GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION

Graphical presentation of data is a visual display of data and statistical result. It is

usually interpreted using plots or charts. Graphical presentation is being done to quantify, sort
and present the data collected in a simple and understandable form.
Type of graphical presentation of data can be divided into two categories of data
which are quantitative data and qualitative data.
Quantitative data are measures of values or counts and are expressed as numbers. For
example, how many, how much, or how often can be collected in numeric variables.
Qualitative data are measures of 'types' and may be represented by a name, symbol, or a
number code.

Quantitative data

1. Histogram.
Histogram b definition of the word itself is a diagram consisting of rectangles whose
area is proportional to the frequency of a variable and whose width is equal to the class
interval. It is a graphical display showing differences in frequency or percentage versus class
interval. It usually used for continuous type of data set collected by researcher. A histogram is
a plot that lets you discover, and show, the underlying frequency distribution (shape) of a set
of continuous data. This allows the inspection of the data for its underlying distribution (e.g.,
normal distribution), outliers, and skewness.
To construct a histogram from a continuous variable you first need to split the data
into intervals. Unlike a bar chart, there are no "gaps" between the bars (although some bars
might be "absent" reflecting no frequencies). This is because a histogram represents a
continuous data set, and as such, there are no gaps in the data.

2. Frequency polygon.
Frequency polygon is a linear representation of histogram. It is obtained by joining
the mid points of histogram blocks. The reason its called a polygon is because the line sort of
forms a plane shape with the horizontal axis as one side of the shape. Frequency polygons are
a graphical device for understanding the shapes of distributions. They serve the same purpose
as histograms, but are especially helpful for comparing sets of data. Frequency polygons are
also a good choice for displaying cumulative frequency distributions.
To create a frequency polygon, start just as for histograms, by choosing a class
interval. Then draw an X-axis representing the values of the scores in your data. Mark the
middle of each class interval with a tick mark, and label it with the middle value represented
by the class. Draw the Y-axis to indicate the frequency of each class. Place a point in the
middle of each class interval at the height corresponding to its frequency. Finally, connect the
points. You should include one class interval below the lowest value in your data and one
above the highest value. The graph will then touch the X-axis on both sides.

3. Cumulative frequency
Cumulative frequency graph is the graph showing total of a frequency in a frequency
distribution. Cumulative frequency is defined as a running total of frequencies. The
frequency of an element in a set refers to how many of that element there are in the set.
Cumulative frequency can also defined as the sum of all previous frequencies up to the
current point. The cumulative frequency is important when analyzing data, where the value of
the cumulative frequency indicates the number of elements in the data set that lie below the
current value.

A cumulative frequency graph, also known as an Ogive, is a curve showing the

cumulative frequency for a given set of data. The cumulative frequency is plotted on the yaxis against the data which is on the x-axis for un-grouped data. When dealing with grouped
data, the Ogive is formed by plotting the cumulative frequency against the upper boundary of
the class. An Ogive is used to study the growth rate of data as it shows the accumulation of
frequency and hence its growth rate. The points are plotted at the upper class boundary.

4. Line chart
Line chart represents data in a series of points are to be connected by straight lines. It
is used to show trend of events over time. A line chart or line graph is a type of chart which
displays information as a series of data points called 'markers' connected by straight line
segments.

Qualitative data

1. Bar chart
Bar chart is rectangular bars are separated by some distance in order to distinguish
them from one another. A bar chart presents grouped data with rectangular bars with lengths

proportional to the values that they represent. The bars can be plotted vertically or
horizontally. A vertical bar chart is sometimes called a column bar chart. Each bars length or
height is proportional to the bars represented values. In other words, the length or height of
the bar is equal to the quantity within that category. The graph usually shows a comparison
between different categories. Although the graphs can technically be plotted vertically or
horizontally, the most usual presentation for a bar graph is vertical. The x-axis represents the
categories, the y-axis represents a value for those categories. In the graph below, the values
are percentages.

2. Pie chart
Pie chart is a chart that uses "pie slices" to show relative sizes of data. It is used to
indicate percentage in segment. Pie charts give you a snapshot of how a group is broken
down into smaller pieces. The example chart shows what material can be used in mix
proportion of a concrete cube.
In order to make a pie chart, you must have a list of categorical variables (descriptions
of your categories) as well as numerical variables. In the above graph, percentages are the
numerical variables and the types of materials for concrete are the categorical variables.

Regression equation
A regression equation is used in stats to find out what relationship, if any, exists
between sets of data. For example, if you measure a childs height every year you might find
that they grow about 3 inches a year. That trend (growing three inches a year) can be modeled
with a regression equation. In fact, most things in the real world (from gas prices to
hurricanes) can be modeled with some kind of equation; it allows us to predict future events
A regression line is the best fit line for the data. We must basically draw a line that
best represents the data points. Its like an average of where all the points line up. In linear
regression, the regression line is a perfectly straight line.
Regression equations can help figure out if data can be fit to an equation. This is
extremely useful to make predictions from the dataeither future predictions or indications of
past behavior. For example, you want to know what your savings are going to be worth in the
future. Or, you might want to predict how long it can take to recover from an illness. There
are several types of regression equations. Some of the more common include exponential and
simple linear Regression (to fit the data to an exponential equation or an linear equation). In
elementary statistics, the regression equation you are most likely to come across is the linear
form.

Root mean square error (RMSE)

The Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) (also called the root mean square deviation,
RMSD) is a frequently used measure of the difference between values predicted by a model
and the values actually observed from the environment that is being modelled. These

individual differences are also called residuals, and the RMSE serves to aggregate them into a
single measure of predictive power.
The RMSE of a model prediction with respect to the estimated variable Xmodel is defined as
the square root of the mean squared error:

where yi is observed values and yi^ is modelled values at time/place i.

The calculated RMSE values will have units, and RMSE for phosphorus concentrations can
for this reason not be directly compared to RMSE values for chlorophyll a concentrations etc.
However, the RMSE values can be used to distinguish model performance in a calibration
period with that of a validation period as well as to compare the individual model
performance to that of other predictive models.