Basic

Astrophysics

Dave Lommen
Hwa Chong Institution

January 2016

Outline
Celestial Mechanics
Electromagnetic Theory
and Quantum Physics
Thermodynamics
Spectroscopy and
Atomic Physics
Nuclear Physics

Celestial Mechanics
Newtons laws of
gravitation
Keplers laws for
circular and noncircular orbits
Roche limit
Barycentre
2-body problem
Lagrange points

Physics: Dynamics

Note that force and acceleration are always linked

Physics: Dynamics
1. The rotational principle of
inertia: in absence of a net
applied torque, the angular
velocity is unchanged
2. = I
where = net torque,
I = moment of inertia,
= rotational acceleration
3. For every applied torque,
there is an equal and
opposite reaction torque
in N m, I in kg m2, in rad s-2

For uniform sphere of radius R and mass M, I = 0.4 M R2 (ToC)

Physics: Energy

Of particular importance is the conversion of kinetic

energy to gravitational potential energy and vice versa
This happens continuously for objects in an elliptic
orbit, e.g., planets in orbit around the Sun
Remember: kinetic energy KE is given by KE = m v2

Physics: Circular Motion

Special case: speed v is constant, so KE is constant!

Centripetal acceleration ac is to the centre of the circle
r = radius of the circle
v = (tangential) speed

= angular speed, v = r
T = the period (for one revolution)

Fc = m v2 / r = m 2 r
a c = v 2 / r = 2 r
v=2r/T

Newtons laws of gravitation

F = force between the objects

G = gravitational constant

Gravitational force
Fg = G M m / r2
Gravitational acceleration
g = G M / r2
Gravitational potential
=-GM/r
Potential energy
GPE = - G M m / r

M, m = masses of the objects

r = distance between objects

Recall Newtons third law:
force works both ways!

Hence,

g = Fg / m
= GPE / m

Newtons laws of gravitation

Remember, from Newtons
second law, that force and
acceleration are always linked
Particularly, weight = mass x
gravitational acceleration
Since g is fixed close to a
planets surface: larger mass,
larger gravitational force!
By Saffron Blaze (Own
work) [CC BY-SA 3.0
(http://creativecommons.or
g/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via
Wikimedia Commons

Calculate the gravitational acceleration g, using

G = 6.6726 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2
MEarth = 5.9736 x 1024 kg
REarth = 6.3708 x 106 m
At what altitude does the gravitational
acceleration differ by 1% from this value?

Newtons laws of gravitation

1.

If the escape velocity from a solar-mass objects surface is equal to

the speed of light, what would be its radius? (Chapter 5.1, question 6;
I10 T02 A)

1. At the edge of the black hole, the escape velocity is c

Type equation here.

Total energy = 0
Kinetic energy = - gravitational potential energy
m c2 = G M m / r
c2 = G M / r
c = 299,792,458 m s-1
G = 6.6726 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2
M = 1 Msun = 1.9891 x 1030 kg
r = rS = 2953.5 m

Mathematics: Ellipses
Ellipses are like
stretched circles
Defined by major axis
and minor axis
The semi-major axis is
denoted by a
The semi-minor axis is
The eccentricity e = f/a of an
denoted by b
ellipse tells us how elongated it is
The linear eccentricity f
A circle is an ellipse with
eccentricity e = 0
is focal point to centre
The area Aellipse enclosed by an
f is given by f2 = a2 b2
ellipse is Aellipse = a b

Keplers laws for circular

and non-circular motion

A.
B.
C.

The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci
A line segment joining the planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas
during equal intervals of time
The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube
of the semi-major axis of its orbit (see next slide)
The point closest to the Sun is the perihelion; that furthest is the aphelion

Similarly: periastron and apastron (other stars); perigee and apogee (Earth)

Keplers laws for circular

and non-circular motion
C.

The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube

of the semi-major axis of its orbit

This holds for every planet, dwarf planet, asteroid and comet.
All of them will lie on the same line in this graph.

Keplers laws for circular

and non-circular motion
1.
2.

A Sun-orbiting periodic comet is farthest from the Sun at 31.5 AU and

closest to the Sun at 0.5 AU. What is the orbital period of this comet?
For the comet in Question 1 above, what is the area (in square AU per
year) swept by the line joining the comet and the Sun?

1. The major axis is 31.5 + 0.5 = 32.0 AU.

Hence, the semimajor axis is 32.0 / 2 = 16.0 AU.

We use Keplers third law and compare to the Earth (a = 1 AU; T = 1 year)
T2 ~ a3 T = a3/2 = 16.03/2 = 64.0 years.
2. Recall that the area of an ellipse is given by Aellipse = a b.
The linear eccentricity f = 16.0 0.5 = 15.5 AU.
Since f2 = a2 b2, the semiminor axis b = 3.9686 AU.
Hence, the area of the ellipse is a b = (16.0) (3.9686) = 199.48 AU2.
Thus, the area swept by the line joining the comet and the Sun is
199.45 / 64.0 = 3.12 square AU per year.

Astronomy: Orbits
Elliptic orbits have
e < 1 and TE < 0
Hyperbolic orbits have
e > 1 and TE > 0
Borderline case:
Parabolic orbits have
e = 1 and TE = 0
Correspondingly,
escape velocity when
TE = 0 KE = - GPE
m v2 = G M m / r
vesc = (2 G M / r)1/2

Astronomy: Orbits
8.

On 9 March 2011, the Voyager probe was 116.406 AU from the Sun
and moving at 17.062 km s-1. Determine the type of orbit the probe is
on:
(a) elliptical, (b) parabolic or (c) hyperbolic.

8. We calculate the kinetic energy KE and gravitational potential energy GPE

of the probe in SI units with respect to the Sun.
KE = mVoy v2 = mVoy (17.062 x 103)2 = 145,556,922 mVoy.
GPE = - G MSun mVoy / r = - 7,621,575 mVoy.
Since KE + GPE > 0, the probe is on a hyperbolic orbit.

Roche limit
The closest approach a moon can have to a planet
without falling apart is called the Roche limit
When we only consider gravitational influences, we
can estimate this Roche limit with the expression
aR 2.456 RP (P/S)1/3
where
RP = the planets radius
P = the planets density
S = the satellites density
Note the neat approximation: if planet and satellite
have the same density, aR 2.5 RP

Orbits: barycentre
Fg = Fc (for both!)
GM1M2/r2 = M12r1
GM1M2/r2 = M22r2
(where r1 + r2 = r)
M12r1 = M22r2
M1/M2 = r2/r1

For a two-body system, the two objects strictly orbit

their joint centre of mass (the barycentre)
The period and orbital speed are the same for both
Hence, the distance between them is fixed

Orbits: barycentre

"Orbit1" by
User:Zhatt

"Orbit2" by
User:Zhatt

"Orbit3" by
User:Zhatt

"Orbit5" by User:Zhatt

"Orbit4" by
User:Zhatt

Orbits: barycentre

"Solar system barycenter" by Solarsystembarycenter.gif

In the solar system, bodies orbit their joint barycentre

As all the periods are different, orbits become chaotic

2-body problem
The barycentre is one of the foci of the elliptical orbit
of each body
For a 2-body system, the barycentre does not move
The distance from body 1 is given by
r1 = a [m2 / (m1 + m2)] = a / [1 + m1/m2]
where
r1 is the distance from body 1 to the barycentre
a is the distance between the two centres of the
two bodies
m1 and m2 are the masses of the two bodies
By symmetry, r2 = a [m1 / (m2 + m1)] = a / [1 + m2/m1]

2-body problem
The Earth-Moon system:
The barycentre lies 4,670 km from the Earths
centre, i.e., within the Earths radius
The Earth shows a wobble
The Pluto-Charon system:
The barycentre lies 2,110 km from Plutos centre,
i.e. outside Plutos radius
Pluto and Charon can be seen as a double dwarf
planet
The Sun-Jupiter system:
The barycentre lies just outside the Suns surface
ignoring the influence of all other planets

Orbits: Lagrangian points

We can also consider a three-body system
This cannot be solved analytically (quintic function)
There are five stable solutions

Orbits: Lagrangian points

The Lagrangian points are inherently unstable
Orbits using little or no fuel exist near L1, L2 and L3
Stable orbits around the L4 and L5 points do exist

Orbits: Lagrangian points

E.g. Sun and Earth form potential wells
Sun-L4-Earth and Sun-L5-Earth: equilateral triangles
The lines in the figure below are equipotential lines

Electromagnetic Theory and

Quantum Physics
Electromagnetic
spectrum
Radiation laws
Blackbody radiation

Electromagnetic spectrum

f = c / , so longer wavelength means lower frequency

Distinction between gamma/X and IR/radio arbitrary
Visible light from about 390 (violet) to 700 (red) nm
In terms of frequency, corresponds to 430-790 THz

Blackbody radiation

Black body emits (and absorbs) most efficiently

Blackbody radiation

Stars are black bodies to a decent approximation

Effective temperature is equivalent black-body temp.

Blackbody radiation
Some Blackbody Temperatures
Region

Wavelength
(centimeters)

Energy
(eV)

Blackbody
Temperature
(K)

Radio

> 10

< 10-5

< 0.03

Microwave

10 - 0.01

10-5 - 0.01

0.03 - 30

Infrared

0.01 - 7 x 10-5

0.01 - 2

30 - 4100

Visible

7 x 10-5 - 4 x 10-5

2-3

4100 - 7300

Ultraviolet

4 x 10-5 - 10-7

3 - 103

7300 - 3 x 106

X-Rays

10-7 - 10-9

103 - 105

3 x 106 - 3 x 108

Gamma Rays

< 10-9

> 105

> 3 x 108

Radiation laws

Stefan-Boltzmann law: E = T4, = 5.67 x 10-8 (SI)

Wiens displacement law: max T = 2.898 x 10-3 m K
For Sun, T 5778 K, max is in the green!

Radiation laws
1.

At what wavelength does a star with a surface temperature of 4000 K

emit most intensely? (Chapter 5.2, question 1; I07 T08 A)

1. T = 4000 K
Wiens displacement law: max T = 2.898 x 10-3 m K

max (2.898 x 109-3) / (4000) = 7.24 x 10-7 m = 720 nm

Thermodynamics
Thermodynamic
equilibrium
Ideal gas
Energy transfer

Ideal gas
A gas which obeys the Equation of State
for the Ideal Gas at all values of
pressure, volume and temperature.

PV = nRT

PV = NkT

P : pressure of gas
V : volume occupied by gas
T : thermodynamic temperature
n : amount of gas in terms of number of moles
R : Universal Gas constant
N : amount of gas in terms of number of molecules
k : Boltzmanns constant

Thermodynamic equilibrium

Two systems are said to be in thermodynamic

equilibrium if there is no net transfer of thermal
energy between them
If two systems that are in thermal contact have
different temperatures, there will be a net flow of
thermal energy from the hottest to the coldest
Hence, two systems that are in thermodynamic
equilibrium will have the same temperature
Interstellar clouds can be thought to be in equilibrium
Stars are obviously not in equilibrium: there would be
no temperature gradient to bring the energy out
We usually assume stars are in local thermal
equilibrium

Energy transfer
Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy through
space by electromagnetic radiation
Energy is transferred by photons

Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy from one

substance to another or within a substance
It is caused by atoms (or molecules) bumping into each
other and transferring some of their kinetic energy

Convection is the transfer of thermal energy in a fluid

Hot bubbles rise and lose their thermal energy; cool
bubbles sink and may again gain thermal energy

In the Sun, radiation in centre, convection outside

For more massive stars, it is the other way around

Spectroscopy and Atomic

Physics

Absorption
Emission
Scattering
Spectra of celestial
objects
Doppler effect
Line formations
Continuum spectra
Splitting and broadening
of spectral lines
Polarisation

Continuous Spectrum

Light from a source can be unravelled in its colours

by passing it through a prism or a grating
Every black body with a temperature > zero will
produce a continuous spectrum
The wavelengths at which most of the energy is
emitted depends on the sources temperature
http://phet.colorado.edu/sims/blackbody-spectrum/blackbody-spectrum_en.html

Emission
Gases only radiate at specific wavelengths

Line formations
The lowest energy state
is called the ground state
All other energy states
are called excited states
Excited states are
unstable
Electrons gain energy,
e.g., from a photon
They jump to a higher
energy state: excitation
The reverse process is
called de-excitation

Line formations
De-excitation is coupled with release of a photon
The energy of the photon released is given by

Ephoton= hf = Ei - Ef

photon= ch/(Ei - Ef)

Ei: initial energy state, Ef: final energy state

Absorption

An absorption spectrum is produced when a

transparent and relatively cool gas absorbs light
It appears as a series of black lines superimposed
on the continuous spectrum
The black lines correspond to the composition of
the chemical elements in the intervening gas

Absorption

Scattering
In astronomy, the scattering of photons off small
particles may be important
Long wavelength get scattered less than short
wavelengths
Picture the photons jumping over the smaller particles

E.g., blue light coming from the Sun is scattered in all

directions, which is why the sky looks blue
Red light gets hardly scattered at all, which is why the
sky is red in the direction of the Sun at sunrise or dusk

Spectra of celestial objects

Stars show an approximate blackbody with many
absorption lines (Fraunhofer lines) superimposed
The absorption lines show the elements in the
atmosphere and give the spectral type (see A.2.4)

Broadening of spectral lines

As stars are rotating, parts of the star is receding,
while other parts are approaching
A combination of redshift and blueshift causes a
broadening of spectral lines

By Ale Toovsk (Own work) [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html), CC-BY-SA3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/) or CC BY-SA 2.5-2.0-1.0
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5-2.0-1.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

Splitting of spectral lines

If we observe a spectroscopic binary (see A.2.5), we
observe the spectra of both stars interposed
The various spectral lines appear split

By Primefac (Own work) [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html) or CC BY 3.0

(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

Magnetic fields also cause splitting of spectral lines

Spectra of celestial objects

The spectra of comets (see A.2.3) consist of a
reflected solar spectrum from the dusty clouds
surrounding the comet, as well as emission lines from
gaseous atoms and molecules excited to fluorescence

Nuclear Physics
Basic concepts
including structure of
atom
Mass defect and
binding energy
Radio activity
Neutrinos (Q)

Structure of atom
Atoms consist of electrons surrounding a nucleus that
contains protons and neutrons
Neutrons are neutral, protons have a relative charge
of +1 and electrons have a relative charge of -1
The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic
number

Mass defect and binding energy

Energy production is thanks to Einstein
m is the mass defect, m; c is the speed of light
E.g. 1 helium-4 atom is lighter than 4 protons

Energy unit: MeV = 106 eV = 1.6 x 10-13 J

"Angle of view" by Dicklyon

Mass defect and binding energy

Nuclei can combine
together and form more
massive nuclei
An example is the fusion
of two protons to form
deuterium
By conservation of
charge and momentum,
a positron and neutrino
are emitted
We have that
mD + me 2 mp + mc2

Mass defect and binding energy

Binding energy is the energy that would be required to
disassemble the nucleus into its component parts

Mass defect and binding energy

Fusion reactions cannot occur spontaneously: we
have to overcome the Coulomb repulsion
If we put in enough energy (e.g., in the centre of a
star), fusion may still occur
The mass defect mc2 is released as energy (e.g.,
radiation and/or kinetic energy of the new atom)
Fission reactions may occurs spontaneously, as the
result is more stable than the reactants

Radioactivity
Radioactive decay, also known as nuclear
decay or radioactivity, is the process by which
a nucleus of an unstable atom loses energy by
emitting radiation
In the case of decay, an alpha particle (helium
nucleus, A = 4, Z = 2) is emitted from a nucleus
In the case of - decay, an electron and electron
antineutrino are emitted from a nucleus
In the case of + decay, a positron and electron
neutrino are emitted from a nucleus
In the case of decay, an excited nucleus releases a
high-energy photon (ray) upon de-excitation

Basic
Astrophysics

Questions?