1

1.1

Wilsons Theorem

Let p be an integer greater than one. Then

p is prime (p 1)! 1

1.2

mod p.

Fermats Little Theorem

For prime p and any a Z such that a 6 0 mod p, we have

ap1 1

mod p.

Note: p, a, :
ap a mod p

1.3

Eulers Theorem

For m 2 Z+ and any a Z such that (a, m) = 1,

a(x) 1

mod m

where (m) is the number of invertible integers modulo m.

Note: Being invertible modulo m is the same as being relatively prime to m, so we can describe (m) concretely as
follows:
(m) = #{a : 1 a m, (a, m) = 1}.

1.4

R3 (x) = 1

R5 (x) = 2
,x, x?
R7 (x) = 3

R11 (x) = 4
:

R3 (a) = 1

R5 (a) = 0
R7 (a) = 0

R11 (a) = 0

R3 (c) = 0

R5 (c) = 0
R7 (c) = 1

R11 (c) = 0

R3 (b) = 0

R5 (b) = 1
R7 (b) = 0

R11 (b) = 0

R3 (d) = 0

R5 (d) = 0
R7 (d) = 0

R11 (d) = 1

,
a5, 7, 11R3 (a) = 1, 5 7 11 = 385.
b3, 7, 11R5 (b) = 1, 3 7 11 = 231.
c3, 5, 11R7 (b) = 1, 3 5 11 = 330.
d3, 5, 7R11 (d) = 1, 3 5 7 2 = 210.
, a + 2b + 3c + 4d = 2667x.
[5, 7, 9, 11] = 1155,
x = 2667 + 1155k = 367 + 1155t, , k, t Z.
367.

2
2.1

Lucass Theorem
Lemma

Let p be prime and 1 k p 1. Then

Ckp 0

mod p

Pf: We have

p!
k!(p k)!
p
(p 1)!
Ckp =
k (k 1)!(p k)!
p p1
Ckp = Ck1
k
p1
kCkp = pCk1
Ckp =

Since p - k, then p |

2.2

Ckp .

QED

Lemma

Let p be prime, we have

(x + 1)p xp + 1

mod p

Pf: By the above lemma, we have

p
(x + 1)p C0p + C1p x + C2p x2 + Cp1
xp1 + Cpp xp

C0p + Cpp xp
1 + xp

2.3

mod p

Lemma

Let p be prime, we have

r

(x + 1)p xp

mod p

for every integer r 0.

Pf: From the above lemma, we see that
2

(x + 1)p ((x + 1)p )2

(xp + 1)2
2

xp + 1

mod p

Using mathematical induction, this proof can be done.

2.4

Lucass Theorem

Let p be a prime number, and let r and c be written in p-ray notation

r = rk r2 r1 r0 = r0 + r1 p + r2 p2 + + rk pk
c = ck c2 c1 c0 = c0 + c1 p + c2 p2 + + ck pk ,
where 0 ri < p and 0 ci < p. Then
Ccr = Ccr00 Ccr11 Ccr22 Ccrkk

mod p

6 2
4

51
sin 18 =
p4

10 2 5

sin 36 =
4
6+ 2
sin 75 =
4

6+ 2
4

10 + 2 5

cos 18 =
4

5+1
cos 36 =
4
6 2
cos 75 =
4

sin 15 =

cos 15 =
p

: (1, 2), (1, 6), (2, 7), (4, 93)?

f (x) = A + B(x + 1) + C(x + 1)(x 1) + D(x + 1)(x 1)(x 2),
x
f (x)

-1
-2

1
6
6(2)
1(1)

2
7
76
21

=4
14
2(1)

937
42

=1
431
41

= 1
14(1)
4(1)

4
93
= 43

= 14

=3

, A, B, C, D-2, 4, -1, 3.

5
5.1

(ordinary generating function; generating function for combination)

{a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . ar , . . . }.
f (z) = a0 + 1a1 z + a2 z 2 + + ar z r +
:
1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + . . .
1x
1
= (1 + x + x2 + x3 + . . . )2 = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 + . . .
(2)
(1 x)2
1
= (1 + x + x2 + x3 + . . . )n = (1 x)n
(3)
(1 x)n

X
=
C n r(x)r
(1)

=
=
=
=

n=0

n(n 1) (n r 1)
(x)r
r!
n=0

(1)r

n=0

X
n=0

n(n + 1) (n + r 1)
(x)r
r!

C n+r1 rxr
Hrn xr

n=0

n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1)(n + 2) 3

x +
x + ...
2!
3!
(4)(1 + x)n = C0n + C1n x + C2n x2 + C3n x3 + . . .
= 1 + nx +

= 1 + nx +

n(n 1) 2 n(n 1)(n 2) 3

x +
x + . . . r R()
2!
3!

: n Z+ .
r > 0, Crn = (n)(n1)(n2)(nr+1)
.
r!
n
r = 0, C 0 = 1
(4), n 0, . n < 0, .

5.2

(exponential generating function; generating function for permutation)

{a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , ar , . . . }, :
f (z) = a0 + a1 z +
n Z+ ,

a3 x3
ar z r
a2 z 2
+
+ +
+
2!
3!
r!

(1 + x)n = C0n + C1n x + C2n x2 + + Cnn xn

= P0n + P1n x +
3

P2n x2
P n xn
+ + n
2!
n!

:
x2
+
2!
x2

=1x+
2!

ex = 1 + x +
ex

5.3

1: , . 17, ?
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, (x + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + x6 ).

f (x) = (x + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + x6 )4
x17 . :
f (x) = x4 (1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 )4

4
1 x6
= x4
1x
= x4 (1 x6 )4 (1 x)4
(1 x6 )4 (1 x)( 4), x13 . x13 :
4 13
C04 14 H13
x + C14 (x6 )1 H74 x7 + C24 (x6 )2 H14 x

= 560x13 480x13 + 24x13

= 104x13

5.4

1: a, a, a, b, b, ?
a, 0, 1, 2, 3, (1 +
:

x
1!

x2
2!

x3
3! ).

b, 0, 1, 2, (1 +

x
1!

x2
2! ).

x
x2
x3
x
x2
+
+ )(1 + + )
1!
2!
3!
1!
2!
1
1
1
1
1
x2
1
1
1
x3
= 1 + ( + )x + (
+ + ) 2!
+(
+
+ ) 3!
1! 1!
1!1! 2! 2!
2!
1!2! 1!2! 3!
3!
1
1
x4
1
1
4
+(
+
) 4!
+ ( + 5! x
1!3! 2!2!
4!
2! 3!

f (x) = (1 +

x4
4! :

1
1
4!
4!
+
) 4! =
+
= 10
1!3! 2!2!
1!3! 2!2!

5.5

(): an +pan1 +qan2 , q 6= 0. K(x) = x2 +px+q.

G(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + . . .

G(x) + pxG(x) + qx2 G(x) = a0 + (a1 + pa0 )x + (a2 + pa1 + qa2 )x2 + (a3 + pa2 + qa1 )x3 + . . .

:
G(x) =

a0 + (a1 + pa0 )x
1 + px + qx2

 r1 , r2 ,
a0 + (a1 + pa0 )x
(1 r1 x)(1 r2 x)
A
B
=
+
1 r1 x 1 r2 x
= A(1 + r1 x + r12 x2 + . . . ) + B(1 + r2 x + r22 x2 + . . . )

X
X
=A
r1k xk + B
r22 x2 , for someA, B R

G(x) =

k=0

k=0

an = Ar1n + Br2n

ai A, B.

5.6

bn
an
ebn
np
sin an cos an

Ban
Bebn
B1 + B2 n + + Bp nn
B1 sin an + B2 cos an

1: {an }, {bn },
an+1 = 1 an + 1 bn + 1
bn+1 = 2 an + 2 bn + 2
,

1
2
1 , 2 ,
(1) 12 + 22 = 0 ,

1
2

an = k1 n1 + k2 n2
bn = m1 n1 + m2 n2

(2) 12 + 22 6= 0, 1 6= 1, 2 6= 1

an = t1 n1 + t2 22 + t3
bn = s1 n1 + s2 22 + s3

2:{an } an+2 = an+1 + an + , n = 0, 1, 2 . . . .




1 0
1 , 2 ,
(1) 6= 0,

an+1 = m1 n1 + m2 n2

(2) = 0, 1 6= 1, 2 6= 1,

6.1

an+1 = s1 n1 + s2 n2 + s3

1: ENGINE4, ?
. EN 0,1,2, (1 + x +
0,1, (1 + x).:
E

{ G
E
x
x2 z }| { z }| {
f (x) = (1 + x + ) (1 + x + ) (1 + x) (1 + x) .
2!
2!
z

}|

{z

}|

x2
2! ).

GI

E, N, GI x2! , x2! , 11, :

x2
x4
4!
x2

11=
=
2!
2!
2!2!
2!2!

x4
4!

4!
, x4! 2!2!
, ENGINE2E2N, GI . f (x) x4!
. , 102.

2: 84, , ?
2

A, B, C, D. 0, x + x2! + x3! + .
:
A

}|
}|
}|
}|
z
z

{ z
{ z
{ 
{
x2
x2
x2
x2
x3
x3
x3
x3
x+
x+
x+
f (x) = x +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
2!
3!
2!
3!
2!
3!
2!
3!
2

A, B, C, D1, 2, 2, 3, Ax, BC x2! , D x3! , x8!

. :

 8
x2
x3
8!
x
x2

=
x
2!
2!
3!
2!2!3!
8!
8

f (x), x8! .
, ex , :

f (x) = (ex 1)4

= e4x 4e3x + 6e2x 4ex + 1

(4x)2
(4x)3
(4x)8
+
+ +
+ ...
2!
3!
8!
(3x)2
(3x)3
(3x)8
e3x = 1 + 3x +
+
+ +
+ ...
2!
3!
8!
(2x)2
(2x)3
(2x)8
e2x = 1 + 2x +
+
+ +
+ ...
2!
3!
8!
x2
x3
x8
ex = 1 + x +
+
+ +
+ ...
2!
3!
8!

e4x = 1 + 4x +

x8! 48 4(3)8 + 6(2)8 4 = 40824.

, x2 = ax + b. f (n) = n + n ,
f (n + 2) = af (n + 1) + bf (n)

n, k, ,
an = (k 1)n + (k 1) (1)n , n 2, a1 = k

9
9.1

nAx2 + ax + b = 0, A2 + bA + cI = 0.

9.2

A, Ak I(k R)G, A = kI + G. :
n
n
An = (kI + G)n = Cnn k n E + Cn1
k n1 G + Cn2
k n2 G2 + + C1n1 kGn1 + Gn

9.3

A, A2 , A3 , , An .

9.4

Rank=1

rank(A) = 1, A, An . : rank(A) = 1, A(
),

a
b
c
A = ma mb mc
na nb nc
, ~a = [1, m, n]t , ~b = [a, b, c], A

1 
A = ~at ~b = m a
n


c .

,

1
t = [a, b, c] m = a + mb + nc = k
~b~a
n
, k R.

. . . (~at~b)
An = (~at~b)
{z
}
|
n

= ~at (~b~at ) . . . (~b~at ) ~b

|
{z
}
n1

n1~

n1

= ~a k
=k

9.5

A1 , 2 . D =


1
0


0
, P ,
2
D = P 1 AP

A = PD P

10
10.1

 n

=P 1
0


0
P 1
n2

A, B, C, D, AC : CB = AD : DB, C, DAB, A, B, C, D.
:
AC : CB = AD : DB
AC : (AB AC) = AD : (AD AB)
AB
AB
1=1
AC
AD
1
2
1
+
=
AC
AD
AB
AC, AB, AD, .

10.2

1. M, N AB, A, BM N .
2. OA, B,

OA = OB = OM ON M, N AB

3. M, N AB,

1
1
2
=
+
AB
AM
AN

(AB, AM , AN ), .
4. 4ABC, AD, AEBAC, , BCD, ED, EBC.
5. OP OP A, P B. AB, P CD, ABE, C, DP E.

6. AB, BC, CD, DAA, B, C, D, E, F , AC, BD, EF

,
(1) M, N EF
(2) K, N AC
(3) K, M P B

7. F A, B, M , M, F M, F AB.

11

(Apollonius)

, A, B, m, n, P P A : P B = m : n:
1. m = n, P AB.
2. m 6= n, CDABAC : CB = AD : DB = m : n , CD.

12
12.1

ABCD, ,
AB + CD = BC + DA

12.2

ABCD, ,
ABCD A + C = B + D

13

14
14.1

A, B, C, P P A, P B, P C, . :
(1) 4ABC120 , P , AP B = BP C = CP A = 120 .
(2) 4ABC120 , P .

14.2

(1) 4ABC4ABD, 4BCE, 4CAF , P , .

(2) 4ABC4ABD, 4BCE, 4CAF , AE, BF , CD, P .

15

E, G, F , .EG = 2EF .

16

, 4ABCE, M1 , M2 , M3 . EA, EB, ECH, I, J. f M1 , M2 , M3

. f , .

17

(Menelaus)
E, G, F t

Figure 1:
AD
BF
CE

DB
FC
EA

Figure 2:
PF:
AD
x BF
CE
z
= ,
= yz,
=
y
x
DB
FC
EA
, .
Note: .

18

(G.Ceva)

4ABCP , AP, BP, CP BC, CA, ABD, E, F ,

BD CD
AF

=1
DC
EA
FB
Pf: P A, B, C, 4ABC, , .
Note:

19

ABCD ,
AC BD = BC AD + AB CD
Note: 4ABC
b2 = a2 + ac

B = 2C

10

20

ABCDa, b, c, d, ABCD if f a + c = b + d.

21

ABCDa, b, c, d. s =

a+b+c+d
,
2

ABCD

p
ABCD = (s a)(s b)(s c)(s d)

22

(Bretschneider)

ABCDa, b, c, d. s =

a+b+c+d
,
2

ABCD

r
ABCD =

(s a)(s b)(s c)(s d) abcd cos2 (

B+D
)
2

Note: , B + C = (ABCE), .

23

sin, cos

2
3
n
2n + 1

sin
sin
. . . sin
=
sin
2n + 1
2n + 1
2n + 1
2n + 1
2n
2
3
n
1

cos
cos
. . . cos
= n
cos
2n + 1
2n + 1
2n + 1
2n + 1
2

2
3
(n 1)
sin
sin
sin
. . . sin
= n1
2n
2n
2n
2n
2
2
3
(n 1)

n
cos
cos
. . . cos
= n1
cos
2n
2n
2n
2n
2

2
2
Pf: (1) : = cos 2n+1
+ i sin 2n+1
, 2n+1 = 1,

(x )(x 2 ) (x 2n ) = x2n + + x + 1 ......

x = 1,
2n + 1 = (1 )(1 2 ) (1 2n )
:

2k
2k
i sin
2n + 1
2n + 1
k
k
k
2
= 1 (2 cos
1) 2i sin
cos
2n + 1
2n + 1
2n + 1
k
k
k
= 2 cos2
2i sin
cos
2n + 1
2n + 1
2n + 1
k
k
k
= 2 sin
(sin
i cos
)
2n + 1
2n + 1
2n + 1

1 k = 1 cos

k
k
k
|| sin
i cos
|
2n + 1
2n + 1
2n + 1
k
= 2 sin
2n + 1

|1 k | = |2sin

:
|2n + 1| = |1 ||1 2 | |1 2n |

2
2n
= 22n sin
sin
sin
2n + 1
2n + 1
2n + 1

2
n 2
2n
= 2 (sin
sin
sin
)
2n + 1
2n + 1
2n + 1

sin

2
n
sin
sin
=
2n + 1
2n + 1
2n + 1

11

2n + 1
2n

(2) : x = 1(*),
(1 + )(1 + 2 ) (1 + 2n ) = 1
,

2k
2k
+ i sin
2n + 1
2n + 1
k
k
k
2
= 1 + (2 cos
1) + 2i sin
cos
2n + 1
2n + 1
2n + 1
k
k
k
= 2 cos
(cos
+ i sin
)
2n + 1
2n + 1
2n + 1

1 + k = 1 + cos

1 = |(1 + )(1 + 2 ) (1 + 2 n)|

2

cos
cos 2n2n + 1
= 22n cos
2n + 1
2n + 1
2
n 2

= 22n (cos
cos
cos
)
2n + 1
2n + 1
2n + 1
.
2
2
(3) : = cos 2n
+ i sin 2n
, 2n = 1,

(x )(x 2 ) (x 2n ) = x2n1 + x2n1 + + x + 1

x 1, :
2n = |(1 )(1 2 ) (1 2n1 )|

2
(2n 1)
sin
sin
2n
2n
2n

2
(n 1) 2
n
2n1
=2
(sin
sin
sin
) sin
2n
2n
2n
2n

= 22n1 sin

(sin

2
(n 1) 2
2n
n
sin
sin
) =
=
2n
2n
2n
2n 1
2n 2

2
(n 1)
n
sin
sin
sin
= n1
2n
2n
2n
2

(4): (, cos 2 = 0)
cos sin( 2 ):
2
(n 1)

cos
cos
cos
2n
2n
2n

2
(n 1)
= sin(
) sin(
) sin(
)
2
2n
2
2n
2
2n
(n 1)
(n 2)

sin
sin
= sin
2n
2n
2n

n
= n1
2

24

tan

+ + = 0 or ,
tan + tan + tan = tan tan tan

25

Let tan 2 = t, we have

2t
1 + t2
1 t2
cos =
1 + t2
sin =

12

26

sin2 A sin2 B = (sin A + sin B)(sin A sin B)

A+B
AB
A+B
AB
= (2 sin
cos
)(2 cos
sin
)
2
2
2
2
= sin(A + B) sin(A B)

Note: cos2 A sin2 B(1 sinA ) (1 sin2 B).

27

28

M AB, N AB, M , N AB, A, M , B, N . :

1. M , N AB, A, BM N .
2. OAB,

OA = OB = OM ON
3.

2
AB

1
AM

1
AN

4. AD, AEBAC, , D, EBC.

29

n4 + 4m4 = n4 + 4n2 m2 + 4m4 4n2 m2

= [n2 + 2m2 ]2 (2nm)2
= [n2 + 2mn + 2m2 ][n2 2nm + 2m2 ]
= [(n + m)2 + m2 ][(n m)2 + m2 ]

30

(a2 + b2 )(c2 + d2 ) = (ac + bd)2 + (ad bc)2

31

Euler fuction

Let n 1 be an integer. We define by

(x) =the number of positive integers less than n that are relatively prime to n.
Then, for m 2 in Z+ and any a Z such that (a, m) = 1, we have
a(m) 1

mod m

where (m) is the number of invertable integers modulo m.

32

p p a,
ap1 1

33

,
2n + 1, 4n + 4

13

mod p

34

p, q R, x3 + px + q = 0,
s
x=

q
+
2

q2
p3
+
4
27

q

2

q2
p3
+
4
27

s
y=

, D = 27q 2 rp3 , .
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0, x = y

b
3a ,

, .

1: x3 + 6x 2 = 0.
x3 = 6x 2. x = + , :
( + )3 = 6( + ) 2
3 + 3 + 3( + ) = 6( + ) 2
 3
+ 3 = 2
,
. A3 , 3 , AA2 2A 8 = 0. :
= 2

b b2 4ac
A=
= 4, 2
2a
3 = 4, 3 = 2,

3
3
3
= 4, 4, 4 2

3
3
3
= 2, 2, 2 2

.
= 2,
(,
) =
( 3 4,
3 2),
( 3 4, 3 2), ( 3 4 2 , 3 2 2 ).

:x = 3 4 3 2, 3 4 3 2, 3 4 2 3 2 2 .

35

a1 a2 an b1 b2 bn ,
a1 b1 + a2 b2 + + an bn a1 bi1 + a2 bi2 + + an bin a1 bn + a2 bn1 + + an b1
, .
, i1 , i2 , . . . , in 1, 2, . . . , n, a1 = a2 = = an b1 = b2 = = bn .

36

Young Inequality(

)

a, b > 0, p > 1, q > 1, p1 +

1
q

= 1,
ap
bq
+
ab
p
q

ap = bq , .
Pf:

x1 + x2 + + xn
n x1 x2 xn
n
mxi x, n mxi y,
p
mx + (n m)y
n xm y nm
n

, n, 1 m n 1. r =

m
n

Q,
rx + (1 r)y xr y 1r

x, y0 < r < 1, x = y, .
r = p1 , 1 r = 1q , p1 + 1q = 1,
1
1
x y
+ xp yq
p
q
14

a = x p , b = y q ,

, a, b, p1 +

37

1
q

ap
bq
+
ab
p
q

= 1,p > 1, q > q.ap = bq , .

Holder Inequality

For all ai , bi > 0 (i = 1, 2, n), we have

(ap1 + ap2 + apn )(bq1 + bq2 + bqn ) a1 b1 + a2 b2 + an bn
, where

1
p

1
q

= 1 and p > 1.

Note: p = q = 2.

38

a1 , a2 , . . . an b1 , b2 , . . . bn ,
(a21 + a22 + a2n )(b21 + b22 + + b2n ) (a1 b1 + a2 b2 + + an bn )
Pf: ()

f (x) =

n
X

(ak + tbk )2

k=1

bk 0, f (x), f (x) 0.
A=

n
X
k=1

a2k , B

n
X

ak bk , C =

k=1

n
X

b2k ,

k=1

f (x) = A + 2Bt + Ct2 0, t R

D = 4B 2 4AC 0
AC B 2
.

39

(an11 +an12 + +an1m )(an21 +an22 + +an2m ) (ann1 +ann2 + +annm ) (a11 a21 an1 +a12 a22 an2 + a1m a2m a3m anm )
, aij 0.

39.1

: , ai , bi , ci 0, i = 1, 2, 3,
(a31 + a32 + a33 )(b31 + b32 + b33 )(c31 + c32 + c33 ) (a1 b1 c1 + a2 b2 c2 + a3 b3 c3 )3
, ~a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ), ~b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ), ~c = (c1 , c2 , c3 ), :
(1) ~a, ~b, ~c, ~a//~b//~c.
(2) ~a, ~b, ~c, .

A = a31 + a32 + a33

Pf: (i) ai , bi , ci , B = b31 + b32 + b33 ,

C = c31 + c32 + c33

15

r
3 3 3
b31
c31
3a1 b1 c1
a3
b3
c3
a31
3 a1 b1 c1
+
+
3
=
(, 1 = 1 = 1 )
3
A
B
C
ABC
A
B
C
ABC
r
3 3 3
a32
b3
c3
3a2 b2 c2
a3
b3
c3
3 a2 b2 c2
+ 2 + 2 3
=
(, 2 = 2 = 2 )
3
A
B
C
ABC
A
B
C
ABC
r
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
b
c
3a3 b3 c3
a3
b3
c33
a3
3 a3 b3 c3
+ 3 + 3 3
=

(,
=
=
)
3
A
B
C
ABC
A
B
C
ABC
,

a1 b1 c1 + a2 b2 c2 + a3 b3 c3

33
3
ABC

3
ABC a1 b1 c1 + a2 b2 c2 + a3 b3 c3

ABC (a1 b1 c1 + a2 b2 c2 + a3 b3 c3 )3

(a31 + a32 + a33 )(b31 + b32 + b33 )(c31 + c32 + c33 ) (a1 b1 c1 + a2 b2 c2 + a3 b3 c3 )3

, .
(ii) A, B, C, , A = 0, B 6= 0, C 6= 0, 0 = 0. , ~a~b, ~c, ~b, ~c.
(iii) ai , bi , ci 0, A > 0, B > 0, C > 0, (i). , , ,
b3
c3 a3
b3
c3 a3
b3
c3
a31
= 1 = 1, 2 = 2 = 2, 3 = 3 = 3
A
B
C A
B
C A
B
C

a1 = 0
b1 = 0 c1 = 0
, (a) a2 = 0 , b2 = 0 , c2 = 0 . a33 b33 c33 (a3 b3 c3 )3 , ~a, ~b, ~c.

a3 6= 0
b36= 0
c3 6= 0

b1 = 0 c1 = 0
a1 = 0
(b) a2 6= 0 , b2 6= 0 , c2 6= 0 . , (a32 + a33 )(b32 + b33 )(c32 + c33 ) (a2 b2 c2 + a3 b3 c3 )3 . (i)

c3 6= 0
b3 6= 0
a3 6= 0
, , (0, a2 , a3 ), (0, b2 , b3 ), (0, c2 , c3 ).

40

41

sin x =

X
x3
x5
x7
(1)n x2n+1
=x
+

+
(2n + 1)!
3!
5!
7!
n=0

cos x =

X
(1)n x2n
x2
x4
x6
=1
+

+
(2n)!
2!
4!
6!
n=0

tan x =

X
(1)n1 22n (22n 1)B2n x2n1
x3
2x5
17x7
=x+
+
+
+
(2n)!
3
15
315
n=0

, , X, Y , X > Y , ,
P () =

42
42.1

X Y
X +Y

,
(finite differnece)

: {Ak }, Ak
Ak = Ak+1 Ak
p
p Ak = (p1 Ak ) = p1 Ak+1 p1 Ak , p 1

0 Ak = Ak .

:
1. c, c = 0.
16

2. Ak , Bk k, , ,
n (Ak + Bk ) = n Ak + n Bk

42.2

(antidifference)

: ak , Ak , Ak = ak , Ak ak ,
Ak = 1 Ak .
:
ak , Ak ,
q
X

ak =

k=p

q
X

Ak = Aq+1 Ap = Ak |p+1
q

k=p

, q p.

42.3

(falling power)

:
1. m, km
k m = k(k 1)(k 20 (k m + 1)
k!
=
(k m)!
k
= Pm

2. m, km
k m =

42.4

1
k(k + 1)(k + 2) (k + m 1)

m0,
k m = mk m1

1 k m1 =

42.5

1 m
k + C, C R.
m

n, m Z1,
n1
X

km =

k=0

42.6

k m+1 n
nm+1
|0 =
m+1
m+1

Pk kn,
Pk =

m=0

m P0 m
k
m!

: k 3 .

17

m
0
1
2
3
4

m Pk
k3
3k 2 + 3k + 1
6k + 6
6
0

m P0
0
1
6
6
0

m P 0
m!

0
1
3
1
0

,
k 3 = 0 + 1k + 3k 2 + 1k 3
= 0 + 1k + 3k(k 1) + 1k(k 1)(k 2)

42.7
k

ak = r , k 6= 1
ak = (r 1)rk
1 ak =

42.8
1.

rk
+C
r1

Pn

k=1

cos k.

cos k2 sin 2 ,
2 cos k sin

1
1
= sin(k + ) sin(k )
2
2
2

6= 2m, m Z, :
2

n
X

cos k sin


n 
1
X
1
=
sin(k + ) sin(k )
2
2
2
k=1

k=1

= sin(n + ) sin
2
2
,
n
X

cos k =

k=1

2. :

x 6=

sin(n + 21 ) 1

2 sin 2
2

sin 2x
sin nx
cos(n + 1)x
sin x
+
+ +
= cot x
cos x cos 2x
cos nx
sin x cosn x
k
2 .

: cos(k + 1)x = cos kx cos x sin kx sin x, :

sin kx sin x = cos kx cos x cos(k + 1)x
sin x cosk x,
cos kx
cos(k + 1)x
sin kx
=

k
k1
cos x
sin x cos
x
sin x cosk x
3. nx 6=

k
2m ,

m = 0, 1, 2, . . . , nk,
1
1
1
+
+ +
= cot x cot 2n x
sin 2x sin 4x
sin 2n x

1
2 cos2 x (2 cos2 x 1)
=
sin 2x
sin 2x
2 cos2 x 1
2 cos2 x
=

2 sin x cos x
sin 2x
cos x cos 2x
=

sin x
sin 2x
= cot x cot 2x
18

42.9

1.

Pn

k=1

k!(k 2 + k + 1).

: k!(k 2 + k + 1) = k![(k + 1)2 1] = k!(k + 1) k! = (k + 1)! k!. Ans: (n + 1)!(n + 1) 1.

2.

Pn

k=1

k! k.

: k! k = k!(k + 1 1) = (k + 1)! k!. Ans: (n + 1)! 1.

42.10

1. :

(1

k=2

: (1

1
k2 )

= (1 k1 )(1 + k1 ) =

k1
k

1
1
)= .
2
k
2

k+1
k .

2.

Y
k3 1
2
=
3
k +1
3

k=2

42.11

k3 1
(k 1)(k 2 + k + 1)
=
k3 + 1
(k + 1)(k 2 k + 1)
k 1 k2 + k + 1
=

k + 1 k2 k + 1
k 1 (k + 1)2 (k + 1) + 1
=

k+1
k2 k + 1

1. :

(1 tan2

2k
)
2n + 1

1 tan2 x =

2 tan x
tan 2x

k=1

: tan 2x =

2 tan x
1tan2 x ,

:
k

2 tan 22n +1
2k
1 tan n
=
k+1
2 +1
tan 22n +1
2

2. , :

cos

k=1

sin
=
k
2

: :
cos =

42.12

sin 2
2 sin

n > 1, :
cos

2
4
2n
1
cos

cos
= n
n
n
n
2 1
2 1
2 1
2

: 2n sin 2n21 .

19