpressure.
nL
.*zt-n
t A
,t+kfr+Et"t ,Pkk
i*+hluv(^'ov(
', valovr
t
vuy&'t(
Exercise:
l^'3U6.[rooool
1. vuaterandethanot
arebwosolvenisnormaily
usedin tnetaooratorf
l)rcs\vQ
a)A graphof vapourpressure
versustemperature
oJrg3j,"rgl.o.e.thanol
is shownbelow.
P'(Jrur(
uf ahcvrdl
buirinlp''^{
ly*^r
o{ N^+(r
tr-"*i'",.^{
Vapou
pressue
/atsn
( Mor
h
rAfurQ-
i) Lrefine
theterm vapoutpro""rru[, )
.....LU.,.v.+p.?!/r...re.l:Yt9.,
iL..tt^q....fr:llurf....3(119d....,hy....+...v.rpry./....f.4t
..ir r.1....e.r{.y:ti.h:y.m....
'.....,w..Jh..'..:}'i...t:t'r:'d'.'...[!r,.''f'....1lld.'..tr::r:1!'y'|!,'''iY:',f,'.t
C o r * a i , 1 p rt J
4lSg
0] wble( w,{h
v'rrl(e Qne. 16. T In',r laad t trV An ir\frca,sel4 tl''e vaPav( presSwrq
1af
'W"*trtlq?our
;neraa\i^?" * zwtfr a4vvo.
t
E"ag*ahon +
KEt
T+
b
65(\6\m
7tga5"^'r4'
.t
CTIRISLAU
4
a= b= c
{ttl
(d)Orthorhombic
(c) Tetragonal
b)Hexagonal
,.-!--a
ffi
lliilil"
ilrs,i
[.1
'V:L/'
A = O*
llllr
a=
b=
(t) Monoclinic
ar
a* bt c
4x= 4y= {z= 90o
Examples:CdSQ, PbCl.,AgNO,,
. BaCO.
a= b* c
&x= 4Y-- 4z=9Q'
ExamPles:TiOr, Sn, BaO,
b*
(gl I rrclrnrc
ax b* c
4x* LY+ 4z+9Q"
Examples:cuF?, NaHSO.,CuSO.,
4x= 4"=90";4yx9Q'
Examples: KlO,, NaHSOr, MgCl,
Cubiclattices
vdv2
l . T h c r c a r c t h r e t ' r y p e s r _ rcf u b i c l a t t i c e s .
1 a ) S i m p l ec u b i c
(b)Face-centred cubic
t { a m p l e :K C I
E x a m p t e st :? ,N a C t ,C u , A g , A u
E x a m p l e sC: s C l ,N a , F e , C r , M n
lltl
Particle at corner
oJ unit cell
Particle at s i d e
ut''it-4{,i.
P a r t i c l eoll
faie of
cell
Particle in centre
of unit cell
i Pgsition of
I narticl'e
I
Fraction of
particle per
unit cell
I
,'6
'i
I
l ' T h e t r t r m b e r o f u e a r e s te q u i d i s t a r t tp a r t i c l e so f a p a r t i c l e i n a c r y s t a l s t r u c t u r e
is termed its
't'l
tr
I
rii
............11.....y.ri:r.gu..
r,
.qy.?.pt.?.+::?.r....t?{:pe.*sl....Ls....w.qtu.
ffi#$"$ (r'ot tn s.;rtabur)
(i) ln solids,pa(iclesareheld,
together
bystroilgattraciive
for'ces
in a regular3-dimensiopal
structure
inthecrystal
cailed Crilrta\ lattice)riqaur
-16-d,ri,rcrnn
*"1
(ii)Thebasicrepeating
unitinthevstructure
of a sdtiois called
the urail gzr I
Systemswithattea@
rightangle
hexagonal
W"
ill':'ru
ffi
The_]eas!_
symmetrical
Monoclinic structure
Triclinic
ars
a*b*c
ii l:*l
{tg-l a=o*c
t'ffi"no,-,.
vi*, 2e4val 'with no
i
?auaI
IiG-ano 1
rightanglel
, ^Y j (iv)These7 unitcellsare calh
t\i
.[&lX(v) For eachof the aboveunii
Ti{\"\
r
-l
*with h0
equalangles
and J!_u_
equalsides
\-
$nt ortupy
xffi@..stq1'ta'^qi.
iI
particles
in arrunriceii
XL
1b
a.
slrnple cubic
body c(entejed
cubrc
f,a(;eceftteid cubic
(tcc)
N c p f p a r i i c l e si n a n u n i tc e l l
= /Px*)+I
\*
Thebodyand
ntredunitcells
anCthefacesof the unitcells.
6/
,1,\
r
No of particles
in an unhcell
It
\Vu"(
'
C multiprimitive
unircellsas there
,* 1"ta
centre
lfj
C'ulc,c
Ogr*,{/\
CXD:lt
( t z s r t l e t c r )p o c k e d
)
COf,P-.tr
nfW BdXL*Y)
( rnlerc atottY pr^crced
)
\ffr
rh
t4Y^Val?
I{ '
)6x-ta
t\
,, Mq.,\
.l d ? a ^ s+ '
lmf Lin rjrrabtrl)
cubics+ntdv(
E'.1 l^.q- u,,,\red
e.g graphite,diamond
O clO Na+
NaCl
face-centred
cubic
structure
face-centred
cubicstructure
.)nvm\t, r o[ grrovrtA',14 o,t
coordination
numberof Na' >6
coordination
numberof Cl-= 6
face-centred
cubic
structure
diamond
coordination
numberof
Cu atoms= 12
Eachatomhas 6 other
atomstouchingit in
eachlayer.
Svm:'v.r
htUy
( ills.- iu"'':,
Moltgitarstuct,4
Therearealso3 atoms
touchinganyparticular
atomin the layerabove
andanother3 in the
layerunderneath.
Exercise:
structureof potassiumand the cubicclose1) By usingappropriate
diagrams,discussthe hexagonalclose-packed
packedstructureof copper
' For
'fLo
tr4o+.nA
00t1e, n rr- aLat
tJl
q\rlw
+
fj{";i
-ffi:l\,:
ffiii\:
i"i"i
f-o( col)Yr
T l , a f . l l e a . l ' n qp a * f t , n " t
tt,
4-A
rf i"r;'t<'
o:;.**-.t1
r,
:'I
i_ _": tu'
itni )
fdrr
dt.[lernt structura
I
1 Allotropesare
statedue to the differentanangementof the particles.
2 essu
- eachcarbonatom undergoes
fD3
Reason:- $on
nybridisation
ingiantstructur
' eacfi carbonatom is bondedto tF
other-carboq
atoms throughstrong
2. Very hard
cantarq
bondsin
arrangement Reason: flrovl
@ral
\A a\a(\+ lW
to form diamond-type giant
Ll.arkst
MateriO\
6,Jsffitttr
coval^t
bond
3. electricalirrSvlal-0f
Reason:Att lLc I+ vavrta
- usedas
Alr"astvP\
-htqV vatoutY
tui4na *ou tt
J-
/---'
4. HlqL
--f,.
't1
*(1fr\\z
J-l
6v
refractiveindex
rl^inrl
h1ql^
5.
density
Reason:'Due
to the ClotQ
packing structure
eachcarbonatomundergoes
2 hvbridisation
r)
--SD
"
eachcarbonatombondswith
othercarbonsatomsthrouoh
covalentbondsto form
hex44onAI rings.
The hexagonal
ringsare arrangedin
layerswith
Ne alc. Va'r &, uuaa)
betweenlayers
frA4rr\nI
rtferutahL-(L^a
1. softand slippery
Reason:weakvan derWaals
be+wte
n \a1114 ailow
the laversto slide'over
eachother
2. highmeltingpoint
Reason:strong C* C bond
betweenatomswithinthe layers
(StrongerthanC-Cin
diamonddue to the delocalised
G C b o nl i , r
J,/na4
,(tOl\t{a
- usedas
-'orna/v1cn*Jeld
jxwttry
Usedas
h'of,, ilqfx76tup
lvXrtaaf ' o,,d
I
\
l r ? ' r CI i f t a r , l I ,
(mr1.lv,t
^OJ .
# ctorl/
3,oYV.4e
(arcrrfiltf
pue.- s4*ta/rr,
(-( t^:^,t
,. ,;;,H$,igilf;?r
,"';\t
,.o.,e\
i-'.;{).lc'
A**
II
I ri
I
I
;t
33S,pnr
142..Irnr
Fullerence
Ceo
EachC a(omundergoes
hybridisation
Eachcarbonatomis bondedto 3
othercarbon?!rrqs,ithe 4theectron
is delocalised'withi/
the molecule.
carbonaiomsE6 bondedtoqetf'er
by stong Covalad bo,nd to
form 12 pentagonand20 hexagon
faces.
!!'
- Usedas .
elrcodat i/)
. k,-^:t./ t' 5
goodelectricalconductor
Reason: -1- of 4 valencee of
a C atomare usedfor bonding
andeachC atomhas \
delocalised
e
4. lessdensethandiamond
Reason:layeredstructurewith
,l Crrl Lr W aal!
befuieenlayers
Usedas
superconductor
at
10-40K
catalyst
1. electricalconductorwithin
the moiecule (poorelectron
delocalisation)
Reason: Eachcarbgnatomhasone
....dq
rp,setli.(
4...?l
:..c!.9.1.....
2. lowerdensitythanpraphite&
diamonddueto its holtor^,
*iifl,';'Hi.llS"a^uo
y-++
)
3. lowmeltinoooint
Reason:
..tirlttr...r.q
l(:.y.1.q.t.....
structurewithweak
intermolecular
van derWaals
forces
\ 2 ltnta3
>or,xa1
Exercise:
1. b) (i)Withthe aidof a diagram,describethe structure
of diamondandgraphite. [4]
tr?[^]U.
A.qw
) laqert
"""""""CI""
rssl stft'
P"' T
f.;B.{ir,I1a.F.FiffiK-,8Fni$t
10.1(r)F,phasediagram
is a diagra.m
of-l211!t1e versus lenytt,{,*vn thatshowstheconditions
at which
a substance
existsas --l!!d--::\t
_ or. 77fr_(ii)A phasediagram
shov.,s
theeffects
of pressure
ancitempeieture
onthe lnlltcal s.tat(
of a substance
It enablesus to predictthe mosl
rtCr-bte
a a specifictemperature
and press;ure
_._of a givensubstance
t).
t,)
ttrl4cb)-
k: :
,rhtr t,,flurl
6buve
c^nd.prassu(
0chrttwt ;' t'-41etpera\vrt
''
'oti
!
t5
L'qbW'
t CtrqnoF l'is+inq'''is
't\ uM vu|ovr
w^w
C;z 0r oJt|u sub*anq
- 0/c:Ll
0^"rtDtr.
tr-(
( i i i )rAtyplcat
t y p i cphase
a
l
p h a s ediagram
d i a g r aot.
m oqurJn'uir,l'q;s
f e p u i e s u 6 s t ashown
n c e ias
s sberow:h o w n a s b, e-l[oLwt:.-o \,)b\ia^t!\
J
!
\
I
A
A
L
A
.--"u"
,t o[ th,e
.^o!
tl
a,l
0r't\\(tl
o,nt
1
pr"..rre/at,n'\
q1
A-1't1
An area/region=
A Ji^g{(
Phr\ld
line = the.setoftemperatures
andpressures
at which
lh? +d0 pfn',6er Co?X'.lt! i4
equ\ttbriu(v).
s.l
AM
o4S
ss(lle
\On
5:iT-*
Characteristric
;howsthe'conditions
C0
C0lld
of T & P at
atwhich
which
and
\A\eas<
showsthat an increasein temperatu
rc will
'- also
showsthatan increase
in pressurewiii inCraS(
-showstheconditions
t\I.v\d
of T & P at which
and_
- showsthatan increasein temperature
r n C q I f
will
- alsoshowsthatan increasein oressurewill i ^crzat (
-showsthe conditions
(otid
of T & P at which
and
- showsthatthe meltingpointof solid
lncral(
- is a condition
of temperature
andpressureat which ! 0ll
substance
coexistin equilibrium
- At triplepoint,thevapourpressu(e
of solid e4uT\\ +O
Criticalpoint, B
6t-6'r{(to qas,CL,.ai1r-40r'50rttr
$Ju'v'"m
temPerature
/"c J
tG+
are in equilibrium.
the vapourpressureof solid.
pointof solid.
the sublimation
Ua?0"' _are
in equilibrium.
pressure
thEvapour
of liquid.
theboilingpointof the liquid.
ti 4 vld
are in equilibrium.
pressure
withincreasinE
aa\
u
t r4hzsf Y\lkfhlw
- is the ' --_l_-T-r
at Whicha liquidcan be at equilibriumwith its
Ac,'
- is the nnaX'hurvl 4'er,nfXrA+u.{
underwhich a vapour can be [ondensed to
I Drcssr,rt{
its liouidby increasing
on;r.
icql \(4Vu6+r4
tr.'./Oua+,ta
bovpthe Lr t+ical
to form
, vapourcannotbe condensed
i4[d eventhough
pres'sure
houghhighpres'sure
is exerted.
exerted.
r.nd
r ia urJ ad
rI ri4urd
point,theliquidandvapourbecome inolis ttnqvtsLabt( L6fi st att 4
nyslcal S
physical
oillt X
((ii)
l U cchange
n a n g e Iin
np
point
state
t a l e tfrom
rom p
X tto
O Y.
Y.
It
t^d
It o'r1
'tht
y'L^tvjtt?d
t,.?r(..n
t
lovJe( density)
H,4llr density)
(l.......---=iowcr
ual\*
|
vofume
=volume
pressure favoursthe more___lg,1pd1l
An
increase
rn
|
|
lWhen
A,/hon
nraacttra
r'n^aaoao
tttitt farn,re
$:7^^-tm
pressure
rncreases,
iti t will
favour the
formationof
JCTCAS(
\oA h!\
lrrsve\. ry"r"u,athisher
\\..,-l
- ,An \AUea\Q i4
ptessa< loVOu4
lh.
th?- Mo{
Mo({{ coupatt,
c'Montt, phas-e.
,,Lr.te
|
|
phase
ture is neededto melt solid.
ccan
a nincpas('frTLit
i n c p a s ( ' { T L i l i lr!
.r',,"^["rY\|'bsWj:--TnFectlQi^P.r!!vrewlllshi{f
prnh of/'tttEcq.
+hc ilffi{ffi.'ffi,ffitrSi1trS"(ffiffirtrrtatin3
nnlttrr,^pressure
/atm
J
v
roin
f
^
t|
[]orn1
'
oFC0r.
)lrcs-svia6
,r-u*inqp.l7
Y
!-
lb0(r)
Wlit^t
'C
I ttc/t ;t
point= 0.0i
friptepoint
0.0i
0.006atm
atm tttat[
, 0.006
| Triple
thq?
J',iuY.
A,
(rnurs corryaUyL^aSt)
{v
fu
TUr,!'l
ruro'clsorrd
Solid
+rc,,rl
Vil{W
,,
:
oC l.atm
= 100
Normalb.p
b.n=
l^0p^"C..
, I atm
5o.*"1
N o r m am
l .p=0oC,1atm
\ . . / . 2l
t o a8L atm
m
l \ -Critical
r l u L ; i l r Ppoint
u l n t . - J l +374'C.
__j*-VNat* 6n
2l8l___ --\ -_]':1'9_
|
r0 rivr<
tt 4K*S
i
I
t
I.ewer
*nrr\l
->&M
4\e eqvit,ba,h^
*bov<lo +lvvrt
stcle ol a \4bs\aac,.
pr csSur l;Auadv I
r'\t/+lA7porrt t^c,t-?QBs
l+
) llenu,
fi''JJT',|i;'f*\;**..Y
'l?u'4,
[iln ig?::F,'-F&
(r,ve 0C
()'l^y^,,"
d P'ess"ea*
wl^\Lh Sotid i I i n e T v i t i b r l v * 2
r^r,tht' r 1vd,.
CD*r^
i^(reay,
cx*e,^Gl
prersvre
YLI rrzralfrnQpolnf
i/lCf@t?l
(0, (s)
-> tetcl|'v,'
&"ny
(otCO
lot;u funtl
CO,
ffi L,nufu
Lr,1<
oc stop(E
ro wlt
i\
OC srop(\ +o ri\t"d it
Toc'u5,q
*\o
lrassvre
t cLot
*o.a confac(
Natar
}tl",onsuLtMn(aJ.
.
,trf sorid
',
v'- l-lr0(s)
=
( Lr,o (s)
=r,
H,oft)
,o(!_)
LtzorL)
K a,o(s)G_->j
\*-i
\ . , ----,
orrl
_P1ts
-)
0L
line slof to
4 prctr rrrqt
h,
Linr ft
'tat ' lf)
, hlfa,tv(
r H4 atn
3 f,,n4 lt
((tonhnt(
4'6.8*"n8"+hf
X.rd,rn4,
6
u'Po
-)t
*a+.n/cu_'P'"(
_lp
-L,,strrid
,
,
tbofrF)rt,0 (t-)
)(R
i4
? " ,i
low-0,' drar,'t
t1 l 2 nu n 4
.1 abr ,
Ul,l^
/-J
G_)r1
rl
h tq u l
J/
futv' l,y
\rv1dtlpn- yolvr44
-) tqwu(
fL"K
(o*ryac4
@.
-fo,idqKb\
n7*f
-+ absorb
^ra,t,[ e-nd,.l hpo.t<
-)- J*r."'rr,;
nrlm
a V;;';'t';t
; \
-) ^r.rr4v
q Jp,t\T-:pffie*l ./
/\ tryz{
'o*,r'^^
(nurq
corvteac,tphoJB.)
')l--/
l 4 C r(,a\t i4
'
or z ttQvtd
'
fW
juro
,-1.,0
n"
il'.+<
.-)re.du4
vow/4(
Desciipiior.i
Line/ i Eqrrilibriumon
point j tne tine/ Point
irrt reaS(
- lt showsthatan inr-:rease
in iemperature
will
subli/^atiun vapourpressureof ice.
.lepDr,t,on- lt alsoshcrvsthatan increasein pressurewilt i^crcas(
pointcf ice.
sublirnaticn
tlre
r,1urJ*{ as
l- Line
loc
[,ft+z
l-lowtC zxprorn?
Water
t4v,
hi4her density)
6q
ice
?-+
(
(M\htlef voiume
torniltir.,or hrldoqe,nbo,^d
JL
An increasein pressurefav.ours
the morecompactphase]ie the \
I i 4 ui d Watcr Hence,at higherpressure,a
formationot
is neecjedto melt ice.
lovla{ -- temperature
Qn
Met+i40
T',a.]-"
,rtr,I
ryqu6(
Ar',fip>k1l
Line
(oriJ
+ r,lviA
\JU
I
Pcint
Sorld
e tr11uid
? 3o'
+--I PointI
- is the
lBl
iiluidftar
underwhich water
vapourcan be cohCensed
to fuate;-
Crfiiral
rnt
;oc;
- lt shorvstneterrperatui"e
at v,,hich J0lU ica
existin eouilibi'ium
at 1 atm
lrtqr'd?v'1",
i
- it shovrsthetempera',ure
at wrrichthe
of waterequals 1 atm.
and
lr!v\l
wa171
)rt\W(L
rf'
v
l -l
"O
As4a4c'/(0,
@-"
(vhpn
\-,
pr(ss,r, iAcr(asq ie
,
wt,lt,tj
trr*Q f)
/<\
( o l4ruu
\J
i\
;rhr
S-tabl
( physrcaI J*a4r
oI
tiTvd l,,Ja\9(
11col sta4q of
)r^')
u4-b,tL
t^
t\
'tr\^L
H.O
Ml/)"imv4
3^:
prtJ\vr^q to
f"rn,..rq
at voort
(o,
"4
un^Yr'
.o,r-44
co,d,/,v
tIX"tJ CU ?\
^
b,(au
z--
onfl"f ,n
I
T r i p l e p o i n t =- 5 7 o C , 5 . 1a t m
Criticalpoint:3loc , 73 atm
pt.= - 78oC,I atm
Normalsublimation
Pressure
/ atm
I
73
5.1
tI - - - - - - - - liquid ./
solid
1.0
/ oC
Temperature
porn{
Line/
point
Line
Equilibrium
on
the line/point
Solidl)Oas
Line
Liquid!gas
Nameof the
process/point
Description
Line
Solid<:liquid
melting
I
I
inCreqr(
v4i6
liquidCO2
(
PN Lr density)
hi r,lhrr
volume
---.----J-
An increaspin pressure
favoursthe morecompactphase,ie theformation
htatttrr
of l0l'rd C0i
Hence,at higherpressure,'a
'Lri:-'I
(tr*tomettsotiodor.'
?lzO
f
Point
p
Solid
liquidQgas
Triple
points
rittrrd and
At thispoint, (otid
arein equilibrium.
3q\
- At thispoint,thevapourpressure
of solidCOz
j I ?4ua t
uapourpressure
of liquidCO2.
Critical
point
I . ^t
hi0ltact{ ter,npcrattr(
- rsthe
underwhich CO2vapourcanbe
'
condensed
to liquidCOr.
- Abovethe
Crl+\Ca\+2$Drr4tur{ CO2 vapourcannotbe condensed
to formliquidCO2eventhou$hhighpressureis exerted.
- Abovecriticalpoint,the liquidCO2 andCO2vapourbecome
i ndis{in4yisln
a b l{
Poiat
liquidfgas
Point
E
solid$jar
l0l\
dt tu
existin
tb
-l
'f
rt"1t-')turzl'
+N!o()6u'+7'*
f-ttP*o"o;'
vl assa/o\
z'tot) -,,no^q' flY)sKn^d
?wn\or\ rl\b\ls tl
e<llqdfilwt^t(t v*"v))
fu"^'rf qq'
(rt gc,14
+
(.,0.I4
Z&q
'0o)41t yvp) funy,* ql- vt a@"xtrtf llr'? -nqq'n^Ju{
"('laai:Ntf'
Cl-ri{l:, i..AlJ
'l'riple
poirrtof CO? (--1 atm, - 57oC) lies atrovethe atmospheric
1.
pressure.So COzS.Y.bllf.(.:..
at roomconditions.
oCand P > ...5-:.1...
LiquidCOecannotexistat the pressureiessthan5.1atrn.LiquidCO2existat t t :.5-..J..
atm (tn Pl9..
fon\ )
I{XWJCs'-?'ttst ^+ T>-51"c
f--. Usei as ref&er
Reason:li willnotmeltandwetthefoodstuffs
whenit sublimes
i
I
2. Usedin fireextinguishable
Explanation:In a fire extinquisher,
partiattiquefaction
of CO2occurs.COz(g) ->
CO2(l)
Whenpressureis released,the liquidCO2absorbsheatfromthe surrounCings
and vapoursiedcausingwatervapour
in the air to condenseto form mist
i 3. Usedfor cloudlRpjing to inducerainfall
Explanation:WheriCO2is sprayedintothe clouds,it absorbsheatin the cloudand undergoes
sublimation.
This
I
of the cloudand causesthe watervapourto condense
( \eoct absorteol.).
I lowersthe temperature
andfallsas rain.
I
industry
| 4. Usedto makefog in entertainment
Explanation:Sublimation
of dry ice absorbsheatfrom surrounding.
Thiscausesthe nearbywatervapour/ moisture
to condenseandforma thickwhitefoo.
Exercise:
1, Thetablebelowliststhe temperature
and pressure
for thecriticalpointandthetriplepointof a substance
X
r#/iilaiil; ib-d-'
CriticalPoint
31
Triplepoint
-57
Pressure/ atm
't,).
su[!!mesat-79!rnderatmospherepreSsuie'tnerreezing@
10 atm in oressure.\)lt?y
(a) Basedon the information
givenabcve,sketchthe phasediagramof X. [a]
t -'6tG
t \dt{'^)
tO*
$;.b\'nno&'o'^
,5
5
I
- tt
:il,,dJ,q,J
(n)cetct
latetn.ft*inlloin!"(!l'i 'c
nMJ,oar,nl-' ,"r-
| (_ 1 )
.s.
.!--r".l = -+3"c/
5 a+rq
tiatn
?'t
(-ti.-<'io*.i-b7 L
to at ^/1-+ 2-o c\rJ
r/;
i;crr^*Xf;'W'
'**f..;
-43"c
*51ocl-J"c
+).
!1
'
,./
'Y
:'
,ruiry
(c) Exprain
pointofX increases
thefreezing
withpiessurqG{'
\ ., f ,'t
--t,:#p,lut
a,,,n
;;:;;;; :
[ fl, nl;"rt-r,,]ni[
iijj "i ffir Fr,,'q.r1l
,/ | c\'.
ts
----------1-l-'-1.-s:A-\*- )--- ----ykt---fr9s-i!4rc--dtrgsrl-s--.-:-t-'-lcq-v!'-i---lk---119r-q-l-s$B-qt--?I1!g-t
;;;;
(i)
?> 5 ^+tY]'
a>_sl'c
u e e J h \ re.[.rqz,an{ t\,
lreez( tl.(
{od
svcJ..a\
\c(-cr<avv't
Liquid
Pressure/
atm
-78
TemperaturooC
- '-
]ffi;,,-*,"ffi-'*t;qid,"I;;,i
..1..........7.r:
phasediagram
for carbondioxide.[3]
OCI"i"n ahO.taU-ei'tne
I .
-51+
'2
-Jl
r rrre
7 Itr'rpc 6rl
f,L
i8
..........I?rs.
r:vf.q.
.) .s:t.r.
rt.n.......7nPy.:
.t!.y;.:.
.)..-.:.|...t.: .9.
wherr 0reg,ure I S rrtCrQGSQdfl1(
c1A\ molecul(\
......Lrlsne.le,fyl,?.{..,..Yh
...M....yjgt|1....{,.rs....h.rv.mes....:LTrgr(*.0.ys.{e.rl...9.f..
!:r:rqf::1rgs-d6i;;t,;il;J-r
r;-i,rqiilitD::-: ::: :::: : :, : -
qa\
i\
tt"\Wra\vr(
. i:*1.':l...
W.ngr
...yt3e.yr..
..tr.jl:...?r:
. 1:.ri6:r:....J.t...t:r..*3
,
(ii)A fi69extinguisher
cylinder
hasan internal
volumeof 2.00dm"andcontains
1.80kg of carbondioxide.
Calculate
th. pt"Srrreoicarbondioxideoas in the cvlinderat ZS.6uCltSt
r r V : nR T
_(frfrffi
rt,rqrier)
rri':(l:::ii,;I
?-_S DtxrO'?a ta st)
-f\qn *hu
'|
'
'
:qlrndtr
ertgL.g!:...*!!
.01.i.r.........
' "
;;liia;ii;a'
+thcE
Fp;;+"s
gell#ifi 0 non-uqatll(,r
solvr'rt fiO
solvr'rt
Iti6ttifd;piiiFirfiE$jqfF$Slv-Ffit
non-uqatll( solutt
ffii,$F,fj,
-) loryrion/
is ^ ;;;;;-
;f" ;il;
ii$E$Ffr.fF,6-lvtrit
Pu'd
- -^ P.u'd
J
'F$tlp'oprfrits',?'survrn+
S
t &' nr"rrtz. Of Pa,+icle
properties
areproperties
tnatCepenJo-n'V
on frr,ruuntOI Sot*/+
1 colligative
of non-volatiie
solutein solution
butnotthenature
of thesolute)
yegg6 molzw[(
.\,
c c,.I
3 ua1,l'"
for cxarvrPltqlvtol(
I "art"o\c
tv l(
( t-tTtLfuVvapoar
6\
e$,9)
pvrQ solvcpf
L. volriiir selvc:nl
L3 ,JatL{
Wrt l"
.p.v.t. Folvont
I ricn'"'-t.ii;?i'";5ta,tr,r(
sorvt(
\ ! h e n a n o n - v o l a t r lseo l u l ei s a d o e ot c a s c l v e n l ,t h e v a p o u rp . r . s s u er er e r i e d b y t h e s o l u t i o ni s
v a p o L !pr r e s s u | ec f t n e ; : u I es c l V e n e
t t t h e s a m el s n . i p e r a t u r e .
l0Wcr
t h a nt h e
Fa ' Fl'
p
u
t
e
I
n
[.,eascn:
s O l v el i l . s r i v e r i l i r a St i r e w n o l e s u ! ' l a c e{ c r e ' , , a i : c r t a t l 1
cn
coccur.
f i c r ' ; e v e r ,i n s o l u i r c n .p a n 0 1 t h e s u i a c e i s q 6 6 . r - r p i bd. . ' t h e n o r r - v c l a t i i es < l.u l e o a r t ; c l e s .H e n c e , l e s s s o l v e n t p a n i c i e s
(ar',
;'Sc
unce
e!,i:rrii:ii(:-ri.
( $vapourtn L*W -'F*fr,lO.to.rldr)
.fl
P1\1 ?-A
r_
i':1'
t\0 Ma{t((
u)hc,,ttt c prupcrtia
r oI
llrt
s ^ v l , Qt 4 o o l
p
llaAttlL\
Colli
3atrv( frofcr{ru-r,
"nol
\-l
5A4t
ol atuonol
A0
r / o u ro A d \ 4
l , ^ nt0 o I K r j 0 :
\'--
l043 a\
s o l u r t cI A i
t--+
r \--./
L)
r '/T
wotP,
lar/{tnQ
p 0tnf
rll
--: / t7l
fi
t2l J
hnu
Nw
1t ig
Aoq.vov,ftlt,
crwn rdotde
)A
.$R
PrealR
!-lr 0 wrolec.rlesaftla
[ h a - A t u c z | <#
tt {te sot'urhon&crzotY'
v,',Xh
ercr!\)w,ll
vapo(st
, r_zsS ,rro,lrfI^o/crca
l4s Ca4
6#v^
$ on"er.*.<+on
t+-
qi-tcos,ef2
s.r.[oce,
& t &fi,b,,t,orxM:glJ
" Y \rU
\u"-a ,
Cl,a"qt to
va
Ydv,r
(ort ttuuo^
CoavrtlrafuJ / . , - -
bph
lhY
.lrt
ifc"npua+
lr
0
7 ' u c P t cs o r u fy) 4
( v ), frfft, borrrn3
por,n.t
?b
\6:1
S"tr,t
f
t,tu It
xoLJ*a'1t'
Fti$:fi
,flTp-4;trd*fliffi
ffiffi"ffi3i
@ g1vatlo.noI borlln3p,rint
t bpt)
hRon
lor'o
sf ssfr r er r t
-) rntrturP
* SoS."
Fsolr"en r
P^= XnPi
ts
6h sol*feusrd
t'non
in llnct+r4lTorat/
@ durrre,se
J
F,eern1 poin't
re
$+r
pf eSS:|-l re
lnrr<,rrl ng:
.Hs.eturisr.l
.g
-".t\qt\e rft?'aStrse)a
)
vayour
Pr($vr?
ret't'lpre rE r'Lrre
,v"i|l
Thevapourpressureof a solutioncorrtaining
a non-volatile
soluteis givenby Raoult'sLaw:
Pe= Xe Peo Pa= v?poufpressure
of solution,Xn= ffiolefractionof A= na.i(na+ 6";
Poo = vapourpressure
cf puresolvent
A=solvent,B=tlealqe
/-^
Eg. Thevapourpressureof waterat 298 K is {f z f pa) Calculate
thevapourpressureof a soluticncontainin(50 e}
\-:'/
glucose( C6H12O6
) in 100g of waierat 298 K.
0.
100
It
I
ltlapot p;rssure of
O"r= s,rlverr:
jU"
g
g
H
IoT"l
t r+-------l'-
(-i
iiru+iun
x 3.r-l
6,30
T'J6
-- 2 8l KPa
cltucotQ
, P.o*
29'ffiY
A<
/
't
:', (11r7?4
6
h
{ P,,J^r,,
P ,o+r, - .{ walt r
'i^ boirin3
(lncreas?
lo,nt)
rucoSL
I
zto*5
I s*tll,T'
i OIUQOiT
P
ou.l
Pot.t
boir.uthi,l\r;
J/
tl
iltrr,ncn-vclatire
soluieoissoi.i{.rei
iirf:'sil,;snr.tnen
4ltt:1": ^i| , t uq ol ,atbt
PJ:|" t'irpa|v. bj'
ti'ieincrease
in bcilingpolnt=-aFt panicles/
it:nsprmototciissociation
x ebultioscopic
v J'
(e - gt r e i n c : i e a s e i n b o i h n g p c i nvt' o, 'ia t ewrl i e r :i ! i ' : c ic 1l l i C l i s c i s s c i v e i i n v y a i e r = ( 2 x""n3,tuili3
C.52i'C
llrrClir) i
l ' j a - ( i , c ).
Ci (ac)l
/t .:
->
2v"c
o-5) "c
7\
*"(t
"05).Lq
frr,.0/
,,,,'l'Y,;::;;...W.4.:t&.(.....:-..,
'150
Xr(ro(4
,,,.,,,...,,.ffiffi,
q"
p.
l5ncrtrnJ
UeLreas<In f.
V-4Por
'1.1 p-ilrePrErcs[rE
solvsnt
of
[-
.'A''r,
f{+f
,t
S clvent
frea:airiB
Pollrt
-,r.
'ft
tI
S olution
free:ei:rq
wapor pessure
of tlr solrrticrn
rrrpcrd
Luc
('\C)
- Thecryoscopic
soluteis
constantis the depression
of freezingpointof a solvenirvhen1 molof a non-vclatile
in 1 kg of the solverrt.
dissolved
Eg the cryoscopic
constantof wateris 1.86 oCmofl kg-l
v*
Exercise:
'i2.6g of gluccs
the freezingpoirrtof a solutioncontaining
Calculate
[u1 oi*.oruud
in 150g of water.
r,(c7,nA
..
P0.,41 .
r-
r, tlr'Ur
tf -U<trl
_0.{1"a
I ntnr
?
-.;L
L
Boilirrg p*ini
i'rf s:r'rltrtir:n
-rl
.,:I
Exercise:
1 (a) Gluccseis completelymisciblewithwater.
(e4a/1999)
(i) Sketcha labeledvapourpfessurFi-temperature
graphfor pufewaterand aqueousglucoseon the samea>:is.
?r"xsrt. (atnn;
?A'o -
V<pour puA5t'rrrI
Pu'r
lzC
- V*t*
U "Ii.rm,
?.+oo
Pf\{^sul
r,rtp06
(ii) Basedon the diagramyou havedrawnin (i) above,explainEnltativelythe effecton the vapourpressureand
the boilingpointof waterwhenglucoseis dissolved
intoits'componei-iE:--
.$rnc..gf..1P..H*{..S*.q+!*.....qn..#.f...g1dqg...*.1dS..6,'*
-vupoun'sa{r-o.1..3.$111....np
1le.e!!nisn..
.e+...v:ps:...s*t"\e.....r$
"*\1t."t...*.$*:ir
HH:.r*Lr
3y.3..s:.p.
Add't1e1
* 3t*rx3 * 31*: i lyr.ry.ll sS:*:prys*r#{fd u*+tr uarc{s
...pgr.t....:f
:lg :*qg
"8 th,
sg!*tanls occuu'eol
ql.rcqse
nolecale.
bLrnon-votarite
r,uillqleo
Pour molet^^lea
relwn 4o
r/agour preLsarc *o b (or,^)Or.
""'r""""'t'
4 q!*psP,
'
u"""""
(iii
G\,rcry td
"rqfer
@ul
Sif(Pte
?LtSttryr
;'du+,ilq6.
/ ,:-