1.

0 Establishment of the Principate

1.1 Impact of the death of Caesar, early career of Octavian, Second
Triumvirate and Civil War
1.2 Consequecjmnces and significance of the Battle of Atrium

1.3 Development of the principate: settlements of 27 and 23 BC

1.4 Titles, honours and images of the princeps
2.0 The Augustan princip the Senate: role and responsibilities
2.2 Roles of magistrates and officials
2.3 Significance of equestrians and freedmen
2.4 Augustan reforms: political, social, legal, religious, administrative
2.5 Opposition to Augustus
2.6 Augustus building programs: the Forum Augustum, the Ara Pacis,
Pantheon, Campus Martius
2.7 Literature and propaganda: Virgil, Horace and Livy; role of Maecenas
2.8 Imperial family and problems of the succession; role of imperial women:
Livia, Julia
2.9 Role and contribution of Agrippa
2.10 Death of Augustus
3.0 Augustus and the empire
3.1 Augustus and the army
3.2 Provincial government: imperial and senatorial
3.3 Frontier policy

proconsular
imperium

maius

pater patriae

Granted supreme power over entire Empire whilst allowing A to retain imperium
upon entering Rome
Bestowed upon A in 2nd Settlement
Granted him civil authority in Rome with wide-ranging political powers
2nd Settlement
Administer of the grain supply
Gained by A in 22 BC
Supreme control over Empire affairs

auctoritas

Prestige that provided As source of power

pontifex maximus

Chief priest, Lepidus until his death when A superseded him

Res Gestae Divi Augusti

Funerary inscription recording the achievements of A

Consilium principus
Praetors

Augustus committee of advisors

Imperial administrators

Consuls

Constitutional heads of state, diminished in powers under A

Equites

Equestrian class, landed gentry

Vigiles
Pax Romana
spolia opima
paterfamilias

Roman fire brigade

Peace in Rome
Ultimate military spoils which A monopolised
Head of the household

Praetorian Guard

As personal bodyguard

tribunicia potestas
cura annonae

o
Later Developments
22 BCPlebians demanded Augustus be made Dictator for Life. Augustus refused
and instead gained control over grain supply through cura annonae.
o 18 BCAugustus imperium was upgraded to consular (for life without having to
be Consul).
o

Extent of Augustus auctoritas allowed his powers to transcend any legal

restrictions. Thus his rule was based on personal influence and legally granted
powers.
o Res Gestae: I excelled all in auctoritas, although I possessed no more official power
than others.
o

1.4 Titles, honours and images of the princeps

Titles and Honours
o Although Augustus had power, titles and honours, he knew it was his auctoritas in the state that
gave him his power.
o The power and prestige held in the title of Augustussacred word shared with the god Jupiter,
superhuman connotations.
o He was princeps (first man in Rome).
o He further was bestowed with the titles of:
o Pontifex Maxiumus (chief priest) in 12BC after the position was vacated by Lepidus death.
Conferred dignity greater than power and was useful in restoring state religion.
o Pater Patriciae (father of the country) in 2BC, perhaps his proudest honour made him analogous
to the position of paterfamilias over his subjects.
Titles & Honours
Princeps
Augustus
Imperator
Consul
Proconsular Maius Imperium
Tribunicia Potestas
Pontifex Maximus
Pater Patriciae

Details
(27BC)
(hailed as imperator after Battle of Actium)
(held 13 times)
(23BC) Renewed every 5yrs.
(23BC) Held for 37years.
(12BC)
(2B

Social
o Controlled grain supply, provided relief in form of free grain to the poor.
o Improved water supply.
o Increase in public games and festivals.
o Addressed unemployment problem through his building program, which provided ample jobs.
o Increased the distinctions between social classes of the Roman social hierarchy.
o He made sure senatorial and equestrian blood was kept untainted by the ban of marriage
with freedwomen and the like. Encouraged marriage within these classes.
o Limited slave manumissions to a gradual flow into the citizen body.
o Suetonius: Augustus thought it important to keep the people pure and uncontaminated by all
corruption of foreign and servile blood.
Moral Reforms
o Augustus made a number of moral reforms aimed at restoring dignity and tradition to a Rome
in moral decline.
o In 18 B.C, he made a sumptuary law (limited expenditure on personal items) to deal with the
issue of extravagance in Roman society.
o He passed the lex Iulia adulteries coercendisprosecuted adultery, protected marriage.
o He passed the lex Iulia de maritandis ordinibus, which was also extensively modified by the lex
Papia Poppea of A.D 9, to encourage marriage and the procreation of children.
o Hence, population increased considerably under Augustus.
o However, Tacitus wrote that his strict social policies were largely unsuccessful.
o Nor did the Roman public appreciate the State attempting to intervene in public life.
o As an example he failed, hypocritically engaging in adultery himself.
Legal
o Established the rule of law within the Roman Empire.
o Reduced jury service age from 35 to 30 years.
o Created several new courts:
(Senatorial high court for treason and cases involving senators.

(Imperial court of criminal justice, dealt with a broader range of crimes.

(New court for cases of adultery.
Religious
o Deified Caesar.
o Restored over 80 temples (Res Gestae).
o Shifted focus onto cults favoured by Augustus while some such as Jupiter lost popularity.
o Revived the priestly colleges.
o Allowed development of the Imperial Cult, which worshipped his genius, served propaganda
purposes.
o Discouraged development of foreign cults due to their potentially alienating effect.
Administrative
o Divided Italy into 11 districts and Rome itself into 265 wards with 4 magistrates policing the
city.
o Established Vigiles (fire brigade) in AD 6.
o Built and repaired roads improving transport and movement throughout the Empire.
o Established police force under city prefect.
o Established permanent water board made up of water curators taken from the senatorial class.
o Took over control of grain from the aediles.
Financial
o Established aerarium militaire (military treasurycontrolled by A) and public treasury
(controlled by Senate).
o Divided issuing of coinage between himself (gold and silver) and the Senate (copper and
bronze).
o Set up an imperial mint in Gaul.
o Introduced new indirect taxes to tap new sources of revenue apart from tributes from the
provinces.
o Implemented a fairer tax system through having taxes collected by officials independent of the
governor of each province and accountable to Augustus.
o Took periodic censuses of the people and property throughout the Empire.
2.5 Opposition to Augustus

o Augustus promoted his pax romana through propaganda; hence forming the traditional view his
reign was stable with minimal oppositioZn.
o Augustus did command widespread popularity.
o Accordingly Tacitus argues Opposition did not exist.
o Opposition must, however, have existed, and there is evidence in both Cassius Dio and
Suetonius of discontent in the Senate at times as well as hatred of his ruthless acts in establishing
power.
o The fact there is so little evidence of opposition is most probably due to censorship and
repression of such literature (eg. Cassius Severus books burnt), coupled with Augustan
propaganda, which covered it up.
o Augustus also dealt swiftly and ruthlessly in suppressing all hints of opposition.
o Suetonius: He suppressed a series of sporadic riots and revolts; besides certain conspiracies, all
of them detected before they become dangerous.
Ideological Plots & Conspiracies

/mm[
Namebb n
Aemilius Lepidus

xxxxxPlan
Plotted assassination of Augustus to avenge
his father Lepidus..
Caepio and Murena (co- Conspired against Augustus.
consul to Augustus)
Jones: The only serious conspiracy.
Crassus, Proconsul of Declared war against a tribe and claimed
Macedonia
spoils of battle.
Primus, Proconsul
Macedonia
Rufus

Outcome
Maecenas detected plot.
Executed
Augustus denied Crassus his spoils and
political ambitions, dropped out of
limelight.

of Attacked Thracians without approval

Praetor who wanted consulship in 19 BC.
Plot uncovered, executed
Immensely popular, providing direct
challenge to Augustus.

2.6 Augustus building programs: the Forum Augustum, the Ara Pacis, Pantheon, Campus
Martius

o Augustus launched an impressive building program in Rome, intending to reflect his new age of
peace and prosperity while also leaving a legacy to the ancient world.
o Cassius Dio quotes the famous words of Augustus: I found Rome in bricks and left it clothed
in marble.
o Shotter describes it as the Golden Age of Roman architecture.
o Peace had allowed funds to be pumped into public works rather than the military.
o Buildings were generally lavish.
o Functioned as propaganda, promoted view of Augustus as the saviour of Rome as well as a
traditionalist.
o He gained the support of the plebs through:
(Rebuilding domestic houses and public buildings.
(Repairing dilapidated areas of Rome.
(Providing employment for lower classes.
o Over 80 temples were reconstructed or built, including the temple to Apollo on the Palatine
o Aqueducts and sewer system refurbished.
o Roads and highways built and repaired to improve transport and trade throughout the Empire.
o He delegated the building program to Marcus Agrippa while he was aedile in 33 BC; he was
responsible for a large portion of works.
o A number of public buildings including basilicas, libraries, granaries, amphitheatres, theatres
and warehouses were constructed.
Notable Constructions
Construction
Forum Augustum
(AD 2)

Purposes and Features

o Served propaganda purposes, depicting Augustus as the victorious conqueror,
bringer of peace and reviver of ancient traditions.
o Included the Temple of Mars the Avengerbuilt to commemorate battle won at
Philippi.
o Included a statue of Augustus, portrayed as a semi-divine, with the etching Father
of his country.
o Luxurious and ostentatious, the prime building intended to be left as a legacy.

Ara Pacis (9 BC)

Pantheon (27 BC)

Campus Martius

o In the Campus Martius.

o Depicted Augustus as a continuer of Roman tradition.
o Showed renewed interests in the family and morality, highlighted values of piety
and productivity.
o Hadrill notes it lacked triumphal imagery, reflecting era of peace.
o In the Campus Martius.
o Constructed by Agrippa.
o Dedicated to traditional pantheon of gods, thus kept in line with tradition.
o Commemorated Actium.
o Luxurious reliefs and works of art.
o The field of Mars, an open space outside the city boundary to the North of Rome.
o Constituted collection of public buildingsPorticoes, a library, mausoleum for
Augustus and his family, Theatre of Marcellus, the Ara Pacis, Agrippas thermae
(public baths), the Pantheon and several temples.
o Promoted image, eg. at Mausoleum there was a colossal bronze statue of
Augustus.

2.7 Literature and propaganda: Virgil, Horace and Livy; role of Maecenas
Propaganda
o Augustus utilised a wide range of propaganda means in order to promote and justify his regime.
o Included: literature, buildings, statues, Imperial cult, coinage, public games and the Res
Gestae.
o Grant believes it was the basis of his power acting as an iron fist inside a velvet glove.
o Golden Age of Roman literature.
o Censorship of critical works.
o Augustus took an active interest in several poets and historians realising their potential for
propaganda.
o Suetonius: He fostered the talent of his age in every way.
Writer
Virgil

Horace

Ovid

Livy

Works
Poet, best known for three major worksthe Eclogues (or Bucolics), the
Georgics and the Aeneid.
The Aeneid particular alludes to Augustus in depicting an ideal Roman
exhibiting virtues of duty, loyalty and piety.
Lyrical poet and satirist.
His Odes expressed support for Augustan reform.
He praised and glorified the Empire and Augustus throughout his works.
While Augustus stands guard, peace is assured, the peace no power can break
Poet
His Metamorphoses predicts a divine future for Augustus.
Proclaims Augustus as Caesar and God.
Banished to Tomis in AD 8 for political reasons.
Historian who shared a great relationship with Augustus.

Draws parallels in Histories between the great aspects of ancient Rome and the
Augustan Age, also covering the Augustan Age.
All praised Augustus and promoted the Golden Age focusing primarily on
themes of peace, luxury and prosperity.
Role of Maecenas
o A wealthy equestrian and close friend of Augustus.
o Political advisor to Augustus and possessed a highly influential diplomatic role, particularly
negotiating early treaties with Antony such as the Treaty of Brundisium.
o He also acted as patron of literature and the arts.
o Shuckberg: Maecenas was in effect the emperors minister for propaganda.
o Created an inner circled of talented writers for Augustus, personally introducing both Horace
and Virgil to the princeps.
o He personally sponsored both, supplying Horace with a property and allowing Virgil to write the
Georgics.
2.8 Imperial family and problems of the succession; role of imperial women: Livia, Julia
Problems of Succession
o Rogerson: His attempts to foster a successor had been hampered throughout by death,
recalcitrance and individual members of his familyTiberius was by no means his first choice
heir.
o Problems of succession stemmed from a wide range of factors:
(Unprecedented nature of position.
o There was no protocol in place to determine how succession would take place.
o Due to Roman law he could not simply choose a successor to his titles.
o
Thus he had to instead aid a potential successor in accumulating the necessary
experience, power and auctoritas in order to take over from him as princeps.
o
He did this through granting constitutional powers and establishing family links
with his potential successors.
(Lack of sons.
o Dealt with this through marriage, Livia gave him two sons, and adoption, through marrying
his daughter Julia to potential successors.
(Deaths. He outlived most of his potential heirs.
(Scandals and individual ambition.

Name
Marcellus

Agrippa

Relationship
Nephew (son of
Octavia) and sonin law

Result
- Participated in Augustus triple triumph of 29 BC.
- Initiated into military life in 26 BC accompanying Augustus to
Spain.
- Married to Julia.
- Admitted into Senate in 24 BC.
- When Augustus fell ill he was surprisingly not marked out for
succession upon his death most likely due to his lack of experience.
- Died in 23 BC.
Close
adviser, - Intended successor when Augustus fell ill.
accomplished
- Granted proconsular imperium over Eastern provinces.

general.
Son-in-law
21 BC

- Gradually he accumulated a great number of powers, posing a

from potential threat.
- Solved this by marrying off to Julia in 21 BC.
- Proconsular imperium renewed and granted tribunicia potestas
for five years in 18 BC.
- Died in 12 BC.
Gaius Caesar Grandson (son of - Elected consul in 6 BC.
Julia and Agrippa) - Died in AD 4.
and adopted son
Lucius CaesarGrandson (son of - Died in AD 2.
Julia and Agrippa)
and adopted son
Agrippa
Grandson
- Denied advancement whilst Tiberius was accumulating powers.
Postumus
(youngest son of - Disowned by Augustus and exiled for unknown reasons.
Agrippa and Julia)
Tiberius
Stepson (son of - Accompanied him in his triple triumph of 29 BC.
Livia) and son-in- - Initiated into military life in 26 BC accompanying Augustus to
law
Spain.
- Remained in a subordinate position to Marcellus.
- Married off to Julia after Agrippas death, 12 BC.
- Held second consulship in 7 BC and celebrated his first triumph for
victories in Germany.
- Received tribunician powers for five years.
- Retired to Rhodes in 6 BC (either in outrage according to Dio
Cassius at the public preference shown for the young boys Gaius and
Lucius or in an attempt to prove he was indispensable).
- Returned to Rome in AD 2.
- Adopted as Augustus son in AD 4.
- Received proconsular maius imperium and tribunicia potestas for
ten years in AD 13 as well as extensive administration of volatile
Germany.
-Tiberius control was now co-extensive with that of Augustus.
- Finally succeeded Augustus in AD 14 as emperor.

Drusus

Stepson
Livia)

(son

- Not As first choice, and would have preferred Julian heir rather than
Claudian.
of - Died on campaign in Germany in 9 BC.

Role of imperial women

o Imperial women played an extremely important role in strengthening political connections with
Augustus allies.
o Literature of the period reflects increasing recognition of womens potential.
Octavia
o Augustus sister.
o Promoted as the embodiment of the ideal Roman woman.
o In 40 BC she is married to Antony in a statement of political unity.
o Provided Marcellus, original intended successor.

Livia
o Was married to Tiberius Claudius Nero, produced sons Drusus and Tiberius.
o Divorced him and re-married Augustus in 38 BC.
o Well educated, intelligent and had strong influence on Augustus.
o Involved in the repairing of temples and public buildings, several buildings such as the portico of
Livia even beared her name.
o Played public role in society toured provinces with Augustus, accompanied him for religious
celebration and on public occasions.
o Schemed for her son Tiberius succession, ultimately successful.
o Outlived Augustus, died at age 87 in AD 29.
o Suetonius: Wealth, good looks, intelligence, combined with status of husband made her role
possible.
o Two statues of her in Rome, attested to her respectability.
Julia

o Born to Augustus first wife Scribonia.

o Was successively married off to potential successors to Augstus.
(Marcellus in 23 BC.
(Agrippa in 21 BC (with whom she produced five children).
(Tiberius in 11 BC.
o According to Jones Augustus used her as a political pawn in showing preference for future
successors.
o Exiled for adultery in 2 BC.
2.9 Role and contribution of Agrippa
Marcus Agrippa
o Agrippa was a member of the equestrian class and a close friend and advisor of Augustus.
o When Augustus fell ill in 23 BC he showed clear signs that Agrippa was intended to be his
successor.
o Married off to Julia in 21 BC with whom he had five children.
o Died in 12 BC.
Titles
o Successively held consulship, first in 37 BC, then in 31 and 28 BC with Augustus.
o Aedile in 33 BCable to implement Augustan building regime.
o Appointed inspector-general of the Eastern provinces.
o Granted proconsular imperium over all imperial provinces.
o Given maius imperium over senatorial provinces and tribunicia potesta in 18 BC for five
years thus, virtually co-regent with Augustus (and depicted as such on coins from this period).
Military and Naval Achievements
o He was an accomplished naval and military tactician.
o Pivotal role in defeating Sextus Pompey, Battle of Naulochus.
o Pivotal role at the Battle of Actium.
o Successful against trans-Rhine and Aquitanian tribes.
Administrative Achievements

o
o
o
o

Responsible for supervising the extensive building program in Rome.

Constructed new aqueduct and first public baths.
Built Pantheon.
Completed many buildings commenced under Caesar.

2.10 Death of Augustus

Death & Will
o After ruling for almost 45 years he died of old age at Nola on 19 August AD 14, aged 77.
o Ancient sources give varying accounts Tacitus and Dio record that Livia was suspected of
being involved in his death after Augustus had visited his grandson Agrippa Postumus, possibly
thinking of making him his successor.
o Upon Augustus death Tiberius was declared master of the state.
o His will left 2/3rds of his estate to Tiberius and the remaining third to Livia.
o He gave generously to the Roman people40,000,000 for the people, and substantial sums for
members of the military.

3. Augustus and the Empire

3.0 Assessment of Career

o Brought a period of unity, peace and prosperity to Western Europe, the Middle East and North
Africa.
o Established political stability and was so successful in centralising power that the system of the
Principate endured for almost 200 years.
o Shuckberg: Augustus was the most successful ruler known to us.
o Shotter: Augustus provided the firm and stable basis from which sprang the expansion and
prosperity of the next two centuries, and which enabled Rome and the Empire to withstand the
waywardness of many emperors who came after Augustus.
o Cicero: the young man should be praised, honoured, and immortalised.
3.1 Augustus and the army

o Ultimately allowed him to initially establish power and later maintain control.
o Salmon: The real basis of the Principate was the Emperors military power.
o Soldiers loyalty was ensured through propaganda, bribes and war booty as well
as through making them swear an oath to him.
o His proconsular maius imperium gave him supreme power over the Empire
including control of the military, the military treasury as well as Romes foreign
policy.
o A rigorous training regime ensured the army was of a high calibre.
o He ensured army was busy regularly sending legions out on campaigns rather than
stationing them along the frontier as a defensive garrison force, which increased
stability within Empire.
o Key role in uniting and Romanising the Empire, spreading the Latin language and
Roman culture.
o Also enacted important political role in suppressing his opposition.
Military Reforms
o Disbanded half his legions, from 60 to 28, and professionalised the army aiming to
emphasise upon quality rather than quantity.
o Made the soldiers swear personal oaths of allegiance.
o Fixed terms of service were introduced, initially 16 years but increased to 20 years in
AD 6.
o Standardised legions granting them titles and numbers.
o Established the aerarium militaire (military treasury), which funded soldiers
wages (fixed as 225 denarii/year) and offered a pension.
o Created veterans colonies.
o Established Praetorian Guard, personal guard of most talented troops to
accompany himself on campaigns.
o Augustus personally appointed commanders of legions, often they were members
of his own family to ensure allegiance.
Composition of the Army

o The military was recruited from Roman citizens and freeborn inhabitants of the
provinces.
o He established a force of the Praetorian Guard and 28 legions, which were
supplemented by auxiliary units.
Force
Praetorian
Guard

Divisions
9 cohorts of
1000 men
each

Legions

28 Legions
(25 by AD 9
after the
Varus
Disaster)

Auxiliary Units

Organised into
cohorts of
500

Roles & Responsibilities

-Service: 16 years
-Consisted of talented and upstanding citizen soldiers
selected exclusively from Italy.
-Served as Augustus personal bodyguard, stationed in
Rome and accompanied the princeps when he left
Rome.
-When not fighting they were involved in public works
such as roadwork.
-Paid generous salary in order to ensure support = 375
denarii according to Cassius Dio.
-Service: 20 years
-Swore oath of allegiance.
-Paid 225 denarii and assured of pension and future
settlement in a colony.
-Maintained provincial order and defended frontiers.
-Took part in public works when not fighting.
-Service: 25 years
-Non-citizen wing of the army recruited from the areas in
which they served, generally raised when needed
and subsequently disbanded.
-Received citizenship upon retiremen

3.2 Provincial government: imperial and senatorial

o Empire was divided into a number of senatorial and imperial provinces.

o Augustus regularly went on tours of inspection to ensure provinces were being
properly managed.
Imperial Provinces
Under the control of Augustus.
2/3 of the Empire.
Mostly volatile, unstable areas or those recently annexed.
Contained the majority of the legions.
Administered by legates and financial administrators (procurators) chosen by
Augustus himself. These were ex-consuls or ex-praetors or in Egypt a member of
the equestrian class.
o Legati were granted long terms of service (three years) in order to implement farreaching reforms and stabilise administration within each province.
o They were also paid a substantial salary by the State rather than relying on
plundering the provinces coffers which had systemised corruption.
o
o
o
o
o

Senatorial Provinces
o Under the control of the Senate.

o However, proconsular imperium allowed Augustus to interfere in these provinces

when necessary.
o Mostly provinces that had been under Roman control for a prolonged period of time,
17 in total.
o Did not contain legions except in Africa.
o Under control of a proconsular senator, selected by lot.
3.3 Frontier policy

o Role of army in later years turned to protecting Empires frontier and pacifying annexed lands
and provinces to maintain peace.
o Throughout Augustus reign the situation in several provinces remained volatile.
o Expansionist policy was adopted marking the largest expansion of the provinces of the
Roman Empireterritory expanded in Germany as well as to a limited extent in the East.
o However, after the Varus disaster of AD 9 Augustus mostly concentrated on fortifying
Empires borders.
o Salmon: The Pannonic revolt and the Varian Disaster revealed that the Empire had reached the
limits of its military resources and therefore of its territorial expansion. In Augustus judgement it
was time to call a halt.
o Jones views guarding of borders as ultimately successful under Augustus and establishing set
borders which would remain unchanged for centuries to come.
o Natural boundaries were utilised.
o Large fortified camps were built at strategic points along the border.
o Road networks throughout the Empire allowed for the rapid movement of troops.
Frontier
Spain
Gaul
Egypt and the East

Parthia
Judaea
Rhine

History
Agrippa eventually pacified Spain by 19 BC and divided it into three provinces.
Divided into four provinces in 26 BC.
Mostly followed a policy of non-aggression and non-expansion.
Rome relied on its natural resources and it was strategically important in acting as
gateway to Eastern regions.
Frontier was, however, extended to First Cataract by Augustus in 22 BC.
Roman control re-affirmed in 20 BC by Tiberius
Annexed in AD 6 by Augustus
o Most problematic area of the frontier.
o Germanic tribes made raids into the province of Gaul during years 29, 17-17
and 12 BC.
o Augustus moved boundary back to the Elbe River, from 12-9 BC Drusus
conquered this area but died in 9 BC.
o Tiberius continued consolidating territory in Western Germanica.
o Rhine Frontier was relatively peaceful until AD 9 when Varus was appointed
commander of the Rhine.
o Varus Disaster (AD 9): 17th, 18th and 19th legions massacred in the Battle of
Teutoberg Forest and Varus committed suicide.
o The Varus Disaster is often seen as Augustus biggest failure.
o Salmon: The Pannonic revolt and the Varian Disaster revealed that the
Empire had reached the limits of its military resources and therefore of its
territorial expansion.
o Tiberius successfully re-established the Rhine Frontier.

HSC ESSAY PLANS