A Textbook of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines PDF

REVISED NINTH EDITION A Textbook of FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULIC MACHINES $1. Units Dr. R.K. BansalPublished by : LAXMI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD 113, Golden House, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002 Phone : 011-43 53 25 00 Fax : 011-43 53 25 28 www .laxmipublications.com info@laxmipublications.com Author : Dr. R.K. Bansal Compiled by : Smt. Nirmal Bansal © All rights reserved with Author and the Publishers. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher. Price : Rs. 495.00 Only. First Edition : Sept. 1983 Ninth Edition : 2005 Reprint : 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009 Revised Ninth Edition : 2010 OFFICES ) Bangalore 080-26 61 15 61 © Chennai 044-24 34 47 26 © Cochin 0484-237 70 04, 405 13 03 © Guwahati 0361-254 36 69, 251 38 81 © Hyderabad 040-24 65 23 33 © Jalandhar 0181-222 12 72 © Kolkata 033-22 27 43 84 © Lucknow 0522-220 95 78 © Mumbai 022-24 91 54 15, 24 92 78 69 © Ranchi 0651-221 47 64 EFM-0559-495-FLUID MECHANICS & HM-BAN c— Typesetted at » Shubham Composer, New Delhi. Printed at : Repro India Ltd., MumbaiII Chapter CONTENTS Chapter 1. Properties of Fluids 1.1. Introduction 1.2. Properties of Fluids 1.2.1, 1.2.2. 1.2.3. 1.2.4. 1.3. Viscosity 1.3.1. 1.3.2. 1.3.3. 1.3.4. 1.3.5. Density or Mass Density Specific Weight or Weight Density Specific Volume Specific Gravity Solved Problems 1.1—1.2 Units of Viscosity Kinematic Viscosity Newton’s Law of Viscosity Variation of Viscosity with Temperature Types of Fluids Solved Problems 1.3—1.19 1.4, Thermodynamic Properties 1.4.1. 1.4.2. 1.4.3, 1.4.4. Dimension of R Isothermal Process Adiabatic Process Universal Gas Constant Solved Problems 1.20—1.22 1.5. Compressibility and Bulk Modulus Solved Problems 1.23—1.24 1.6. Surface Tension and Capillarity 1.6.1. 1.6.2. 1.6.3. 1.6.4. Surface Tension on Liquid Droplet Surface Tension on a Hollow Bubble Surface Tension on a Liquid Jet Solved Problems 1.25—1.27 Capillarity Solved Problems 1,28—1.32 1.7, Vapour Pressure and Cavitation Highlights Exercise Chapter 2. Pressure and Its Measurement 2.1. Fluid Pressure at a Point 2.2. Pascal’s Law 2.3. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest Solved Problems 2.1—2.7 (ix) Pages E MARAMHM wWNNHDE HHH 372.4, 2.5. 2.7. Chapter 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 3.5. 3.6. 3.7. 3.8. (x) Absolute, Gauge, Atmospheric and Vacuum Pressures Solved Problem 2.8 Measurement of Pressure 2.5.1. Manometers 2.5.2. Mechanical Gauges Simple Manometers 2.6.1. Piezometer 2.6.2. U-tube Manometer Solved Problems 2.9—2.13 2.6.3. Single Column Manometer Solved Problem 2.14 Differential Manometers 2.7.1. U-tube Differential Manometer Solved Problems 2.15—2.17 2.7.2. Inverted U-tube Differential Manometer Solved Problems 2.18—2.21 Pressure at a Point in Compressible Fluid 2.8.1. Isothermal Process 2.8.2. Adiabatic Process 2.8.3. Temperature at any Point in Compressible Fluid 2.8.4. Temperature Lapse-Rate (L) Solved Problems 2.22—2.26 Highlights Exercise 3. Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces Introduction Total Pressure and Centre of Pressure Vertical Plane Surface Sub-merged in Liquid Solved Problems 3.1—3.12 Horizontal Plane Surface Sub-merged in Liquid Solved Problem 3.13 Inclined Plane Surface Sub-merged in Liquid Solved Problems 3.14(a@)—3.21 Curved Surface Sub-merged in Liquid Solved Problems 3.22—3.31 Total Pressure and Centre of Pressure on Lock Gates Solved Problems 3.32—3.33 Pressure Distribution in a Liquid Subjected to Constant Horizontal/Vertical Acceleration 3.8.1. Liquid Containers Subject to Constant Horizontal Acceleration Solved Problems 3.34—3.36 3.8.2. Liquid Containers Subjected to Constant Vertical Acceleration Solved Problems 3.37—3.38 Highlights Exercise 69-130 69 69 69 72 85 86 86 88 97 99 107 109 112 112 115 120 122 124 125(xi) Chapter 4, Buoyancy and Floatation 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4. 4.5. 4.6, 4,7. 4.8. Introduction Buoyancy Centre of Buoyancy Solved Problems 4.1—4.6 Meta-centre Meta-centric Height Analytical Method for Meta-Centre Height Solved Problems 4.7—4,11 Conditions of Equilibrium of a Floating and Sub-merged Bodies 4.7.1. Stability of a Sub-merged Body 4.7.2. Stability of a Floating Body Solved Problems 4.12—4.18 Experimental Method of Determination of Meta-centric Height Solved Problems 4.19—4.20 . Oscillation (Rolling) of a Floating Body Solved Problems 4.21—4.22 Highlights Exercise Chapter 5. Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow 5.1. 5.2. 5.3. 5.4, 5.5. 5.6. 5.7, 5.8. A. KINEMATICS OF FLOW Introduction Methods of Describing Fluid Motion Types of Fluid Flow 6.3.1. Steady and Unsteady Flows 5.3.2. Uniform and Non-uniform Flows 5.3.3. Laminar and Turbulent Flows 5.3.4, Compressible and Incompressible Flows 5.3.5. Rotational and Irrotational Flows 5.3.6. One, two and Three-Dimensional Flows Rate of Flow or Discharge (Q) Continuity Equation Solved Problems 5.1—5.5 Continuity Equation in Three-Dimensions §.6.1. Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Polar Co-ordinates Solved Problems 5.54 Velocity and Acceleration 6.7.1. Local Acceleration and Convective Acceleration Solved Problems 5.6—5.9 Velocity Potential Function and Stream Function 5.8.1. Velocity Potential Function 6.8.2. Stream Function 5.8.3. | Equipotential Line 5.8.4, Line of Constant Stream Function 131-162 131 131 131 131 136 136 137 138 143 143 143 144 154 155 156 158 159 160 163-258 163 163 163 163 164 164 164 165 165 165 165 166 170 171 173 174 175 175 181 181 182 183 1835.9. 5.10, 5.11. 5.12. 5.13. 5.14, 5.15. 5.16, 5.17. (it) 5.8.5. Flow Net 5.8.6. Relation between Stream Function and Velocity Potential Function Solved Problems 5.10—5.17 Types of Motion 5.9.1. Linear Translation 5.9.2. Linear Deformation 5.9.3. Angular Deformation or Shear Deformation 5.9.4. Rotation 5.9.5. Vorticity Solved Problems 5.18—5.19 Vortex Flow 5.10.1. Forced Vortex Flow 5.10.2. Free Vortex Flow 5.10.3, Equation of Motion for Vortex Flow 5.10.4. Equation of Forced Vortex Flow Solved Problems 5.20—5.25 5.10.5. Closed Cylindrical Vessels Solved Problems 5.26—5.31 5.10.6. Equation of Free Vortex Flow Solved Problem 5.32 (B) IDEAL FLOW (POTENTIAL FLOW) Introduction Important Cases of Potential Flow Uniform Flow 5.13.1. Uniform Flow Parallel to x-Axis 5.13.2. Uniform Potential Flow Parallel to y-Axis Source Flow Sink Flow Solved Problems 5.33—5.35 Free-Vortex Flow Super-Imposed Flow 5.17.1. Source and Sink Pair Solved Problems 5.36—5.37 5.17.2. Doublet Solved Problem 5.38 5.17.3. A Plane Source in a Uniform Flow (Flow Past a Half-Body) Solved Problems 5.39—5.41 5.17.4. A Source and Sink Pair in a Uniform Flow (Flow Past a Rankine Oval Body) Solved Problem 5.42 5.17.5. A Doublet in a Uniform Flow (Flow Past a Circular Cylinder) Solved Problems 5.43—5.44 Highlights Exercise 184 184 184 191 191 191 192 192 192 192 193 193 194 195 196 197 202 202 209 210 210 211 211 211 213 214 216 216 219 221 221 225 228 231 233 237 241 244 246 250 252 254II (xiii) Chapter 6. Dynamics of Fluid Flow 6.1. 6.2. 6.3. 6.4, 6.5. 6.6, 6.7. 6.10. Introduction Equations of Motion Euler’s Equation of Motion Bernoulli’s Equation from Euler's Equation Assumptions Solved Problems 6.1—6.6 Bernoulli's Equation for Real Fluid Solved Problems 6.7—6.9 Practical Applications of Bernoulli's Equation 6.7.1. Venturimeter Solved Problems 6.10—6.21 6.7.2. Orifice Meter or Orifice Plate Solved Problems 6.22 —6.23 6.7.3. Pitot-tube Solved Problems 6,24—6,28 The Momentum Equation Solved Problems 6.29—6.35 Moment of Momentum Equation Solved Problems 6.36—6.37 Free Liquid Jets Solved Problems 6.38—641 Highlights Exercise Chapter 7. Orifices and Mouthpieces ca 7.2. 7.3. 74. 7.5. 7.6. TT. 7.8. Introduction Classifications of Orifices Flow Through an Orifice Hydraulic Co-efficients TAAL. Co-efficient of Velocity (C,) 7.4.2. Co-efficient of Contraction (C,) 7.4.3. Co-efficient of Discharge (C,) Solved Problems 7.1—7.2 Experimental Determination of Hydraulic Co-efficients 7.5.1. Determination of Co-efficient of Discharge (C,) ... 9.6.2. Determination of Co-efficient of Velocity (C,) ... 7.5.3. Determination of Co-efficient of Contraction (C,) Solved Problems 7.3—7.10 Flow Through Large Orifices 7.6.1, Discharge Through Large Rectangular Orifice Solved Problems 7.11—7.13 Discharge Through Fully Sub-merged Orifice Solved Problems 7.14—7.15 Discharge Through Partially Sub-merged Orifice Solved Problem 7.16 259-316 259 259 260 261 261 261 265 266 268 268 270 281 283 285 286 288 289 298 298 301 303 307 309 317-354 317 317 317 318 318 319 319 319 320 320 321 321 321 327 328 328 330 331 331 3327.9, 7.10. 7.11. 7.12. 7.13. 7.14, 7.15. (xiv) Time of Emptying a Tank Through an Orifice at its Bottom Solved Problems 7.17—7.18 Time of Emptying a Hemispherical Tank Solved Problems 7.19—7.21 Time of Emptying a Circular Horizontal Tank Solved Problems 7.22—7.23 Classification of Mouthpieces Flow Through an External Cylindrical Mouthpiece Solved Problems 7.24—7.25 Flow Through a Convergent-Divergent Mouthpiece Solved Problems 7.26—7.28 Flow Through Internal or Re-entrant on Borda’s Mouthpiece Solved Problem 7.29 Highlights Exercise Chapter 8, Notches and Weirs 8.1. 8.2. 8.3. 8.4, 8.5. 8.6. 8.7. 8.10. 8.11. 8.12. 8.13. Introduction Classification of Notches and Weirs Discharge Over a Rectangular Notch or Weir Solved Problems 8.1—8.3 Discharge Over a Triangular Notch or Weir Solved problems 8.4—8.6 Advantages of Triangular Notch or Weir over Rectangular Notch or Weir Discharge Over a Trapezoidal Notch or Weir Solved Problem 8.7 Discharge Over a Stepped Notch Solved Problem 8.8 Effect on Discharge Over a Notch or Weir Due to Error in the Measurement of Head 8.8.1. For Rectangular Weir or Notch 8.8.2. For Triangular Weir or Notch Solved Problems 8.9—8.11 (a) Time Required to Empty a Reservoir or a Tank with a Rectangular Weir or Notch (b) Time Required to Empty a Reservoir or a Tank with a Triangular Weir or Notch Solved Problems 8.12—8.14 Velocity of Approach Solved Problems 8.15—8.19 Empirical Formulae for Discharge Over Rectangular Weir Solved Problems 8.20—8.22 Cipolletti Weir or Notch Solved Problems 8.23—8.24 Discharge Over a Broad-Crested Weir 332 333 335 336 338 339 341 341 342 344 345 347 349 350 352 355-386 355 355 356 356 358 359 361 361 362 362 363 364 364 364 365 366 367 368 370 370 374 374 376 377 378II 8.14, 8.15. 8.16. (xv) Discharge Over a Narrow-Crested Weir Discharge Over an Ogee Weir Discharge Over Sub-merged or Drowned Weir Solved Problems 8.25—827 Highlights Exercise Chapter 9. Viscous Flow 9,1. 9.2. 9.3. 9.4. 9.6. 9.7. Introduction Flow of Viscous Fluid Through Circular Pipe Solved Problems 9.1—9.6 Flow of Viscous Fluid between Two Parallel Plates Solved Problems 9.7—9.12 Kinetic Energy Correction and Momentum Correction Factors Solved Problem 9.13 Power Absorbed in Viscous Flow 9.5.1. Viscous Resistance of Journal Bearings Solved Problems 9.14—9.18 9.5.2. Viscous Resistance of Foot-step Bearing Solved Problems 9.19—9.20 9.5.3. Viscous Resistance of Collar Bearing Solved Problems 9.21—9.22 Loss of Head Due to Friction in Viscous Flow Solved Problems 9.23—9.24 Movement of Piston in Dash-pot Solved Problem 9.25 Methods of Determination of Co-efficient of Viscosity 9.8.1. Capillary Tube Method 9.8.2. Falling Sphere Resistance Method 9.8.3. Rotating Cylinder Method 9.8.4, Orifice Type Viscometer Solved Problems 9.26—9.32 Highlights Exercise Chapter 10. Turbulent Flow 10.1. 10.2. 10.3. 10.4. Introduction Reynolds Experiment Frictional Loss in Pipe Flow 10.3.1. Expression for Loss of Head Due to Friction in Pipes 10.3.2. Expression for Co-efficient of Friction in Terms of Shear Stress Shear Stress in Turbulent Flow 10.4.1. Reynolds Expression for Turbulent Shear Stress 10.4.2. Prandtl Mixing Length Theory for Turbulent Shear Stress 379 379 379 380 381 383 387-432 387 387 391 397 400 404 404 407 407 408 411 412 412 413 414 415 417 418 419 419 420 421 422 423 427 429 433-464 433 433 434 434 436 437 437 438(xvi) 10.5. Velocity Distribution in Turbulent Flow in Pipes 10.5.1. Hydrodynamically Smooth and Rough Boundaries 10.5.2. Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Smooth Pipes 10.5.3. Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Rough Pipes Solved Problems 10.1—10.4 10.5.4. Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Terms of Average Velocity Solved Problems 10.5—10.6 10.5.5. Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Smooth Pipes by Power Law 10.6. Resistance of Smooth and Rough Pipes Solved Problems 10.7—10.13 Highlights Exercise Chapter 11. Flow Through Pipes 11.1. Introduction 11.2. Loss of Energy in Pipes 11.3. Loss of Energy (or head) Due to Friction Solved Problems 11.1—11.7 11,4, Minor Energy (Head) Losses 11.4.1, Loss of Head Due to Sudden Enlargement 11.4.2. Loss of Head Due to Sudden Contraction Solved Problems 11.8—11.14 11.4.3. Loss of Head at the Entrance of a Pipe 11.4.4. Loss of Head at the Exit of Pipe 11.4.5. Loss of Head Due to an Obstruction in a Pipe 11.4.6. Loss of Head Due to Bend in Pipe 11.4.7, Loss of Head in Various Pipe Fittings Solved Problems 11.15—11.21 11.5. Hydraulic Gradient and Total Energy Line 11.5.1. Hydraulic Gradient Line 11.5.2. Total Energy Line Solved Problems 11.22—11.26 11.6. Flow Through Syphon Solved Problems 11.27—11.29 11.7. Flow Through Pipes in Series or Flow Through Compound Pipes Solved Problems 11.30—11.30A 11.8. Equivalent Pipe Solved Problem 11,31 11.9. Flow Through Parallel Pipes Solved Problems 11.32—11.41 11.10, Flow Through Branched Pipes Solved Problems 11.42—11.44 438 440 441 442 442 446 448 450 450 453 461 462 465-558 465 465 465 467 471 471 473 474 482 482 482 483 483 483 491 491 491 491 498 498 502 503 507 508 508 509 524 52511.11. 11.12, 11.13, 11.14. (xvii) Power Transmission Through Pipes 11.11.1. Condition for Maximum Transmission of Power 11.11.2. Maximum Efficiency of Transmission of Power Solved Problems 11.45—11.47 Flow Through Nozzles 11.12.1. Power Transmitted Through Nozzle 11.12.2. Condition for Maximum Power Transmitted Through Nozzle 11.12.3. Diameter of Nozzle for Maximum Transmission of Power Through Nozzle Solved Problems 11.48—11.51 Water Hammer in Pipes 11.13.1. Gradual Closure of Valve 11,13,2. Sudden Closure of Valve and Pipe is Rigid 11.13.38. Sudden Closure of Valve and Pipe is Elastic 11.13.4. Time Taken by Pressure Wave to Travel from the Valve to the Tank and from Tank to the Valve Solved Problems 11,52—11.55. Pipe Network 11.14.1. Hardy Cross Method Solved Problem 11.56 Highlights Exercise Chapter 12. Dimensional and Model Analysis 12,1. 12.2. 12.3. 12.4, 12.5. 12.6. 12.7. 12.8. Introduction Secondary or Derived Quantities Solved Problem 12.1 Dimensional Homogeneity Methods of Dimensional Analysis 12.4.1. Rayleigh’s Method Solved Problems 12.2—12.7 12.4.2. Buckingham’s m-Theorem 12.4.3. Method of Selecting Repeating Variables 12.4.4. Procedure for Solving Problems by Buckingham’s 1-Theorem. Solved Problems 12.8—12.14 Model Analysis Similitude-Types of Similarities Types of Forces Acting in Moving Fluid Dimensionless Numbers 12.8.1, Reynold’s Number (R,) 12.8.2. Froude’s Number (F,) 12.8.3. Euler’s Number (£,) 12.8.4. Weber's Number (W,) 12.8.5. Mach’s Number (M) 530 531 531 531 535 537 537 538 539 541 542 542 543 545 545 547 548 549 552 554 559-610 559 559 560 561 561 561 562 565 566 566 568 578 579 580 581 581 582 582 582 58212.9. 12.10. 12.11, (xviii) Model Laws or Similarity Laws 12.9.1, Reynold’s Model Law Solved Problems 12.15—12.18 12.9.2. Froude Model Law Solved Problems 12.19—12.27 12.9.3. Euler’s Model Law 12.9.4. Weber Model Law 12.9.5. Mach Model Law Solved Problem 12.28 Model Testing of Partially Sub-merged Bodies Solved Problems 12.29—12.32 Classification of Models 12.11.1. Undistorted Models 12.11.2. Distorted Models 12.11.38. Scale Ratios for Distorted Models Solved Problem 12.33 Highlights Exercise Chapter 13. Boundary Layer Flow 13.1. 13.2. 13.3. 13.4. 18.5. 13.6, 13.7. Introduction Definitions 13.2.1. Laminar Boundary Layer 13.2.2. Turbulent Boundary Layer 13.2.3. Laminar Sub-layer 13.2.4. Boundary Layer Thickness (8) 13.2.5. Displacement Thickness (6*) 13.2.6. Momentum Thickness (0) 13.2.7. Energy Thickness (6**) Solved Problems 13.1—13.2 Drag Force on a Flat Plate Due to Boundary Layer 13.3.1. Local Co-efficient of Drag [Cp*] 13.3.2. Average Co-efficient of Drag [Cp] 13.3.3. Boundary Conditions for the Velocity Profiles Solved Problems 13.3—13.12 Turbulent Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate Solved Problem 13.13 Analysis of Turbulent Boundary Layer Total Drag on a Flat Plate Due to Laminar and Turbulent Boundary Layer Solved Problems 13.14—13.17 Separation of Boundary Layer 13.7.1. Effect of Pressure Gradient on Boundary Layer Separation 13.7.2. Location of Separation Point Solved Problem 13.18 583 583 584 587 590 595 596 596 597 598 600 604 604 605 605 606 606 607 611-656 611 612 612 613 613 613 613 615 615 616 619 622 622 622 622 638 638 641 641 642 648 648 649 650II (xtc) 13.7.3. Methods of Preventing the Separation of Boundary Layer Highlights Exercise Chapter 14. Forces on Sub-merged Bodies 14,1. 14.2. 14.3. 14.4. 14,5, 14.6. 14.7. 14.8. Introduction Force Exerted by a Flowing Fluid on a Stationary Body 14.2.1. Drag 14.2.2, Lift Expression for Drag and Lift 14.3.1. Dimensional Analysis of Drag and Lift Solved Problems 14.1—14.15 14.3.2. Pressure Drag and Friction Drag 14.3.3. Stream-lined Body 14.3.4. Bluff Body Drag on a Sphere Solved Problem 14.16 Terminal Velocity of a Body Solved Problems 14.17—14.20 Drag on a Cylinder Development of Lift on a Circular Cylinder 14.7.1. Flow of Ideal Fluid Over Stationary Cylinder 14.7.2. Flow Pattern Around the Cylinder when a Constant Circulation I is Imparted to the Cylinder 14.7.3. Expression for Lift Force Acting on Rotating Cylinder 14.7.4. Drag Force Acting on a Rotating Cylinder 14.7.5. Expression for Lift Co-efficient for Rotating Cylinder 14.7.6. Location of Stagnation Points for a Rotating Cylinder in a Uniform Flow-field 14.7.7. Magnus Effect Solved Problems 14.21—14.23 Development of Lift on an Airfoil 14.8.1, Steady-state of a Flying Object Solved Problems 14.24—14.25 Highlights Exercise Chapter 15. Compressible Flow 15.1. 15.2. Introduction Thermodynamic Relations 15.2.1, Equation of State 15.2.2. Expansion and Compression of Perfect Gas 651 651 653 657-692 657 657 658 658 658 659 660 670 671 671 671 672 673 673 677 677 678 678 680 682 682 683 683 683 686 687 687 689 690 693-736 693 693 693 69415.3. 15.4. 15.5, 15.6. 15.7. 15.8. 15.9. 15,10, 15.11. (xx) Basic Equations of Compressible Flow 15.3.1. Continuity Equation 15.3.2. Bernoulli’s Equation Solved Problems 15.1—15.3 15.3.3. Momentum Equations Velocity of Sound or Pressure Wave in a Fluid 15.4.1. Expression for Velocity of Sound Wave in a Fluid 15.4.2. Velocity of Sound in Terms of Bulk Modulus 15.4.3. Velocity of Sound for Isothermal Process 15.4.4. Velocity of Sound for Adiabatic Process Mach Number Solved Problems 15.4—15.7 Propagation of Pressure Waves (or Disturbances ) in a Compressible Fluid 15.6.1. Mach Angle 15.6.2. Zone of Action 15.6.3. Zone of Silence Solved Problems 15.8—15.10 Stagnation Properties 15.7.1. Expression for Stagnation Pressure (p,) 15.7.2. Expression for Stagnation Density (p,) 15.7.3. Expression for Stagnation Temperature (T,) Solved Problems 15.11—15.12 Area Velocity Relationship for Compressible Flow Flow of Compressible Fluid Through Orifices and Nozzles Fitted to a Large Tank 15.9.1. Value of n or 2 for Maximum Value Pz of Mass Rate of Flow 15.9.2. Value of V, for Maximum Rate of Flow of Fluid 15.9.3. Maximum Rate of Flow of Fluid Through Nozzle wii 15.9.4. Variation of Mass Rate of Flow of Compressible Fluid with Pressure ratio (2 Py 15.9.5. Velocity at Outlet of Nozzle for Maximum Rate of Flow is Equal to Sonic Velocity Solved Problems 15.13—15.15 Mass Rate of Flow of Compressible Fluid Through Venturimeter Solved Problem 15.16 Pitot-Static Tube in a Compressible Flow Solved Problem 15.17 Highlights Exercise 695 695 695 697 702 702 702 704 705 705 705 706 708 709 710 710 710 711 711 715 715 716 718 719 721 721 722 723 123 724 727 728 730 731 731 734(xxi) Chapter 16, Flow in Open Channels 16.1. 16.2. 16.3. 16.4, 16.5. 16.6. 16.7. 16.8. Introduction Classification of Flow in Channels 16.2.1. Steady Flow and Unsteady Flow 16.2.2. Uniform Flow and Non-uniform Flow 16.2.3. Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow 16.2.4. Sub-critical, Critical and Super-Critical Flow Discharge Through Open Channel by Chezy’s Formula Solved Problems 16.1—16.7 Empirical Formulae for the Value of Chezy’s Constant Solved Problems 16.8—16.12 Most Economical Section of Channels 16.5.1. Most Economical Rectangular Channel Solved Problems 16.13—16.15 16.5.2. Most Economical Trapezoidal Channel Solved Problems 16.16—16.22 16.5.3. Best Side Slope for Most Economical Trapezoidal Section Solved Problems 16.23—16.24 16.5.4. Flow Through Circular Channel Solved Problems 16.25—16.29 16.5.5. Most Economical Circular Section Solved Problems 16.30—16.32 Non-Uniform Flow through Open Channels Specific Energy and Specific Energy Curve 16.7.1. Critical Depth (h,) 16.7.2. Critical Velocity (V.) 16.7.3. Minimum Specific Energy in Terms of Critical Depth Solved Problems 16,33—16.35 16.7.4. Critical Flow 16.7.5. Streaming Flow or Sub-critical Flow or Tranquil Flow 16.7.6. Super-Critical Flow or Shooting Flow or Torrential Flow 16.7.7. Alternate Depths 16.7.8. Condition for Maximum Discharge for a Given Value of Specific Energy Solved Problems 16.36—16.37 Hydraulic Jump or Standing Wave 16.8.1. Expression for Depth of Hydraulic Jump 16.8.2. Expression for Loss of Energy Due to Hydraulic Jump 16.8.3. Expression for Depth of Hydraulic Jump in Terms or Upstream Froude Number 737-802 737 737 137 137 738 738 739 740 744 745 749 749 750 752 154 762 763 766 766 771 775 177 717 779 779 780 780 781 782 782 782 782 782 783 784 786 18716.9. (xxit) 16.8.4, Length of Hydraulic Jump Solved Problems 16.38—16.42 Gradually Varied Flow (G.V.F.) 16.9.1. Equation of Gradually Varied Flow Solved Problems 16.43—16.44 16.9.2. Back Water Curve and Affux 16.9.3. Expression for the Length of Back Water Curve Solved Problem 16.45 Highlights Exercise Chapter 17. Impact of Jets and Jet Propulsion 17.1. Introduction 17.2. 17.3. 17.4, 17.5. Force Exerted by the Jet on a Stationary Vertical Plate 17.2.1. Force Exerted by a Jet on Stationary Inclined Flat Plate 17.2.2. Force Exerted by a Jet on Stationary Curved Plate Solved Problems 17.1—17.6 Force Exerted by a Jet on a Hinged Plate Solved Problems 17.7—17.10 (a) Force Exerted by a Jet on Moving Plates 17.4.1. Force on Flat Vertical Plate Moving in the Direction of Jet 17.4.2. Force on the Inclined Plate Moving in the Direction of the Jet Solved Problems 17.11—17.13 17.4.3. Force on the Curved Plate when the Plate is Moving in the Direction of Jet Solved Problems 17.14—17.17 17.4.4. Force Exerted by a Jet of Water on an Unsymmetrical Moving Curved Plate when Jet Strikes Tangentially at one of the Tips Solved Problems 17.18—17.23 17.4.5. Force Exerted by a Jet of Water on a Series of Vanes 17.4.6. Force Exerted on a Series of Radial Curved Vanes Solved Problems 17.24—17.26 Jet Propulsion 17.5.1. Jet Propulsion of a Tank with an Orifice Solved Problems 17.27—17.28 17.5.2. Jet Propulsion of Ships Solved Problems 17.29—17.33 Highlights Exercise 787 787 790 790 792 793 794 795 796 799 803-852 803 803 804 805 807 809 810 814 $15 815 $16 818 819 823 $26 833 834 837 $40 841 843 843 844 849 850(xxiii) Chapter 18. Hydraulic Machines—Turbines 18.1. 18.2. 18.3. 18.4, 18.5. 18.6. 18.7. 18.8. 18.9. 18.10. 18,11. 18.12. 18.13. Introduction Turbines General Layout of a Hydroelectric Power Plant Definitions of Heads and Efficiencies of a Turbine Classification of Hydraulic Turbines Pelton Wheel (or Turbine) 18.6.1. Velocity Triangles and Work Done for Pelton Wheel 18.6.2. Points to be Remembered for Pelton Wheel Solved Problems 18.1—18.10 18.6.3. Design of Pelton Wheel Solved Problems 18.11—18.13 Radial Flow Reaction Turbines 18.7.1. Main Parts of a Radial Flow Reaction Turbine 18.7.2. Inward Radial Flow Turbine 18.7.3. Degree of Reaction 18.7.4. Definitions Solved Problems 18.14—18.20 18.7.5. Outward Radial Flow Reaction Turbine Solved Problems 18.21—18.22 Francis Turbine 18.8.1. Important Relations for Francis Turbines Solved Problems 18.23—18.26 Axial Flow Reaction Turbine 18.9.1. Some Important Point for Propeller (Kaplan Turbine) Solved Problems 18.27—18.33 Draft-Tube 18.10.1. Types of Draft Tubes 18.10.2. Draft-Tube Theory 18,10.3. Efficiency of Draft-Tube Solved Problems 18.33 (¢4)—18.35 Specific Speed 18.11.1. Derivation of the Specific Speed 18.11.2. Significance of Specific Speed Solved Problems 18.36—18.41 Unit Quantities 18.12.1. Unit Speed 18.12.2. Unit Discharge 18.12.38. Unit Power 18.12.4. Use of Unit Quantities (N,,, Q,, P,,) Solved Problems 18.41 (a)—18.45 Characteristic Curves of Hydraulic Turbines 18.13.1. Main Characteristic Curves or Constant Head Curves 18.13.2. Operating Characteristic Curves or Constant Speed Curves 853-944 853 853 853 853 856 857 859 861 862 873 874 877 877 878 880 884 884 892 893 895 896 896 903 905 905 915 915 916 916 917 920 920 921 921 927 927 927 928 928 929 933 933 934II 18.14. (xxiv) 18.13.38. Constant Efficiency Curves or Muschel Curves or Iso-Efficiency Curves Governing of Turbines Highlights Exercise Chapter 19. Centrifugal Pumps 19.1. 19.2. 19.3. 19.4. 19.5. 19.6. 19.7. 19.8, 19.9. 19.10. 19.11, 19.12. 19.13. 19.14. Introduction Main Parts of a Centrifugal Pump Work Done by the Centrifugal Pump (or by Impfller) on Water Definitions of Heads and Efficiencies of a Centrifugal Pump Solved Problems 19.1—19.12 Minimum Speed for Starting a Centrifugal Pump Solved Problems 19.13—19.15 Multistage Centrifugal Pumps 19.6.1. Multistage Centrifugal Pumps for High Heads 19.6.2. Multistage Centrifugal Pumps for High Discharge Solved Problems 19.16—19.17 Specific Speed of a Centrifugal Pump (N,) 19.7.1. Expression for Specific Speed for a Pump Model Testing of Centrifugal Pumps Solved Problems 19.18—19.22 Priming of a Centrifugal Pump Characteristic Curves of Centrifugal Pumps 19.10.1. Main Characteristic Curves 19.10,2. Operating Characteristic Curves 19.10.3. Constant Efficiency Curves Cavitation 19.11.1. Precaution Against Cavitation 19.11.2. Effects of Cavitation 19.11.3. Hydraulic Machines Subjected to Cavitation 19.11.4. Cavitation in Turbines 19.11.5. Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps Solved Problem 19.23 Maximum Suction Lift (or Suction Height) Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) Cavitation in Centrifugal Pump Solved Problem 19.24 Highlights Exercise Chapter 20. Reciprocating Pumps 20,1, 20.2. 20.3. Introduction Main Parts of a Reciprocating Pump Working of a Reciprocating Pump 935 936 937 939 945-992 945 945 947 948 951 965 966 968 968 969 969 971 971 972 973 978 978 978 979 979 980 980 981 981 981 981 982 983 985 985 986 987 989 993-1040 993 993 99420.4. 20.5, 20.6. 20.7. 20.8. 20.9. 20.10. (xxv) 20.3.1. Discharge Through a Reciprocating Pump 20.3.2. Work Done by Reciprocating Pump 20.3.3. Discharge, Work Done and Power Required to Drive a Double-acting Pump Slip of Reciprocating Pump 20.4.1. Negative Slip of the Reciprocating Pump Classification of Reciprocating Pumps Solved Problems 20.1—20.2 Variation of Velocity and Acceleration in the Suction and Delivery Pipes Due to Acceleration of the Piston Effect of Variation of Velocity on Friction in the Suction and Delivery Pipes Solved Problem 20.3 Indicator Diagram 20.8.1. Ideal Indicator Diagram 20.8.2. Effect of Acceleration in Suction and Delivery Pipes on Indicator Diagram Solved Problems 20.4—20.9 20.8.3. Effect of Friction in Suction and Delivery Pipes on Indicator Diagram 20.8.4. Effect of Acceleration and Friction in Suction and Delivery Pipes on Indicator Diagram Solved Problems 20.10—20.12 20.8.5. Maximum Speed of a Reciprocating Pump Solved Problem 20.13 Air Vessels Solved Problems 20.14—20.18 Comparison between Centrifugal Pumps and Reciprocating Pumps Highlights Exercise Chapter 21. Fluid System 21.1. Introduction 21.2. 21.3. 21.4, 21.5. The Hydraulic Press 21.2.1. Mechanical Advantage 21.2.2. Leverage of the Hydraulic Press 21.2.3. Actual Heavy Hydraulic Press Solved Problems 21.1—21.5 The Hydraulic Accumulator 21.3.1. Capacity of Hydraulic Accumulator Solved Problems 21.6—21.11 21.3.2. Differential Hydraulic Accumulator The Hydraulic Intensifier Solved Problems 21.12—21.13 The Hydraulic Ram Solved Problems 21.14—21.15 994 995 995 996 997 997 997 998 1001 1001 1003 1003 1004 1004 1012 1013 1015 1019 1020 1021 1030 1037 1037 1038 1041-1070 1041 1041 1042 1042 1042 1043 1045 1046 1047 1051 1051 1053 1053 1055ll 21.6. 21.8. 21.9. 21.10. 21.11. (xxv) The Hydraulic Lift 21.6.1. Direct Acting Hydraulic Lift 21.6.2. Suspended Hydraulic Lift Solved Problems 21.16—21.17 . The Hydraulie Crane Solved Problems 21.18—21.20 The Fluid or Hydraulic Coupling The Hydraulic Torque Converter The Air Lift Pump The Gear-Wheel Pump Highlights Exercise Objective Type Questions Appendix Subject Index 1056 1057 1057 1058 1060 1060 1063 1064 1065 1066 1067 1068 1071-1094 1095-1096 1097-1102PROPERTIES OF nO OL Eos > I.1 INTRODUCTION Fluid mechanics is that branch of science which deals with the behaviour of the fluids (liquids or gases) at rest as well as in motion. Thus this branch of science deals with the static, kinematics and dynamic aspects of fluids. The study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics. The study of fluids in motion, where pressure forces are not considered, is called fluid kinematics and if the pressure forces are also considered for the fluids in motion, that branch of science is called fluid dynamics. > 1.2 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 1.2.1 Density or Mass Density. Density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass of a fluid to its volume. Thus mass per unit volume of a fluid is called density. [tis denoted by the symbol p (rho). The unit of mass density in SI unit is ke per cubic metre, Le., ke/m’. The density of liquids may be considered as constant while that of gases changes with the variation of pressure and temperature. Mathematically, mass density is written as Mass of fluid Volume of fluid : The value of density of water is 1 gm/em* or 1000 kg/m*. 1.2.2 Specific Weight or Weight Density. Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is the ratio between the weight of a fluid to its volume. Thus weight per unit volume of a fluid is called weight density and it is denoted by the symbol w. _ Weightof fluid — (Mass of fluid) x Acceleration due to gravity Thus mathematically, = —= _ Volume of fluid Volume of fluid _ Mass of fluid x ¢ ~ Volume of fluid Volume of fluid — Mass of fluid =pA8 a w= pe e( L1)2 Fluid Mechanics The value of specific weight or weight density (w) for water is 9.81 x 1000 Newton/m* in SI units. 1.2.3. Specific Volume. Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a fluid occupied by a unit mass or volume per unit mass of a fluid is called specific volume. Mathematically, it is expressed as Volume of fluid 1 i ~~ Mass of fluid Mass of fluid ~ 5 Volume of fluid Thus specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density. It is expressed as m*/kg. It is commonly applied to gases. Specific volume 1.2.4 Specific Gravity. Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight density (or density) of a fluid to the weight density (or density) of a standard fluid. For liquids, the standard fluid is taken water and for gases, the standard fluid is taken air. Specific gravity is also called relative density. It is dimensionless quantity and is denoted by the symbol S. Weight density (density) of liquid Mathematically, S(for liquids) = ; . - Weight density (density) of water Stfor gases) = Weight Sensity (density) of Bas Weight density (density) of air Thus weight density of a liquid= S x Weight density of water = Sx 1000 x 9.81 N/m? The density of a liquid = 5x Density of water = 5x 1000 kg/m*. w(1.1A) If the specific gravity of a fluid is known, then the density of the fluid will be equal to specific gravity of fluid multiplied by the density of water. For example, the specific gravity of mercury is 13.6, hence density of mercury = 13.6 x 1000 = 13600 kg/m*. Problem 1.1. Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of one litre of a liquid which weighs 7 N. Solution. Given : 1 Volume = | litre = To ( | litre = a m° or | litre = 1000 cn’ | Weight =7N ( Specific weight (wy) = eight ___7N __ _ a9qq n/m®. Ans. Volume ( 1 } 4 am | 1000 w _ 7000 (ii) Density (p) =—= kg/m? = 713.5 kg/m*. Ans. g 9.81 (iii) Specific gravity = Density.ot Liquid = eS {': Density of water = 1000 ke/m*} Density of water 1000 0.7135. Ans.Properties of Fluids 3 Problem 1.2 Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of one litre ef petrol of specific gravity = 0.7 Solution. Given: | Volume = | litre = 1 x 1000 em® = ve m? = 0.001 m> Sp. gravity S=0.7 (i) Density (p) Using equation (1.1A), Density (p) = § x 1000 kg/m? = 0.7 x 1000 = 700 kg/m*. Ans. (it) Specific weight (w) Using equation (1.1), w=pxg= 700 x 9.81 N/m? = 6867 N/m*. Ans. (iii) Weight (W) We know that specific weight = aveleht Volume or we ai or 6867 = = 0.001 0.001 W= 6867 x 0.001 = 6.867 N. Ans. > 1.3 VISCOSITY Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid. When two layers of a fluid, a distance ‘dy’ apart, move one over the other at different velocities, say « and w + dw as shown in Fig. 1.1, the viscosity together with relative velocity Causes a shear stress acting between the fluid layers. The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower layer while the lower layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent top layer. This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of velocity with respect to y. It is denoted by symbol t (Tau). |. Pa) VELOCITY PROFILE FUTILTVTILIEIIT ATI Mathematically, Teo aa met : Fig. 1.1 Velocity variation near a solid boundary. - t=y aL) dy where 1 (called mu) is the constant of proportionality and is known as the co-efficient of dynamic viscosity r . du : E . i or only viscosity. hy. represents the rate of shear strain or rate of shear deformation or velocity gradient, ” . T From equation (1,2), we have = Tan) if) u A Thus viscosity is also defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate of shear strain. 1.3.1 Units of Viscosity. The units of viscosity is obtained by putting the dimensions of the quantities in equation (1.3)4 Fluid Mechanics Shear stress Force/ Area He Change of velocity - (teat) xt Change of distance Time Length _ Force/(Length)’_ Force x Time ~ T Length)? Time In MKS system, force is represented by kgf and length by metre (m), in CGS system, force is represented by dyne and length by cm and in SI system force is represented by Newton (N) and length by metre (m). kgf -sec MKS unit of viscosity = e me ~ - z dyne-sec CGS unit of viscosity = cm” In the above expression N/m? is also known as Pascal which is represented by Pa. Hence N/m? = Pa = Pascal SL unit of viscosity = Ns/m? = Pas. wa ; Newton-sec — Ns SI unit of viscosity = = m? m? dyne-sec The unit of viscosity in CGS is also called Poise which is equal to a cm” The numerical conversion of the unit of viscosity from MKS unit to CGS unit is given below : DUCE TSE, __ pO FNeee (1 kgf = 9.81 Newton} m m m But one Newton = one kg (mass) x one (=) (acceleration) sec” 7 (LOE amm}ne(100 crn) = 1000100 emicm sec” sec” = 1000 x 100 dyne 8 dyne = gm x ae } sec” one kef “see _ 9 91 x 100000 Sie ee = 9.81 x 190000 —*2Re"*¢ : m- cm 100 x 100* cm = 98.1 dyme-sec: = 98.1 poise i Syne BEC. Poise cm" cm~ Thus for solving numerical problems, if viscosity is given in poise, it must be divided by 98.1 to get its equivalent numerical value in MKS. one kgf-sec — 9.81 Ns But —— = z= 98.1 poise m m one Ne = 38 poise = 10 poise or One poise = a Ma Z m° 1 10 m*Properties of Fluids 5 Alternate Method. One poise = z dynexs /lgmxiecm 8 = xo em s m But dyne =Ilgmx 1 —_ kg 1 *. One poise = 22 = 1000 sem. om 100 = _i x 100 ae oll BB or |X = 10 poise. 1000 sm 10 sm sm Note. (i) In SI units second is represented by ‘s’ and not by ‘sec’. (ii) If viscosity is n in poise, it must be divided by 10 to get its equivalent numerical value in SI units. Sometimes a unit of viscosity as centipoise is used where . I “ | ace . 1 centipoise = — poise or | cP =—— P [cP = Centipoise, P = Poise] 100 100 The viscosity of water at 20°C is 0,01 poise or 1.0 centipoise. 1.3.2 Kinematic Viscosity. It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of fluid. Itis denoted by the Greek symbol (¥v) called ‘nu’, Thus, mathematically, _ Viscosity — pl vs —— = w( 1.4) Density p The units of kinematic viscosity is obtained as _ Units ofl Force x Time _ Force x Time Units of p (Length)? x Mass _ Mass (Length)* Length Length . Mass x = x Time +: Force = Mass x Acc. _ (Time) Lensth - Mass = Mass x net =a Time Length _ (Length)” ~ Time In MKS and SI, the unit of kinematic viscosity is metre*/sec or m/sec while in CGS units it is written as cm/s. In CGS units, kinematic viscosity is also known as stoke, 2 Thus, one stoke =cm7/s = (=) m/s = 1074 m/s Centistoke means = te stoke. 100 1.3.3 Newton's Law of Viscosity. It states that the shear stress (tT) on a fluid element layer is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain, The constant of proportionality is called the co- efficient of viscosity. Mathematically, it is expressed as given by equation (1.2) or as T= nary:6 Fluid Mechanics Fluids which obey the above relation are known as Newtonian fluids and the fluids which do not obey the above relation are called Non-Newtonian fluids. 1.3.4 Variation of Viscosity with Temperature. Temperature affects the viscosity. The viscosity of liquids decreases with the increase of temperature while the viscosity of gases increases with the increase of temperature. This is due to reason that the viscous forces in a fluid are due to cohesive forces and molecular momentum transfer. In liquids, the cohesive forces predominates the molecular momentum transfer, due to closely packed molecules and with the increase in temperature, the cohesive forces decreases with the result of decreasing viscosity. But in case of gases the cohesive forces are small and molecular momentum transfer predominates. With the increase in temperature, molecular momentum transfer increases and hence viscosity increases. The relation between viscosity and temperature for liquids and gases are: () For liquids, 1 = Ly aca] wil L4A) l+oar+Br° where {t= Viscosity of liquid at (°C, in poise ly = Viscosity of liquid at 0°C, in poise a, B = Constants for the liquid For water, Uy = 1.79 x 10°? poise, o = 0.03368 and B = 0.000221. Equation (1.4A) shows that with the increase of temperature, the viscosity decreases. (ii) For a gas, p= Hyp tor-Br A LAB) where for air [lg = 0.000017, « = 0.000000056, B = 0.1189 x 10°”. Equation (1.48) shows that with the increase of temperature, the viscosity increases. 1.3.5 Types of Fluids, The fluids may be classified into the following five types : 1. Ideal fluid, 2. Real fluid, 3. Newtonian fluid, 4. Non-Newtonian fluid, and 5. Ideal plastic fluid. ° 1. Ideal Fluid. A fluid, which is incompressible and is a having no viscosity, is known as an ideal fluid. Ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all the fluids, which exist, have some viscosity. 2. Real Fluid. A fluid, which possesses viscosity, is known as real fluid. All the fluids, in actual practice, are real fluids. 3. Newtonian Fluid. A real fluid, in which the shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient), is known as a Newtonian fluid. 4. Non-Newtonian Fluid. A real fluid, in which the shear stress is not proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient), known as a Non-Newtonian fluid. 5, Ideal Plastic Fluid, A fluid, in which shear stress is more than the yield value and shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient), is known as ideal plastic fluid. —~ SHEAR STRESS IDEAL FLUID —* VELOCITY GRADIENT &) dy Fig. 1.2. Types of fluids. 2 Problem 1.3 If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by u = z= y? in which u is the velocity in metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate, determine the shear stress at y = Oand y = 0.15 m. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 8.63 poises.Properties of Fluids 7 Solution. Given : u a ays, GM -2y 3 dy a or(@") = 2 aq = 2 = 0.667 dy at y= dy yd 3 3 Also (=) or (#] = 2 2 x .15 = .667 — .30 = 0.367 at y=0.15 y=0.15 dy dy : 8.63 5 2 Value of Lt = 8.63 poise = To SI units = 0.863 N s/m d Now shear stress is given by equation (1.2) as T= a y (i) Shear stress at y = 0 is given by We ht (| = 0.863 * 0.667 = 0.5756 N/m’, Ans. y . y=0 (ii) Shear stress at y = 0.15 m is given by (2), co1s =H (%) = 0.863 x 0.367 = 0.3167 N/m?. Ans. ¥ “/y=015 Problem 1.4 A plate 0.025 mm distant from a fixed plate, moves at 60 cm/s and requires a force of 2N per unit area i.e., 2 NAn? to maintain this speed. Determine the fluid viscosity between the plates. Solution. Given : i Distance between plates, dy = .025 mm = 025 107m Velocity of upper plate, u = 60 cm/s = 0.6 m/s sik é reog 3 FIXED PLATE te, =2.0 —. ‘orce on upper plate 0 a Fig. 13 This is the value of shear stress i.e., T Let the fluid viscosity between the plates is LL. 3 ; du Using the equation (1.2), we have T= Lb ae y where du = Change of velocity = u —0 = w = 0.60 m/s dy = Change of distance = .025 x 10° m T= Force per unit area = 2.0 XN m , 0 x .025 x 10°* 2.0 = —200 __ ” pee OS RIO _ 55H a! 025 10° 0.60 m = 8.33 x 10° x 10 poise = 8.33 x 107 poise. Ans. Problem 1.5 A flar plate of area 1.5 x 10° mm? is pulled with a speed of 0.4 més relative to another plate located at a distance of 0.15 mm from it. Find the force and power required to maintain this speed, if the fluid separating them is having viscosity as I poise.8 Fluid Mechanics Solution. Given : Area of the plate, A=1.5 * 10° mm? = 1.5 m? Speed of plate relative to another plate, dw = 0.4 m/s Distance between the plates, dy = 0.15 mm = 0.15 x 10° m Viscosity t= I poise = Jy Ne m 10 m* : du 1 04 N Using equation (1.2) we havet =) — = — x ——~ = 266.66 —— eel , Yay 10 * 5x10? m! (i). Shear force, F =X area = 266.66 x 1.5 = 400 N. Ans. (ii) Power* required to move the plate at the speed 0.4 m/sec =F xu=400 x 0.4 = 160 W. Ans. Problem 1.6 Determine the intensity of shear of an oil having viscosity = I poise. The oil is used for lubricating the clearance between a shaft of diameter 10 cm and its journal bearing. The clearance is 15 mm and the shaft rotates at 150 r.pam. I Ns Solution. Given : LH = 1 poise = —— 10 m Dia. of shaft, D=10cm=0.1m Distance between shaft and journal bearing, dy=1.5mm=1.5x 104m Speed of shaft, N= 150 r-p.m. Tangential speed of shaft is given by mtDN «x01 150 = = 0.785 m/s 60 60 R ‘ du Using equation (1.2), T=U—, dy where du = change of velocity between shaft and bearing = « — 0 = i = 5 = §2.33 N/m’. Ans. 10° 15x10" Problem 1.7 Calculate the dynamic viscosity of an oil, which is used for lubrication between a square plate of size 0.8 m x 0.8 m and an inclined plane with angle of inclination 30° as shown in Fig. 1.4. The weight of the square plate is 300 N and it slides down the inclined plane with a uniform velocity of 0.3 més. The thickness of oil film is 1.5 mm. « 5 te Solution. Given : 2. oO a Area of plate, A=0.8 x 0.8 = 0.64 m* Angle of plane, 9 = 30° Weight of plate, W = 300 N Velocity of plate, u= 0.3 m/s = Power=P xuNm/s=F xu W(:" Nm/s = Watt)Properties of Fluids 9 Thickness of oil film, t=dy=1.5mm=15x10%m Let the viscosity of fluid between plate and inclined plane is 1. Component of weight W, along the plane = W cos 60° = 300 cos 60° = 150 N Thus the shear force, F , on the bottom surface of the plate = 150 N and shear stress, = f S 150 N/m? Area 0.64 Now using equation (1.2), we have _. dw TtT=H 3 where du = change of velocity = 1 - 0 = 4 = 0.3 m/s dy=r=1.5x 107m 150 03 064 15x105 150 x 1510* 2 pa EE = LATIN sim? = 1.17 10 = 11.7 poise. Ans. 064% 03 Problem 1.8 Two horizontal plates are placed 1.25 cm apart, the space between them being filled with oil of viscosity 14 poises. Calculate the shear stress in oil if upper plate is moved with a velocity of 2.5 més, Solution. Given : Distance between plates, dy = 1.25 cm= 0.0125 m Viscosity, = 14 poise = 2 N sim? Velocity of upper plate, u = 2.5 m/sec. d Shear stress is given by equation (1.2) as, T= a y where du = Change of velocity between plates = x — 0 = « = 2.5 m/sec. dy = 0.0125 m. MS 2 T= 19 p15 = 280 N/m”. Ans. Problem 1.9 The space between twe square flat parallel plates is filled with oil. Each side of the plate is 60 cm. The thickness of the oil film is 12.5 mm. The upper plate, which moves at 2.5 metre per sec requires a force of 98.1 N to maintain the speed. Determine : (i) the dynamic viscosity of the oil in poise, and (tt) the kinematic viscosity of the oil in stokes if the specific gravity of the oil is 0.95, Solution. Given : Each side of a square plate = 60cm=0.60m “. Area, A= 0.6 x 0.6 = 0.36 m- Thickness of oil film, dy = 12.5 mm = 12.5 x 103m Velocity of upper plate. w= 2.5 m/sec10 Fluid Mechanics Change of velocity between plates, du = 2.5 m/sec Force required on upper plate, F = 98.1 N a Force _ F _ 98.1N Area A 0.36m° (7) Let 1 = Dynamic viscosity of oil Shear stress, du 98.1 25 Using equation (1.2), T= — or — =p x ——— Bea ° dy 0.36 ee 25x10 , 5 3 1Ns mE gg BIO eepgeag DE (« LBS 2 10 pose 0.36 2:5 nm m = 1.3635 x 10 = 13.635 poise. Ans. (i) Sp. gr. of oil, S = 0.95 Let v = kinematic viscosity of oil Using equation (1.1A), Mass density of oil, p= Sx 1000 = 0.95 x 1000 = 950 kg/m* 1.3635 ( *) Using the relation, v = H ,we getyv= — = .001435 m/sec = .001435 x 104 em2/s p = 14.35 stokes. Ans. (- cm?/s = stoke) Problem 1.10 Find the kinematic viscosity of an oil having density 981 kg/m’, The shear stress at a point in oil is 0.2452 N&n? and velocity gradient at that point ts 0.2 per second. Solution. Given : Mass density, p= 981 kgim? Shear stress, t= 0.2452 Nim? d Velocity gradient, SY 202% dy 1 Using the equation (1.2), T= Ta or 0.2452 = up x 0.2 dy = 02452 _ 1.296 Nsfm? 0.200 Kinematic viscosity V is given by ve Hs 226 «195 x 10-? msec p 981 = 0.125 x 10? x 10* em*/s = 0.125 x 10° em7/s = 12.5 cm*/s = 12.5 stoke. Ans. (Cs cm/s = stoke) Problem 1.11 Determine the specific gravity of a fluid having viscosity 0.05 poise and kinematic viscosity 0.035 stokes. Solution. Given : 2 Viscosity, Lt = 0.05 poise = = N s/mProperties of Fluids 11 Kinematic viscosity, v= 0.035 stokes = 0.035 em?/s {- Stoke = cm/s} = 0.035 x 10-4 m/s Using the relation v= Ewe get 0.035 x 10 = si xt p 10" p i | p= DOS ge _ ih. _ ns yp ke/m> 10 0.035 x 10+ Density of liquid — 14285 = = 1.4285 ~ 1.43. Ans. Density of water 1000 Sp. gr. of liquid Problem 1.12) Determine the viscosity of a liquid having kinematic viscosity 6 stokes and specific gravity 1.9. Solution. Given : Kinematic viscosity V = 6 stokes = 6 em7/s = 6 x 1077 m7/s Sp. er. of liquid =19 Let the viscosity of liquid uy _ Density of the liquid Density of water Now sp. gr. of a liquid Density of liquid 1000 or 1.9= k -. Density of liquid 1000 x 1.9 = 1900 ae m “, Using the relation v= w + we get p 6x 1ot= 4 1900 or = 6x 10-4 x 1900 = 1.14 Ns/m? = 1.14 x 10 = 11.40 poise. Ans. Problem 1.13 The velocity distribution for flow over a flat plate is given by w= 4 y —y? in which u is the velocity in metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate. Determine the shear stress at y = 0.15 m. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 8.6 poise. Solution. Given : ue : yoy" dd Be Ph co, dy 4 At y=0.15, M6 3 a 20.15 = 0.15 0.30 = 0.45 dy 4 Viscosity, Lt = 8.5 poise = 2 Ns le 10 poise =1 =| m2II [12 Fluid Mechanics d 85 N N Using equation (1.2), tap“ = xo45 — = 0.3825 —. Ans. dy 10 m m Problem 1.14 The dynamic viscosity of an oil, used for lubrication between a shafi and sleeve is 6 poise. The shaft is of diameter 0.4 m and rotates at 190 r.p.m. Calculate the power lost in the bearing for a sleeve length of 90 mm. The thickness of the oil film is 1.5 mm. Solution. Given : 1.5mm Viscosity Lt = 6 poise k ot BS sog 22 04m 10 m* m ' Dia. of shaft, D=0.4m i i er Speed of shaft, N= 190 r.p.m d 80mm 3 SLEEVE Sleeve length, L£=90 mm=90 x 10 m Thickness of oil film, t=15mm=15x 107m Fig. 1.5 - . EDN _ nrx04x190 Tangential velocity of shaft, 1 = ——— =———_——_ = 3.98 m/s . , 60 60 df Using the relation T= ae dy where du = Change of velocity = u—0 = u = 3.98 m/s dy = Change of distance = ¢ = 1.5x 103m t= 10x es = 1592 N/m? 15x 10~ This is shear stress on shaft Shear force on the shaft, f = Shear stress x Area = 1592x Dx L= 1592 x mx .4x 90 x 10-*= 180.05 N dD 04 Torque on the shaft, T = Force x a= 180.05 x >* 36.01 Nm _ 2nNT 20 x190% 36.01 60 60 Problem 1.15 If the velocity profile of a fluid over a plate is parabolic with the vertex 20 cm from the plate, where the velocity is 120 cm/sec. Calculate the velocity gradients and shear stresses at a distance of 0, 10 and 20 cm from the plate, if the viscosity of the fluid is 8.5 poise. *Power lost = 716.48 W. Ans. Solution. Given : y Distance of vertex from plate = 20 cm Velocity at vertex, u= 120 cm/sec u= 120 cm/sec — Viscosity, Lt = 8.5 poise = 85 a = 0.85. 10 m° 2aN 2aNT * Power in S.I. unit = T* o=T x =n Watt = ae Watt 60 60| Properties of Fluids The velocity profile is given parabolic and equation of velocity profile is u=ay+byte where a, > and ¢ are constants. Their values are determined from boundary conditions as : (a) aty=0,4=0 (b) at y= 20 em, w = 120 cm/sec (c) at y= 20 em, we =0. dy Substituting boundary condition (@) in equation (f), we get c=0. Boundary condition (4) on substitution in (7) gives 120 = a(20)? + b(20) = 400a + 206 Boundary condition (c) on substitution in equation (i) gives d “-. 2ay +b dy or O=2xax20+b=40a+b Solving equations (i) and (iii) for a and b From equation (iti), b=-4A0a Substituting this value in equation (4), we get 120 = 400a + 20 x (— 40a) = 400a - 8004 = - 4000 a= N20) ee eh —400 10 et b=-40 x (— 0.3) = 12.0 Substituting the values of a, 6 and ¢ in equation (1), u=—0.3y" + 12y. Velocity Gradient aR =-— 0.3 x 2y+ 12=—-0.6y + 12 dy ‘ “ du at y = 0, Velocity gradient, By =-0.6 x 0+ 12 = 12/s. Ans. y y=0 du at y= 10 cm, — =- 0.6 x 10+ 12 =-6+4 12 = G/s. Ans. y=10 du at y= 20 cm, a =-0.6x 20+ 12=-124+12=0. Ans. : y= Shear Stresses du Shear stress is given by, T=U dy 13 (i) wit) --.(iii)II [14 Fluid Mechanics (i) Shear stress at y = 0, T=UL (<*] = 0.85 x 12.0 = 10.2 N/m’. yeo (ii) Shear stress at y = 10, T= [=] = 0.85 x 6.0 = 5.1 N/m?. yelo (it) Shear stress at y = 20, dy T=h ($| = 0.85 x 0 = 0. Ans. y=20 Problem 1.16 A Newtonian fluid is filled in the clearance between a shaft and a concentric sleeve. The sleeve attains a speed ef 50 cm/s, when a force of 40 N is applied to the sleeve parallel to the shaft. Determine the speed if a force of 200 N is applied. Solution. Given : Speed of sleeve, u, = 50 cm/s when force, FF, =40N. Let speed of sleeve is #, when force, F, = 200 N. ‘ é du Using relation T= — dy Fore, F where T = Shear stress = owes Area A du = Change of velocity =» -0 =u dy = Clearance = y Foo AS f y Fe Ajlu S55 Ge ¥ Af uo Uy Substituting values, we get MO 200 50 ty Uy= SU = 50 x 5 = 250 cm/s. Ans. Problem 1.17 A J5 cm diameter vertical cylinder rotates concentrically inside another cylinder of A, Wand y are constant} diameter 15.10 cm. Both cylinders are 25 cm high. The space between the cylinders is filled with a liquid whose viscosity is unknown. If a torque of 12.0 Nm is required to rotate the inner cylinder at 100 r.p.m., determine the viscesity of the fluid. Solution. Given : Diameter of cylinder =iem=0.15m Dia. of outer cylinder = 15.10 em = 0.151 m Length of cylinders, L=25cm=0.25m Torque, T = 12.0 NmProperties of Fluids 15 Speed, N= 100 r.p.m. Let the viscosity =U mDN — xx0.15x 100 Tangential velocity of cylinder, uw = = 0.7854 m/s 60 60 Surface area of cylinder, A=nDxL=nx 0.15 x 0.25 = .1178 m? d Now using relation t= Tyee dy where du=u—0 == .7854 m/s 151-015 y= SIS=O1N open to EX 7854 0005 Shear force, F = Shear stress x Area = H%-7854 ,. sing 0005 D Torque, T=FX z 12,9 = BX-7854 1173 x 8 0005 2 12.0 x .0005 x 2 = 0.864 N s/m? = "7854 x 1178 15 = 0.864 x 10 = 8.64 poise. Ans. Problem1.18 {wo large plane surfaces are 2.4 cm apart. The space between the surfaces is filled with glycerine. Whar force is required to drag a very thin plate of surface area 0.5 square metre between the two large plane surfaces at a speed of 0.6 m/s, if : (i) the thin plate is in the middle of the two plane surfaces, and (ii) the thin plate is at a distance of 0.8 em from one of the plane surfaces ? Take the dynamic viscosity of glycerine = 8.10 x 107! N sf’. Solution. Given : Distance between two large surfaces = 2.4 cm Area of thin plate, A=0.5m? Velocity of thin plate, u = 0.6 m/s Viscosity of glycerine, b= 8.10% 10°! N sim? Case I. When the thin plate is in the middle of the two plane surfaces [Refer to Fig. 1.7 (a)] Let F, = Shear force on the upper side of the thin plate Fig. 1.7 (a) F, = Shear force on the lower side of the thin plate F = Total force required to drag the plate Then F=F\+F, The shear stress (T,) on the upper side of the thin plate is given by equation, 24cm —— =F16 Fluid Mechanics du t= Hay “Al where du = Relative velocity between thin plate and upper large plane surface = 0.6 m/sec dy = Distance between thin plate and upper large plane surface = 1.2 cm = 0.012 m (plate is a thin one and hence thickness of plate is neglected) t,=8.10x 10! «( os) = 40.5 Nim? Now shear force, F, = Shear stress x Area =1,XA=40.5 x0.5 = 20.25 N Similarly shear stress (1,) on the lower side of the thin plate is given by em (s] = 8.10 10°! x (28) = 40.5 Nim? y Shear force, F,=1,x A= 40.5 x 0.5 = 20.25 N Total force, F =F, +F,= 20.25 + 20.25 = 40.5 N. Ans. Case I. When the thin plate is at a distance of 0.8 cm from one of the plane surfaces [Refer to Fig. 1.7 (b)]. AIL LA HEA CLAUS ULC Let the thin plate is at a distance 0.8 cm from the lower plane | surface. 1.6cm Then distance of the plate from the upper plane surface 240m | =24-0.8=1.6em=.016m “a nF (Neglecting thickness of the plate) peat The shear force on the upper side of the thin plate, F, = Shear stress x Area= 1, XA . Fig. 1.7 (b) =p {| xass10x 10x (| x05 = 15.18 N dy}, 0.016 The shear force on the lower side of the thin plate, ranxacn (H xA - i. dy mee = 8.10 x 10-!x | 24 x 0.5 = 30.36 N 0.8/100 Total force required =F + F', = 15.18 + 30.36 = 45.54 N. Ans. Problem 1.19 A vertical gap 2.2 cm wide of infinite extent contains a fluid of viscosity 2.0 N sfn™ and specific gravity 0.9. A metallic plate 1.2 m x 1.2 m x 0.2 cm is to be lifted up with a constant velocity of 0.15 m/sec, through the gap. If the plate is in the middle ef the gap, find the force required. The weight of the plate is 40 N. Solution. Given : Width of gap = 2.2 em, viscosity, ft = 2.0 N s/m? Sq. gr. of fluid = 0.9Properties of Fluids 17 F Weight density of fluid = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kef/m* = 900 x 9.81 N/m? (vl kpf = 9.81 N) Volume of plate =1.2mx1.2mx0.2 cm = 1.2 * 1.2 x .002 m* = .00288 m* Thickness of plate = 0.2 cm Velocity of plate = 0.15 m/sec Weight of plate =40N. When plate is in the middle of the gap, the distance of the plate from vertical surface of the gap Fig. 1.8 _ (= of gap-Thickness of pe - 3 2 (22-02) , = Shear stress X Area = 2.0 x (*F] x 1.2% 1.2=43.2N Total shear force =F) +, =43.2+ 43.2 =804N. In this case the weight of plate (which is acting vertically downward) and upward thrust is also to be taken into account. The upward thrust = Weight of fluid displaced = (Weight density of fluid) x Volume of fluid displaced = 9.81 x 900 x .00288 N (Volume of fluid displaced = Volume of plate = .00288) = 25.43 N. The net force acting in the downward direction due to weight of the plate and upward thrust = Weight of plate — Upward thrust = 40 - 25.43 = 14.57 N Total force required to lift the plate up = Total shear force + 14.57 = 86.4 + 14.57 = 100.97 N. Ans. > 1.4 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES Fluids consist of liquids or gases, But gases are compressible fluids and hence thermodynamic properties play an important role, With the change of pressure and temperature, the gases undergo18 Fluid Mechanics large variation in density. The relationship between pressure (absolute), specific volume and temperature (absolute) of a gas is given by the equation of state as p= RT or © = RT we 1.5) where p= Absolute pressure of a gas in Nim? ‘¥ = Specific volume = I. p R = Gas constant T = Absolute temperature in °K p = Density of a gas. 1.4.1 Dimension of R. The gas constant, R, depends upon the particular gas. The dimension of R is obtained from equation (1.5) as. re pr kef/m> _ kef-m ° Oaaa m (ii) In SI units, p is expressed in Newton/m? or N/m?, Nim? _ Nm __ Joule (i) In MKS units R= a R= =. [Joule = Nm] a xK kek K ke-K m eg I, ke-K For air, Rin MKS = 29.3 X= ke °K Rin ST = 29.3 x 9.81 Nm = 287 a ke°K ke-K 1.4.2. Isothermal Process. If the change in density occurs at constant temperature, then the process is called isothermal and relationship between pressure (p) and density (p) is given by Pe Constant -( 1.6) 1.4.3 Adiabatic Process. If the change in density occurs with no heat exchange to and from the gas, the process is called adiabatic. And if no heat is generated within the gas due to friction, the relationship between pressure and density is given by Pe x ste = = Constant wA1.7) P where & = Ratio of specific heat of a gas at constant pressure and constant volume. = 1.4 for air.Properties of Fluids 19 1.4.4 Universal Gas Constant Let mn = Mass of a gas in kg VW = Volume of gas of mass m p= Absolute pressure T= Absolute temperature Then, we have pY = mRT (1.8) where R = Gas constant. Equation (1.8) can be made universal, i.e., applicable to all gases if it is expressed in mole-basis. Let n= Number of moles in volume of a gas VW = Volume of the gas _ Mass of the gas molecules Mass of a hydrogen atom m= Mass of a gas in kg Then, we have nxMe=m. Substituting the value of mm in equation (1.8), we get p¥=nxXMxRT A 1.9) . : ‘ kef-m s The product M x R is called universal gas constant and is equal to 848 ein MKS units kg-mole °K and 8314 J/kg-mole K in SI units. One kilogram mole is defined as the product of one kilogram mass of the gas and its molecular weight. Problem 1.20 A gas weighs 16 Nén’ at 25°C and at an absolute pressure of 0.25 N/mm’. Deter- mine the gas constant and density of the gas. Solution, Given : Weight density, w= 16 Nim? Temperature, f= 25°C Z T= 273+ 6= 273 + 25 = 288°K p= 0.25 N/mm? (abs.) = 0.25 x 10° N/m? = 25 x 10" N/m? (i) Using relation w = pg, density is obtained as Mia wi Gs ke/m*. Ans. g 981 (ii) Using equation (1.5), Perr P j pat RN gap Nye pT 1.63 288 kg K Problem 1.21 A cylinder of 0.6 m’ in volume contains air at 50°C and 0.3 N/mm’? absolute pressure. The air is compressed to 0.3 mm", Find (i) pressure inside the cylinder assuming isothermal process and (ii) pressure and temperature assuming adiabatic process. Take k = 1.4. Solution. Given : Initial volume, ¥, = 0.6 mm20 Fluid Mechanics Temperature 1, = 50°C a T, = 273 + 50 = 323°K Pressure p, = 0.3 N/mm? = 0.3 x 10° N/m? = 30 x 104 Nén? Final volume ¥,=03 m k=14 (i) Isothermal process : Using equation (1.6), ? = Constant or pv = Constant. p PLY = Pov, V, 30x 10° x06 2 2 py = PL RIN ANS @ 0.6 x 10° Nim? = 0.6 Nimm?. Ans. WV 0.3 (i) Adiabatic process : Using equation (1.7), i = Constant or p v" = Constant Pp Pvt = P2V3- 14 = 30x 104 x [75] = 30x 10*x2!* 03 = 0.791 x 10° Nim? = 0.791 N/mm? Ans. For temperature, using equation (1.5), we get pW = RT and also p ¥* = Constant = AT gy RE Eo P v and eT x VW" = Constant or RT"! = Constant or Tv"! = Constant {-: Ris also constant} Tv =70e k-1 14-10 T,=T, (=] =323 (3) = 323 x 24 = 426.2°K t, = 426.2 — 273 = 153.2°C. Ans. Problem 1.22 Calculate the pressure exerted by 5 ke of nitrogen gas at a temperature of 10°C if the volume is 0.4m’. Molecular weight of nitrogen is 28. Assume, ideal gas laws are applicable. Solution. Given : Mass of nitrogen =5kg Temperature, f= 10°C ‘ T = 273 + 10=283°K Volume of nitrogen, ¥=04 m* Molecular weight = 28 Using equation (1.9), we have pV =n x M x RTII Properties of Fluids 21 where M x R = Universal gas constant = 8314 __ Sn __ kg-mole °K and one kg-mole = (kg-mass) x Molecular weight = (kg-mass) x 28 R for nitrogen = en = 296.9 Nm 28 ke°K The gas laws for nitrogen isp¥ = mRT, where R = Characteristic gas constant or px04a=5 x 296.9 * 283 _ 5% 296.9 x 283 04 = 1050283.7 N/m? = 1.05 N/mm’, Ans. > 1.5 COMPRESSIBILITY AND BULK MODULUS Compressibility is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus of elasticity, K which is defined as the ratio of compressive stress to volumetric strain. Consider a cylinder fitted with a piston as shown in Fig. 1.9. Let V = Volume of a gas enclosed in the cylinder p = Pressure of gas when volume is V " Let the pressure is increased to p + dp, the volume of gas CYLINDER decreases from V to V - dV. Fig. 1.9 Then increase in pressure =dp kefim* Decrease in volume =dV HY. Volumetric strain = - — ve sign means the volume decreases with increase of pressure. Increase of pressure Bulk modulus K= Volumetric strain __dp__-4p = Lay ay Vv (1.10) Vv 1 Cc ssibilit == afi ompressibility KE { ) Relationship between Bulk Modulus (K) and Pressure (p) for a Gas The relationship between bulk modulus of elasticity (K) and pressure for a gas for two different processes of compression are as : (i) For Isothermal Process. Equation (1.6) gives the relationship between pressure (p) and density (p) of a gas as Pe Constant22 Fluid Mechanics or pv = Constant {3 Vea 1} p Differentiating this equation, we get (p and VY both are variables) pd¥+Vdp=0 or pd¥=-Vdp or p= =e Substituting this value in equation (1.10), we get K=p wo ( 1.12) (ii) For Adiabatic Process. Using equation (1.7) for adiabatic process - = Constant or p ¥" = Constant p Differentiating, we get pd(v") + ¥(dp) = 0 or pxkx WV! dv +" dp=0 or pkd'¥ + Vdp = 0 [Cancelling ¥! to both sides] Vap or pkdY=—-‘dp or pk=- ae Hence from equation (1.10), we have K= pk wi(4i3) where K = Bulk modulus and & = Ratio of specific heats, Problem 1.23 Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid, if the pressure of the liquid is increased from 70 Nécm? to 130 N/em*. The volume of the liquid decreases by 0.15 per cent. Solution. Given : Initial pressure = 70 Nicm? 130 Nicm? Final pressure dp = Increase in pressure = 130 — 70 = 60 N/em? Decrease in volume = 0.15% dv OS a aft Se Vv 100 Bulk modulus, K is given by equation (1.10) as dp _ 60N/em* _ 60x 100 dv 15 15 100 Problem 1.24 Whar is the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid which is compressed in a cylinder from a volume of 0.0125 m® at 80 Nécm’ pressure to a volume of 0.0124 m? at 150 Néem* pressure ? = 4x 10‘ N/cm’. Ans. Solution. Given : Initial volume, ¥ = 0.0125 m> Final volume = 0.0124 m* Decrease in volume, dv = .0125 — .0124 = .0001 m?Properties of Fluids 23 dv _ 0001 “Vv 0125 Initial pressure = 80 N/cm? Final pressure = 150 N/em? Increase in pressure, dp = (150 - 80) = 70 Nicm* Bulk modulus is given by equation (1.10) as _ dp WwW | 2 K= ~ dv ~ 0007 = 70 x 125 N/cm v 0125 = 8.75 x 10° N/em?. Ans. > 1.6 SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with a gas or on the surface between two immiscible liquids such that the contact surface behaves like a membrane under tension. The magnitude of this force per unit length of the free surface will have the same value as the surface energy per unit area. It is denoted by Greek letter o (called sigma). In MKS units, it is expressed as kgf/m while in SI units as N/m. The phenomenon of surface tension is explained by FREE SURFACE Fig. 1.10. Consider three molecules A, B, C of a liquid in a mass of liquid. The molecule A is attracted in all directions equally by the surrounding molecules of the liquid. Thus the resultant force acting on the molecule A is zero. But the molecule AB, which is situated near the free surface, is acted upon by upward and downward forces which are unbalanced. Thus a net resultant force on molecule B is acting in the downward direction. The molecule C, situated on the free surface of liquid, does experience a resultant downward force. All the molecules on the free surface experience a downward force. Thus the free surface of the liquid acts like a very thin film under tension of the surface of the liquid act as though it is an elastic membrane under tension, Fig. 1.10 Swrface tension. 1.6.1 Surface Tension on Liquid Droplet. Consider a small spherical droplet of a liquid of radius ‘r’. On the entire surface of the droplet, the tensile force due to surface tension will be acting. Let o= Surface tension of the liquid p = Pressure intensity inside the droplet (in excess of the outside pressure intensity) d = Dia. of droplet, Let the droplet is cut into two halves. The forces acting on one half (say left half) will be (/) tensile force due to surface tension acting around the circumference of the cut portion as shown in Fig. 1.11 (4) and this is equal to =o x Circumference =oxnd24 Fluid Mechanics (ii) pressure force on the area aa =px . @° as shown in ro Fig. L.11 (c). These two forces will be equal and opposite = under equilibrium conditions, f.e.. 4 (a) DROPLET — (b) SURFACE TENSION px i @zaxnd i —_ Pp xnd 4 / or p= SATE aay A Rg d 4 (c) PRESSURE FORCES Equation (1.14) shows that with the decrease of diameter Fig. 141 Forces on droplet. of the droplet, pressure intensity inside the droplet increases. 1.6.2 Surface Tension on a Hollow Bubble. A hollow bubble like a soap bubble in air has two surfaces in contact with air, one inside and other outside. Thus two surfaces are subjected to surface tension. In such case, we have px d=2x(oxnd) p= Zend _% eo( 1.15) ib je d 4 1.6.3 Surface Tension on a Liquid Jet. Consider a liquid jet of diameter ‘d’ and length “L’ as shown in Fig. 1.12. Let p = Pressure intensity inside the liquid jet above the outside pressure 6 = Surface tension of the liquid. 2 Consider the equilibrium of the semi jet, we have p Force due to pressure =p X area of semi jet 2 =pxLxd L ao. Force due to surface tension =o x 2L. a Equating the forces, we have =] pxbkxd=ax2h t 2 = p= we (1.16) a in Fig. 112 Forces on liquid jet. Problem 1.25 The surface tension of water in contact with air at 20°C is 0.0725 Nén. The pressure inside a droplet of water is to be 0.02 Nien? greater than the outside pressure, Calculate the diameter of the droplet of water. Solution. Given : Surface tension, o = 0.0725 N/m Pressure intensity, p in excess of outside pressure is N p= 0.02 Niem? = 0.02 x 104 — ae Let d= dia. of the dropletProperties of Fluids 25 Using equation (1.14), we getp = “s or 0.02 x 104 = BxUUH, oe a = 4%00725 = 90145 m = .00145 x 1000 = 1.45 mm. Ans. 0.02 x (10) Problem 1.26 Find the surface tension in a soap bubble of 40 mm diameter when the inside pressure is 2.5 N/m? above atmospheric pressure. Solution. Given : Dia. of bubble, d= 40 mm=40 x 104m Pressure in excess of outside,p = 2.5 N/m? For a soap bubble, using equation (1.15), we get 8a &xo p=— of 25= ——— d 40« 10° 25x40 x10 8 Problem 1.27 The pressure outside the droplet of water of diameter 0.04 mm is 10.32 N/cm? (atmospheric pressure). Calculate the pressure within the droplet if surface tension is given as 0.0725 NAn of water. Solution. Given : N/m = 0.0125 N/m. Ans. Dia. of droplet, d= 0.04 mm = 04x 10> m Pressure outside the droplet = 10.32 N/em? = 10.32 x 10* N/m? Surface tension, o = 0.0725 N/m The pressure inside the droplet, in excess of outside pressure is given by equation (1.14) 4x 0.072 2 = 08 ONE gaan ie = TO dad 04x10 10" cm? .. Pressure inside the droplet = p + Pressure outside the droplet = 0.725 + 10.32 = 11.045 N/em?. Ans. 1.6.4 Capillarity. Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid surface in a small tube relative to the adjacent general level of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the liquid. The rise of liquid surface is known as capillary rise while the fall of the liquid surface is known as = 0.725 Nicm* capillary depression. It is expressed in terms of cm or mm of liquid. Its value depends upon the specific weight of the liquid, diameter of the tube and surface tension of the liquid. Expression for Capillary Rise. Consider a glass tube of small diameter ‘d’ opened at both ends and is inserted in a liquid, say water. The liquid will rise in the tube above the level of the liquid. Let A = height of the liquid in the tube. Under a state of equilibrium, the weight of liquid of height / is balanced by the force at the surface of the liquid in the tube. But the force at the surface of the liquid in the tube is due to surface tension. Let 6 = Surface tension of liquid = Angle of contact between liquid and glass tube. The weight of liquid of height h in the tube = (Area of tube x h) x p x g Fig. 1.13 Capillary rise.26 Fluid Mechanics =F Pxhxpxe (1.17) where p = Density of liquid Vertical component of the surface tensile force = (o x Circumference) x cos 8 =oxndxcosé of 1.18) For equilibrium, equating (1.17) and (1.18), we get 1d xhxpxg=oxndxcos 0 oxndxcosO 4a cos0 pxgxd or h= wf L199) TEP xpx 4 PRS The value of @ between water and clean glass tube is approximately equal to zero and hence cos @ is equal to unity. Then rise of water is given by jem x (1.20) pxgxd Expression for Capillary Fall. If the glass tube is dipped in mercury, the level of mercury in the tube will be lower than the general level of the outside liquid as shown in Fig. 1.14. Let h = Height of depression in tube. Then in equilibrium, two forces are acting on the mercury inside the tube. First one is due to surface tension acting in the downward direction and is equal to o x td x cos 6. Second force is due to hydrostatic force acting upward and is equal to intensity of pressure at a depth ‘i’ x Area =px tds pexhx Tat p=pgh} Equating the two, we get ox nd x cos 8 = pgh x : & n= one A121) pas és MERCURY Value of 6 for mercury and glass tube is 128°. Fig. 1.14 Problem 1.28 Calculate the capillary rise in a glass tube of 2.5 mm diameter when immersed vertically in (a) water and (b) mercury. Take surface tensions 0 = 0.0725 N/m for water and @= 0.52 N/m for mercury in contact with air. The specific gravity for mercury is given as 13.6 and angle ef contact = 130°. Solution. Given : Dia. of tube, d=2.5 mm =2.5x 10° m Surface tension, G for water = 0.0725 N/m o for mercury = 0.52 N/m Sp. gr. of mercury = 13.6Properties of Fluids 27 Density = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m’. (a) Capillary rise for water (6 = 0°) 40 4 x 0.0725 pxgxd 1000x981x25x 10° = .0118 m = L.18 em. Ans. Using equation (1.20), we get h = (b) For mercury Angle of contact between mercury and glass tube, 8 = 130° 4ocos6 _ 4x 0.52 x cos 130° pxgxd ~ 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81% 2.5 x107 = —.004 m = — 0.4 em, Ans. The negative sign indicates the capillary depression. Using equation (1.21), we get h= Problem 1.29 Calculate the capillary effect in millimetres in a glass tbe of 4 mm diameter, when immersed in (i) water, and (ti) mercury. The temperature of the liquid is 20°C and the values of the surface tension of water and mercury at 20°C in contact with air are 0.073575 Nén and 0.51 Ném respectively. The angle of contact for water is zero and that for mercury ts 130°. Take density of water at 20°C as equal to 998 kgm’. Solution. Given: Dia. of tube, d=4mm=4x 107m The capillary effect (i.e., capillary rise or depression) is given by equation (1.20) as he 4c cos0 pxgxd where 6 = surface tension in N/m 0 = angle of contact, and p = density (i) Capillary effect for water o = 0.073575 N/m, 8 = 0° p = 998 kg/m? at 20°C = 4 x 0.073575 x cos 0° 998x 9.81x4% 10° (i) Capillary effect for mercury o = 0.51 N/m, 6 = 130° and p = sp. gr. x 1000 = 13.6 x 1000 = 13600 kg/m? joa 2 EO cco 130" ose? ie 2: ina An 13600 x 981x4 x 107 The negative sign indicates the capillary depression. = 7.51 x 10° m= 7.51 mm. Ans. Problem 1.30 The capillary rise in the glass tube is not to exceed 0.2 mm of water. Determine its minimum size, given that surface tension for water in contact with air = 0.0725 Nem. Solution. Given : Capillary rise, h=0.2mm=0.2x 10° m Surface tension, o = 0.0725 N/m28 Fluid Mechanics Let dia. of tube ad The angle 6 for water =0° Density (p) for water = 1000 kg/m? Using equation (1.20), we get Re 46 or0.2x 107 = 4x 0.0725 pxgxd 1000 x 981% d d= eS 0.148 m = 14.8 cm. Ans. 1000 x 9.81.2 x 107% Thus minimum diameter of the tube should be 14.8 cm. Problem 1.31 Find out the minimum size of glass tube that can be used to measure water level if the capillary rise in the tube is to be restricted to 2 mm. Consider surface tension of water in contact with air as 0.073575 Nén. Solution. Given : Capillary rise, h=2.0 mm=2.0x 10% m Surface tension, o = 0.073575 N/m Let dia. of tube ed The angle 0 for water =o" The density for water, p= 1000 kg/m3 Using equation (1.20), we get 4 4x 0.073575 h= —9_ or20x 103s 2? pxgxd 1000 x 981 xd A 7 d= —4%0073573_ _ 9.015 m= 1.5 em. Ans. 1000 x 9.81% 2x 10° Thus minimum diameter of the tube should be 1.5 cm. Problem 1.32 Ar oil of viscosity 5 poise is used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve. The diameter of the shaft is 0.5 m and it rotates at 200 r.p.m. Calculate the power lost in oil for a sleeve length of 100 mm. The thickness of oil film is 1.0 mm. Solution. Given : Viscosity, Lt = 5 poise aie 0.5 N s/m? 10 Dia. of shaft, D=0.5m Speed of shaft, N = 200 r.p.m. Sleeve length, L= 100 mm = 100 x 10? m=0.1m Thickness of oi! film, t=1.0mm=1x10%m Tangential velocity of shaft, v= =~ = — = 5.235 m/s du Using the relation, T= 8 byProperties of Fluids 29 where, du = Change of velocity = u — 0 = u = 5.235 m/s dy = Change of distance = f= 1 x 107% m 05 « 5.235 tt 1x 10° This is the shear stress on the shaft -. Shear force on the shaft, F = Shear stress x Area= 2617.5 x nDxXDL (. Area=aDx L) = 2617.5 x mx 0.5 x 0.1 = 410.95 N = 2617.5 Nim* Torque on the shaft. T= Force x 3 = 410.95 & “3 = 102.74 Nm Power* lost = T x @ Watts = T x 20M Ww = 102.74 x oes = 2150 W = 2.15 kW. Ans. > 1.7 VAPOUR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION A change from the liquid state to the gaseous state is known as vaporization. The vaporization (which depends upon the prevailing pressure and temperature condition) occurs because of continuous escaping of the molecules through the free liquid surface. Consider a liquid (say water) which is confined in a closed vessel. Let the temperature of liquid is 20°C and pressure is atmospheric. This liquid will vaporise at 100°C. When vaporization takes place, the molecules escapes from the free surface of the liquid. These vapour molecules get accumulated in the space between the free liquid surface and top of the vessel. These accumulated vapours exert a pressure on the liquid surface. This pressure is known as vapour pressure of the liquid or this is the pressure at which the liquid is converted into vapours. Again consider the same liquid at 20°C at atmospheric pressure in the closed vessel. If the pressure above the liquid surface is reduced by some means, the boiling temperature will also reduce. If the pressure is reduced to such an extent that it becomes equal to or less than the vapour pressure, the boiling of the liquid will start, though the temperature of the liquid is 20°C. Thus a liquid may boil even at ordinary temperature, if the pressure above the liquid surface is reduced so as to be equal or less than the vapour pressure of the liquid at that temperature. Now consider a flowing liquid in a system. If the pressure at any point in this flowing liquid becomes equal to or less than the vapour pressure, the vaporization of the liquid starts. The bubbles of these vapours are carried by the flowing liquid into the region of high pressure where they collapse, giving rise to high impact pressure. The pressure developed by the collapsing bubbles is so high that the material from the adjoining boundaries gets eroded and cavities are formed on them. This phenomenon is known as cavitation. Hence the cavitation is the phenomenon of formation of vapour bubbles of a flowing liquid in a region where the pressure of the liquid falls below the vapour pressure and sudden collapsing of these vapour bubbles in a region of higher pressure. When the vapour bubbles collapse, a very high pressure is created. The metallic surfaces, above which the liquid is flowing, is subjected to these high pressures, which cause pitting action on the surface, Thus cavities are formed on the metallic surface and hence the name is cavitation. r Watts or an kW. The angular velocity @ = au 60,000 60 * Power in case of 8.1. Unit=7T x @ orFluid Mechanics = o 10. di. 12. Nn HIGHLIGHTS The weight density or specific weight of a fluid is equal to weight per unit volume. It is also equal to, W=pXg. Specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density. : 5 E : z ad The shear stress is proportional to the velocity gradient =. Mathematically, t = a * ay ¥ uw . Kinematic viscosity v is given by v= —. . Poise and stokes are the units of viscosity and kinematic viscosity respectively. To convert the unit of viscosity from poise to MKS units, poise should be divided by 98.1 and to convert poise into SI units, the poise should be divided by 10. SI unit of viscosity is Nsfn? or Pa s, where N/m? = Pa = Pascal. For a perfect gas, the equation of state is 2 arr p where R = gas constant and for air = 29.3 ee = 287 J/kg °K. ke*K For isothermal process, £ = Constant whereas for adiabatic process, p -dp . Bulk modulus of elasticity is given as K = ——— (F) Compressibility is the reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity or = a Surface tension is expressed in N/m or dyne/cm. The relation between surface tension (a) and difference of pressure () between the inside and outside of a liquid drop is given as p = “ For a soap bubble, p= *. For a liquid jet, p= s. Capillary rise or fall of a liquid is given by f= scot The value of @ for water is taken equal to zero and for mercury equal to 128°. EXERCISE (A) THEORETICAL PROBLEMS . Define the following fluid properties : Density, weight density, specific volume and specific gravity of a fluid. Differentiate between : (7) Liquids and gases, (ii) Real fluids and ideal fluids, (iii) Specific weight and specific volume of a fluid. What is the difference between dynamic viscosity and kinematic viscosity ? State their units of measurements, |Properties of Fluids 31 4. il. 12, 13. 14. 15, 16. i z - Explain the terms : (i) Dynamic viscosity, and (i) Kinematic viscosity. Give their dimensions. . State the Newton's law of viscosity and give examples of its application. . Enunciate Newton's law of viscosity. Explain the importance of viscosity in fluid motion. What is the effect of temperature on viscosity of water and that of air? . Define Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids, What do you understand by terms : (7) Isothermal process, (ii) Adiabatic process, and (i) Universal-gas constant. Define compressibility. Prove that compressibility for a perfect gas undergoing isothermal compression is 1 aoe p oe ‘ eed — while for a perfect gas undergoing isentropic compression is —. P wp Define surface tension. Prove that the relationship between surface tension and pressure inside a droplet of 4a liquid in excess of outside pressure is given by p = Explain the phenomenon of capillarity. Obtain an expression for capillary rise of a liquid. (a) Distinguish between ideal fluids and real fluids, Explain the importance of compressibility in fluid flow. (b) Define the terms : density, specific volume, specific gravity, vacuum pressure, compressible and incompressible fluids. (R.G.P. Vishwavidyalaya, Bhopal § 2002) Define and explain Newton's law of viscosity. Convert 1 kg/s-m dynamic viscosity in poise. Why does the viscosity of a gas increases with the increase in temperature while that of a liquid decreases with increase in temperature ? (a) How does viscosity of a fluid vary with temperature ? (b) Cite examples where surface tension effects play a prominent role. (J.N.T.U., Hyderabad S$ 2002) (4) Develop the expression for the relation between gauge pressure P inside a droplet of liquid and the surface tension. (it) Explain the following : Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids, vapour pressure, and compressibility. (R.G.P.V., Bhopal 5 2001) (B) NUMERICAL PROBLEMS One litre of crude oil weighs 9.6 N. Calculate its specific weight, density and specific gravity. [Ans. 9600 N/m°, 978.6 kg/m’, 0.978] on 3 The velocity distribution for flow over a flat plate is given by u = z y—y'", where w is the point velocity in metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate. Determine the shear stress at y = 9 cm. Assume dynamic viscosity as 8 poise. (Nagpur University) [Ans. 0.839 Ném?] A plate 0,025 mm distant from a fixed plate, moves at 50 cm/s and requires a force of 1.471 NAn to maintain this speed, Determine the fluid viscosity between the plates in the poise. [Ans. 7.357 x 10 4 . Determine the intensity of shear of an oil having viscosity = 1.2 poise and is used for lubrication in the clearance between a 10 cm diameter shaft and its journal bearing. The clearance is 1.0 mm and shaft rotates at 200 r.p.m. {Ans. 125.56 N/m] - Two plates are placed at a distance of 0.15 mm apart. The lower plate is fixed while the upper plate having surface area 1,0 m? is pulled at 0.3 m/s, Find the force and power required to maintain this speed, if the fluid separating them is having viscosity 1.5 poise. [Ans. 300 N, 89.8 W] An oil film of thickness 1.5 mm is used for lubrication between a square plate of size 0.9 m x 0.9 m and an inclined plane having an angle of inclination 20°. The weight of the square is 392.4 N and it slides down the plane with a uniform velocity of 0.2 m/s. Find the dynamic viscosity of the oil. [Ams. 12.42 poise]32 Fluid Mechanics 7. Ina stream of glycerine in motion, at a certain point the velocity gradient is 0.25 metre per sec per metre. The mass density of fluid is 1268.4 kg per cubic metre and kinematic viscosity is 6.30 x 10 + square metre per second. Calculate the shear stress at the point. [Ans, 0.2 N/m?] 8. Find the kinematic viscosity of an oi] having density 980 kg/m? when at a certain point in the oil, the shear 2 stress is 0.25 N/m* and velocity gradient is 0.3/s. ame 0.000849 = or B49 cst sec 9. Determine the specific gravity of a fluid having viscosity 0.07 poise and kinematic viscosity 0.042 stokes. [Ans. 1.667 10. Determine the viscosity of a liquid having kinematic viscosity 6 stokes and specific gravity 2.0, [Ans. 11.99 poise « Ifthe velocity distribution of a fluid over a plate is given by u = (3/4) y —y", where wis the velocity in metre per second at a distance of y metres above the plate, determine the shear stress at y = 0.15 metre. Take dynamic viscosity of the fluid as 8.5 x 10° kg-sec/m’, [Ans. 3.825 x 10° kgffm? 12. An oil of viscosity 5 poise is used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve. The diameter of shaft is 0.5 m and it rotates at 200 r.p.m. Calculate the power lost in the oil for a sleeve length of 100 mm. The thickness of the oil film is 1.0 mm. [Ans. 2.15 kW 2 te - The velocity distribution over a plate is given by uv = : y-—y° in which w is the velocity in m/sec al a distance of y m above the plate. Determine the shear stress at y = 0, 0.1 and 0.2 m. Take pt = 6 poise. [Ans. 0.4, 0.028 and 0.159 N/m? 14, In question 13, find the distance in metres above the plate, at which the shear stress is zero. {Ans. 0.333 m 15. The velocity profile of a viscous fluid over a plate is parabolic with vertex 20 cm from the plate, where the velocity is 120 cm/s. Calculate the velocity gradient and shear stress at distances of 0, 5 and 15 cm from the plate, given the viscosity of the fluid = 6 poise. [Ans. 12/s, 7.18 N/m7; 9/s, 5.385 N/m? ; 3/s, 1.795 N/m? 16. The weight of a gas is given as 17,658 N/m’ at 30°C and at an absolute pressure of 29.43 Né/em’, Deter- [ms L8 ke _539.55N m m ke*K | 17. A cylinder of 0.9 m? in volume contains air at 0°C and 39.24 N/cm? absolute pressure. The air is compressed to 0.45 m*, Find (i) the pressure inside the cylinder assuming isothermal process, (ii) pressure and temperature assuming adiabatic process. Take k = 1.4 for air. [Ans. (i) 78.48 N/cm’, (i) 103.5 N/m’, 140°C 18. Calculate the pressure exerted by 4 kg mass of nitrogen gas at a temperature of 15°C if the volume is 0.35 m. mine the gas constant and also the density of the gas. Molecular weight of nitrogen is 28. [Ans, 97.8 N/em? 19. The pressure of a liquid is increased from 60 Nécm’ to 100 Nem? and volume decreases by 0.2 per cent. Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity. [Ans, 2 x 104 Nicm? 20. Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a fluid which is compressed in a cylinder from a volume of 0,009 m? at 70 Néem?* pressure to a volume of 0.0085 m? at 270 Nem? pressure. [Ans. 3.6 x 10" Néem? 21. The surface tension of water in contact with air at 20°C is given as 0.0716 N/m. The pressure inside a droplet of water is to be 0.0147 N/cm? greater than the outside pressure, calculate the diameter of the droplet of water. [Ans. 1.94 mm 22. Find the surface tension in a soap bubble of 30 mm diameter when the inside pressure is 1.962 Nim? above atmosphere. [Ans. 0.00735 NéAn 23. The surface tension of water in contact with air is given as 0.0725 N/m. The pressure outside the droplet of . Calculate the pressure within the droplet of et water of diameter 0.02 mm is atmospheric (1032 water, [Ans. 11.77 Niem?Properties of Fluids 33 24. 25, 26. 27. 28. 29. Calculate the capillary rise in a glass tube of 3.0 mm diameter when immersed vertically in (a) water, and (b) mercury. Take surface tensions for mercury and water as 0.0725 N/m and 0.52 N/m respectively in contact with air. Specific gravity for mercury is given as 13.6. [Ans. 0.966 cm, 0.3275 em] The capillary rise in the glass tube used for measuring water level is not to exceed 0.5 mm. Determine its minimum size, given that surface tension for water in contact with air = 0.07112 N/m. [Ans. 5.8 cm] (SI Units), One litre of crude oil weighs 9.6 N, Calculate its specific weight, density and specific gravity. [Ans. 9600 N/m*; 979.6 kg/m? ; 0.9786] (SI Units). A piston 796 mm diameter and 200 mm long works in a cylinder of 800 mm diameter. If the annular space is filled with a lubricating oil of viscosity 5 cp (centi-poise), calculate the speed of descent of the piston in vertical position. The weight of the piston and axial load are 9.81 N. [Ans, 7.84 m/s] (SI Units). Find the capillary rise of water in a tube 0.03 cm diameter. The surface tension of water is 0.0735 Nim. [Ans. 9.99 cm] Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of two litres of a liquid which weight 15 N. [Ans. 7500 Nim’, 764.5 kg/m’, 0.764] A 150 mm diameter vertical cylinder rotates concentrically inside another cylinder of diameter 151 mm. Both the cylinders are of 250 mm height. The space between the cylinders is filled with a liquid of viscosity 10 poise. Determine the torque required to rotate the inner cylinder at 100 r.p.m. [Ans. 13.87 Nm] A shaft of diameter 120 mm is rotating inside a journal bearing of diameter 122 mm at a speed of 360 r.p.m. The space between the shaft and the bearing is filled with a lubricating oil of viscosity 6 poise. Find the power absorbed in oil if the length of bearing is 100 mm. {Ans. 115.73 W] A shaft of diameter 100 mm is rotating inside a journal bearing of diameter 102 mm at a space of 360 r.p.m. The space between the shaft and bearing is filled with a lubricating oil of viscosity 5 poise. The length of the bearing is 200 mm. Find the power absorbed in the lubricating oil. [Ans. 111.58 W] Assuming that the bulk modulus of elasticity of water is 2.07 x 10° kN/m? at standard atmospheric conditions, determine the increase of pressure necessary to produce 1% reduction in volume at the same temperature. > -dV 1 Hint. K = 2.07 x 10° kN/m? ; ——— = — =0.01, l Vv 100 Increase in pressure (dp) = K x (- <) = 2.07 x 10° x 0.01 = 2.07 x 107 KN/m*. A square plate of size 1 mx | mand weighing 350 N slides down an inclined plane with a uniform velocity of 1.5 m/s. The inclined plane is laid on a slope of 5 vertical to 12 horizontal and has an oil film of | mm thickness, Calculate the dynamic viscosity of oil. [AN.T.U., Hyderabad, § 2002] [ Hint. A=1x%1=1m*,W=350N,u=1.5 mA, Pn eed 12. AB Component of weight along the plane = W x sin 6 BCS AC =,/AB? + BC? here sin 9 = Se=— — were ACB = fi2? +5? =13 Waa i P= W sin @= 350% 2. =134.615 Fig. 1.15 Now omy vittere deen Ore wee lS mien dye bmn 10m 2 ‘ 3 or Fy ya Fy dv 134615 1X10" _ 4 poyy BS _ 0.807 poise] A dy A du 1 LS mPRESSURE AND ITS x MEASUREMENT oo > 2.1 FLUID PRESSURE AT A POINT Consider a small area dA in large mass of fluid. If the fluid is stationary, then the force exerted by the surrounding fluid on the area dA will always be perpendicular to the surface dA. Let dl is the force ‘ ‘ ere ‘ dF . i ‘ acting on the area dA in the normal direction. Then the ratio of TA is known as the intensity of pressure or simply pressure and this ratio is represented by p. Hence mathematically the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is _ dF P TA: If the force (//) is uniformly distributed over the area (A), then pressure at any point is given by F Force p=-=——. A Area Force or pressure force, F = p x A. The units of pressure are : (i) kgf/m? and kgf/cm * in MKS units, (ii) Newton/m ? or N/m? and N/mm? in SI units. N/m? is known as Pascal and is represented by Pa. Other commonly used units of pressure are : kPa= kilo pascal = 1000 N/m?” bar = 100 kPa = 10° N/m’. p> 2.2 PASCAL'S LAW 2, It states that the pressure or intensity of pressure at a point B %, ; Y in a static fluid is equal in all directions. This is proved as : p, «dy +4 4 b The fluid element is of very small dimensions i.e.,dx,dy ~— yo and ds. A Co Consider an arbitrary fluid element of wedge shape in a fluid mass at rest as shown in Fig. 2.1. Let the width of the py *Ax* 7 element perpendicular to the plane of paper is unity and p,, Fig. 2.1 Forces on a fluid element. 35II [36 Fluid Mechanics Pp, and p, are the pressures or intensity of pressure acting on the face AB, AC and BC respectively. Let £ABC = @. Then the forces acting on the element are : 1, Pressure forces normal to the surfaces, and 2. Weight of element in the vertical direction. The forces on the faces are : Force on the face AB = p, x Area of face AB =p,xdyx | Similarly force on the face AC = p, x dx x 1 Force on the face BC = p,xdsx 1 Weight of element = (Mass of element) X ¢ = (Volume x p) x ¢= (PEACE x1) xpx-, where p = density of fluid. Resolving the forces in x-direction, we have p, x dy x 1—p (ds x 1) sin (90° - 6) = 0 or p, xdy X1-p,dsx1cos@ =0. But from Fig. 2.1, ds cos@ =AB=dy af p,*xdyX1—p,xdyx1 =0 or Py =P; wh) Similarly, resolving the forces in y-direction, we get In x py X dx 1 =p. x ds * 1 cos (90° - 6) - AK lo xged or py Xde~p,ds sin 6-2 x p x g=0. But ds sin @ = dx and also the element is very small and hence weight is negligible. . pydx —p,*xdx=0 or Py =D «A2.2) From equations (2.1) and (2.2), we have Py = Py = Dz «+(2.3) The above equation shows that the pressure at any point in x, y and z directions is equal. Since the choice of fluid element was completely arbitrary, which means the pressure at any point is the same in all directions. > 2.3 PRESSURE VARIATION IN A FLUID AT REST The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is obtained by the Hydro- static Law which states that the rate of increase of pressure in a vertically downward direction must be equal to the specific weight of the fluid at that point. This is proved as + Consider a small fluid element as shown in Fig. 2.2 FREE SURFACE OF FLUID Let AA= Cross-sectional area of element AZ = Height of fluid element p = Pressure on face AB 2 = Distance of fluid element from free surface. The forces acting on the fluid element are : Fig. 2.2. Forces on a fluid element.Pressure and its Measurement 37 1. Pressure force on AB = p x AA and acting perpendicular to face AB in the downward direction. dj 2. Pressure force on CD -(p+ Baw x AA, acting perpendicular to face CD, vertically upward direction. 3. Weight of fluid element = Density x g x Volume = p x g x (AA x AZ). 4. Pressure forces on surfaces BC and AD are equal and opposite. For equilibrium of fluid element, we have paa-(p+ az) ars pxex(arxan =o op .. . or Bap ne, AAA pg AA, 0 or ere xg x AAAZ = 0 ay pxs = op , dp ‘ 3 : or ae oe =pxgx AAAZ or dz =p x g [cancelling AAAZ on both sides] oP 5 =w (v pxg=w) (2.4) a7 g y wei Ze where w = Weight density of fluid. Equation (2.4) states that rate of increase of pressure in a vertical direction is equal to weight density of the fluid at that point. This is Hydrostatic Law. By integrating the above equation (2.4) for liquids, we get | dp = | pgaz or P=peZ «-(2.5) where p is the pressure above atmospheric pressure and Z is the height of the point from free surfaces. From equation (2.5), we have L= P (2.6) PX Here Z is called pressure head. Problem 2.1 A hydraulic press has a ram of 30 cm diameter and a plunger of 4.5 cm diameter. Find the weight lifted by the hydraulic press when the foree applied at the plunger is 500 N. Solution. Given : Dia. of ram, D=30cm=0.3m Dia. of plunger, d=4.5 cm = 0.045 m Force on plunger, F=500N Find weight lifted =W Area of ram, As . D?= : (0.3)? = 0.07068 m? fo. 2 2 Area of plunger, a= q P= 7 (0.045)~ = .00159 m38 Fluid Mechanics Pressure intensity due to plunger F _ Forceon plunger F 500 Nim? Areaof plunger = a@_——.00159 , CLE rafA_PLUNGER Due to Pascal's law, the intensity of pressure will be equally transmitted in all directions. Hence the pressure intensity at the ram Fig. 2.3 = 200. 314465.4 Nim? -00159 But pressure intensity at ram = _Weight__ = Ms, = w Nim? Areaofram A — .07068 Ww = 314465.4 07068 Weight = 3144605.4 x.07068 = 22222 N = 22.222 KN. Ans. Problem 2.2 A hydraulic press has a ram of 20 em diameter and a plunger of 3 cm diameter. It is used for lifting a weight of 30 KN. Find the force required at the plunger. Solution. Given : Dia. of ram, D=20cem=0.2 m Area of ram, A= : D= F(2)*= 0.0314 m? Dia. of plunger d=3cem=0.03 m Area of plunger, a= £037 = 7.068 x 10-4 m? Weight lifted, W = 30 KN = 30 x 1000 N = 30000 N. See Fig. 2.3. . . Force — F Pressure intensity developed due to plunger = =—, Area a By Pascal’s Law, this pressure is transmitted equally in all directions . F Hence pressure transmitted at the ram = — a Force acting on ram = Pressure intensity x Area of ram F Fx 0314 xA= a 7.068 x10“ But force acting on ram = Weight lifted = 30000 N 30000 = eee 7.068 x 10 4 Re 30000 x 7.068 x LO _ 675.2 N. Ans. 0314 Problem 2.3 Calculate the pressure due to a column of 0.3 of (a) water, (b) an oil of sp. gr. 0.8, and (c) mercury of sp. gr. 13.6. Take density of water, p = 1000 kgf’, Solution. Given : Height of liquid column, 4=0.3m.Pressure and its Measurement 39 The pressure at any point in a liquid is given by equation (2.5) as P= PpsZ (a) For water, p = 1000 kg/m* . p= pez = 1000 x 9.81 x 0.3 = 2943 N/m? 2943 ae Nicm? = 0.2943 N/em*. Ans. (b) For oil of sp. gr. 0.8, From equation (1.1A), we know that the density of a fluid is equal to specific gravity of fluid multiplied by density of water. Density of oil, Py = Sp. gr. of oil X Density of water (Py = Density of oil) = 0.8 x p= 0.8 x 1000 = 800 kg/m* Now pressure, P=PypXgxZ = 800 x 9.81 x 0.3 = 2354.4 A. = eos N. * m 10°) cm = 0.2354 a Ans. cm (c) Por mercury, sp. gr. = 13.6 From equation (1.14) we know that the density of a fluid is equal to specific gravity of fluid multiplied by density of water “. Density of mercury, P, = Specific gravity of mercury x Density of water = 13.6 x 1000 = 13600 kg/m? p=p,xgxZ = 13600 x 9.81 x 0.3 = 40025 B, m2 = a = 4.002 M » Ans. 10 cm” Problem 2.4 The pressure intensity at a point in a fluid is given 3.924 N/cm’. Find the corresponding height of fluid when the fluid is : (a) water, and (b) oil of sp. gr. 0.9. Solution. Given : Pressure intensity, p= 3924S = 3924 x 10°, cm” m The corresponding height, Z, of the fluid is given by equation (2.6) as go pxg (a) For water, p = 1000 kp/m* Pp _ 3924«10° z= = ————. =4 m of water. Ans. pxg 1000x981 (>) For oil, sp. gr. =0.9 «. Density of oil Py = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m* 3.924 x 10* ‘ z=—L = Seed x10" dd ma ofall, ane Py xg 900x981II [40 Fluid Mechanics Problem 2.5 An oil of sp. gr. 0.9 is contained in a vessel. Ata point the height of oil is 40 m. Find the corresponding height of water ar the point. Solution. Given : Sp. gr. of oil, Sg = 0.9 Height of oil, Z)= 40m Density of oil, Po = Sp. gr. of oil x Density of water = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m? Intensity of pressure, P=Po Xe * Zy = 900 X 9.81 x 40 a. m Corresponding height of water = -_—__#i _. Density of water x g 981 x 4 = meee = 0.9 x 40 = 36 m of water. Ans. 1000 x 9.81 Problem 2.6 An open tank contains water upto a depth of 2m and above it an oil of sp. gr. 0.9 for adepth of | m. Find the pressure intensity (i) at the interface ef the two liquids, and (ti) at the bottam of the tank. Solution. Given : Height of water, Z,=2m Height of oil, 4,=lm Sp. gr. of oil, So = 0.9 Density of water, p, = 1000 ke/m? Density of oil, P2 = Sp. gr. of oil x Density of water “= 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m? Pressure intensity at any point is given by P=pPXgxZ. (i) At interface, i.e., at A P=P2X gx LO = 900 x 9.81 x 1.0 = 8829 cl = nee = 0.8829 N/em?. Ans. m 10 (ii) At the bottom, ie., at B P=P2% gZ,+ Pp, # XZ, = 900 X9.81 x 1.0 + 1000 x 9.81 x 2.0 28449 10° = 8829 + 19620 = 28449 N/m? = Né/em? = 2.8449 N/em?, Ans. Problem 2.7 The diameters of a small piston and a large piston of a hydraulic jack are 3 cm and 10 em respectively. A force of 80 N is applied on the smail piston. Find the load lifted by the large piston when ; (a) the pistons are at the same level. (b) small piston is 40 cm above the large piston. The density of the liquid in the jack is given as 1000 kg/m’. Solution. Given : Dia. of small piston, d=3cm Area of small piston, a= ; f= s x (39 = 7.068 cm?Pressure and its Measurement 41 Dia. of large piston, D= 10cm Area of larger piston, A= “ x (LOY = 78.54 cm? Force on small piston, F=80N Let the load lifted =W. (a) When the pistons are at the same level Pressure intensity on small piston F 80 — = —— Niem’* a 7.068 This is transmitted equally on the large piston. Pressure intensity on the large piston _ 80 ~ 7.068 Force on the large piston = Pressure x Area 80 z x 78.54 N = 888.96 N. Ans. (b) When the small piston is 40 cm above the large piston Pressure intensity on the small piston _ 80 N ‘a 7.068 em? Pressure intensity at section A-A F = — + Pressure intensity due to height of 40 cm of liquid. a But pressure intensity due to 40 cm of liquid =pxgxh= 1000 x 9.81 x 0.4 Nim? _ 1000 x 9.81x.40 - 10° Pressure intensity at section A-A = _B.. + 0.3924 7.068 = 11.32 + 0.3924 = 11.71 N/em? Pressure intensity transmitted to the large piston = 11.71 Niem? Force on the large piston = Pressure x Area of the large piston sl1L.71 x A= 11.71 x 78.54 = 919.7 N. Niem? = 0.3924 N/cm? > 2.4 ABSOLUTE, GAUGE, ATMOSPHERIC AND VACUUM PRESSURES The pressure on a fluid is measured in two different systems. In one system, it is measured above the absolute zero or complete vacuum and it is called the absolute pressure and in other system, pressure is measured above the atmospheric pressure and it is called gauge pressure. Thus : 1. Absolute pressure is defined as the pressure which is measured with reference to absolute vacuum pressure. 2. Gauge pressure is defined as the pressure which is measured with the help of a pressure measuring instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum. The atmospheric pressure on the scale is marked as zero.II [42 Fluid Mechanics 3. Vacuum pressure is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric pressure. The relationship between the absolute pressure, gauge pressure and vacuum pressure are shown in Fig. 2.7. Mathematically : (7) Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure PRE: RE GAIGEERESS! ATMOSPHERIC 4 PRESSURE VACUUM PRESSURE PRESSURE ABSOLUTE PRESSURE. or Pab = Patm + Peauge ABSOLUTE ZERO PRESSURE (ii) Vacuum pressure = Atmospheric pressure — Absolute pressure. Note. (7) The atmospheric pressure at sea level at 15°C is 101.3 kKN/m? or 10.13 N/em? in SI unit, In case of MKS units, it is equal to 1,033 kaffem’. (ii) The atmospheric pressure head is 760 mm of mercury or 10.33 m of water. Problem 2.8 What are the gauge pressure and absolute pressure at a point 3 m below the free surface of a liquid having a density of 1.53 x 10° kg/m? if the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to 750 mm of mercury ? The specific gravity of mercury is 13.6 and density of water = 1000 kg/m’. Solution. Given : Fig. 2.7 Relationship between pressures. Depth of liquid, Z,=3m Density of liquid, p, = 1.53 x 10° kg/m? Atmospheric pressure head, Zy = 750 mm of Hg 750 = —— = (0.75 m of H 1000 me Atmospheric pressure, Patm = Po * & * Zo where P,) = Density of Hg = Sp. gr. of mercury x Density of water = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m? and Zo = Pressure head in terms of mercury. Pam = (13.6 * 1000) x 9.81 x 0.75 N/m? ( Zy = 0.75) = 100062 N/m? Pressure at a point, which is at a depth of 3 m from the free surface of the liquid is given by, PEPLXRXZ, = (1.53 x 1000) x 9.81 x 3 = 45028 N/m? Gauge pressure, p = 45028 N/m*. Ans. Now absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure = 45028 + 100062 = 145090 N/m. Ans. > 2.5 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE The pressure of a fluid is measured by the following devices : 1. Manometers 2. Mechanical Gauges. 2.5.1 Manometers. Manometers are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of the fluid. They are classified as : (a) Simple Manometers, (b) Differential Manometers.Pressure and its Measurement 43 2.5.2 Mechanical Gauges. Mechanical gauges are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure by balancing the fluid column by the spring or dead weight. The commonly used mechanical pressure gauges are : (a) Diaphragm pressure gauge, (b) Bourdon tube pressure gauge, (c) Dead-weight pressure gauge, and (d) Bellows pressure gauge. > 2.6 SIMPLE MANOMETERS A simple manometer consists of a glass tube having one of its ends connected to a point where pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to atmosphere. Common types of simple manometers are : |. Piezometer, 2. U-tube Manometer, and 3. Single Column Manometer. 2.6.1 Piezometer. Itis the simplest form of manometer used for Measuring gauge pressures. One end of this manometer is connected to the point where pressure is to be measured and other end is open to the atmosphere as shown in Fig. 2.8. The rise of liquid gives the pressure head at that point. [f at a point A, the height of liquid say water is / in piezometer tube, then pressure at A N =pxexh—,. m Fig. 2.8 Piezometer. 2.6.2 U-tube Manometer. It consists of glass tube bent in U-shape, one end of which is connected to a point at which pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to the atmosphere as shown in Fig. 2.9. The tube generally contains mercury or any other liquid whose specific gravity is greater than the specific gravity of the liquid whose pressure is to be measured. (a) For gauge pressure (b) For vacuum pressure Fig. 2.9 U-tube Manometer. (a) For Gauge Pressure. Let B is the point at which pressure is to be measured, whose value is p. The datum line is A-A. Let fh, = Height of light liquid above the datum line Ay = Height of heavy liquid above the datum line S| = Sp. gr. of light liquid Pp, = Density of light liquid = 1000 x S, S, = Sp. gr. of heavy liquid p> = Density of heavy liquid = 1000 x S,II 44 Fluid Mechanics As the pressure is the same for the horizontal surface. Hence pressure above the horizontal datum line A-A in the left column and in the right column of U-tube manometer should be same. Pressure above A-A in the left column =pt+p,xgxh, Pressure above A-A in the right column =Py»xgxhy Hence equating the two pressures p+ pigh, = pr.gh, P= (P2gh, - Pp, X gx fh). es) (6) For Vacuum Pressure. For measuring vacuum pressure, the level of the heavy liquid in the manometer will be as shown in Fig. 2.9 (b). Then Pressure above A-A in the left column = Poghty + pygh, + p Pressure head in the right column above A-A =0 : Prghy + Pigh; +p=0 P=— (Paghy + pygh)). +(2.8) Problem 2.9 The right limb of a simple U-tube manometer containing mercury is open to the atmosphere while the left limb is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of sp. gr. 0.9 is flowing. The centre of the pipe is 12 cm below the level of mercury in the right limb. Find the pressure of fluid in the pipe if the difference of mercury level in the two limbs is 20 cm. Solution. Given : Sp. gr. of fluid, 5, =0.9 Density of fluid, p, = 5; x 1000 = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m? r Sp. gr. of mercury, 3; = 13.6 Density of mercury, Py = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m? Difference of mercury level, ty = 20 cm = 0.2 m Height of fluid from A-A, hy, = 20- 12 = 8 cm = 0.08 m Let p = Pressure of fluid in pipe Equating the pressure above A-A, we get P+ Pgh, = Prghs or p+ 900 x 9.81 x 0.08 = 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x .2 p= 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x 2-900 x 9.81 x 0.08 = 26683 — 706 = 25977 Nim? = 2.597 N/em*. Ans. Problem 2.10 A simple U-tube manometer containing mercury is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of sp. gr. 0.8 and having vacuum pressure is flowing. The other end of the manometer is open to aimosphere. Find the vacuum pressure in pipe, if the difference of mercury level in the two limbs is 40 cm and the height of fluid in the left from the centre of pipe is 15 cm below. Solution. Given : Fig. 2.10 Sp. gr. of fluid, 5, =0.8 Sp. gr. of mercury, 5, = 13.6 Density of fluid, p, = 800 Density of mercury, P2 = 13.6 x 1000 Difference of mercury level, #, = 40 cm = 0.4 m. Height of liquid in left limb, 1, = 15 cm = (0.15 m. Let the pressure in pipe = p. Equating pressure above datum line A-A, we get Fig. 2.11 Pigh, + pygh) +p=0II Pressure and its Measurement 45 p=—UPp2ghs + pig] =- [13.6 x L000 x 9.81 x 0.4 + 800 x 9.81 x 0.15] = — [53366.4 + 1177.2] = — 54543.6 N/m? = — 5.454 N/em?. Ans. Problem 2.11 A U-Tuhe manometer is used to measure the pressure of water in a pipe line, which is in excess of atmospheric pressure. The right limb of the manometer contains mercury and is open to atmosphere, The contact between water and mercury is in the left limb, Determine the pressure of water in the main fine, if the difference in level of mercury in the limbs of U-tube is 10 cm and the free surface of mercury is in level with the centre of the pipe. If the pressure of water in pipe line is reduced to 9810 N/m, calculate the new difference in the level of mercury. Sketch the arrangements in both cases. Solution. Given : Difference of mercury = 10 em = 0.1 m The arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.11 (a) Ist Part Let p, = (pressure of water in pipe line (i.e., at point A) The points B and C lie on the same horizontal line, Hence pressure at B should be equal to pressure at C. But pressure at B = Pressure at A + Pressure due to 10 cm (or 0.1 m) RIGHT LIMB —_ of water Spat pxgxh WATER where p= 1000 kg/m* and # = 0.1 m =p, + 1000 x 9.81 x 0.1 =p, + 981 Nim? ath) Pressure at C = Pressure at D + Pressure due to 10 cm of mercury =0+ pox gx hy where Py for mercury = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m? and ty =10cm=0.1 m Pressure at C= 0 + (13.6 x 1000) x 9.81 x 0.1 = 13341.6 N wail) But pressure at B is equal to pressure at C. Hence equating the equations (/) and (i/), we get Pa + 981 = 13341.6 Fig. 2.11 (a) Pa = 13341.6 — 981 = 12360.6 . ans. ™m Tind Part Given, py = 9810 Nim? Find new difference of mercury level. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.11 (4). In this case the pressure at A is 9810 N/m? which is less than the 12360.6 N/m7. Hence mercury in left limb will rise. The rise of mercury in left limb will be equal to the fall of mercury in right limb as the total volume of mercury remains same. Let x= Rise of mercury in left limb in em Then fall of mercury in right limb =x cm The points B, C and D show the initial conditions whereas points B*, C* and D* show the final conditions.46 Fluid Mechanics The pressure at B* = Pressure at C* or Pressure at A + Pressure due to (10 — x) cm of water = Pressure at D* + Pressure due to (10 = 2x) cm of mercury A. or PatP,Xexh=pp*+psXgxh, REE EE x or 1910 + 1000 x 9.81 x (=) i . de ot x = 0 + (13.6 x 1000) x 9.81 x (A=) Cc Dividing by 9.81, we get or 1000 + 100 — 10x = 1360 — 272x or 272x — 10x = 1360 — 1100 or 262x = 260 x= eal) = 0.992 cm 262 New difference of mercury = 10 — 2x em =10 — 2 x 0.992 Fig. 2.11 (b) = 8.016 cm. Ans. Problem 2.12 Fig, 2.12 shows a conical vessel having its outlet at A to which a U-tube manometer is connected, The reading of the manometer given in the figure shows when the vessel is empty, Find the reading of the manometer when the vessel is completely filled with water. Solution. Vessel is empty. Given : Difference of mercury level fy = 20cm Let h, = Height of water above X-X Sp. gr. of mercury, 5, = 13.6 Sp. gr. of water, 5, = 1.0 Density of mercury, Pp. = 13.6 x 1000 Density of water, p, = 1000 Equating the pressure above datum line X-X, we have Pp Xe Xhy=p,xexh, or 13.6 x LOOO x 9.81 x 0.2 = 1000 x 9.81 x hy h, = 2.72 m of water. Vessel is full of water. When vessel is full of water, the Fig. 2.12 pressure in the night limb will increase and mercury level in the right limb will go down. Let the distance through which mercury goes down in the right limb be, y cm as shown in Fig. 2.13. The mercury will rise in the left by a distance of y cm. Now the datum line is 7-7. Equating the pressure above the datum line 2-2. Pressure in left limb = Pressure in right limb 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x (0.2 + 2/100) = 1000 x 9.81 x (3 + fr, + y/100)II Pressure and its Measurement 47 or 13.6 x (0.2 + 2y/100) = (3 + 2.72 + y/100) ("hy = 2.72 cm) or 2.72 + 27.2y/100 = 3 + 2.72 + w/100 el > or (27.2y - y)/L00 = 3.0 an or 26.2y = 3x 100 = 300 fi = OO ras ces A t “262 The difference of mercury level in two limbs f: I hy = Ne s av iy = (20 + 2y) cm of mercury xt HY x (20+ 2y) om | = 2042 1145=20+22.90 JT San 5 = 42.90 cm of mercury Reading of manometer = 42.90 cm. Ans. Fig. 2.13 Problem 2.13 A pressure gauge consists of two cylindrical bulbs B and C each of 10 sq. em cross- sectional area, which are connected by a U-tube with vertical limbs each of 0.25 sq. cm cross-sectional area. A red liquid of specific gravity 0.9 is filled intro C and clear water is filled into B, the surface of separation being in the limb atiached to C. Find the displacement of the surface of separation when the pressure on the surface in C is greater than that in B by an amount equal to 1 cm head of water. Solution. Given : Area of each bulb B and C, A= 10cm? Area of each vertical limb, a= 0.25 cm? Sp. gr. of red liquid =0.9 ©. Its density = 900 kg/m* Let X-X = Initial separation level jie = Height of red liquid above X-X hz = Height of water above X-X Pressure above X-X in the left limb = 1000 x 9.81 x fi, Pressure above X-X in the right limb = 900 x 9.81 x hp Equating the two pressure, we get 1000 x 9.81 x Ag = 900 x 9.81 & he hy = 0.9 he vei) z/40 When the pressure head over the surface in C is t | increased by | cm of water, let the separation level i h falls by an amount equal to 7. Then ¥-¥ becomes the final separation level. Now fall in surface level of C multiplied by cross- 5 sectional area of bulb C must be equal to the fall in separation level multiplied by cross-sectional area of INITIAL limb. FINAL SEPERATED SEPARATION Fall in surface level of C LEVEL _ Fall in separation level x @ - A48 Fluid Mechanics _Zxa_ Zx025 Z A 0 40° Also fall in surface level of C = Rise in surface level of B _@ ~ 40 The pressure of | cm (or 0.01 m) of water = pgh = 1000 x 9.81 x 0.01= 98.1 Nim? Consider final separation level Y-¥ z Pressure above ¥-Y in the left limb = 1000 x 9.81 (z+ hp +z) Pressure above Y-Y in the right limb = 900 x o.si(z the =) + 98.1 Equating the two pressure, we get 1000 x 9.81 (z t+ hp + Z) = (z the -Z) 900 x 9.81 + 98.1 40 40 Dividing by 9.81, we get 1000 (z +hy+ <| = 900 (z+h. -2) +10 40 40 sre qe zZ Zz Dividing by 1000, we get Z+h, + — =0.9| Z+h. - + 0.01 fie 40 ( s a) But from equation (i), hp = 0.9 he 240.9 het & = M2 50.9409 it 0.01 40 40 or A123 74-01 40 40 or 2(2-2%2) «01 or 2(S5 1) - a 40 40 40 40 x 0.01 Z= ———— = 0.0678 m = 6.78 cm. Ans. 5.9 2.6.3 Single Column Manometer. Single column manometer is a modified form of a U-tube manometer in which a reservoir, having a large cross-sectional area (about 100 times) as compared to the area of the tube is connected to one of the limbs (say left limb) of the manometer as shown in Fig. 2.15. Due to large cross-sectional area of the reservoir, for any variation in pressure, the change in the liquid level in the reservoir will be very small which may be neglected and hence the pressure is given by the height of liquid in the other limb. The other limb may be vertical or inclined. Thus there are two types of single column manometer as : 1. Vertical Single Column Manometer. 2, Inclined Single Column Manometer, |. Vertical Single Column Manometer Fig. 2.15 shows the vertical single column manometer. Let X-X be the datum line in the reservoir and in the right limb of the manometer, when it is not connected to the pipe. When the manometer isII Pressure and its Measurement 49 connected to the pipe, due to high pressure at A, the heavy liquid in the reservoir will be pushed downward and will rise in the right limb. Let Ah = Fall of heavy liquid in reservoir hy = Rise of heavy liquid in right limb A, = Height of centre of pipe above X-X Py= Pressure at A, which is to be measured A = Cross-sectional area of the reservoir a= Cross-sectional area of the right limb S, = Sp. gr. of liquid in pipe 5, = Sp. er. of heavy liquid in reservoir and right limb Fig. 2.15 Vertical single column p, = Density of liquid in pipe manometer. P» = Density of liquid in reservoir Fall of heavy liquid in reservoir will cause a rise of heavy liquid level in the right limb. Ax Ah=axh, Ah= Now consider the datum line ¥-Y as shown in Fig. 2.15. Then pressure in the right limb above Y-Y. =p, g X (Ak + hy) Pressure in the left limb above Y-¥ = p, x g x (Ah +h,) + py Equating these pressures, we have Pp xg x (Ah + hy) =p, x @ x (Ah + h)) + py or Pa = Pag (Ah + fy) = pyg(Ah + hy) = Ah[Pog — Pig] + hoPo8 — hy Pig But from equation (i), Ah = a axh Pa=— * [po — pigl + Inprg — hpig (2.9) P . a As the area A is very large as compared to a, hence ratio a becomes very small and can be neglected. Then py = Myp3¢ — hypyg aol, 10) From equation (2.10), it is clear that as fi, is known and hence by knowing /, or rise of heavy liquid in the right limb, the pressure at A can be calculated. 2. Inclined Single Column Manometer Fig. 2.16 shows the inclined single column manometer. This manometer is more sensitive. Due to inclination the distance moved by the heavy liquid in the right limb will be more. Fig. 2.16 Inclined single column manometer, x hy ‘ a = wa (d)II 50 Fluid Mechanics Let i = Length of heavy liquid moved in right limb from X-X 6 = Inclination of right limb with horizontal hy = Vertical rise of heavy liquid in right limb from X-X = L x sin 0 From equation (2.10), the pressure at A is Pa = hyPog — Mypyg- Substituting the value of /1,, we get Pa = sin 8X pog — Ay pig. walZAl) Problem 2.14 A single column manometer ix connected to a pipe containing a liquid of sp. gr. 0.9 as shown in Fig. 2.17, Find the pressure in the pipe if the area of the reservoir is 100 times the area of the tube for the manometer reading shown in Fig. 2.17. The specific gravity of mercury is 13.6. Solution. Given : Sp. gr. of liquid in pipe, 5, =0.9 Density p, = 900 kg/m? Sp. gr. of heavy liquid, §, = 13.6 fe Density, P, = 13.6 x 1000 all. Area of reservoir _ A _ 100 t Area of right limb a Height of liquid, hy, =20 cm = 0.2 m Rise of mercury in right limb, hy =40 em = 0.4m Let Pa = Pressure in pipe Using equation (2.9), we get Pa 7 hal P28 — Pps] + AoPog — NPs = = x 0.4[13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 — 900 x 9.81] + 0.4 x 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 — 0.2 x 900 x 9.81 = os [133416 — 8829] + 53366.4 - 1765.8 1 = 533.664 + 53366.4 — 1765.8 N/m? = 52134 N/m? = 5.21 N/em*. Ans. > 2.7. DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETERS Differential manometers are the devices used for measuring the difference of pressures between two points in a pipe or in two different pipes. A differential manometer consists of a U-tube, containing a heavy liquid, whose two ends are connected to the points, whose difference of pressure is to be measured. Most commonly types of differential manometers are : |. U-tube differential manometer and 2. Inverted U-tube differential manometer. 2.7.1 U-tube Differential Manometer. Fig. 2.18 shows the differential manometers of U-tube type.II Pressure and its Measurement 51 he * | (a)Two pipes at different levels (b) A and B are at the same level Fig. 2.18 U-tube differential manometers. In Fig. 2.18 (a), the two points A and B are at different level and also contains liquids of different sp. gr. These points are connected to the U-tube differential manometer. Let the pressure at A and B are p, and pz. Let jt = Difference of mercury level in the U-tube. y = Distance of the centre of B, from the mercury level in the right limb. x = Distance of the centre of A, from the mercury level in the right limb. P, = Density of liquid at A. P2 = Density of liquid at B. Pp, = Density of heavy liquid or mercury. Taking datum line at X-X. Pressure above X-X in the left limb = p,g(i +x) + py where p, = pressure at A. Pressure above X-X in the right limb = p, x gx h+ px gXy+ Pp where py = Pressure at B. Equating the two pressure, we have Piglh +x) + py =PyX BX + Porgy + Py Pa-Pa=PgX% 8% h+ pogy — pygth +x) =hX g(P.— Py) + Posy — Pigx (2.12) Difference of pressure at A and B = h x g(p,~ P\) + Posy — Plex In Fig. 2.18 (2), the two points A and 8B are at the same level and contains the same liquid of density p,. Then Pressure above X-X in right limb =p, xg xh+p,Xg Xx +pp Pressure above X-X in left limb =p, xg x(h+x)+py Equating the two pressure PeX SX + pygrt pp=PpX ex (+x) + py Pa-Pp= Pp XB XN + pier — pyglh + x) = g Xx h(p.— py). on (Z.13) Problem 2.15 A pipe contains an oil of sp. gr. 0.9. A differential manometer connected at the two points A and B shows a difference in mercury level as 15 cm. Find the difference of pressure at the two points,II 52. Fluid Mechanics or Solution. Given : Sp. gr. of oil, 5, = 0.9 «Density, p, = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m* Difference in mercury level, h=15cem=0.15m Sp. gr. of mercury, 5,= 13.6 .. Density, p, = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m? The difference of pressure is given by equation (2.13) Pan Ppa 8X Wp. py) = 9.81 x 0.15 (13600 — 900) = 18688 N/m’, Ans. Problem 2.16 A differential manometer is connected at the two points A and B of two pipes as shown in Fig. 2.19. The pipe A contains a liquid of sp. gr. = 1.5 while pipe B contains a liquid of sp. gr. = 0.9, The pressures at A and B are I keficm™ and 1,80 keffcn? respectively, Find the difference in mercury level in the differential manometer. Sp. gr=15 or or Pa =1 kgf /ont Solution. Given : Sp. gr. of liquid atA,§,;= 1.5 .. p, = 1500 Sp. gr. of liquid at B,S,;= 0.9 .. p, = 900 Pressure at A, Pa=il kgficm? = 1x 10" keffm? = 10x 9.81 Nim? (> | kgf = 9.81 N) FA Pressure at B, Pp= 1.8 kgficm? Po= 1.8 kat fem? 1.8 x 107 kgffm? 5 L8 x 10*x 9.81 Ném? ( 1 kgf = 9.81 N) 13.6 x 1000 kg/m? Density of mercury Taking X-X as datum line. Pressure above X-X in the left limb = 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 xh + 1500 x 9.81 x (2 + 3) + py = 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x b+ 7500 x 9.81 + 9.81 % 107 Pressure above X-X in the right limb = 900 x 9.81 x (4 + 2) + pg = 900 x 9.81 x (h + 2) + 18 x 10? x 9.81 Equating the two pressure, we get 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81h + 7500 x 9.81 + 9.81 x 104 = 900 x 9.81 x (r+ 2) + 1.8% 107 * 9.81 Dividing by 1000 x 9.81, we get 13.6 + 7.5 + 10 = (h + 2.0) x .9 4 18 13.6h + 17.5= 0.91 + 1.84 18 = 0.91 + 19.8 (13.6 - 0.9)h = 19.8 — 17.5 or 12.7h = 2.3 23 h= —— = 0,181 m = 18.1 em, Ans. 12.7 Fig. 2.19 Problem 2.17 A differential manometer is connected at the two points A and B as shown in Fig. 2.20. At B air pressure is 9.87 Nécm? (abs), find the absolute pressure at A. or Solution. Given : Air pressure at B= 981 Niem* Pp = 9.81 x 10° Nim?II Pressure and its Measurement 53 Density of oil = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m* Density of mercury = 13.6 x 1000 ke/m* Let the pressure at A is py Taking datum line at X-X Pressure above X-X in the right limb = 1000 x 9.81 x 0.6 + pp = 5886 + 98100 = 103986 Pressure above X-X in the left limb = 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x 0.1 + 900 x9.81 x 0.2 + py = 13341.6 + 1765.8 + py Equating the two pressure heads MERCURY 103986 = 13341.6 + 1765.8 + p, Spee tse p4 = 103986 ~ 15107.4 = 88876.8 Fig, 2.20 88876.8N N p4 = 8876.8 Nim? = SS8768N _ 9g gg7 N = 10000 cm~ cm Absolute pressure at A = 8.887 N/em?, Ans. 2.7.2. Inverted U-tube Differential Manometer. It consists of an inverted U-tube, containing a light liquid. The two ends of the tube are connected to the points whose difference of pressure is to be measured. It is used for measuring difference of low pressures. Fig. 2.21 shows an inverted U-tube differential manometer connected to the two points A and B. Let the pressure at A is more than the pressure at B. Let h, = Height of liquid in left limb below the datum line X-X jy = Height of liquid in right limb h = Difference of light liquid p, = Density of liquid at A Pp, = Density of liquid at B p, = Density of light liquid P4 = Pressure at A Py = Pressure at B. Taking X-X as datum line. Then pressure in the left limb below X-X = Pa PX 8X hy. Fig. 2.21 Pressure in the right limb below X-X =Pp- Po eX hy-p,Xgxh Equating the two pressure Pa- PX 8 XN, = py-PrXBxhy—p,xgxh or Pa-Pa=PiX8Xhy— prXgxhy—p,xg xh, w(2.14) Problem 2.18 Water is flowing through two different pipes to which an inverted differential manometer having an oil of sp. gr. 0.8 is connected. The pressure head in the pipe A is 2 m of water, find the pressure in the pipe B for the manometer readings as shown in Fig. 2.22. Solution. Given : Pressure head at A= Pa = 2 m of water ps P,=p%@X2= 1000 x 9.81 x2 = 19620 Nim* Fig. 2.22 shows the arrangement. Taking X-X as datum line. Pressure below X-X in the left limb =p,-p,*g Xf,ll 54 Fluid Mechanics = 19620 — 1000 x 9.81 x 0.3 = 16677 N/m’. Pressure below X-X in the right limb =p, - 1000 x 9.81 x 0.1 - 800 x 9.81 x 0.12 = Pp - 981 — 941.76 = pp - 1922.76 Equating the two pressure, we get 16677 = pp, — 1922.76 or Pg = 16677 + 1922.76 = 18599.76 N/m? or Py = 1.8599 N/em?. Ans. Problem 2.19 Jn Fig. 2.23, an inverted differential manometer is connected to two pipes A and B which convey water. The fluid in manometer is oil of sp. gr. 0.8. For the manometer readings shown in the figure, find the pressure difference between A and B. Solution. Given : Sp. gr. of oil =0.8 2. p, = 800 kg/m? Difference of oil in the two limbs = (30 + 20) — 30 = 20 cm Taking datum line at X-X Pressure in the left limb below X-X = p,—- 1000 x 9.81 x0 = p,— 2943 Pressure in the right limb below X-X = pp- 1000 x 9.81 x 0.3 — 800 x 9.81 x 0.2 = Py — 2943 = 1569.6 = pp - 4512.6 Equating the two pressure p,— 2943 = p, — 4512.6 i Pa ~ Pa = 4512.6 — 2943 = 1569.6 N/m’. Ans. Problem 2.20 Find out the differential reading ‘h' of an inverted U-tube manometer containing oil of specific gravity 0.7 as the manometric fluid when connected across pipes A and B as shown in Fig. 2.24 below, conveying liquids of specific gravities 1.2 and 1.0 and immisctble with manometric fluid. Pipes A and B are located at the same level and assume the pressures at A and B to be equal. Solution. Given : Fig. 2.24 shows the arrangement. Taking X-X as datum line. Let Pa = Pressure at A Pp = Pressure at B Density of liquid in pipe A = Sp. gr. x 1000 = 1.2 x 1000 = 1200 kg/m? Density of liquid in pipe B = 1x 1000 = 1000 kg/m? , Density of oil = 0.7 x 1000 = 700 kg/m? ae nea

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