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Abstract | Ageing-associated changes that affect articular tissues promote the development of
osteoarthritis (OA). Although ageing and OA are closely linked, they are independent processes.
Several potential mechanisms by which ageing contributes to OA have been elucidated.
This Review focuses on the contributions of the following factors: age-related inflammation
(also referred to as inflammaging); cellular senescence (including the senescence-associated
secretory phenotype (SASP)); mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress; dysfunction in
energy metabolism due to reduced activity of 5AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), which is
associated with reduced autophagy; and alterations in cell signalling due to age-related changes
in the extracellular matrix. These various processes contribute to the development of OA by
promoting a proinflammatory, catabolic state accompanied by increased susceptibility to cell
death that together lead to increased joint tissue destruction and defective repair of damaged
matrix. The majority of studies to date have focused on articular cartilage, and it will be important
to determine whether similar mechanisms occur in other joint tissues. Improved understanding
of ageing-related mechanisms that promote OA could lead to the discovery of new targets for
therapies that aim to slow or stop the progression of this chronic and disabling condition.
Telomere attrition
The shortening and
deterioration of the
protective caps on the ends
of chromosomes that is
associated withageing.
Correspondence to R.F.L.
richard_loeser@med.unc.edu
doi:10.1038/nrrheum.2016.65
Published online 19 May 2016
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Key points
Ageing-associated changes promote the development of osteoarthritis (OA),
but ageing and OA are independent processes
Several hallmarks of ageing could contribute to OA: genomic instability, telomere
attrition, epigenetic alterations, loss of proteostasis, dysregulated nutrient sensing,
mitochondrial dysfunction, cellular senescence, stem cell exhaustion, and altered
intercellular communication
The increase in fat mass and related metabolic changes that occur with ageing can
result in ageing-related inflammation (referred to as inflammaging), a chronic
low-grade systemic proinflammatory state
Elevated levels of reactive oxygen species can contribute to OA by causing oxidative
damage and disrupting normal cell signalling, leading to imbalanced anabolic and
catabolic activity and ultimately cell death
Chondrocytes can undergo cellular senescence with age and OA in response to
growth signals released as a result of underlying cellular damage
The non-enzymatic crosslinking of collagen that occurs with ageing alters the
mechanical properties of cartilage, and the resulting changes to mechanotransduction
pathways reduce extracellular matrix synthesis by chondrocytes
Cellular senescence
A phenotypic state that can
emerge in response to invitro
or invivo cellular stress.
Senescent cells do not divide
upon stimulation and often
display an altered secretory
profile along with increased
lysosomal activity.
Senescence-associated
secretory phenotype
(SASP). A cellular phenotype
that is characterized by the
production of high levels of
certain inflammatory cytokines
and matrix metalloproteinases.
The SASP represents a
mechanism by which senescent
cells may function in a
non-autonomous fashion.
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Box 1 | Age-related factors that contribute to osteoarthritis development
Reduced muscle mass and increased fat mass alter joint loading and are associated
with an increase in adipokine and cytokine production, resulting in low-grade
systemic inflammation109.
Changes in the extracellular matrix including the accumulation of advanced
glycation end-products, reduced aggrecan size, reduced hydration and increased
collagen cleavage alter the mechanical properties of cartilage and make it more
susceptible to degeneration31.
Extracellular matrix disruption and reduced cell density in the meniscus and
ligaments promote degeneration and can potentially alter joint mechanics8,9.
The function of subchondral bone is impaired due to reduced numbers of osteocytes
and altered mineral composition10.
Mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress and reduced autophagy in
chondrocytesalters their function, promoting catabolic processes and cell death
over anabolic processes31.
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Growth signals:
Growth factors released from the
extracellular matrix
Altered mechanical stimulation
Arrest signals:
DNA damage and oxidative stress
Inammatory joint environment
Functional eects:
Secretion of cytokines and MMPs
Permanent cell cycle exit
in chondrocytes
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Mitochondrion
Peroxiredoxin
hyperoxidation
SOD2
ETC
O2
Mitochondrial
mass and number
mtDNA
Mitochondrial
biogenesis
ETC function
H2O2
ROS production
Antioxidant levels
Oxidative stress
Damage to lipids,
proteins and DNA
Disturbances in signalling:
IGF1 signalling (via oxidative inhibition
of IRS1 and AKT)
MAPK signalling (via phosphorylation
of p38 MAPKs, ERK1 and ERK2)
Protein thiol oxidation
Chondrocyte
catabolism
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Advanced glycation
end-products
(AGEs). A diverse set of
molecules formed by
non-enzymatic reaction of
proteins with reducing sugars
such as glucose and ribose.
Anabolic dynamic
compression
A process by which physical
compression of cells within a
tissue promotes an anabolic
response by the cells.
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Box 3 | Therapeutic targeting of ageing-related processes in osteoarthritis
Interventions designed to extend healthspan by targeting systemic ageingrelatedprocesses could potentially delay or prevent various chronic diseases,
including osteoarthritis111,112.
Senolytics, such as dasatanib and quercetin, are being designed to specifically kill
senescent cells; removal of these cells might alleviate their harmful effects on
neighbouring cells, including the release of proinflammatory factors that characterize
the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP)62.
Agents that activate 5AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), such as metformin,
could restore physiological levels of autophagy and promote proteostasis112.
Sirtuin activators could restore normal nutrient sensing and energy metabolism112.
Antioxidants targeted to the mitochondria or designed to restore homeostatic
redoxsignalling could counteract mitochondrial dysfunction and altered
intracellularsignalling113.
Conclusions
Researchers are becoming increasingly interested in
elucidating the mechanisms by which ageing promotes
the development and progression of OA. Studies in the
early 2000s detailed age-related changes in the extracell
ular matrix, such as the accumulation of AGEs, which
could promote OA by altering the mechanical proper
ties of joint tissues. Subsequent research has focused
on age-related cellular changes that include not only an
accumulation of damaged proteins, lipids and DNA, but
also alterations in mitochondrial function, levels of ROS
and energy metabolism that disrupt cell signalling and
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Acknowledgements
Author contributions
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