Flow Assisted Corrosion

Flow Assisted Corrosion In Pipes 2016
1. Review of Literature:
Many researchers have carried out both experimental and numerical modeling of the
erosion-corrosion of mitre bends, elbows, tees and related geometries Since the early 1990s,
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has been widely used for corrosion prediction in curved
pipes and ducts, with various analytical, semi-empirical and empirical models have been
developed. This provided a critical review of some of the corrosion models that had been
developed.
In 2000, R.B. Dooley publish paper in International Journal of Pressure Vessels and
Piping, Vol. 77, No. 2-3, as Flow-accelerated corrosion of pressure vessels in fossil plant. This
paper provides a sprinkling of that knowledge with particular emphasis for fossil and industrial
plants and Substantial progress has been made towards understanding the mechanism and in
preventing FAC.
In 2014, Vivekanand Kain publish paper in Procedia Engineering 86 ,576 588, as
Flow Accelerated Corrosion: Forms, Mechanisms and Case Studies. Flow accelerated
corrosion (FAC) is distinct from erosion and is primarily an electrochemical corrosion process
aided by chemical dissolution and mass transfer. The forms of erosion including single and dual
phase FAC and liquid droplet impingement are discussed and differentiated. The reasons for a
maxima being observed in FAC rates at 150-170 C has been explained as well as high FAC
rates owing to an inversion in solubility occurring with pH occurring at temperatures around 300
C. FAC control measures are discussed.
In 2015, Krishnan Balasubramaniam, K. Sathish Kumar both publish paper in Journal of
Pressure Vessel Technology, Vol. 137/ 061409-1, as Simulations and Experiments for the
Detection of Flow-Assisted Corrosion in Pipes in this work, the use of the fundamental torsional
mode ultrasonic guided wave to detect FAC was investigated using the finite element
method (FEM) simulations and that were validated with experiments.
In 2012, John M. PIETRALIK publish paper on The Role of Flow in Flow-Accelerated
Corrosion under Nuclear Power Plant Conditions as E-Journal of Advanced Maintenance Vol.4
No.2 63-78, Japan Society of Maintenology a mechanistic model of flow-accelerated corrosion
(FAC), one of the steps affecting the FAC rate is the mass transfer of ferrous ions from the
oxide-water interface to the bulk of the flowing water. The role of geometry, surface roughness,
wall shear stress, upstream turbulence, and locally generated turbulence is discussed. An
example of computational fluid dynamics calculations and plant artifact measurements for shortradius and long-radius bends are presented.
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2. Introduction:
Corrosion can be viewed as a universal phenomenon, omnipresent and omnipotent. It is
there everywhere, air, water, soil and in every environment, we encounter. There is no single
figure for loss to the nation due to corrosion. It can be a minimum of 4% of the nations GDP.
Losses due to corrosion could be around Rs. 2.0 lakh crores per annum in India[1]. This is
investigated by CSIR-Central Electrochemical Research Institute (CECRI), said and exuded
confidence that the 17th National Congress on Corrosion Control. Corrosion costs manifest in
the form of premature deterioration or failure necessitating maintenance, repairs and
replacement of damaged parts.
Corrosion has a huge economic and environmental impact on all facets of national
infrastructure; from highways, bridges, buildings, oil and gas, chemical processing, water and
waste water treatment and virtually on all metallic objects in use. Other than material
loss, corrosion interferes with human safety, disrupts industrial operations and poses
danger to environment. Awareness to corrosion and adaptation of timely and appropriate
control measures hold the key in the abatement of corrosion failures.
Definitions:
Corrosion is the deterioration or destruction of metals and alloys in the presence of an
environment by chemical or electrochemical means. In simple terminology, corrosion processes
involve reaction of metals with environmental species.
As per IUPAC, Corrosion is an irreversible interfacial reaction of a material (metal,
ceramic, polymer) with its environment which results in its consumption or dissolution into
the material of a component of the environment. Often, but not necessarily, corrosion
results in effects detrimental to the usage of the material considered. Exclusively physical
or mechanical processes such as melting and evaporation, abrasion or mechanical fracture
are not included in the term corrosion.
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3. Types of Corrosion:
Corrosion can be classified in different ways, such as
1) Chemical and electrochemical
2) High temperature and low temperature
3) Wet corrosion and dry corrosion.
Dry corrosion occurs in the absence of aqueous environment, usually in the presence of
gases and vapours, mainly at high temperatures. Electrochemical nature of corrosion can be
understood by examining zinc dissolution in dilute hydrochloric acid.
M + H2O = MO + H2
Anodic reaction is M = M++ + 2e with the reduction of 2H++ + 2e = H2 at cathodic areas
on the surface of zinc metal. There are two half reactions constituting the net cell reaction.
Environmental effects such as those of presence of oxygen and other oxidizers, changes in
flow rates (velocity), temperature, reactant concentrations and pH would influence rates of
anodic and cathodic reactions.
Even though the fundamental mechanism of corrosion involves creation or existence of
corrosion cells, there are several types or forms of corrosion that can occur. It should however
be borne in mind that for corrosion to occur, there is no need for discrete (physically
independent) anodes and cathodes. Innumerable micro level anodic and athodic areas can
be generated at the same (single) surface on which anodic (corrosion) and cathodic
(reduction) reactions occur.
Fig No.1 Rusting of Metal
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ASM classifications of corrosion types:
Table No.1 ASM classifications of corrosion types [2]

Erosion corrosion is the deterioration of metals and alloys due to relative movement
between surfaces and corrosive fluids. Depending on the rate of this movement, abrasion
takes place. This type of corrosion is characterized by grooves and surface patterns having
directionality. Typical examples are Stainless alloy pump impeller, Condenser tube walls. All
equipment types exposed to moving fluids are prone to erosion corrosion. Erosion corrosion due
to high velocity impingement occurs in steam condenser tubes, slide valves in petroleum
refinery at high temperature, inlet pipes, cyclones and steam turbine blades.
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4. Flow assisted corrosion (FAC):

Flow accelerated corrosion (FAC) causes wall thinning (metal thickness loss) of carbon
steel piping, tubing and vessels exposed to flowing water or wet steam. When the thickness of
the component reaches values lower than the critical thickness required for supporting the
operating stresses, it results in ductile failure of the component. If undetected, the degraded
components can suddenly rupture, releasing high temperature steam or water. FAC has caused a
large number of failures in piping and equipments in all types of fossil, industrial steam, and
nuclear power plants and it is a predominant mode of failure of pipelines in the secondary circuit
and has also affected carbon steel pipelines in the primary circuit of light water reactors.
Generally, influencing factors [3] are,
1) Temperature,
2) pH,
3) Dissolved oxygen,
4) Material composition,
5) Fluid dynamics factor.
I.
Mechanism of FAC:
The process of FAC is as follows: iron ions of carbon steel dissolve into the
concentration boundary layer near the wall and some of them are transferred to bulk fluid.
Turbulent flow accelerates the transport of iron ion to the bulk fluid and then the dissolution of
carbon steel is also accelerated. FAC occurs near the pipe geometry where flow is strongly
disturbed such as downstream from an orifice and elbow. It is said that the direct fluid dynamics
factor is the mass transfer coefficient near the wall and recently the relation between FAC and
local flow field has been focused[4][5]. The key point of the FAC study from the viewpoint of
fluid dynamics factor is how to treat the local mass transfer coefficient near the wall.
Fig. No.2. Mechanism of FAC

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The mechanism of FAC is schematically illustrated in Fig.3. The iron reacts with water to
form a surface oxide layer. This oxide dissolves in the water to form Fe+2 and the rate of iron
removal (the FAC rate) is controlled by the rate of diffusion of dissolved iron species through the
boundary layer of water near the surface into the bulk water. FeOH+ is the hydrolysed Fe+2
species in solution. This diffusion (or mass transport of iron away from the surface) depends
directly on the concentration of soluble iron species at the oxide surface and inversely on the
thickness of the boundary layer. Thus, a decrease of the boundary layer thickness because of
increased water flow rate or because of local turbulence causes an increase of corrosion rate thus
increasing the FAC rate.
The main electrochemical steps leading to FAC are listed below:
Steps Involved in FAC1) Fe (metal) Fe+2 (Oxide-metal interface)
2) Fe+2 (Oxide) diffuses through oxide to water interface
3) Fe+2 (oxide-water interface) FeOH+(dissolved in boundary layer)
4) FeOH+ (dissolved) diffuses through boundary layer to bulk water
5) FeOH+ may get carried away by bulk water
6) FeOH+ (Bulk water) Fe2O3 (Particles, suspended in flowing water)
A second effect of flow velocity is related to the solubility limit of the dissolving ionic
species in the process water. Process water of a given specific chemistry has a definite solubility
limit for ionic species at the given (operating) pH and temperature. Once the dissolving ions
reach the bulk solution (through the boundary layer) and approach the solubility limit, further
dissolution is reduced (e.g. in a stagnant solution). This is where the flow acceleration of
corrosion rate takes place. The flow velocity provides a fresh solution (process water) to the
metal surface that has a large capacity to take in the soluble ions (as it is far below its solubility
limit value) thereby increasing the corrosion rate with velocity. Therefore, FAC is mainly
governed by the flow velocity/turbulence affecting the boundary layer on the inside of the
pipeline/component and also by the solubility limit of the dissolving ions at the operating
parameters.
There have been a few attempts to correlate electrochemical potential (ECP) with FAC
rates [6]. One study [6] measured experimentally FAC rates at 140 C in neutral water and ECP
and dissolved oxygen levels and reported that under low oxygen levels, ECP decreased with
increase in flow velocity and correspondingly FAC increased. Increased flow velocity was
proposed to have lead to decreased boundary layer thickness and therefore to an increasing
limiting current density of cathodic reactions.
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II.
Conditions for FAC:
It has been observed that the following conditions result in FAC degradation in nuclear or
fossil power plants:
1) Flow conditions: both single- and two-phase flow conditions, with water or water
steam mixture as the flowing liquid, at a temperature of > 95oC, and flow velocity is
greater than zero.
2) Chemistry condition: the flowing liquid should be such that a potential difference
exists between the liquid and the carbon steel pipe wall. This difference will be
responsible for the dissolution of the protective oxide layer in the flowing stream. A
high magnetite solubility and subsequent rapid removal of the magnetite, is
facilitated by either demineralised and neutral water or slightly alkalinized water
under reducing conditions.
3) Material: the pipe material must be carbon steel or low-alloy steel. General practice
recommends that for a well-designed system, FAC will be effectively inhibited if
steel components are made to contain at least 0.1% chromium
4) Flow Geometry: FAC has been observed to occur downstream of flow-restricting or
redirecting geometries like an orifice, sudden contraction, expansion, elbows,
reducers, etc.
5) Temperature and pH: Magnetite solubility (or indirectly the FAC rate) is dependent
upon the temperature and the pH. In the primary circuit of Pressurized Heavy Water
Reactors (PHWR) contains heavy water with pH adjusted in the range of 9.5 to 10.5,
by addition of Lithium hydroxide, to minimize corrosion and keep the corrosion
products in soluble form (thus preventing activity buildup). Solubility of magnetite
which is directly proportional to the FAC rate reduces with increase in temperature
below a pH of 9.8. Above a pH of 9.8 the solubility of magnetite increases with
temperature resulting in higher dissolution of magnetite (therefore, a higher FAC
rate). High pH is beneficial in retarding FAC rate at lower temperatures but at higher
temperatures, pH higher than 9.8 results in greater dissolution of the magnetite itself.
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III.
Diffusional mass transfer
Diffusional mass transfer of ferrous ions through the oxide layer occurs through small
pores in the layer (note that the pores are of the order of a small fraction of a micrometer). The
mass transfer resistance of this step depends on the size of the pores and the thickness of the
layer. The size of pores can be a function of FAC rate, especially in the outer layer of the oxide.
The thickness of the oxide layer also affects the FAC rate. The available information on these
issues is incomplete, although it is expected that this step is not rate limiting for thin oxide layer
thicknesses.
Convective mass transfer of the ferrous ions in the water is dependent on velocity, local
turbulence, geometry, surface roughness, and in two-phase flows also on flow regime and void
fraction. Physical properties of the transported species or the water do not affect the local
transport rate in the adiabatic flow. In diabatic flows, flows with heat exchange, the effects
caused by changing physical properties are dependent on the range of temperature changes.
However, the temperature changes in piping are usually small, contrary to those in heat
exchangers. The text below discusses the third step, i.e., the convective transport of ferrous ions
in the water.
The Mass Transfer Step:
The mass flux of ferrous ions from the oxide-water interface to the bulk of water is written in
general as:
Nfc = MTC*(cw - cb)
Nfc
- Mass flux of ferrous ions
kg/(m2.sec)
MTC - Mass transfer coefficient for ferrous ions in water
kg/(m2.sec)
cw
- Concentration of ferrous ions at the
kg of ferrous ions/kg of water
cb
kg of ferrous ions/kg of water
Concentration of ferrous ions in the bulk of water
The MTC depends predominantly on the hydrodynamics near the oxide-water interface.
In two phase (i.e., steam-water) flows, the convective transport of ferrous ions occurs only in the
liquid phase because ferrous ions are not soluble in steam. Therefore, steam does not carry
ferrous ions and the part of the region occupied by steam becomes void for the mass transfer of
ferrous ions. The mass flux of ferrous ions, and therefore, of the FAC rate, could be calculated
from the convective mass transfer in water if the concentration difference of ferrous ions at the
oxide-water interface and in the bulk of water were known. The concentration difference,
however, depends on the processes inside the oxide layer and at the metal-oxide interface and it
is currently not predictable.
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Therefore, this MTC analysis cannot be used directly for FAC rate calculations.
However, if the mass transfer step dominates FAC, and if the piping length is short, the
concentration difference becomes a constant and the constant allows a conversion of MTC into
FAC rate. For long piping, the effect of changing the bulk concentration of ferrous ions can be
significant.
Several research works showed that MTC is one of the important parameters affecting
FAC and the experimental data are often expressed in terms of Sherwood (Sh), Reynolds (Re)
and Schmidt (Sc) numbers as:
Sh = a*Reb *Sc c
where a, b and c are related to mass transfer which occurs under a given flow condition and can
only be obtained experimentally. Where (Sh) in the non-dimensional representation of MTC as a
function of the local hydrodynamic parameters and expressed as:
Sh =
MTCdH
D
Where : dH = hydraulic diameter, and D = diffusion coefficient of iron in water.
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5. Types of FAC:
I.
Single Phase FAC:
Thinning of carbon-steel components due to dissolution of protective oxide film and the
base metal in process fluid is termed as single phase FAC. The single phase FAC rate depends on
factors like hydrodynamic variables fluid velocity, pipe configuration, roughness of inside
surface of pipe, metallurgical variables chemical composition including weight percentage of
chromium, molybdenum, and copper in steel, and environmental variables coolant temperature,
water chemistry including dissolved oxygen, ferrous ion concentration, metallic impurities in
water and pH.
The hydrodynamic variables affect the mass transfer and thus affects FAC rate. At low
fluid velocity the FAC rate is controlled by the mass transfer while at higher flow velocities mass
transfer rate is higher and the FAC rate is governed by the chemical reactions in the oxidecoolant and metal-oxide interface. The micro pits formed by the initial selective attack of the
carbon steel microstructure grow until they touch each other thus giving a rough appearance to
the surface. The corroded surface on the inside surface of pipelines are characterized by
overlapping horse shoe pits or scallops that give an orange peel appearance. These heavily
corroded scallop surfaces (either oxides or the base metal) may dislodge and flow out with the
high velocity process fluid, thus adding to the already high metal loss rate.
Fig. 3 Flow accelerated corrosion: Single phase and dual phase [5].
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II.
Dual Phase FAC:
The oxide dissolution mechanism is similar to single phase FAC but this kind of
degradation occurs in pipes carrying wet steam. Moisture in the steam is essential for oxide
dissolution (by electrochemical reactions) and this degradation does not occur in dry steam. The
FAC rate varies with the quality of steam that is the amount of moisture in steam. The droplet
wear mechanism has been proposed to explain the dual phase FAC . The liquid phase in a steam
line flows in a thin layer near the wall while the vapour forms in the core of the flow and moves
much faster than the liquid phase.
The velocity difference creates shear forces at the liquid vapour interface. If this force is
greater than the surface tension force at the interface some liquid will be sheared off the liquid
layer and carried over with the vapour. This liquid will form droplets and will be entrapped and
accelerated in the vapour core. A fraction of this liquid will impinge on the oxide film on the
inside surface and can crack the oxide film, thus exposing underlying layers to corrosive attack
of the coolant. Surfaces exposed to this kind of dual phase attack have a tiger striping
appearance . These forms of FAC related ruptures occur not only in the secondary systems of
PHWRs but in two-phase systems in some PWRs also.
A variant of dual phase FAC is the Liquid Droplet Impingement (LDI). LDI is also
divided into two types: one is determined by mechanical process (designated as LDI
(mechanical) is dominated by the flow dynamics (physical and mechanical) process and the other
is determined by corrosion (chemical) process (designated as LDI (corrosion)).[5]
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6. Real Failure pipelines due to FAC :

Since the major rupture at Trojan in 1985, about 270 wall-thinning records for
pressurized water reactors (PWRs) and about 115 records for boiling water reactors (BWRs)
have been reported, as of 1995, as shown in Fig. 1 [1]. The inspections triggered by the failure
that occurred at the Surry Unit 2 in 1986 have revealed numerous instances of significant
erosion-corrosion at other U.S. reactors, primarily in wet-steam lines, but also in some singlephase lines. German data files for the period 1961 to 1976 showed that one-third of the 96 cases
reported were for single-phase conditions [7]. A pipe rupture even occurred in 2004, as shown in
Fig. [7].
Fig.5 Examples of Failure due to FAC[7]
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Fig.6 Examples of Failure due to FAC[7]
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7. Inspection:
Most affected areas:
Systems- Condensate, Feedwater, Blowdown, Deaerator, Extraction/Bleed steam,

Heater drains and vents
Transitions in geometry, like at elbows,orifices, tees, valves, and other changes in
flow direction creates turbulence and increases FAC susceptibility.
Methodology :
After a theoretical evaluation of the whole system for propensity to FAC and cavitation,
the most susceptible components should be selected for inspection. The nondestructive
(NDT) methods typically used include: ultrasonic wall thickness measurement,
radiography of smaller sections with geometries that can cause turbulence and INCO test.
Inspection grids have been developed for UI wall thickness measurements for typical
geometrical elements. Often neglected are piping areas downstream of flowmeters,
thermowells and injection quills. Both FAC and cavitation can be active downstream of
these components, where vortices generated by the flow obstruction can travel for many
feet. It is important to establish permanent critical locations for long-time monitoring of
wall thickness.
Hydrotest:
When there is urgency for safety or other reasons and the system cannot be shut
down for inspection, a hydrotest of at least 50% overpressure can provide a temporary
degree of safety. Many components can be inspected during operation using X-ray
techniques.
FAC Software:
Three groups of software packages have been developed for assessment of wall thinning
caused by FAC; by EPRI, EdF and Siemens/KWU.
I.
Rotated Cylinder Electrode (RCE) :

RCE is a device which contains cylindrical electrode in corrosion cell to
investigate the effect of flow on the corrosion behavior by the circumferential flow of
the rotating cylinder. Initially the device was used in chemical engineering for the
purpose of electrorefining and electrodeposition study, it is now applied in FAC
field because it is cost-effective, produces turbul ent flow easil y, generates
reproducible uniform current distribution, and so on .
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II.
Jet Impingement:
An impingement jet system was used to conduct the FAC test. It consisted of a
plexiglass chamber as a reservoir, a high pressure pump, flow velocity controller, sand
concentration controller, stirrer and valves. An electrochemical cell was integrated with th
test rig to enable in situ electrochemical measurements. The impact angle of the impinging
fluid to working electrode, which was defined as the angle between the surface of the
electrode and the fluid flow direction, can be adjusted conveniently.
Case Study
Name Of Journal : Flow Assisted Corrosion of API 5L X-70 in Sour Brine induced by
Flow Changes in a Jet Impingement Chamber
Publisher : International Journal Of Electrochemical Science
Experimental Procedure:
Materials and equipment
Carbon steel API 5L-X70 samples were taken from pipe steel, coupons were cut and
machined with dimensions of 1 cm x 0.5 cm x 1 cm providing a working area of 0.5 cm2. Three
samples of similar dimensions were wet abraded and corner softened before resin mounting;
isolated electric wire was welded to each metallic coupons to complete circuit for electrical
connection to electrochemical equipment. Coupons were fitted into the impingement chamber to
avoid any displacement and cables to move out from chamber.
Fig 6. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup of JIM.
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The experimental equipment used in this investigation is shown in Figure 1, it consists of a
test chamber in clear acrylic 5 mm thick. This was made to recirculate a medium consisting of brine
prepared according to the NACE standard 1D-196 [9], which was stored in a polyethylene tank with
capacity of 100 L. Flow rate was controlled by the adjustment of a rotameter device. The
impingement chamber exit consisted of three hoses, which are connected to assist the drain located in
the middle of the tank. The equipment pieces used in the present research are shown in more detail
below.
Jet impingement chamber
Fig.7 Test chamber in acrylic material.
Fig.8 Shock plates positioned at different impingement angles of inclination

(a) 30,(b) 60(c) 90.
To carry out the experiment, the geometry of the jet impingement chamber or strike plate
chamber was developed by using Solid Works software program (Fig. 2). The test chamber,
whose design is shown in Figure 3, consisted of an empty space of 14-liter capacity with a tilted
plate at the bottom for rapid fluid drainage.
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Figure 4 shows the inlet and outlet connections as well as the movable plate. It displays
the assembly of the striking plate in the test chamber where metallic coupons were placed at
impingement angles of 30, 60 and 90; these were selected from evaluations carried out on
short and long size elbows from fluid mechanics information. Fluid is fed opposite to the
entrance and into the front plate at the middle section to be recirculated from the storage tank to
the chamber and from there to the metallic coupon surfaces.
Corrosion rates were determined from polarization resistance according to Faradays
equation by the available software, as a function of flow rate (8-18 L/min) and testing time (1-8
hours). Three tests were performed every hour after the system stabilized itself at a roughly
constant open circuit potential after about 60 minutes to ensure measurement reliability.
The surface morphology and composition of the corrosion products formed on the
electrode surface were characterized in a JEOL 6300 SEM microscope coupled to EDX detector.
X-ray diffraction (XRD) was used to determine the nature of iron phases formed on steel surface
of X-70; scanning was performed within the range of 20 to 90 with a step width of 0.02 in a
D8 Focus Bruker diffractometer with Cu K radiation.
Table 2 Chemical composition of steel API 5L X-70 (wt. %).

Microestructure of steel API 5L X-70 was developed by nital etching and it is shown in Figure 5;
a dactillar pearlite (dark contrast) along with colonies distributed over a ferrite matrix (light
contrast) is observed in a uniform distribution.
Fig. 9 Microstructure of API 5L X-70 steel etched in 5% nital (500X).

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Linear polarization measurements
Corrosion rates as function of inclination angles and flow rate = 8 L/min for steel in sour brine.
Fig. 10.Corrosion rate time dependent after immersion of X-70 in sour brine with kerosene at a
flow rate of 8 L/min for impingement angles of 30, 60 and 90.
Figure shows the corrosion rate as a function of time for the different angles used in this
work. At 30 and 60, the corrosion rate decreased with time though in the case of flow
impingement at 90, the corrosion rate increased above those for 30 and 60. In the latter, the
decrease in corrosion rate was attributed to the persistence of corrosion products, which is more
likely because stress seems to be lower. In contrast, at 90 the increase in corrosion rate is
derived from the detachment of corrosion products formed due to the flow assisted action in
combination with a high impact angle (90).
. Table No. 3 Average Corrosion rates at testing condition
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SEM surface characterization for a flow rate = 8 L/min
Fig. 10 Micrographs of removal of corrosion products at the impingement angles indicated and a
flow rate of 8 L/min.
Figure shows the metallic surfaces after testing at the impingement angles indicated. The
three surfaces displayed a partial removal of the corrosion products, which provided different
patterns as a result of flow and contact angle; removal is presented in a lesser degree on the
coupon surface of 30 although it increased as the angle did. The impact direction of flow is
indicated by the yellow arrow in each image. The lower removal of corrosion products at 30 is
attributed to the presence of NaCl crystals deposited on the surface that may act as a barrier to
fluid motion [14], and also to the lower surface resistance to the fluid movement compared to
higher inclinations (60, 90).
Fig. 11 Micrographs of corrosion products deposited on the metallic coupons at the

impingement angles indicated and a flow rate of 8 L/min
Figure shows the corrosion products formed on testing, which can be classified as
toothed type as it does have an angular shape. On the surfaces, it was observed a first layer called
mackinawite and subsequently the growth of other layers consisting of a mixture of oxides and
sulfides, and in some cases the presence of sulfate was observed. The relative higher content of
corrosion products on the coupon placed at 90 and less on the coupon at 30 might be ascribed
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to the effect of flow resistance and aeration provided by flow turbulence; this fact may be
consistent with the number of phases detected by XRD in Figure 13.
Figure 12. X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) of corrosion products in API 5L X-70 steel surface
in sour brine (a) 30, (b) 60 and (c) 90 and flow rate of 8 L/min.
Figure 13 shows the diffraction patterns obtained for the coupons under the test
conditions at a flow rate of 8 L/min (1.05 m/s) at 30, 60 and 90, respectively. The phases
presented for the three angles are tetragonal mackinawite (FeS), orthorhombic magnetite
(Fe3O4), cubic maghemite (Fe2O3), orthorrombic marcasite (FeS2) and iron sulfate, known as
rhombohedral mikasaite (Fe2 (SO4)3 ). Qualitatively sulfides predominated over oxides for the
three-impingement angles; with the additional feature, that triclinic pyrite (FeS2) is observed at
60 and 90. Orthorhombic marcasite (FeS2) was the predominant phase appearing on the
surfaces subjected to the three impingement angles.
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4. Conclusions :
The distribution, morphology and growth of corrosion products formed on pipe steel in
sour brine suggested that the corrosion process occurred by the formation of consecutive film
layers, which seems to be deposited randomly one on the other as detected by microscopy. It
appears that marcasite (FeS2) and maghemite (Fe2O3) predominated under static conditions
forming more sulfides. At 8 L/min, the formation of sulfides prevailed to form marcasite (30);
marcasite and maghemite (60); marcasite and (Fe3O4) micasaite (90).
The highest corrosion rates were displayed at 90 at 8 L/min (90, 120 mpy).It is thought
that flow direction might induce normal stresses higher than those shear stresses formed at lower
angles (30, 60).
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8. Conclusion:
A number of FAC related degradations have occurred in both the primary and the
secondary circuit of nuclear power plants. Single phase FAC has been reported in the
feeder pipelines in the primary side of PHWRs and both single phase and dual phase
FAC have been reported in the secondary side of the Indian nuclear power plants.
While the water chemistry and materials determine the overall propensity of piping steel
for FAC, local flow conditions determine the local distribution of FAC rate for piping
components.
If the mass transfer step is important, the local distribution of FAC rate is determined by
the local distribution of the mass transfer coefficient (MTC) for the ferrous ions in the
flowing water. The mass transfer coefficient depends on flow rate (average velocity),
component geometry, surface roughness, upstream turbulence. In two-phase flows, it also
depends on the two-phase flow regime and void fraction.
The effect of geometry found to strongly affect the FAC wear rate. For example, the
maximum value of the wear found to be located within 5D downstream of the orifice.
It is clear that oxygen additions can prevent FAC but such additions to the environment
might lead to other problems. The Chexal-Horowitz model predicts the FAC rates to drop
from 3.2 to 0.89 mm/year as the dissolved oxygen content is increased from 10 to 30 ppb.
The various hydrodynamic parameters that have been credited with controlling the
occurrence and rate of flow assisted corrosion are as - Velocity (), Reynolds number
(Re),Mass transfer coefficient (),Surface shear stress (), Intensity of turbulence (TI),
Freak energy density (FED) and environmental factors such as Temperature, pH, Oxygen
content.
The pH of the feed water has a strong influence on the FAC rates. As the pH is increased
beyond 9.0, the FAC rates decrease up to 10.0 at the operating conditions. It has also
been shown that the maxima in FAC rates
The corrosion behavior of API 5L X-70 pipe steel was studied in a jet impingement
chamber, which simulated the effect of flow rate and contact angle on pipe accessories.
Highest flow rates were associated to top corrosion rates due to corrosion product
detachment on which prevailed that of oxide type, whilst moderate flow rate and static
conditions led to a larger number of phases on which sulfides predominated over oxides.
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9. Appendix:
IUPAC---- International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
ASM------- American Society for Microbiology
FAC ------- Flow assisted corrosion
EFPY ------Effective Full-Power Years
NPP--------- Nuclear Power Plant
CANDU -- CANada Deuterium Uranium
RCE--------- Rotated Cylinder Electrode
JIM----------- Jet Impingement method
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10. References:
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John M. PIETRALIK E-Journal of Advanced Maintenance Vol.4 No.2 (2012) 63-78
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7. Simulations and Experiments for the Detection of Flow-Assisted Corrosion in Pipes,
Krishnan Balasubramaniam, K. Sathish Kumar, Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology,
DECEMBER 2015, Vol. 137/ 061409-1
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