ClimateResponsiveBuilding(SKAT,1993,324p.

)
2.Fundamentals
2.1Climatezones
2.2Climaticfactors.
2.3Humanrequirementsregardingindoorclimate
2.4Physics

ClimateResponsiveBuilding(SKAT,1993,324p.)
2.Fundamentals
2.1Climatezones
Theclimatesprevailingaroundtheglobevarygreatly,rangingfromthepolarextremetotropicalclimates.Theseareprimarily
influencedbythesunsenergyheatingupthelandandwatermasses.Attheregionallevel,theclimateisinfluencedbyaltitude,
topography,patternsofwindandoceancurrents,therelationoflandtowatermasses,thegeomorphology,andbythevegetation
pattern.
Accordingly,thetropicalandsubtropicalregionscanbedividedintomanydifferentclimaticzones,butforpracticalreasons,inthis
publicationthreemainclimatezonesareconsidered:
thehotaridzone,includingthedesertorsemidesertclimateandthehotdrymaritimeclimate
thewarmhumidzone,includingtheequatorialclimateandthewarmhumidislandclimate
thetemperatezone,includingthemonsoonclimateandthetropicaluplandzone
Themainclimaticfactorsrelevanttoconstructionarethoseaffectinghumancomfort:
airtemperature,itsextremesandthedifferencebetweendayandnight,andbetweensummerandwintertemperatures.
humidityandprecipitation
incomingandoutgoingradiationandtheinfluenceoftheskycondition
airmovementsandwinds

Fig2/1Worldclimaticzones
2.1.1Thehotaridzone
Thiszoneissituatedintwobeltsatlatitudesbetweenapproximately15and30NorthandSouthoftheequator.Itsmain
characteristicsaretheveryhotsummerseasonandacoolerwinterseason,andthegreattemperaturedifferencebetweendayand
night.
Temperatureinsummer
Inthehotseasontheairtemperaturerisesquicklyaftersunriseuptoameanmaximumwellabove40C,witharecordedmaximumof
58C.Atnighttimethetemperaturefallsbyabout20C.
Temperatureinwinter
Inthecoolseasonthemeanmaximumliesatabout30Candfallsatnightbyabout10to20Cormore,accordingtoaltitude.In
additiongroundfrostispossibleatnight.
Coastalareas
Inthemaritimeregionthetemperaturesaresomewhatlessextremebutinthehotseasonthemeanmaximumtemperaturealso
reachesabout40Canddropsatnightby10to15C.Inthecoolseasonthemeanmaximumliesatabout25Cwithasimilardropat

night.
Humidityandprecipitation
Therelativehumidityisverylowinthecontinentalareasandvariesbetween10%and55%.Inthecoastalareas,however,itcanreach
upto90%which,togetherwiththehightemperature,makestheclimateveryuncomfortable.Precipitationisscarce,irregularand
unreliable.
Radiation
Theskyismostlyclear,withsomehazeinthecoastalregions,allowingaverystrongsolarradiationduringthedaytime.Aconsiderable
releaseoftheheatstoredduringdaytimetakesplaceintheformofradiationtowardthecoldnightsky.
Wind
Thewindswhichvarygreatlyareusuallycausedbythermalscreatedbyhumidityandtemperaturedifferences.Duringthedaytimethey
areoftenstrongandviolentwithatendencytoevolvetosandorduststorms.Inthecoastalregionsaregularwindpatternexists,
blowinglandwardfromtheseaduringthedaytimeandseawardatnight.
2.1.2Thewarmhumidzone
Thiszonecoversanareaaroundtheequatorextendingfromabout15Nto15S.Thereisverylittleseasonalvariationthroughoutthe
year.
Temperature
Theairtemperaturevariesverylittlethroughouttheyearorbetweendayandnight.Itreachesameandaytimemaximumbetween
20Cand32Candanighttimeminimumbetween21Cand27C.
Humidityandprecipitation
Therelativehumidityvariesbetween55%and100%,butgenerallyliesaround75%.
Precipitationishighthroughouttheyearandoftenoccursintheformoftorrentialrainswithheavywindsandstorms.
Radiation
Theskyisfairlycloudythroughouttheyearincoastalregions,however,itisoftenclear.Accordingly,thesolarradiationistoagreat
extentdiffusedandpartlyreflectedbythehighvapourcontent.Thusatnighttheaccumulatedheatisnotreadilydissipated.
Wind
Thewindvelocityisgenerallylowexceptduringrainsqualls,whenusuallyoneortwodominantwinddirectionsprevail.Incoastal
regions,however,regularthermicwindsproviderelieffromheatandhumidity.Stormsarecommoninthisregion.
2.1.3Thetemperate,monsoonanduplandzones
TheseclimaticregionsaregenerallylocatedaroundtheTropicofCancerandtheTropicofCapricorn.Theclimateisneitherconsistently
hotanddry,norwarmandhumid.Theircharacteristicschangefromseasontoseason,alternatingbetweenhot,dryperiodsandperiods
ofconcentratedrainfallandhighhumidity.
Threeseasons
Threemainseasonscanthusbedistinguished:
thehotandaridpremonsoonseason,
thewarmhumidmonsoonperiod,
themoderateorevencoolwinterperiod.
Temperaturesinlowlandareas
Thelowlandmonsoonareaischaracterizedbyairtemperatureswhicharehighestinthepremonsoonseason,i.e.around35to45Cin
thedaytimeandadropatnighttimeofabout10to15C.Withthestartofthemonsoonrainsthetemperaturedropsconsiderably.In
winterthelowlandshavemoderatetemperatures.
Temperaturesinuplandareas
Intheuplandareasthetemperaturenaturallydependsonaltitude.Inwinternightfrostispossible.Thiscanalsohappenincontinental
areas.
Humidityandprecipitation
Therelativehumidityvariesinthedryseasonbetween20%and55%,andinthewetperiodbetween50%and100%,dependingon
precipitation.
Radiation
Theskyconditionvarieswiththeseasons.Inthedryandcoolseasonitisclearwithintensedirectsolarradiation.Inthehottestperiod
theskyisratherhazyandradiationismorediffused.Duringthemonsoonperiod,heavyandlowcloudsoftencoverthesky,alternating
withperiodsofclearskyandintensesolarradiation.
Wind
Windsarevariableandinfluencedbytopographicalconditions.Duringthedryperiodwindsaredustyandhotinlowerareas.In
mountainousregions,strongandregularvalleywindsofthermicoriginoccurintheafternoon.

Fig2/2Diagramsshowingthetypicalmeantemperaturecurvesforthethreezonesover24hoursduringthehotandcoolseasons.
2.1.4Microclimate
Theabovedescribeddivisionintothreeclimaticzonesisverygeneralized,sincemanyareasexistwithdifferingclimatesora
combinationoftypes.Localconditions,however,mayalsodiffersubstantiallyfromtheprevailingclimateofaregion,dependingonthe
topography,thealtitudeandthesurroundingswhichmaybeeithernaturalorbuiltbyhumans.
Coldairpool
Aphenomenonoftenobservedisthatofthecoldairpool.Becausecoldairflowsdownwards,similartowater,itcausescoldairlakes
indepressionsandinthebottomofvalleysifthereareinsufficientoutlets.Thisoccursespeciallyatnight,butcanalsoprevailovera
longerperiodandcanpreventaircirculation.Inurbanareaswhicharelocatedinsuchdepressionsthisphenomenonfavoursthe
developmentofsmogconditions.
Localwind
Localwindconditionsstronglyinfluencetheclimate.Theyaredeterminedmainlybythetopography.Whenawindblowsoveran
obstaclesuchasahillortree,itsvelocityonthewindwardsideisgreaterthanonthewindprotectedleewardside,andisgreateston
thecrest.
Waterbodies
Largewaterbodiessuchaslakesandseasgenerallyhaveabalancingeffectonthetemperatureintheadjacentareasduetothegreat
thermalstoragecapacityofthewater.Waterisalsoasourceoflocalwindsbecauseitacceleratesthermicairmovements.
Urbanization
Heavyurbanizationofanarea(townships)generallyincreasesthetemperaturecomparedtotheruralsurroundings.Differencesofupto
10Carepossible.Windvelocityanditsventilationeffectsaregenerallydecreased,butthechannelingeffectofnarrowstreetscanalso
causetheoppositetooccur.
Altitude
Altitudeisamajorfactorinfluencingairtemperature.Asaruleofthumb,thetemperatureisreducedby2Cforevery300mincrease
inaltitude.
Groundsurface
Thepropertiesofthegroundsurfacecoveralsoinfluencetheclimate.Bareordenudedsurfacesstorelittleornohumidity,butabsorb
solarheatradiationandheatup.Surfacescoveredwithvegetationheatupmuchless,andthushavearegulatingeffectonthe
temperatureandincreasehumidity.Themoreintensethevegetation,thegreaterisitsbalancingeffect.
Responsetomicroclimate
Whileconsideringthegeneralclimaticcharacteristicsmaybesufficientinworkingouttheroughconceptofabuilding,theindividualsite
conditions,asobservedaccordingtotheabovecriteria,needtobeconsideredindesigningthedetails.Ifpossible,thesefactorsshould
alreadybeconsideredwhenselectingtheconstructionsite.

2.2Climaticfactors.
Themainnaturalelementsthatdefinetheclimate,are
solarradiation,
wind,and
humidity,intheformofvapourandprecipitation.

Theircharacteristicsandrelevanceforconstructiondependlargelyonthegeographicallocation,butalsoonthetopography,altitudeand
propertiesoftheearthssurfaceanditscoverage.
2.2.1Sun
Theearthreceivesalmostallitsthermalenergyfromthesunintheformofradiation.Thusthesunisthedominantfactorthat
influencesclimate.
2.2.1.1Solarradiation
Thespectrumofsolarradiationextendsfromultravioletthroughvisiblelight,toinfraredradiation.Thelatteristhemainmediumof
energy,intheformofheat.

Fig2/3Spectrumofthesolarradiation
Thesolarenergyfromthesunisalwaysconstant.Howmuchheatisreceivedatagivenpointonearthdependson
theangleofincidence
atmosphericconditions
thelengthoftheday

Fig2/4Withthechangingangleofincidencetheradiationintensitychanges
Atanangleof30,agivenarea(a)onlyreceiveshalftheamountofsolarraysitwouldatanangleof90.
Thedistance(d)thatsolarrayshavetopassthroughtheatmosphereatanangleof30isdoublethatiftheanglewere90.
Thisincreaseddistancereducestheenergyreceivedontheearthsurfaceconsiderably,especiallyiftheatmosphereishumidordusty.
Theangleofincidencechangesnotonlyinthecourseoftheday,butalsowiththeseasons.Thisisduetotheearthspatharoundthe
sun.

Fig2/5Theangleofincidencechangingwiththeseasons
Theamountofenergyreceivedonagivensurfacevariesduringthecourseoftheday,dependingontheangleofincidenceofthesun.
Thegraphbelowillustratesatypicalamountofenergyreceivedbyasouthfacingandinclinedsolarcollectorsurface.Thetotalenergy
receivedduringthisdayamountstoabout5kWh/m.

Fig2/6Sunintensityonasouthfacing,inclinedsurfaceinJanuaryduringaclearday,latitude27North
Majorfactorsinfluencingtheamountofsolarenergyreceivedaretheweatherandthepollutioncontentoftheatmosphere.

Fig2/7Solarenergyreceivedonasurfaceverticaltoradiation(angleofincidence90).Source:[137]
Similartotheenergygainduringdaytime,nighttimeheatlossbyradiationtotheskyisalsogreatlydependentonatmospheric
conditions.Aclearskyallowsmaximum,athickcloudcoverminimalheatloss.
(seeChapter2.4.1)
Lengthoftheday.Accordingtothegeographiclatitude,thelengthofthedayandhencethedurationofsunshinevariesduringtheyear.

Fig2/8Lengthoftheshortestandlongestdayatdifferentlatitudesinthenorthernhemisphere.
2.2.1.2Thesunspath
Whiledesigningbuildingsanywhereintheworld,thesunspathmustbeconsideredasanimportantfactor.
Thepositionofthesundependsupon
thegeographiclocation(latitude)
thetimeofyear(season)
thetimeofday(hour)
Itcanbedeterminedmosteasily,andforourpurposessufficientlyexactlywiththehelpofthediagramsgiveninAppendix5.3
Howtoreadthediagram:
Selectthediagramforthelatitudeofthebuildingsite.
Findthepointatwhichthetimeofthedayanddateyouareinterestedincrosseachother.
Readthesolaraltitudeandtheazimuth.

Fig2/9Howtousethesunpathdiagram
2.2.1.3Thegeometryofshadows
Knowingthesunsposition,thegeometryofshadowsonbuildings,facadesandshadingdevicescanbederived.
Detailedmethods,withthehelpofthesunpathdiagramandashadowangleprotractor,arefoundintheliterature.
[i.e.2,8,11,13]
Ifthesetoolsarenotathand,thefollowingsimplegeometricalmethodcanbeused:

Fig2/10Geometryofshadows
Method:
1)Drawaplanofthebuildingpart,e.g.awindowwithoverhang,andenterthedirectionofthesolarradiationwiththehelpofthe
azimuth.
2)DrawsectionAAparalleltothedirectionofthesolarradiationandenterthesolaraltitudeangle.
3)Fromtheplanandsectionderivetheelevationwiththeshadowpicture.
4)DrawingthenormalsectionBBprovidestheshadowangle.Thisisalwaysbiggerthanthesolaraltitudeangleexceptinthecase
wherethedirectionofthesunisatrightanglestothebuildingelevation.Inthiscasethetwoanglesareidentical.
Thissimplemethod,analogouslyapplied,providesinformationabouttheshadingperformanceofanyshapeofshadingdevicesor
buildingcomponents,andalsoshadingbysurroundingbuildings.Itprovidesabasisforplanningtheorientationandgroupingof
buildings,andforthedesignofshadingdevicesandopenings.
(RelevancetoplanningandconstructionseeChapter3.)
2.2.2Wind
Thephenomenon
Thereasonsforthedevelopmentofwindsaremanifoldandvastlycomplex.Themainreason,however,istheunevendistributionof
solarradiationovertheglobe.Itresultsindifferingsurfaceheatingandtemperatures.Thiscausesdifferencesinairpressureand,asa
consequence,thedevelopmentofwinds.
Typicalmainwinds
Theprevailingairpressurepatternonearthisfairlyregular.Togetherwiththerotationoftheearth,themainwindscanbedetermined.

Fig2/11Mainglobalwinds
Localwinds
Thesemainwindsareoverlaidwithsecondarywinds,mainlyofthermicorigin.
Thedailyvariationsinheatingandcoolingoflandandwatersurfaces(seas,lakes),ofmountainousandflatlandareas,andofbareand
landcoveredwithvegetation,causeregularwindpatternsincertainareas,suchasseawindsorvalleywindsinthedaytime,andland
windsormountainwindsatnighttime.
ValleyandmountainwindsSeaandlandwinds

Fig2/12Thermicwindpatternvaryingbetweendayandnight
Thermicbubbles
Strongsolarradiationalsocausesirregularlocalthermicwinds.Thisisduetoairthatisheatednearthegroundandrisesfromtimeto
timeintheformofbubbles.
Influenceoftopography
Topographyinfluenceswindcharacteristics.Valleybottomsaregenerallywindprotectedareaswhereaselevatedlocationsreceivemore
andstrongerwinds.

Fig2/13Topographicalinfluenceonwindspeed

Monsoonwind
Themonsoonwindisaresultofseasonaldifferencesintheheatingupoflandandseaareasandisofgreatimportancetoalargearea
inthetropics.
Characteristicsofwinds
Dependingontheoriginofthewind,itsqualitydiffers.Itcanbedryorhumid,clean,dustyorsandy,hotorcoolcomparedtothe
prevailingtemperature,constantorirregular.Itsspeedtoocanvary.
Accordingly,windcaneitherbeutilizedforimprovementstotheindoorclimateofbuildingsormeasuresmustbetakentoprotect
againstit.
(Relevanceforplanningandconstruction,seeChapter3.)
Storms
Windcanhaveadisastrouseffectintheformofstorms.Duetoclimaticconstraints,certainzonesontheglobearepronetostorms.In
theseareasbuildingsrequirespecialstructuralprotection.Inmostotherzones,however,stormsoccasionallyoccuraswell,but
probablewithlessintensity.Asaconsequence,adequateprotectionisalsorequiredthere.(seeChapter3.1.4)

Fig2/14Regularstormzones.Source:[11]
2.2.3Humidityandprecipitation
Amajorfactorinclimaticcharacteristicsiswater.Itoccursasrain,hail,snow,cloudsandvapour.
Relativehumidity
Vapouriswaterintheformofgas,absorbedbyair.Dependingonthetemperature,theabsorptioncapacityoftheairvaries.

Fig2/15Saturationpoint
Thecurveshowsthemaximumabsorptioncapacityinrelationtotheairtemperature.Thisrepresents100%relativehumidity.
Relativehumidityisdefinedas
humidityatsaturationpoint(g/m).100/effectivehumidity(g/m)=...%
Fog,cloudsandprecipitation
Airtemperaturefluctuatesconsiderablyduringthedayandnight,andwithitthesaturationpoint.Becausetheabsolutehumidity
remainsconstant,therelativehumiditychanges.If,however,theabsolutehumidityexceedsthesaturationpoint,thesurpluswater
condensesandoccursintheformoffog,clouds,deworprecipitation.Thesamecanbeobservedwhenairrisesandthuscoolsdown.
Strongthermicupwindsresultincumuluscloudswindscrossingmountainscreatecloudsandprecipitation.

Fig2/16
Duetotopography,distributionofwaterbodiesandwinds,thetypesandquantityofprecipitationvariesstrongly.

Fig2/17Annualprecipitationvalues,basedon[11]
Notonlythequantity,butalsothetypesandseasonaldistributionofprecipitationaremanifold.Forexample,inmonsoonareasrainfall
isconcentratedoveracertainperiodoftheyearandcanbeextremelyintenseandlonglasting.Inwarmhumidregionsitcanoccur
overthewholeyearwithshortdownpoursalmosteveryday.
Thesedifferencesinprecipitationpatternsarereflectedinconstructiondetailsandbuildingtypes,atleasttraditionally.Thiscanbe
illustratedbytypicalbuildingtypesfordifferentregions(RelevanceforplanningandconstructionsseeChapter3)
Thermalcapacityofwater
Waterhasanextremelyhighthermalcapacity,andcanthusstoreandemitlargequantitiesofthermalenergy.Forinstance,the
temperatureof1mearthincreasesfivetimesmorethanthatof1mwater,whenputtinginthesamequantityofheatenergy.
Thisexplainsthetemperatureregulatingeffectoflargewaterbodiessuchasseasorlakes,resultinginthetypicalmaritimeclimateon
theonehandandthecontinentalclimateontheother.

Fig2/18Differencebetweencontinentalandmaritimeclimate
Asimilarbalancingeffectiscausedbyathickvegetationcoversuchasaforest,partlybecauseitcontainslargequantitiesofwater.

2.3Humanrequirementsregardingindoorclimate
Oneofthemainfunctionsofbuildingsistoprotecttheinhabitantsfromoutdoorclimaticconditionswhichareoftenharshandhostile.
Thebuildingmustprovideanenvironmentthatdoesnotharmthehealthoftheinhabitants.Moreover,itshouldprovidelivingand
workingconditionswhicharecomfortable.
Toachievethis,thephysiologicalfunctionsofthehumanbodyaretobeconsidered.Itisalsonecessarytoknowunderwhichthermal
conditionshumanbeingsfeelcomfortable.
2.3.1Humanphysiology
Physiologicalfactorsareofprimaryimportancewithregardtocomfort.Theinternaltemperatureofthehumanbodymustalwaysbe
keptwithinnarrowlimitsataround37C.Anyfluctuationfromthisvalueisasignofillness,andariseof5Coradropof2Cfromthis
valuecanleadtodeath.
Thebodyhastheabilitytobalanceitstemperaturebyvariousmeans.

Thisthermalbalanceisdetermined,ontheonehand,bytheinternalheatloadandontheother,bytheenergyflow(thermal
exchange)betweenthebodyandtheenvironment.
Thethermalexchangebetweenthebodyandtheenvironmenttakesplaceinfourdifferentways:conduction,convection,radiationand
evaporation(perspirationandrespiration).

Fig2/19Waysofthermalexchangebythehumanbody
Conduction
Thecontributionthatconductionmakestotheheatexchangeprocessdependsonthethermalconductivityofthematerialsinimmediate
contactwiththeskin.Conductionusuallyaccountsforonlyasmallpartofthewholeheatexchange.Itislimitedtolocalcoolingof
particularpartsofthebodywhentheycomeincontactwithmaterialswhicharegoodconductors.Thisisofpracticalimportanceinthe
choiceofflooringmaterials,especiallywherepeopleusuallysitonthefloor.
Convection
Heatexchangebyconvectiondependsprimarilyonthetemperaturedifferencebetweentheskinandtheairandonairmovement.It
can,toacertainextent,becontrolledbyadequateclothing.
Theinsulationeffectofclothingcanbeexpressedbyaclothingvalue(clovalue).

Fig2/20Insulationvaluesofdifferentkindofclothing(1clo=0.155mK/W).Source:[121]
Radiation
Radiationtakesplacebetweenthehumanbodyandthesurroundingsurfacessuchaswallsandwindowsand,intheopenair,thesky
andsun.Inthisprocesstemperature,humidityandairmovementhavepracticallynoinfluenceontheamountofheattransmitted.This
amountofheatdependsmainlyonthedifferenceintemperaturebetweenthepersonsskinandthesurroundingorenclosingsurface.
Thebodymaygainorloseheatbyabovedescribedprocessesdependingonwhethertheenvironmentiscolderorwarmerthanthebody
surface.Whenthesurroundingtemperature(airandsurfaces)isabove25C,theclothedhumanbodycannotgetridofenoughheatby
conduction,convectionorradiation.
Evaporation(perspirationandrespiration)
Inthiscasethesolecompensatorymechanismisevaporationbythelossofperspiration,togetherwith,toacertainextent,respiration.
Duringevaporationwaterabsorbsheat,andashumansnormallyloseaboutonelitreofwateradayinperspiration,afairamountof

heatistakenfromthebodytoevaporateit.Thelowerthevapourpressure(dryair)andthegreatertheairmovement,thegreateris
theevaporationpotential.
Thisexplainswhyextremetemperaturesinhumidclimatesarelessbearablecomparedtothesametemperaturesindryclimates.
Internalheatload
Theinternalheatloadofabodydependsonitsmetabolicactivityandvariesgreatly(seetablebelow).

Fig2/21Metabolicrateofdifferentactivities(1met=58W/m)[121]
2.3.2Thermalcomfortzone
Definition
Theoptimumthermalconditioncanbedefinedasthesituationinwhichtheleastextraeffortisrequiredtomaintainthehumanbodys
thermalbalance.Thegreatertheeffortthatisrequired,thelesscomfortabletheclimateisfelttobe.
Themaximumcomfortconditioncanusuallynotbeachieved.However,itistheaimofthedesignertobuildhousesthatprovidean
indoorclimateclosetoanoptimum,withinacertainrangeinwhichthermalcomfortisstillexperienced.
Thisrangeiscalledthecomfortzone.Itdifferssomewhatwithindividuals.Itdependsalsoontheclothingworn,thephysicalactivity,
ageandhealthcondition.Althoughethnicdifferencesarenotofimportance,thegeographicallocationplaysarolebecauseofhabitand
oftheacclimatizationcapacityofindividuals.
Fourmainfactors,besideofmanyotherpsychologicalandphysiologicalfactors,determinethecomfortzone:
airtemperature
temperatureofthesurroundingsurfaces(radiantheat)
relativehumidity
airvelocity

Fig2/22Physicalfactorsofclimaticcomfort
Therelationofthesefourfactorsiswellillustratedinthebioclimaticchart.

Fig2/23Bioclimaticchartaccordingto[13]
Thechartindicatesthezonewherecomfortisfeltinmoderateclimatezones,wearingindoorclothinganddoinglightwork.Italso
assumesthatnotonlytheairtemperature,butalsothetemperatureofsurroundingsurfacesliewithinthisrange.
Thesolairtemperature
Radiationandtemperatureacttogethertoproducetheheatexperiencedbyabodyorsurface.(seeChapter2.4)
Thisisexpressedasthesolairtemperatureandiscomposedofthreetemperatures:
a)outdoorairtemperature
b)solarradiationabsorbedbythebodyorsurface
c)longwaveradiantheatexchangewiththeenvironment
Airandsurfacetemperaturesoftendiffer.Thisisespeciallythecasewheretherearegreatdifferencesbetweendayandnight
temperaturesandalsowherebuildingcomponentsreceivestrongsolarradiation.Toacertainextent,highairtemperaturescanbe
compensatedbylowsurfacetemperaturesorviceversa,asisshowninthegraphbelow.

Fig2/24Comfortzoneindifferingairandsurfacetemperatures
Thetemperaturedifferencebetweenairandsurfaces,however,shouldnotexceed1015Cifcomfortisstilltobemaintained.As
researchhasshown,thisfactislessvalidforwalls,butespeciallyimportantforceilings.
Thegraphshowshowpeoplereacttodifferentsurfaceswhichhaveatemperaturedifferingfromthetemperatureoftheothersurfaces.

Fig2/25Percentageofdissatisfiedpersonsinrelationtounevensurfacetemperatures[121]
Thedesignoftheroofisthereforeoftheutmostimportance.
Thefactthattheroofreceivesthegreatestamountofsolarradiationandreradiatesmostatnightisafurtherreasonforthe
importanceofroofdesign.Atypicalexampleoftheeffectoftheroofdesignoninsidetemperaturesistheplainconcreteroofslabunder
atropicalsunwhichcanresultinanunbearableindoorclimateintheevening,withinsidesurfacetemperaturesofupto50or60C.
Humidity
Thehumiditylevelaffectstheamountthatapersonperspires.Italsoinfluences,therefore,howtemperaturesarefelt.Highhumidity
reducesthecomfortablemaximumtemperaturelowhumidityallowsatoleranceforhighertemperature.Atthelowerlimitofthe
comfortlevelhumidityhaslittleinfluence.
Rangeofcomfortinrelationtohumidity,withlightsummerclothesor1blanketatnight
Humidity% DaytempC NighttempC
030

2230

2027

3050

2229

2026

5070

2228

2026

70100

2227

2025

Humidityalonedoesnothaveaverysignificantinfluenceonthecomfortabletemperaturerange,butincombinationwithaircirculation
itgainsmuchimportance.
Windspeed
Asthefiguresbelowshows,aircirculationinfluencesthetemperaturefelt.Thecoolingeffectofwindincreaseswithlowertemperatures
andhigherwindspeed.

Source:[136]
Thisincreasedcoolingeffectofenhancedwindspeedhasanotherimportantconsequence:thehighertheairtemperature,thehigherthe
windspeedwhichisstillfelttobecomfortable.
Acclimatizationandseasonalchanges
Toacertainextenthumanbeingshavetheabilitytobecomeacclimatized.Thereforetheresidentpopulationfeelslessstressedbya
harshclimatethanapassingtravelercomingfromanothertypeofclimatewould.Analogouslythiscanalsobesaidforseasonalclimatic
changes,towhichpeoplecanbecomeadjusted.Acertaintemperaturemaybefelttobetoocoolinsummerbuttoohotinwinter.
ThetablebelowshowsanexampleoftheseasonalchangesinthecomfortzoneasobservedinDhahran.

Source:[164]
Changesbetweenindoorandoutdoorclimate
Drasticchangeswhichcanoccur,especiallyinairconditionedbuildings,maygivediscomfort(stresssituation)andmayalsobenegative
forhealth.
Clovalueandmetvalue,tolerance
Asmentionedabove,clothingandmetabolicactivityhaveagreateffectonthecomfortzone.Moreover,theyalsoinfluencethe
acceptabletemperaturerange(tolerance).Aphysicallyhighlyactivepersoncanbearquitewidetemperaturedifferences,whereasa
sleepingpersonismoresensitivetodifferences.
Thefigurebelowillustratesthisrelationship.ThetemperaturesarevalidformiddleEuropeanconditions.

Fig2/26Optimumroomtemperatureinrelationtoactivityandclothing
Source:ISO7730(1984):Moderateenvironment,DeterminationofthePMVandPPDindicesandspecificationsforthermalcomfort,and
element29,Zurich,1990
Thewhiteandshadedareasindicateanincidenceoflessthan10%ofpersonsdissatisfied(PPD).Thisillustratesthatthehighertheclo
valueortheactivitylevelofaperson,thegreaterhistolerancefordifferencesintemperaturewillbe.
Example:
Foraseatedpersonwearingasuit(clo=1.0met=1.2)theidealroomtemperatureis21.5Cwithatoleranceof+2C.
Otherfactors
Factorsotherthanclimaticonesinfluencealsothewellbeingoftheinhabitants,forexample,psychosocialcondition,ageandhealth
condition,airqualityandacousticalandopticalinfluences.Althoughthesefactorscannotbeimprovedbyclimaticallyadapted
construction,theyshouldnotbeforgotten,becausetheymayconsiderablyreducethetolerance.Forexample,illpeoplelyingina
hospitalorpeopleunderextremenoisestressaremuchmoresensitivetoclimatethanpeopleenjoyingagardenrestaurant.
Conclusions
Duetothemanyfactorsdescribedabovewhichdeterminethecomfortzone,itisnotpossibletodescribeitaccuratelyinasinglefigure
orchart.Summarizing,thebioclimaticdiagram(Fig2/23)maybeappliedconsideringthefollowingparameters:
Airandsurfacetemperaturemaynotdiffermorethan1015C.
Thetemperatureoftheceilingshouldnotbemuchhigherthantheroomtemperature.
Attheupperlimitofcomfort,thetemperatureshouldbelowerwithincreasinghumidity.
Withincreasedairtemperature,aircirculationshouldbeenhanced.
Thetemperaturethatisfelttobecomfortablechangeswiththeseasons.
Thetemperaturethatisfelttobecomfortablealsodependsonthedegreeofacclimatization.
Thetemperaturethatisfelttobecomfortableisaffectedbytheclothingwornandthephysicalactivitylevel.
Withadditionalclothingandincreasedactivity,thetolerabletemperaturerangeextends.
Drastictemperaturechanges,asmaybethecaseinairconditionedbuildings,shouldbeavoided.
Factorsotherthanclimaticones(e.g.psychosozialfactors)maydecreasethetolerabletemperaturerange.
2.3.3Requirementsforbuildingsaccordingtotheirfunctions
Comfortconditionsasdescribedarenotusuallyfoundoutdoorsandclothingaloneisoftennotsufficienttocompensate.Animportant
functionofbuildingsistoprovidethenecessaryprotectionagainsttheoutdoorclimate.However,notalltypesofbuildingsandnotall
roomsinabuildinghavetofulfillthesamerequirements.
Whiledesigningabuildingandworkingoutthethermalconcept,thefollowingfunctionalparametersshouldbeanalyzedandconsidered:
Whattypeofactivitiesandfunctionswillbecarriedoutinthebuilding?
Whendotheseactivitiestakeplaceduringthecourseoftheday?
Whereandinwhichroomdotheseactivitiestakeplace?
Whataretheanticipatedseasonalchangesforthesefunctions?
Workingspace
Suchareasareusuallyusedindaytimeonly.Asaconsequencethedesignshouldbeoptimizedsuchastoprovidefavourableconditions
indaytime.Theperformanceatnightisoflittleimportance.Inareaswherehardphysicallabouriscarriedout,thetemperatureshould

begenerallylowerthaninareas,wheresittingactivitiesarepredominate.
Residentialspace
Structuresforresidentialpurposesaregenerallyoccupiedthroughoutdayandnight.Theyshouldthereforebedesignedforan
optimizationoverthewholeperiod.Specialattentionshouldbepaidtosleepingareasandtheirnighttimeconditions,asthebodyis
moresensitivetodiscomfortwhenatrest.
Seasonaldifferences
Similarly,requirementsforbuildingsandroomsmaydifferthroughouttheseasons.Ahousewhichisusedmainlyinsummerwould
certainlydifferfromahouseusedmainlyinwinter.
Thedailyroutineoftheinhabitantsmayalsovarywiththeseasons.Forexample,inthehotseason,peoplemaystartworkearly,thus
benefitingfromfavourabletemperatures.Duringthehottesthoursabreakmaybetaken.Atthistimetheindoortemperatureshould
stillbeatacomfortableleveltoallowrelaxation.Thelateafternoonandeveninghoursmaybespentoutdoorswhenthetemperatureis
pastitspeak.Inthecoldseasonthecustomsmaybedifferent:activitiesarestartedlaterinthemorning,agreatpartofthedayis
spentoutdoorsandtheeveningisspentinside.
2.3.4Limitations
Noidealsolution
NoidealsolutionFromthetechnicalandeconomicalpointofviewitisusuallyimpossibletoprovidebuildingsthatfulfilltheclimatic
requirementsofalltheinhabitantsandunderallprevailingclimaticconditionsthroughouttheyear.Asageneralrule,buildingsmaybe
designedtosatisfyabout80%oftheinhabitantsduringapproximately90%ofthetimeduringthecourseoftheyear.Onexceptionally
hotorcolddaysagreaterdegreeofdiscomfortmaybeacceptable.
Thehottestandcoldest10%ofdaysdogenerallynothavetobeconsidered.

2.4Physics
Obviously,indoorclimatedependslargelyonoutdoorclimate,especiallyinthecaseofpassivebuildingsthatareneitherheatednor
cooled.Toacertainextent,however,theindoorclimatecanbeinfluencedwiththehelpofappropriatedesignsandmaterials.This
influencedependsonthephysicalprocessesthatoccur.
Generalprinciples
Inordertogainageneralunderstandingofthemostimportantprocesses,themainphysicalprinciplesareexplained.Togetherwiththe
physicaldatagiveninAppendix5.1aroughassessmentofthecharacteristicsofthemostcommonmaterialsandcomposite
constructionsispossible.
Themainphysicalprocessesthatgoverntheindoorclimateare:
Thermalradiation
Heattransmission
Convection
Heatstorageandtimelag
Internalheatsources
Practicalrecommendations
Thischapterexplainsonlythebasicphysicalphenomena.Evaluationandrecommendationsforparticularmaterialsandforaspecific
situationaregiveninChapter3.
Detailedinformation
Toverifytheexactthermalperformanceofbuildingcomponentsisarathercomplextask.Detailedinformationandcalculationmethods
necessaryforthestudyofspecificproblemscanbeobtainedfromvarioustechnicalbooks[8,11,127]
2.4.1Thermalradiation
(alsoseeChapter3.1.4)
Definition
Radiationistheheattransferfromawarmersurfacetoacoolersurfacewhicharefacingeachother.Thishappensintheformofwaves
andatransmittingmedia(e.g.air)isthusnotrequired.
Emittance
Thewarmersurfaceemitsthermalenergyintheformofradiantheatalwaystowardsacoolersurface.Thequantityofemittedenergy
dependsonthetemperaturedifferencebetweenthesurfaces,andalsoonthematerialproperty(emissivity)ofthewarmersurface.

Fig2/27Emittancee

Absorptionandreflectance
Dependingonthesesurfacepropertiestheradiationreceivedbythecoolersurfacecanbepartlyabsorbedandpartlyreflected.These
propertiesarecalledabsorbance(a)andreflectance(r).
(a)+(r)alwaysequals1.
Lightcolored,smoothandshinysurfacestendtohaveahigherreflectance.Fortheperfecttheoreticalwhitesurfacethereflectanceis1
andtheabsorbanceis0fortheperfectblackbodyabsorberthereflectanceis0andtheabsorbanceis1.

Fig2/28Absorbanceaandreflectancer
Geometricallocation
Thequantityofradiantheatthatabodyreceivesdependsalsoonthegeometricallocationwithregardtotheheatsource.
Surfaceswhichdirectlyfaceeachotherexchangethegreatestthermalradiation,whereassurfacesthatareturnedawayfromeach
otherexchangeless.

Fig2/29
Balancingeffect
Asaconsequenceofthisradiation,thewarmersurfacecoolsdownandthecoolersurfaceheatsup.
(ValuesofemittanceandreflectanceofthemainbuildingmaterialsseeAppendix5.1)
2.4.2Heattransmission
(alsoseeChapter3.1.4)
Heatalwaysflowsfromahighertemperaturetoalowertemperature.Thequantityofheattransmittedthroughamaterialdependson
itsconductivity
thetemperaturedifferencebetweenoutsideandinside
thethicknessofthematerialand
thesurfaceconductance.
Theconductivityk(W/mK)
Inconduction,thespreadofmolecularmovementconstitutestheflowofheat.Therateofheatflowvarieswithdifferentmaterialsand
dependsonitsthermalconductivity(k).Itisdefinedastherateofheatflowthroughaunitareaofunitthicknessofthematerial,bya
unittemperaturedifferencebetweenthetwosides.ThedimensionisW/mC.Thisvalueisusedtocomparethethermalinsulation
effectivenessofmaterialsthatarehomogeneousincomposition.Itsvaluerangesfrom0.03W/mCforthermalinsulationmaterialsup
to400W/mCformetals.Thelowertheconductivity,thebetteraninsulatoristhematerial.
(kvaluesofdifferentmaterialsseeAppendix5.1)
(ThekvaluecorrespondswithlintheGermansystem)

Fig2/30Conductivityk
Airisamostefficientinsulator
Airhasanextremelylowkvalue.Thehigherthepercentageofairenclosedinthematerial,thebetterisitsinsulationvalue,aslongas
convectiondoesnotoccur.Toavoidconvection,theairenclosuresmustbefine.Thefinertheairinclusions,thelessconvectiontakes
place.
Lowweightmaterialstendtocontainmoreair,thustheirconductivityisless.Thisrelationshipisgenerallytrueformaterialsofthe
samekindbutofvaryingdensities,andofthesamematerialswithvaryingmoisturecontent.
Humidmaterialsarepoorinsulators
Waterhasaconductivityof580W/mCversus0.026W/mCforstillair.Therefore,iftheairenclosedintheisreplacedbywater,the
materialsconductivityisrapidlyincreased.Forexample,anasbestosinsulatingboardindryconditionshasaconductivityfourtimes
lowerthanthatofthesameboardsoakedwithwater.
ResistanceR(mK/W)
Theresistancedependsontheconductivityandthethicknessofamaterial.
Itisdefinedasthickness/k=R
Howmuchheatispreventedfrompassingthroughanonhomogenuoussection?
Thetotalresistanceofacompositeconstructionisthesumoftheresistanceofitscomponents,thusR1+R2+R3....=Rtotal

Fig2/31ResistanceR
Heattransferatthesurfaceorsurfaceconductancef(W/mK)
Athinlayerofairfilmseparatesthematerialsurfacefromthesurroundingambientair,andthisairfilmhasaspecificconductance(f)
inrelationtothetransferbetweenmaterialandthesurroundingair.Surfaceconductanceincludestheconvectionandradiant
componentsoftheheatexchangeatthesurfaces.Theresistanceofthesefilmsisexpressedas1/f.
Forinternalsurfacesthisresistance(fi)isaround0.15mC/W,andforexternalsurfaces(fo)itvariesbetween0.1and0.01mC/W
dependingonwindexposure.
TransmittanceU(W/mK)
(seeAppendix5.1)
Addingthesurfaceresistance1/ftoRtotal,thetotalheattransmissioncanbecalculated:

ThereciprocalvalueisthethermaltransmittanceU.
(TheUvaluecorrespondswiththekvalueintheGermansystem)
Quantityoftransmittedheat
TheUvaluerepresentsthetotalheattransmittedthroughacompositeconstructionbyatemperaturedifferenceof1C.Multiplyingit
withtheeffectivetemperaturedifferencegivesthetotalheatenergytransmitted:
Totalheattransmission=U(tito)(W/m)
Thisvalue,however,isonlyvalidforthetheoreticalcaseofstabletemperatureconditionsoveralongerperiod.Inreality,theoutdoor
temperaturefluctuatesduringthecourseoftheday.Thisisofspecialrelevanceinthecaseofwarmclimates,wherethehousesare

neitherheatednorcooledandtheheatflowisthusnotunidirectional.Herethetimelag,thedecrementfactorandthethermalcapacity
playimportantroles.
2.4.3Heatstorage
(alsoseeChapter3.1.4)
Specificheat(Wh/kgK)
Thisisdefinedastheamountofenergyrequiredforaunittemperatureincreaseinaunitmassofmaterial.Thehigherthespecificheat
ofamaterial,themoreheatitwillabsorbforagivenincreaseintemperature.Ofallcommonmaterials,waterhasthehighestspecific
heat.
HeatcapacityQ(Wh/mK)
Thisisdefinedastheamountofheatenergyrequiredforaunittemperatureincreaseinaunitofarea.
Thicknessxspecificmassxspecificheat=heatcapacity(Q)
TimelagO(h)anddecrementfactor
Thetimelagisdefinedasthetimedifferencebetweenthepeakoutersurfacetemperatureandthepeakinnersurfacetemperatureitis
actuallythetimerequiredfortheheattopassthroughamaterial.Itisofimportance,forinstance,inthecasewhereonewantstotake
advantageintheeveningofdaytimesurplusheatenergy.

Fig2/32.Source[8]
Decrementfactor
Thedecrementfactoristheratiobetweenthetemperaturefluctuationontheouterandtheinnersurface.Itisthemeasureofthe
dampingeffect.Generally,thehigherthethermalcapacityorthehigherthethermalresistanceofamaterial,thestrongeristhe
dampingeffect.
Thetimelagcanbecontrolledbytheselectionofmaterialsandtheirthickness.ItdependsonthethermalcapacityQandtheresistance
R.
Forheavymaterialsthetimelagcanberoughlycalculatedusingtheformula
timelagO=1.38+(QxR)1/2
Forcompositeconstructions,anadditionalestimatedlagshouldbeaddedtotheindividualsumofthetimelags.Itiscustomaryfortwo
layersandlightconstructionwallstoaddanadditional0.5hourforthreeormorelayers,orforveryheavyconstructions,one
additionalhourlagisassumed.
(TimelagvaluesofcommonmaterialsandcompositeconstructionsseeAppendix5.1)
Activeheatstoragecapacity
Theheatstoragecapacityandthetimelagofabuildingstructurecanbeutilizedforbalancingtheindoortemperature.Insuchacase,
however,thesocalledactivemassonly,andnottheentirebuildingmass,istakenintoaccount(seeChapter3.1.4).
2.4.4Solarheatgainfactor
Whenselectingconstructionmaterialsinareaswithintensesolarradiationanimportantcriterionisthesolarheatgainfactor(SHF).
Thisisdefinedastherateofheatflowthroughtheconstructionduetosolarradiationexpressedasapercentageoftheincidentsolar
radiation.[8].
SHF(%)=100xtransmittedsolarenergy/incidentsolarenergy
Asthisvaluecanberelatedtotheincreaseintheinnersurfacetemperature,aperformancestandardcanbeestablishedonthebasisof
experience.Itsvalueshouldnotexceed4%inwarmhumidclimatesor3%inhotdryclimates.
AgraphicmethodexistsforcalculatingtheSHF.[120].
ForinstantpracticaluseatablewiththevaluesforcommonconstructionscanbefoundinAppendix5.1
2.4.5Vapourdiffusion
Waterintheformofvapourdiffusesthroughtheouterbuildingshellwhentheoutsideandinsidevapourpressuresdiffer.Vapourusually
diffusesfromthewarmertowardsthecoolersideoftheshell.
Thisphenomenonrequiresattentioninthecasewherethereislikelytobeanareaofcondensationinsidetheshell(e.g.vapourbarrier
onthecoolerside).Thishappenswhenthesaturationpointisreached,particularlyinheatedorconstantlycooledbuildings.Inair

conditionedbuildings,especially,thisaspectrequiresconsideration.However,innaturallyclimatizedbuildingssuchconditionsusuallydo
notoccur.Hencevapourdiffusionisnotdealtwithinthispublication.