Precalculus 1st Edition

Precalculus
1st Edition, 2016

By Mr. Joseph J. Gerth
Front matter ii
This work is intended to be free for everyone, forever. You may copy and share this in
whole or in part with anyone and everyone. I only ask that you give due credit, and dont
claim any of it as your own.
The Figures were created using the free program GeoGebra (more information can be
found at their website: www.geogebra.org).
For the more formal license, see below.
Copyright 2016 Mr. Joseph J. Gerth.
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms
of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3 or any later version published by
the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no
Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU Free
Documentation License".
iii
To Dad
Front matter iv
Table of contents
Front matter
Acknowledgements .......................................vi
To the student ............................................... viii
To the teacher ................................................... x
List of common abbreviations and
symbols ...............................................................xi
Part I: Introduction
Unit one: Numbers
1: Basics of numbers ................................ 14
2: Operations and proof ......................... 24
Unit two: Functions
1: Basics of functions ............................... 32
2: Composition and inverses of
functions ........................................................... 43
Unit three: More on functions
1: Types of functions................................ 58
2: Polynomials ............................................ 70
Part II: Trigonometry
Unit four: Foundations of Trigonometry
1: Right triangles ....................................... 84
2: The sine, cosine, and tangent
functions ........................................................... 93
3: Relationships between Trig
functions ........................................................ 113
Unit five: Radians and the unit circle
1: Radian measure ................................. 125
2: Introduction to the Polar Plane ... 135
3: The Unit Circle .................................... 146
Unit six: Trigonometry and Algebra
1: Solving Trigonometric equations 167
2: Graphing the Sine, Cosine, and
Tangent functions ...................................... 183
3: More complex graphs on the polar
plane ............................................................... 206
Unit seven: Identities

1: The Law of Sines and Cosines ...... 224
2: Double- and half-angle
identities ........................................................ 234
3: The Addition and subtraction
identities ........................................................ 247
4: Power-reducing identities .............. 256
Part III: Precalculus
Unit eight: Matrices
1: Introduction to matrices ................. 262
2: Determinants ....................................... 273
3: Solving systems with matrices...... 282
Unit nine: Vectors
1: Vector basics ....................................... 296
2: Vector multiplication ........................ 304
Unit ten: Sequences and series
1: Sequences and series ....................... 321
2: Infinite series and limits .................. 331
Unit eleven: Parametric functions
1: Parametric functions and graphs 344
2: Conic sections ..................................... 351
Appendices
Appendix A: Linear functions ............... 373
Appendix B: Quadratic functions ........ 384
Appendix C: Rational functions ........... 390
Appendix D: Exponential and
logarithmic functions ................................ 398
Appendix E: Solving systems of
equations ....................................................... 405
Appendix F: Glossary ............................... 410
Acknowledgments v
Acknowledgements
This is the second text that Ive written, and by far this one was much more difficult than
the first. Precalculus is such a hodge-podge, containing so many different topics, themes,
and approaches. That said, I feel like Ive made a strong course that will help students
progress toward a better understanding of mathematics.
I believe that this text is much better than the vast majority of Precalculus texts out there,
which often end up being random exercise books, with about half of the book containing
material that should have already been learned. It is repugnant to me that we waste
students time with things theyve already learned. This is why I treat functions in the brief
manner that I have. I understand that not all students will have mastered the material to
the desired level, but if this is the case, then wouldnt it make sense to go back to the
previous course and do what they were already supposed to do? To help those students
whose level of mastery is fair, but not quite up to par, Ive included a number of
appendices to help them get to where they need to be.
Being freed from outright reteaching, I had up to a half-year to figure out what to teach.
I have introduced a heavier emphasis on the Polar Plane and the Parametric plane, both
of which Calculus students seem to struggle with, and that are natural extensions of the
topics we cover. I introduce an entire Unit on number theory, with a heavy emphasis on
proof.
I must profess my thanks to those that came before me. This work was not made in a
vacuum, and at many points I referred to other great texts and webpages. The late, great
Serge Lang and his excellent work Basic Mathematics served as a model for the first Unit.
I.M. Gelfand was my inspiration for much of the Trigonometry section, and although I
strayed quite far from his work, order, and proofs, his work Trigonometry stands as
perhaps the greatest work on elementary Trigonometry that Ive ever read. I must also
make mention of Sheldon Axler, an excellent textbook writer, who inspired a few of the
problems in Part I, specifically on functions.
I want to thank my students, particularly those who endured my previous text. It was
radically different from what you were used to, but you persevered and were better for it.
Im so proud of you. I must confess that one of my greatest joys is to see your growth and
progression over the year, and that you have made my job an enjoyable one.
I must also thank those in my personal life whose kindness and love have helped me
complete another massive project. I want to thank Pastor Seehafer, my Pastor as I was
growing up. Your steadfast faith has always been a beacon for me. No matter what was
Front matter vi
happening in your life, you were always the same passionate, faithful preacher. To my
mother: I was so happy to see you married this past spring, and I pray that your life with
your new husband is blessed. Thank you for loving me despite the fact that I wasnt always
easy to love. To my father, to whom this work is dedicated, thanks for everything. You
taught me to work hard and always make sure the job gets done. You showed me that
when someone needs help, you help them no matter how inconvenient.
And a thank you is necessary for you, the reader. I pray that this work challenges you and
helps you to become a better math student.
To the student vii
To the student
Success in Calculus is very difficult. Its hard to say if there is any one cause for failure in
Calculus. Some students are horribly inept with numbers, and can barely add fractions.
Some students are terrible at Algebra, and have difficulties solving non-basic equations
and have a really hard time visualizing graphs. Others struggle with Trigonometry, and
spend too much time trying to remember basic Trig ratios.
With the many different weaknesses that students exhibit, its hard to build a class that
effectively prepares students for Calculus. Do you give them a class on Algebra, an Algebra
3, of sorts? Do you focus entirely on Trigonometry, hoping that what they learn in that
discipline will somehow fill in the gaps in other areas? And how to do you expand what
they know, teaching them new material and most importantly helping them to grow
in logical thought and reasoning processes?
The modern answer to these problems is the class that stands before you: Precalculus.
And, to be specific, its an All of the Above approach. Youll do it all Numbers, Algebra,
Trigonometry, Calculus concepts, and proof. You must be prepared to learn a varied
amount of different math.
This causes difficulties for students. Its hard to get into a flow, and as soon as you do,
well switch gears to a new concept entirely. So you must be prepared to jump in and
immediately and do your best at all times. There is no time to play catch up in this course.
A major word of warning: This class assumes mastery from the previous course. We will
not hold your hand, and if you find yourself lacking in some area, it is your responsibility
to go back and get what you already should have. Appendices have been included for
those that find themselves behind, and you should take advantage of these as they will
be helpful. But do not assume that our review will be sufficient. A review is not a
reteaching.
Obviously, you will find a heavy focus on things necessary for success in Calculus. A major
goal of this course is to make sure that you do very well in Calculus. But you will find
another major thread running throughout each section: How to think mathematically.
Youll see many topics explored, (or, as Ill put it, prodded) then formally defined. This is
different than most books, which define something, then prove it. This way youll get to
see how a mathematician sizes up his problems. Indeed, you will have many opportunities
to prod problems of your own, as we will leave quite a few proofs to you.
This course is difficult. You must be prepared to put forth your best effort on a daily basis
if you wish to succeed. You should be taking notes and copying down examples. You
Front matter viii
should be prepared to ask a handful of questions in each section. Indeed, some of the
Exercises were designed to force you to ask questions, so dont think that youre
incompetent if you dont get something right away. One of the goals is to get you to think
deeply, really pondering about the mechanics of a problem. This cannot be done if you
can get the problem correct in seconds.
We hope that you find this course challenging and engaging. Further, we hope that this
challenge brings out the best in your intuition and mathematical ability so that you
succeed in Calculus and beyond.
To the teacher ix
To the teacher
This book was difficult to write, and I made a few choices that are sure to be debated and
even scoffed at. Ultimately, I tried to find a healthy balance between Algebra and
Trigonometry, leaning more toward Trigonometry. Although it has been my experience
that the lack of basic Algebra abilities is the major inhibitor of Calculus students, I felt it
loathsome to take up half of this course with material that should have already been
mastered (as many Precalculus textbooks do). After all, if they were supposed to already
learn it, and havent, then maybe they should go back to the previous course. I know this
idea of failure is controversial to some people out there, but I dont believe failure is the
problem. But that stance is perhaps best expounded upon in a different venue.
I wanted to provide students with an intimate experience with logic and proof. I also
wanted to improve their number sense, which I find to be quite lacking. This was the
impetus for Unit one, which, sees a few topics which, sadly, are rarely covered anymore
in Precalculus or otherwise.
Although students got a heavy dose of functions in the previous course, it is necessary
that they see it again in this course. I tried to focus on more difficult and abstract
problems, as well as make a connection to Calculus-type questions. I also found it
necessary to include a section for some specific functions.
Then we go to the Trig units. I have yet to find a text that teaches Trig clearly, and this is
why I take a strange approach. For example, I introduce the Polar Plane very early on, even
before I introduce the unit circle. This way students begin thinking in rotations right off
the bat, and then later see the unit circle as a specific type of circle from the Polar Plane.
I also switched the order of the components for a point on the Polar Plane, putting the
angle first and then the radius. To me, the angle is the input in a Polar function, so I like
to put it first. This is a simple change and any student capable of being in an advanced
course like this should be able to handle this difference.
My approach to identities isnt revolutionary, although there are some differences. I first
establish the fact that you can rename expression with Trig functions in them. I do this by
giving some expressions that can be obviously simplified, such as 4(cos 2 + sin2 ). Then
we work our way into more formal identity proofs. I spend time proving the basic
identities, which some texts do in a cursory way, using two-column proofs (or, worse, just
using an argumentum ad lapidem). All of my proofs are paragraph proofs, and sometimes
even contain context and thought processes, which should help the students see whats
happening. You should always read through these proofs as a class (and, certainly, they
should have read it on their own before you read it through in class) and clarify any
Front matter x
intuition. If you want to prove the identities in your own way, this is fine, and perhaps even
better, that way students see different lines of thinking, which is a very good thing.
Part III contains some Calculus and even Calculus 2 material. We spend time with matrices,
which allows us to review systems of equations. We then venture into vectors, and spend
an entire unit on the dot product, which, of course, allows us to review Trig. Then we go
into sequences and series, which is a natural topic for a Precalculus course. We speak of
limits in that final section, but in a very basic manner. The final Unit shows students
parametric equations, which are a great way to graph, but often overlooked. The final
section contains conic sections, which is a section that is over-emphasized in other texts.
While a neat topic, it is not necessary for students to learn of eccentricity, foci, and
directrix. Its a great final section because students get to graph rectangular, parametric,
and Polar equations.
I think Ive provided a solid text that students should be able to read and learn from. They
will be challenged throughout, and will not succeed just by memorization. Theyll have to
actually learn and understand. They will do this through reading, patience, and
perseverance. So give them opportunities to experiment and time to make mistakes and
subsequently fix them.
I encourage any and all feedback. Please send any comments, suggestions, errors, or
things youd like to see changed to jgerth@redeemer-oakmont.org.
Front matter xi
List of abbreviations, symbols, and common words and their meanings
Equals
Therefore
Not equal to
Because
<
Less than
Such that
>
Greater than
Is in or Is an element of
Less than or equal to
The empty set
Greater than or equal to
The union of
Multiply
The set of all whole numbers
Compose
The set of all integers
Factorial
The set of all rational numbers
Divide the two numbers and

return the remainder
And so on
Implies that
Where
For all
There exists
i.e.
That is or In other words
e.g.
For example
Hence
Because of this
Whereby
By which
Whence
From which
Thence
Therefore
Viz.
Namely
iff
If and only if
The set of all real numbers

The set of all complex numbers
12
Part one: Introduction

Precalculus is a class with an identity crisis. It is constantly changing and what it changes
into is hard to predict. It used to be that this class was strictly Trigonometry, but teachers
found that students Algebra skills were lacking, so it was divided such that more Algebra
was put in. But then we found that students Trigonometry was lacking, so the pendulum
swung back. Then we found that certain Calculus-specific skills were lacking, such as
vectors or series, and so then those skills were thrown into the mix as well. Even now it
continues to evolve and to properly define Precalculus is not exactly easy.
Because this class is so many different things, with many different themes and topics, the
student faces a real challenge. You must be prepared to learn a little bit of everything,
and be ready to jump from one topic to something completely different (and back again!)
at a moments notice. This isnt necessarily bad, but if you are not prepared for it, you will
struggle.
Part I focuses on foundational material. You should be very comfortable with numbers
and their properties, functions and how to solve and graph them, and polynomials. But
we will extend that knowledge by giving you harder problems, new theorems, and ask
questions that will feature in Calculus.
The good news is that this text does have a common theme running through it: Proofs,
logic, and the attainment of intuition. This is prevalent in every Part, Unit, and section. This
foundational Part is not just review, therefore, it is a warm up for the challenges that lie
ahead.
13
Unit one
Numbers
When you have mastered numbers, you will in fact no longer be reading numbers, any
more than you read words when reading books. You will be reading meanings.
W.E.B. Du Bois
Unit one 14
The goal of this course is to sufficiently prepare the student for success in Calculus. All of
the units and individual sections are therefore directed at giving the student the skills,
knowledge, and theoretical foundation so that the transition to Calculus is an easy one.
This text is divided into three basic parts: Introduction, Trigonometry, and Pre-Calculus.
Each of these Parts will serve the student and his or her preparation for success in Calculus.
Part I serves to provide a cornerstone for the rest of the course. We discuss numbers and
their properties. While the previous course did cover this topic, the present one gets much
deeper. Additionally, Part I contains many opportunities for students to practice reading
and writing proofs, which is an essential part of success in Calculus.
Since this book is a sequel, functions (which are incredibly important in Calculus) are not
covered in great detail. An Appendix has been provided to offer some review for those
who need it. Those who are not adept at functions should first read through and complete
the previous course.
Basics of numbers
A number is some symbol which represents a quantity. So when we count how many eyes
we have, we note that there are
2
of them. The name which we give it is up to us most people would recognize the number
above, but if you were in ancient Rome, for example, you would use the symbol
.
Whichever way the number looks, the meaning is the same: It tells us how many there
are.
No doubt youve been made aware that numbers get more complex than this. For
example, you might have a single piece of glass, which then breaks into tiny fractions. Our
normal list of numbers, i.e. 1,2,3, cannot describe the fact that these pieces are only part
of a single glass. To do this, we need a new type of number, in this case, rational numbers,
such as
1
,
3
and so on.
0.21,
3
5 ,
4
1 Basics of numbers 15
We collect each type of number into different groups, since there are different times when
each type ought to be used, or we just want to explore the features or properties of that
type of number.
When objects in this case, numbers are collected together, we put them into
something called sets. So we define the set of all whole numbers as
= {0,1,2, }.
As we saw in the previous course, the is a way to refer to the set without having to
write out the words, the set of all whole numbers, over and over again. Not all sets will
have notation like this; usually, only oft-used sets get this distinction.
We review a few of the other common sets in the box below.i
Common sets and their definition
The set of all whole numbers:
The set of all integers:
The set of all rational numbers:
= {0,1,2, }
= { , 2, 1,0,1, }
= { : , }
The set of all real numbers:
= The union of all rational and

irrational numbers
The set of all complex numbers:
= { + : , , = 1}
Of course, we can define whatever sets we like, and we practice this below.
Example 1a
Define the set of all even numbers.
There are two ways to accomplish this task. As we saw with and , we could list out
each element efficiently. This is called roster form; we use this to write out the set of all
even numbers:
{ 4, 2,0,2,4, }.
While this works quite well, we could also use set-builder notation, as we did with .
Thus we could also define the set of all even numbers as
{2: }.
The expression 2 (such that is an integer) will always produce an even number, as you
should verify. Thus this definition creates (or builds) the entire set.
It might be helpful to refer to the symbol reference chart in the front of the text.
Unit one 16
Note that in this instance we are free to choose the former or the latter, but that is not
always the case.
Example 1b
Define a set for all the perfect squares.
We cannot write this set out in roster form, since
{0,1,4,9,16,25, }
does not define a clear pattern.ii
Thus we must use set-builder notation. To do this, we create some expression which
generates the perfect squares, such as
2 ,
and put that in the first part of our set. In the second part, after the :, we define what
is. Hence we define our set as
{2 : }.
Clearly this will build the set of all perfect squares. If you follow the instructions, you see
that we let be some integer, say, 3, 2, or 0, and we will get out perfect squares (9,4,
and 0, respectively).
One of the reasons we bother to classify numbers is that they often have different
behaviors.iii For example, we have no issues when we subtract two numbers in . However,
we run into a problem when subtracting two numbers in namely, their difference
might not be in that set.
By classifying numbers, we can determine what numbers behave in which ways. We can
efficiently generalize rules, patterns, and behaviors of various sets, eliminating
unnecessary or tedious work.
Additionally, we use sets when we make definitions. For example, we will define
polynomials as some function where () = 0 + 1 1 + + , but what are the
variables 0 , , and ? Certainly, they are numbers, but it is imperative to define as a
There actually is a pattern that could be used, but it requires you do find the difference between the first
set of numbers, and then the differences between those differences. In most peoples opinion, this is not
clear.
iii
Obviously, there are other reasons, such as often only a certain type of number can be used in certain
situations.
ii
whole number, since 1 or 2 are not polynomials. By defining the number sets as we
have, we can make a quick and easy definition that isnt long-winded.
Example 2a
Is the sum of two even numbers odd or even?
This is a question which could be answered the old-fashioned way quite easily.iv Consider
2 + 2 = 4,
4 + 6 = 10,
12 + (2) = 10,
and so on. We dont need to have any fancy rules or sets to safely claim that the sum of
all even numbers will result in an even number. Of course This doesnt prove anything
mathematically. To do this, wed have to take every possible even number and add it to
every possible even number. Clearly, this isnt possible. There is, however, a way to prove
this fact, but it requires some of the notation weve just learned and something called a
proof.
Example 2b
Prove that the sum of every even number is also an even number.
Recall our definitionv of even numbers from Example 1a:
{2: }.
Using this notation, we can write all even numbers using a simple expression, 2. Since we
need two numbers to create a sum, we can also use, say, 2, for our second number,
which, again, could be any even number.vi Then let us write the expression out and see
what we get:
2 + 2
2( + ).
Which is also an even number, for consider = + . Then we have
2,
Which is, according to our definition, an even number.
By old-fashioned, we mean guessing and checking. Obviously, this isnt always the best method.
Can we prove that {2: } is an even number? There are proofs out there that exist, but we feel that
it complicates matters more than necessary.
vi
And we need a different variable here. That way we can have two different even numbers, like 4 and 6,
which are 2(2) and 2(3) respectively. If each variable were , then we could only add an even number to
itself.
iv
v
Unit one 18
Of course, this is a messy proof thats ok, because its our first draft. Lets now formalize
our language and definitions so that our proof is presentable:
We wish to prove that the sum of two even numbers is an even number.
Recall that {2: } will create any even number.
Let , . Then 2 and 2 are both even numbers. Adding these two
numbers gets us
2 + 2.
Then we factor out a 2 using the commutative property, which get us
2( + ).
Now let = + . since is closed under addition. Then we have
2,
Which is also an even number. This is what we wanted to show.
You may have noticed the change in notation from the draft to the final product. The
reuse of wasnt particularly nice, so we defined two new variables, and . Was that
necessary? Perhaps not, and the choice of and was a personal one, but when you write
a presentable proof you want to make sure it looks nice and has a nice flow to it. Think of
it like a little math poem you should develop your own style while maintaining the rigor
of a proof.
You must also make every single necessary connection. You cannot assume that everyone
knows that is closed under addition, which is why we mentioned it above. If a comment
(like being closed under addition) requires its own proof, you include it in something
called a lemma. A lemma is a small proof which proves a fact within a larger proof. This
isnt often needed, since most theorems and proofs build upon one another in the first
place, but do be aware of lemmas, since the proofs you write (which probably are not part
of a text, such as this) may require them.
Example 2c
Prove that the product of an even number and an odd number will be even.
To prove this, we must multiply an even number and an odd number, then show that its
product is even. So we begin by defining our two numbers.
Let 2 (with ) be an even number, and 2 + 1 (with ) be an odd number.
Let us first show that 2 + 1 is an odd number with a lemma, which we shall call the Odd
Lemma.vii
The Odd Lemma
Consider the expression 2, . 2 is then even by the definition previously
shown. Then adding 1 to an even number will produce the integer next to it, which
is not even.viii
This is what we wanted to show.
Now that we have shown that 2 + 1 is an odd number, let us proceed with the given
proof. By multiplication we get
(2) (2 + 1)
4 + 2.
We now factor the above expression and get
2( + 1).
This is an even number, although it might be hard for the reader to tell. As such, we will
make a few substitutions to make it look more like our definition of even numbers.
We let = + 1, , thus we have
2.
Now let = , , whence we finish with
2,
Which is an even number for all . ix
After you write your proof, read it over, and see if you cant make it more formal and
exact.
There is some question as to when a lemma should be invoked should it be done before, after, or
during the proof? For the most part, this is up to the writer, although there are probably some cases
where one is better than others.
viii
The reader may wish to see this proved, as well. We believe that this is clear to the reader by any
verification. However, as before, a proof can be written which states that there are no consecutive even
numbers, and thus, adding one to an even number will make it an odd number.
ix
It might be worth adding in your proof that is closed under addition and multiplication. Thus no
matter what numbers we choose for , , our two original variables, well always end up with integers.
vii
Unit one 20
We shall leave the rest of the even and odd proofs to you, as they are excellent
introductory proofs for students to do.
Let us next define the set of all prime numbers. We will run into a problem with our
definition, however, since there is no efficient way to say A number only divisible by itself
and one without writing it all out. We could define the set as
{: is only divisible by itself and one},
But this is quite loathsome. As such, we will now define a new operation which will make
the definition a bit more efficient. Additionally, this new operation will allow us to make a
few more basic definitions.
The modulo function
A function that divides two numbers and returns the remainder.
Example 3a
Evaluate 25 7.
To evaluate this, we simply need to divide. 25 7 is 3 with a remainder of 4. Since our
function, , returns the remainder, we report our result as 4. Hence we conclude
that
25 7 = 4.
Example 3b
Evaluate 27 3.
Again we just divide, making sure to also calculate the remainder. In this case, there is no
remainder, so we conclude that
27 3 = 0.
Note that this tells us that 27 is divisible by 3.
We now have a way to determine if some number is only divisible by itself and one, and
thus we can define prime numbers more efficiently.
Example 4
Define the set of all prime numbers.
To do this efficiently, well use the function we just learned.
{: 0 }
The above is read aloud as such that does not equal 0 for all in the set of
all real numbers.
We assume that , although the reader may decide that this would be more
preferable to include.
Additionally, using the function may be undesirable to the reader. If this is the
case, nothing is stopping you from coming up with a different definition that suits your
tastes!
The function can also be used to define even numbers, odd numbers, and other
sets where divisibility is part of the defining feature.
Some number sets contain some unique properties. For example, consider a square, which
has four different rotational symmetries, 90, 180, 270, and 360. Figure 1 shows some
of the basic intuition behind this idea.
Figure 1
Square is rotated 45 to create square . We can see that this rotation of 45 is not a symmetry, since the
points are not on top of one another. If, however, is rotated 90, 180, then the resulting square, will
be symmetrical.
We now create a set which contains the four different angles we can rotate a square such
that there is a symmetry:
{90, 180, 270, 360}.
We could also include negative anglesx and angles greater than 360, but since 720
amounts to the exact same thing as a 360 rotation, this seems unnecessary.
Which amount to clockwise rotations.
Unit one 22
This set is a wonderfully unique set. Consider that adding any two elements in results in
another element of .xi Recognize that
90 + 90 = 180,
And
90 + 180 = 270,
And even
270 + 360 = 630,
And each of these resulting angles is in the set .xii Therefore we can say that is closed
with respect to addition.
Theres more. also contains an identity, which is some rotation that you can perform to
your square such that it does not move at all! In our instance, a rotation of 360 will put
our square right back to where it was thus the additive identity of set is 360.xiii
We will continue working with set in the exercises, identifying more properties that it
follows.
Exercises
1.)
2.)
Define the following sets.

(A) The set of all factors of 60.
(B) The set of all multiples of 4.
(C) The set of all triangular numbers.
(D) The set of all perfect numbers.
(E) The set of all numbers such that their distance from zero is at least 25.
(F) The set of all even numbers and their opposites.
Prove the following.
(A) The product of two even numbers is an even number.
(B) If one number is even and the other is positive, then their product must be
even.
(C) The sum of three even numbers is an even number.
(D) The square of an odd number is also an odd number.
(E) If is an odd number, then (1) = 1.
Also recognize that adding two elements in is the same thing as performing two different rotations.
Including 630, which is equivalent to a 270 rotation.
xiii
One might wonder why 0 was not chosen as our additive identity. Thats because 0 does not exist in
our set.
xi
xii
3.)
4.)
5.)
6.)
7.)
8.)
Evaluate the following.

(A) 15 5
(F) 11 3
(B) 14 10
(G) 113 6
(C) 20 1
(H) 224 7
(D) 4 20
(I) 2.3 1.1
(E) 12 5
What elements are in the set {12 : }?
One use for the function is for clocks. One way to determine military time
is to take the given time, , and it with 12.
(A) Determine the times.
i. 16: 30
ii. 13: 30
iii. 22: 15
(B) Imagine its midnight. What time is it 52 hours later? How can you quickly
figure this out?
(C) Come up with a formula to quickly determine what time it is starting at time
1 after 2 hours. (You may use normal time or military time.)
(D) What happens when you use the previous method to find the time for
12: 45? Does this present a problem? Is there any easy fix to such a thing?
Briefly define each of the following properties. Youll need to use these in the next
few problems.
(A) Commutative property of addition and multiplication
(B) Associative property of addition and multiplication
(C) Distributive property
(D) Closure property (of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division)
(E) Additive identity
(F) Multiplicative identity
(G) Additive inverse
(H) Multiplicative inverse
Lets now work with time as a mathematical set.
(A) Define the set , which represents every hour on a normal clock.
(B) Determine if the set obeys the following properties:
i. Commutative property of addition
ii. Closure property of addition
iii. Additive inverse
iv. Multiplicative identity
(C) Prove that is closed with respect to subtraction.
Back to set {90, 180, 270, 360}.
(A) Determine if obeys the following properties:
Unit one 24
i. Commutative property of addition

ii. Closure property of subtraction
iii. Additive inverse
iv. Multiplicative inverse
(B) Prove that is closed with respect to addition.
Operations and proof
Up to this point, youve most likely taken for granted the various mathematical operations,
such as addition and subtraction. Wed like to now take a more in-depth look at the
various rules we encounter. We do this for two reasons: First, we want to review key
concepts, such as fractions and integers, and second, because we want to practice proof.
It is possible to come up with a set of axioms and prove everything up from simple
addition. These axioms are called Peanos Axioms, which are named after the
mathematician who came up with them. We will not delve that deeply, because we feel it
is a bit too dense. However, we will list a few basic numeric axioms which well use for our
proofs (and indeed, have already used).
Commutative property of addition
Associative property of addition
Additive identity
Multiplicative identity
Additive inverse
Multiplicative inverse
+ =+
+ ( + ) = ( + ) +
+0=
1 =
+ () = 0
1
=1
Reflexive property
Transitive property
Symmetric property
Addition property of equality
Subtraction property of equality
Multiplication property of equality
Division property of equality
=
If = and = , then =
If = , then =
If = , then + = +
If = , then =
If = , then =
If = , then =
Let us first consider integers. Why is it that adding two numbers less than zero results in
a negative number? Symbolically,
+ < 0,
where , < 0.
To answer this, we must first determine what a negative number is.
2 Operations and proof 25
Negative numbers
A number > 0 has an opposite such that + () = 0.
Based on this definition, the negative number acts as an opposing force, or opposite, that
cancels out the original. You know this: You know that 5 + (5) is equal to zero. We use
the word negative because a number, like 5, gets negated by its opposite, 5, when
added together.
This produces a corollary or some fact that flows naturally from the previous
proposition.
Negatives compared to positives
If > 0 and represents the opposite of , then > .
The previous does not require a proof, although some corollaries are proved. Here we will
choose to prove this corollary.
Proof.
If > 0 and represents the opposite of , then it follows that > . For consider
that this is not true, that is, that . But then + () 0, since any positive number
added to a larger positive number must be more positive. Thus it is not possible for
, and hence we must conclude that > .
The previous proof used a very useful method called proof by contradiction. This
method takes the consequence of a statement (in the previous case, > ) and changes
it to its opposite ( ). Then we use that changed conclusion to lead to some
contradiction or absurd result. In the previous case, by assuming temporarily that ,
we came to a contradiction to our definition that + () = 0. Because of this
contradiction, that temporary assumption must be false. Because there is only one other
possibility, viz. that > , we must accept this as true.
Example 1
Prove that if < and < , then < .
There are a few different ways to prove this statement, but let us apply the method of
proof by contradiction. We must be careful to keep our hypotheses, that is, the statements
in the if part of our statement (in this case, our hypothesis is if < and < ), true,
then look for the contradiction in the conclusion (in the present case, the conclusion is
then < ).
Unit one 26
Assume temporarily that if < and < , then . Assume that is some negative
number, that is, that < 0, and is some positive number, that is, that > 0. Manifestly
our first hypothesis, < , remains intact. Then let us assume that is a larger positive
number, to keep our second hypothesis, < intact. But then , since we assumed
was negative and was a positive number.
This one contradiction is all that we need to show that , and therefore < . We
made a few different assumptions along the way to find our contradiction. These
assumptions could take on different forms (in other words, the ones we chose in our proof
were not the only choices), but ultimately our goal was to show some sort of contradiction.
Therefore, the proof writer must think through the situation and find a way to show
conclusively that that conclusion is absurd.
Let us now return to our first question: How can we show that the sum of two negative
numbers produces a negative number?
Example 2
Let , < 0. Prove that + < 0.
Assume temporarily that + 0. Then, by the subtraction property of inequality,i
.
Since < 0, then 0. The previous statement therefore says that a negative number,
, is greater than a positive number, , which is absurd. The other case, viz.,
,
Will yield a similar absurdity.
Due to the fact that + 0, then + < 0, as was desired.
We will make one more proof with integers, this time with respect to multiplication.
At one point you were told that Multiplying a negative and a positive number gives you
a negative result. But this argumentum ad lapidemii is frivolous we demand to know
why.
This property is like the subtraction property of equality, except with an inequality. Specifically, it states
that if , then .
ii
Literally meaning Argument to the stone. Supposedly, it originates from a philosopher trying to win a
philosophical argument over that life is not an illusion. So he kicked a stone and said (essentially) See? It
must be real!
i
Example 3
Let < 0, > 0. Prove that < 0.
Assume temporarily that 0. Then add to each side, getting
+ () .
On the left side, factor out , getting
( 1) .
Then use the division property of equality to divide to each side, getting
1 1.
Finally, use the addition property of equality to add 1 to each side, which shows us that
0.
But this cannot be; in the original problem we said that < 0. A similar argument can be
made if we let < 0 and > 0. This shows that < 0.
This proof required us to add to each side, which, perhaps, begs the question, Why
did we do that? In this case, by adding a to each side, we could change a strictly
multiplication problem into one that contains addition, which is, in general, easier. Keep
in mind, however, that there are other ways to prove this theorem and that this technique
isnt always going to work for every multiplication problem. This is the difficulty of proof:
It often takes a stroke of creativity or, even, a simple guess and check. This doesnt come
easy and often requires a great deal of patience.
Youll work with integers more in the Exercises. Until then, let us turn our attention to
rational numbers.
We work with rational numbers very often in this course and the next. While it is possible
to change a number like
1
2
into its decimal equivalent, and simply use a calculator, this
isnt often doable in this course, particularly when we get to Part II, Trigonometry. As such,
you must be very comfortable with fractions.
Let us now prove a common mistake as illogical.
Example 4
Let , , , such that and , 0. Prove that + +

This is a very common mistake that students make. They see
Unit one 28
1 3
+
4 7
and claim that it is equal to
4
,
11
as if you should just add numerators and denominators. This is wrong, but oftentimes are
given an argumentum ad lapidem as to why: Well, thats just not how you do it.
So let us prove that this is absurd.
Assume temporarily that it is true, that is, that + = +. First, let

=
, = .
Then we have
(1) + =
+
.
+
Then, considering the right side, we have two sums, + , and + . Because we are
adding integers, we can use the commutative property and switch, say, and around
and get
+
.
+
Using the same logic that told us to simply add numerators and denominators, we now
have the following chain:
(2)
+ +
=
= + .
+ +
Since (1) and (2) are equal, we have

+ =
or,

+ = + ,

which is false, as can be shown by any example that meets the original restrictions, viz.
that , , , such that and , 0.
Now that we have proven the above as false, let us show how to properly add two rational
numbers.
Addition of rational numbers

Two rational numbers, , , have a sum

+
+ =
.

Proof.
We simply multiply each side by and get

( + ) = +

+ = + .
Which is true.
You will work on various proofs in this section. Some will be straightforward while others
will be challenging, perhaps requiring lemmas or perhaps even strokes of creative genius.
Be patient and be prepared to try different techniques, especially techniques you may not
at first expect. The key to success with difficult math problems is to prod them, trying
various things and seeing what result you get. Each failure will give you some insight as
to where to go next.iii That insight may be small, but each failure will be a valuable guide
to you.
Exercises
1.)
2.)
Before we do some proofs, practice some argumentum ad lapidem facts.

(A) How should you add two negative numbers?
(B) How should you add two fractions?
(C) How should you multiply two fractions?
(D) How should you solve a proportion (e.g. = )?

(E) How should you multiply two negative numbers?
Lets start out with some easy proofs.
(A) Prove that is commutative with respect to addition.
(B) Prove that is commutative with respect to multiplication.
And you will fail on more than one occasion. I know thats a scary word in a world where youre
supposed to be this super-special person that everyone loves because you do everything right. Much of
that is untrue. But its mathematics, its life, its reality, so get over it. The sooner you do the better
mathematician and person youll become. Its never been about being perfect its about doing your best
and trying again and again until you achieve some success.
iii
Unit one 30
(C) Prove that if = , then
3.)
5.)
(C) Prove that = .
Now for the really fun ones.

(A) Prove that the product of two negative numbers must be positive.
(B) Prove that there does not exist a rational number such that 2 = 2.
(C) Let , and let be the number of negative factors in a multiplication
problem, and be the number of positive factors in a multiplication
problem.
i. Prove that if is even then the product will be positive.
ii. Prove that if is even and is odd then the product will be negative.
iii. Prove that has no bearing on the sign of the product if is
unknown.
Finally, lets do some review. Evaluate the following expressions.
3
(A) 4 + 8
(G) ( )
3
( 2)
(C) 2
(D) 6
(E)
(F)
5
4
(H)
(I)
(J)
(K)
5
1
3
+2
2
2
3
2
2
7
3
3
2
5 5
4
2
Write the following fractions as a sum of two fractions expressions.

+
37
(A)
(C)
(B)
7.)
Now let us make things a bit harder.

(A) Prove that the sum of any two positive real numbers must be greater than
zero.
(B) Prove that = .
(B)
6.)
= . Assume , 0.
(D) Prove that if = , then = 2 .
4.)
3+2
2
(D)
3
8 2 4
2
Write the following equations such that there are no fractions. You do not need to
solve the equations.
3
4
5
(C)
=
(A)
+ = 12
(B)
3 2
4
12
=4
(D)
8
4
+ = 3
31
Unit two
Functions
The function concept is one of the most fundamental concepts of modern
mathematics.
N. Luzin
Unit two 32
We next move to review functions. Functions and their notation are essential in Calculus.
Well learn the basics of functions, how to write them, graph them, and use them. We will
then look at compositions and inverses of functions, which are often used in Calculus.
Basics of functions
A function is a relation between one or more variables where each input has exactly one
output.i We denote functions using function notation, which appears as
() = 2 .
The previous line is read aloud as at is 2 . The input is the variable and the output
is () or just . Thus, if we input 3, we would get
(3) = 32
(3) = 9. ii
Notice that the input replaces the in every location, including the left side and the right
side. The left side allows us to always reference what was input, while the right side, when
evaluated, tells us the output obtained from the input.
Example 1a
Let () = 2 2 3 + 1. Evaluate (1), (2), and ().
All we need to do is substitute. Hence
(1) = 2(1)2 3(1) + 1
(1) = 2(1) 3 + 1
(1) = 2 3 + 1
(1) = 1 + 1
(1) = 0,
and
(2) = 2(2)2 3(2) + 1
(2) = 8 6 + 1
We can also define functions that have two (or more) different inputs. E.g. (, ) = + . Graphing this
relation will yield a plane in 3-space. We will rarely use this sort of function, but it will occur frequently in
third-semester-Calculus.
ii
Which is read aloud as The function at 3 is 9.
i
1 Basics of functions 33
(2) = 3
and
() = 22 3 + 1.
It really is as simple as substituting.
Example 1b
Let () = 2 + 2 1. What is ( + )?
This is a bit more complicated, and yet, its merely a substitution problem. Everywhere you
see an in (), you write ( + ). It is important that the expression is in parentheses.
Thus
( + ) = ( + )2 + 2( + ) 1.
In this particular example, we have no real need of expanding ( + )2 , but we will need
to do that soon. As such, lets go ahead and expand this using the process of FOIL:
( + )2 = ( + )( + ) = ( 2 + 2 + 2 ).
This leaves us with
2 2 2 + 2 + 2 1.
Always check whether or not you can simplify or gather like terms. In this instance, we
cannot, so this is our final result.
Example 1c
Find the value of at 3 given Figure 2.
Figure 2
Unit two 34
This question is essentially asking what is (3); we simply need to look at the value of the
function when = 3. We observe that it is 2, and thus that is our final answer.
Another interesting feature about functions is that they behave like numbers. Even though
they are not numbers, they still follow such traits as commutativity, associativity, and the
like. Youll uncover (and prove) that functions obey these rules. Lets show one quick
example to help you see what we mean.
Example 2
2
Let () = 4 + 3, () = 2 3 + 2 , and () = +1. Evaluate ( + )(), ( )(),

and 2 () 3 ().
First, recognize that
( + )() = () + ().
Then we substitute and then simplify accordingly. Thus,
() + () = (4 + 3) + (2 3 + 2 ) = 2 + + 1.
Notice that all we did was combine like terms after substituting
Likewise, ( )() = () (). We have
2
8 + 6
(
) (4 + 3) =
.
+1
+1
Then, for 2 () 3 (), we have
2(4 + 3) 3(2 3 + 2 ) = 8 + 6 + 6 + 9 3 2 = 3 2 + 17 + 12.
Functions will behave exactly like numbers. This also means the normal rules for order of
operations will apply.
Well cover some more advanced function operations in the next section, which get used
quite a bit in Calculus.
One way to describe functions is by their domain and codomain. Some functions, for
1
example, have certain -values that will not work as inputs (e.g. () = ; cannot equal
zero). And some functions will never output certain values (e.g. () = 2 ; can never be
negative, no matter what -value is used). Thus it is helpful to determine what values can
be input and what we can expect to get out. The domain describes the set of numbers
that can be put into a function which will actually return an input, while the codomain is
the set of all outputs of a function.
Example 3
Describe the domain and codomain of () = 2 , () = , and () = sin .
We can answer each of these questions analytically or by observing their graphs.
Sometimes, its useful to use both logic and a picture. Figures 3a, 3b, and 3c show
(), (), and () respectively.
Figures 3a, 3b, and 3c

The above graphs shows, from left to right, (), (), and ().
Keep in mind that the pictures above are merely snapshots theres more going on than
just what we see above. So they do convey some information, but they leave some
information out. As such, well next analyze each function.
Lets first determine the domain of . To do this, lets ask ourselves a simple question: Is
there any -value which does not produce an answer? The answer is no we can input
any and get some output. Therefore our domain is . Well write this out
symbolically as
.
This is read aloud as is in the set of all real numbers. We have not explicitly stated that
this is our domain; however, because the variable is the variable used for input, this is
implied.
For the codomain, lets ask ourselves a similar, but different question: Are there any values which the function does not reach? The answer is yes notice that it is impossible
for () to be less than zero (i.e. () 0). As such, we state that the codomain is all
positive real numbers and zero. We denote this symbolically as
0,
Unit two 36
Which is read aloud as is in the set of all real numbers greater than or equal to zero.
We next turn our attention to . Well report the domain and codomain using interval
notation, instead of the set notation seen above.
To determine the domain, we ask ourselves the same question as before: Are there any
-values that do not produce an output? The answer is yes we cannot input negative
numbers.iii Therefore, our domain is the set of all real numbers greater than or equal to
zero. In interval notation, this is written as
[0, ). iv
The above is read aloud as is in the set of all real numbers from 0 to positive infinity,
including zero.
We always use when using interval notation.v
The codomain might be a bit harder. Like , we see that we cannot be negative. The
uncertainty is whether or not the function continues to rise, or if it levels out. One can
verify this by putting in large -values. When you do this, youll see that the function will
continue to rise. As such, our codomain is
[0, ). vi
Now lets look at . The domain is straightforward:
.
The codomain is also pretty straightforward, particularly if you know Trigonometry well:
[1,1].
The domain and codomain are important aspects of each function, and some functions
youll work with in this course (and Calculus) will be quite unorthodox. Knowing their
domain and codomain will help you tremendously.
There are other aspects that well look at with functions, such as their relative extrema,
but well save that for the exercises.
Verify that this is so. We have () = . Inputting a negative number, like say, 4, does not produce a
real number. Although we could argue that it produces a complex number, this cannot be graphed on the
coordinate plane, and thus, is excluded.
iv
Note we must use parentheses next to infinity. Infinity is not a number, and therefore cannot be
included.
v
If youre not working with real numbers, you should not use interval notation.
vi
One other way to write this is 0.
iii
Lets briefly review how to graph functions.

Example 4
Graph () = 2 1.
One way to graph functions is to make a table of values, plug in arbitrary -values, acquire
the corresponding -value, then use those two values to place a point. After placing
enough points, youll then be able to connect them using a curve to make a decent graph.
We show this below.
()
0
1
1
0
2
3
3
8
This process will always work. We plot these points in Figure 4.
Figure 4
Of course, this does present a problem: How do we connect those points? Whats
happening to the left of (0, 1)? Because of this ambiguity, it is sometimes wise to choose
a few more points.
()
2
3
1
1
Figure 5 shows all the points plotted and connected.
Unit two 38
Figure 5
So how do you know which points to pick? And how do you know how many to plug in?
This is all answered by experience. Essentially, you choose the ones that work best and
plug in as many as needed. You should, however, have some experience with all the
function types youll run into in this course, so you should have some intuition in this
matter already. If not, we will spend a little time reviewing these ideas, but you really
should look into an Algebra 2 (or equivalent) text that shows you the intuition behind
each of these function types.
The last thing well review in this section is function transformations. A transformation is
some change in position or shape of a functions graph. We review each of the general
transformations in the proceeding box.
Transformations of functions
() + represents a translation of units up.
( ) represents a translation of units to the right.
() represents a reflection across the -axis.
() represents a reflection across the -axis.
() represents a dilation by factor .
Example 5a
Let () = 2 . What is after a translation of 1 unit to the right and 3 units up?
Using the general rules from the previous table, we have
( 1) + 3.
After substituting this information in, we get that

( 1) + 3 = ( 1)2 + 3.
Example 5b
The function () has been reflected across the -axis and dilated by a factor of 4. Write
an expression that shows these changes.
Following the rules, we have that
2 ().
These transformation rules are used throughout this course, so be sure to spend some
time mastering them, if you have not done so already.
Well work on all the previous concepts in this section, and well review a few others in the
exercises. Youll need to be very adept at functions to succeed at this course.
Exercises
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)
Let () = 5 2 4, () = 3 3, and () = 3+. Evaluate (or simplify) the
following functions.
(A) (2)
(G) ( 2 )
(B) (3 + 4)
(H) (1)
(C) ( )
(I) (2 32 )
(D) (2)
(J) 2 () + ()
(E) (0)
(K) () 3 ()
(F) ()
(L) () ()
2
2
Let () = 3 2, () = 5 + 3 1, and () = 7 + 6. Evaluate the
following.
(A) ( + )()
(D) 3() ()
(B) () + ()
(E) ( + )() + ()
(C) ( + + )()
(F) ( + + )()
Determine the domain and codomain of () = 5 2 4, () = 2 3, and
4
() = 3+.
Come up with any function that fits the following criteria.
(A) A function with a domain of all real numbers.
(B) A function with a codomain of all real numbers greater than or equal to
zero.
(C) A function with a domain of all real numbers except 3.
(D) A function with a codomain of all real numbers.
Unit two 40
5.)
6.)
7.)
8.)
9.)
Graph the following functions.

(A) () = + 5
(B) () = 2 + 2
1
(C) () = 2
(D) () = 2
(E) () = 2 + 4
Graph the function () = 2 on graph paper. Then use that function (which well
refer to as the parent function) to graph the proceeding daughter functions.
(A) ( + 1)
(E) () 1
1
(B) () 1
(F) 2 ()
(C) ( + 2) 3
(G) 3 ( + 3)
(D) 2 ()
Let () be some function. Use the following words to write a function based on
the transformations.
(A) () is translated 4 units up and 3 units to the left.
(B) () is dilated by factor 4 and translated 10 units down.
(C) () is reflected across the -axis and is then translated 7 units to the right.
Let = {(2,5), (5,7), (7,9), (10,5), (12,6)}
Evaluate the following given () and () below.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
(1) + (3)
(2) (4)
(4) + (2)
(1) (3) + (4) (4)
1
5 (1) 2 (3)
(F)
For what value of does

() = ()?
(G) What is (4) + (4)?
(H) State the domain and
codomain for both and .
10.) Earlier in this section, we stated that functions behave like numbers. Let us now
prove that this is so.
11.) Prove that functions are commutative with respect to addition. (Hint: Define two
functions, () and (), then add them both ways.)
12.) Prove that functions obey the distributive property.

13.) Prove one of the following:
(A) () + () = (),
where
()
is
the
additive
identity,
() + (()) = 0
(B) () () = (), where () is a multiplicative identity.
14.) Prove that functions are closed with respect to addition.vii
15.) The difference quotient plays a major role in Calculus. The difference quotient is
given by
( + ) ()
,
where (, ()) is a point. We show this picture below.
(A) What is the length of the segment starting at (, 0) and ending at ( + , 0)?
(B) What is the slope of ()? How does that compare to the difference
quotient?
16.) Evaluate the difference quotient using the following functions.
(A) () = + 3
(C) () = 3
(B) () = 2
(D) () = 2 2 + 1
17.) Look at your results from 16.). Assuming that = 0, rewrite each of your answers
((A)-(D)).
18.) In Calculus, we often need to find the relative extrema of a function. In short, the
relative extrema are the points of the function where the function stops increasing
and starts decreasing, or vice versa. Estimate the relative extrema in the functions
shown below.
The closure property in this instance means that if we add two functions, their sum will also be a
function. Note that not every set of numbers is closed for example, division of whole numbers is not
3
closed, since you can take two whole numbers (say, 3 and 4) and their quotient, is not a member of .
vii
Unit two 42
(A)
(B)
19.) Another way to define relative extrema is to state that it is a local maximum or
minimum point. Why do you think we call these extrema local maxima or minima?
20.) A quadratic equation will only have one relative extremum, and it will be found at
the vertex.viii We explore this idea here.
(A) List the coordinates for the relative extremum of the quadratic shown below.
(B) Would it be more appropriate to name point a minimum or maximum?

(C) Would it be more appropriate to call a local or absolute maximum (or
minimum)? Why?
21.) Let () = 2 + + , and () = 2 + .
(A) Compare and ; is there any way to get from to ?
(B) Set () = 0, then solve for . (This will tell you what value to input to
receive an output of 0.)
22.) The vertex of a quadratic equation is found at ( 2 , ( 2)). How does that
compare with what you just found?
viii
Well cover quadratic equations in more detail in 1 of the next unit.
3 Types of functions 43
Composition and inverses of functions
In 1, we looked at some basic function operations and results. We learned that functions
can be added, subtracted, and the like. In this section, well define two other things that
we can do with functions. Each of these operations (of sorts) has a major use in Calculus.
We first look at composition of functions. Composition is defined as combining two
functions into one. Thus,
( )() = (()),
which is read aloud as at of . Recall that the expression that is in the parentheses
(in this case, ()) is what we substitute into the variable of . So if
() = + 1
and
() = 2 ,
then
( )() = (()) = ( 2 ) = ( 2 ) + 1.
The best way to look at composition is as a substitution, which well show in the next few
examples.
Example 1a
Let () = 3 1 and () = 2 + 1. Find ( )().

It is helpful to rewrite the expression
( )()
as
(()),
which reveals what it actually is: A substitution problem.
We then have
( + 1),
2
since () = 2 + 1, and all that is needed to do is to substitute.
Unit two 44
Whatever is in the parentheses is what we substitute into the variable in our function .
Thus
( + 1) = 3 ( + 1) 1.
2
2
Notice weve simply substituted 2 + 1 in place of the variable in . Now we just simplify
and get
( )() =
3
.
2
Lets try one more like this.

Example 1b
Let () = 2 + 1 and () = + 4. Evaluate ( )().
Again we rewrite our expression
( )()
as
(()).
Now we simply substitute.
( + 4) = ( + 4)2 + 1 = 2 + 8 + 16 + 1 = 2 + 8 + 17.
We can also compose functions at a given number.
Example 2a
2
Let () = + 5 and () = + 4. Evaluate ( )(1).

This again is a substitution problem. We rewrite
( )(1)
As
((1)),
Which is
2
( + 4) = (6).
1
Now we just substitute 6 into the , and get
(6) = 6 + 5 = 11.
Example 2b
Evaluate ( )(5).
Using the previous definitions for and , we have
((5)) = ((5) + 5) = (10),
whence
(10) =
2
21
+4 = .
(10)
5
We shall discover more about this operation and its properties in the Exercises, but, as we
can see, this is essentially nothing more than a substitution of one problem into another.
Composition is used often in Calculus, since some functions are easier to decompose, or
break into simpler parts. Lets look at how we can decompose a function that has already
been combined through composition.
Example 3a
Decompose () = + 3.
We want to find two functions, () and () such that (()) = + 3.
This is mostly done by intuition: We notice that would be easy to substitute into, so
we let
() = .
Then we ask ourselves: What could I substitute into that in order to get the function
seen in ? In this case, its
() = + 3.
To verify:
(()) = ( + 3) = + 3,
Where () = and () = + 3.
Youll notice a fairly nice pattern with these problems.
Example 3b
Decompose () = ( 2 4)5 4.
Unit two 46
This one is a bit more difficult. We notice that it would be nice to let
() = 5
and
() = 2 4.
But then, we would have
(()) = ( 2 4)5 ().
However, notice if we just had a 4 outside that difference to the 5th power, wed have
our result? Lets try letting
() = 5 4.
Then we have what were looking for:
(()) = ( 2 4)5 4 = ().
This technique requires a bit of practice, but youll gain some useful (and valuable)
intuition for Calculus the more you work at it.
One of the other purposes of composition is that it allows us to show that we have the
inverse function. An inverse function is defined as some function that undoes another
function. Thus if
(()) = ,
Then is the inverse of , since cancels out . More formally,
The inverse function
A function 1 () is the inverse of () iff
1 (()) = = ( 1 ()).
Let us also consider the following: A function takes some input and returns an output.
Thus, we can use Figure 6 to help us visualize a function.
Figure 6
As we know, when we put something into a function, such as , it returns an output, which
is (). This process will continue for all in the domain of . But what if we wanted to
go in the opposite direction? That is, what if we started with the output, (), and wanted
to find its corresponding input, ? In other words, the inverse function should take us in
the other direction, as Figure 7 shows.
Figure 7
Although this picture seems elementary, it should help us to determine how to actually
compute an inverse. For example, consider the function () = 3. If we know the output
of this function is 3, and we want to find its corresponding input, we would solve the
equation:
3 = 3
1 = .
Unit two 48
Example 4a
Is () = 4 + 1 the inverse of () =
1
4
To determine this, we simply compose the two functions. We have

(())
(
1
)
4
1
4(
)+1
4
1+1
.
Since
(()) = ,
we can conclude that is the inverse of .
This also works in the other direction:
(()) = (4 1) =
(4 1) 1
= .
4
Thus, is the inverse of and is the inverse of .

Example 4b
Is () = 2 + 1 the inverse of () = 5 1?
We just compose the two functions; if ( )() = , then they are inverses. We have
( )() = (()) = (5 1) = (5 1)2 + 1 = 25 2 10 + 1 + 1
= 25 2 10 + 2.
Because 25 2 10 + 2 , we conclude that and are not inverses. When we find
( )(), we will likewise find that it is not equal to (nor is it equal to ).
There are some consequences to inverse functions, in particular when solving equations.
Well explore this idea in the exercises.
Next lets work on determining inverse functions.
Consider that
() = 3,
and since we are trying to figure out the input, , we just solve for . Thus we get
()
= . i
3
But this notation is not preferable, because we have now essentially switched the meaning
of the and () variables.ii So instead of saying (), well write it as . And instead of
saying , well say 1 ().iii Thus we can say
1 () = .
3
We encourage you to verify this make a table of values for () = 3, and then input
some of the numbers from the () column into the function above. You should get the
corresponding number in the column.
As previously mentioned, the symbolization is a bit confusing, so our procedure will use
different notation. Before we do any properties of equality (such as dividing each side by
the same number), well switch the names of the and variable. Then, after solving for
, well rename our new variable into 1 ().
Example 5a
Given () = 4 + 1, what is 1 ()?
To do this, we simply need to switch the and and variables around, then solve for .
Thus,
() = = 4 + 1
becomes
= 4 + 1.
Now we just solve for :
Which we can do, since we can multiply a constant (in this case, ) times a function. See 1.
3
Recall that the is usually the input; in this case, were inputting what we usually call the output. This is
confusing, so we switch change the variables names.
iii
We want to show everyone that this is a function, so we use the notation of (); but this function is
(usually) different than what we started with, so we want a new function name. We also want to refer to
the fact that there is a relationship between and its inverse. Thus we use 1 .
ii
Unit two 50
1 = 4
=
1
,
4
And thus
1 () =
1
,
4
as you should verify.

Example 5b
If () = 2 + 4, what is 1 ()?
We have
() = = 2 + 4,
Then switch the and variables around. Thus
= 2 + 4.
Solving for , we get
4 = 2
= 4.
Hence
1 () = 4.
The previous procedure is an algebraic one; that is, we only use algebra to manipulate the
given function. There is another way to find an inverse, and its quite helpful, since its
entirely graphical.
When finding the inverse algebraically, we switched the and variables around, then
solved for . We follow a similar process now: We switch the - and -coordinates around,
and then graph the results. Thus, for
() = 4 + 1
We first create a table of values, then switch the two sets of coordinates around.
0
1
()
1
5
1
5
()
0
1
We graph these two relations in Figure 8.
Figure 8
This allows us to easily graph an inverse, since all we need to do is switch the coordinates
around. However, it does not give us an equation to work with necessarily, so this method
of finding an inverse isnt always the best option.
Example 6
Find the inverse of the function given in Figure 9.
Figure 9
In this example, we arent given a function to manipulate algebraically, so we must use

the geometric procedure of finding an inverse. This is easy all we need to do is switch
the coordinates. We thus end up with Figure 10.
Unit two 52
Figure 10
We obtained this Figure by switching the - and -coordinates around. Verify that this is correct.
Exercises
1.)
2.)
3.)
Let () = 7 + 3, () = 2 2 + 1, () = 1. Evaluate the following.

(A) ( )(3)
(F) ( )( + 1)
(B) ( )(1)
(G) ( )()
(
(C)
)(2)
(H) ( )( 3)
(D) ( )(4)
(I) ( )(1)
(E) ( )()
(J) ( )()
Use the same definitions of , , and found in the previous problem.
(A) 1 ()
(F) ( 1 )()
(G) What did you get as a final
(B) 1 ()
1 ()
(C)
answer in (D), (E), and (F)?
1
(D) ( )()
What does that tell you
1
(E) ( )()
about what you found in (A),
(B), and (C)?
Let () = 3 + 1.
(A) Evaluate ( 1 )().
(B) Now evaluate ( 1 )()
(C) Is composition with the inverse function commutative? What does this
mean?
(D) Are functions always commutative with respect to composition? Use () =
5 + 1 and () = 4 and verify this by evaluating ( )() and
( )().
4.)
Use the graphs of () and () to answer the following questions.
5.)
(A) Evaluate the following.

(F) Graph ( )().
(G) Graph ( )().
(B) ( )(3)
(C) ( )(1)
(H) Graph ( )1 ()
(D) ( )(3)
(E) ( )(4)
Use the graph of () to answer the following questions.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)

1 (3)
1 (1)
1 (5)
Graph 1 ().
(F)
(G)
(H)
(I)

( 1 )(0).
( 1 )(2)
Guess what ( 1 )(3) is
equal to. What is the
pattern?
Unit two 54
6.)
7.)
8.)
Use the tables of () and () to evaluate the following.
()
()
1
4
0
2
0
1
1
3
1
1
2
1
2
0
3
2
3
3
4
4
(A) ( )(0)
(E) 1 (2)
(B) ( )(1)
(F) ( 1 )(3)
(G) ( 1 )(2)
(C) ( )(2)
1 (1)
(D)
Not all inverses are functions. For example, if () = 2 , then, after switching each
- and -coordinate, you do not get a function,iv since 1 (1) = 1, which means
there were two outputs for a single input.
Determine whether or not the following functions inverses are themselves
functions.
(A) () = 3
(C) () = sin
1
(B) () = 2
(D) () =
One way to determine if a functions inverse will be a function is to perform the
horizontal line test. If () passes the horizontal line test, then 1 () will be a
function. Use the horizontal line test on the following graphs to determine if the
functions inverse will be a function.
(A)
Although we usually restrict the domain or codomain to allow the inverse to be a function. Well explain
this process shortly.
iv
(B)
9.)
(C)
One way to avoid the loathsome problem of a functions inverse not being a
function is to restrict the domain or codomain so that it is a function. The following
are inverse functions which have had one of these restrictions applied to them.
Describe the domain and codomain of each inverse function, especially noting
what artificial restrictions have been applied to force each into being a function.
(A) 1 () = (From () = 2 )
Unit two 56
(B) 1 () = arcsin (From () = sin )
10.) Sometimes a function is already a composed function, but it would be helpful to

decompose it.v For example, () = + 1 = ( )() () = and () =
+ 1. Decompose the following functions.
(A) () = ( + 4)2
(C) () = 3( + 1)2 + 2
(B) () = 2 + 3
(D) () = 3 + 2 4
11.) Come up with two of your own functions that require decomposing. Be prepared
to share them with others in the class.
This is a very, very useful skill in Calculus!
Unit three
More on functions
Everyone knows what a curve is, until he has studied enough mathematics to become
confused through the countless number of possible exceptions.
Felix Klein
Unit three 58
Types of functions
Well take a look at some specific functions in this section. At this point, you should have
already discovered and practiced the basics of each function type. For example, you
should be comfortable solving and graphing each equation type. Well review the basics
here, and focus our efforts on this material toward Calculus readiness. As previously
mentioned, if any of this is too difficult, we recommend you reference the previous text.
We have also included appendices in the back of the book which contain more examples,
practice problems, and explanations.
Lets lay out each basici function type in the following table.
Function name
Linear
Quadratic
Rational
Exponential
Logarithmic
Example 1a
General
() = +
() = 2 + +
0 ()
() =
1 ()
() =
() = log
Example
() = 3 1
() = 2 + 4 + 4
2 + 1
() =
2 5
() = 3
() = log 2
Shape
Line
Parabola
J
Upside-down J
Graph the equation () = 5 + 3.

Recall that any explicit linear function is in slope-intercept form, called such because it
reveals the slope and -intercept of the function. The slope is 5 and the -intercept is 3,
and thus we graph Figure 11.
We will not include polynomials or trigonometric functions in this section. They are included in the next
section for a few different reasons, but ultimately, we want to spend more time with them and
i
Figure 11
Notice the slope of this equation is 5 and the -intercept is 3.
The best way to graph these equations is to first graph the -intercept, and then use the
slope to get the next point. Since the -intercept is 3, we simply plot a point at 3 on the
-axis. To get the next point, we use the slope. Recall that slope is defined as
Rise
Run
and if we have a slope of 5, then
5=
Rise 5
= ,
Run 1
which tells us to go 1 to the right and 5 up.

Once you make your second point, you connect your points with a line, and your graph
is complete.
Keep in mind that there are many ways to graph an equation, and you would do well to
discover and practice as many as possible. Since most of these methods have been
expounded on in the previous course, we will not repeat them here.
Example 1b
Calculate the slope of the following linear equation using the following table.
1
4
3
15
Unit three 60
10
39
103 411
rise
Recall that slope is defined as run . Another way of putting this is that slope is the ratio of
how much the line goes up to how much it goes to the right. Based on our information,
we can say that this line goes up 8 when it goes to the right 3. In symbols, this amounts
to
15 3
= 8.
41
Thus we conclude that the slope is 8.
Something to consider: Will the slope be the same or different had we chosen two
different points? What we are essentially asking is whether the slope is constant. This is
a question that we will look into further in the exercises.
Example 2a
Solve the equation 2 7 18 = 0.
Perhaps the best way to solve a quadratic equation is to factor it, set it equal to zero, then
use the Zero Product Property to solve each factor. In this instance,
2 7 18 = ( 9)( + 2).
We now take each factor, ( 9) and ( + 2), set them each equal to zero, and then solve.
Hence
= 9 = 2.
Not all quadratic equations can be factored, and some require a more advanced technique
to solve. If all else fails, we can always use the quadratic formula, which will allow us to
solve any quadratic equation.
The quadratic formula
If 2 + + = 0, then
=
2 4
.
2
You should not rely on the quadratic formula only, however, as if you simply are unable
to keep a second method in your head. The process of factoring an equation and then
using the zero-product property is useful in many instances outside of quadratics.
Additionally, the quadratic formula is almost always more lengthy than using the zeroproduct property.
Example 2b
Graph the function () = 2 2 + 4 1.
The best way to graph quadratic functions is to first graph the vertex, then choose two
points to the right (or left) of the vertex, then reflect those points across the axis of
symmetry. The vertex of all parabolas is located at
(
, ( )),
2
2
Given some quadratic function () = 2 + + . In the present case, we find that the
-value of our vertex is
4
= 1.
2(2)
To find the -value, we just plug in the previous result. We get

(1) = 2(1)2 + 4(1) 1 = 1,
And hence our vertex is at
(1,1).
We now choose two points to the right of this, say, = 2 and = 3. After finding the
corresponding -values, we plot those three points, as shown in Figure 12.
Figure 12
We get points and from choosing = 2 and = 3, then evaluating (2) and (3).
Unit three 62
The axis of symmetry is always a vertical line through the vertex, so reflection of points
and is elementary. Figure 13 reveals the final result.
Figure 13
and are reflections of and , respectively.
There is perhaps a simpler approach that we can use, and well review this in the exercises.
Before we continue on, let us once more consider slope. What is the slope of the above
graph? If we tackle the above problem like we did in Example 1b, we would subtract the
-values, subtract the -values, then find their quotient. This amounts to 2, as you
should verify. However, what if we had chosen two different points? Would we get the
same slope? Is the slope going to be constant with parabolas?
Example 3a
2
Solve the equation 1 + +2 = 2 +2.

Solving this equation is not easy, since our variables are in the denominator of each
fraction. The best way to deal with this problem is to multiply through by the LCM, or least
common multiple. In this case, the LCM is 2 + 2. This is because 2 + 2 =
( 1)( + 2), and these two factors will cancel out the denominators in each term. We
have
( 1)( + 2)
+ ( 1)( + 2) +2 = 2 +2 ( 1)( + 2)
1
2( + 2) + 3( 1) = 4.
Notice how we removed all the fractions? This makes our life much simpler. Indeed, we
now conclude that
2 + 4 + 3 3 = 4
5 + 1 = 4
5 = 3
3
= 5.
It is wise to check your answer, since sometimes you will introduce extraneous solutions.
Make sure you always plug your -value back into the original equation to verify.
The key to solving rational functions is to eliminate all the fractions. That being said, there
are other ways of solving a rational function, which we will include in Appendix C.
Example 3b
3
Graph the function () = 2 1.

The first thing we should do when graphing a rational function is to find its asymptotes.
Recall that an asymptote is a line on the coordinate plane which the function gets closer
and closer to, but never quite touches. This can be found by setting the denominator
equal to zero, then solving. In this problem, our asymptotes are then = 1, as you
should verify.
We now graph each of these asymptotes in Figure 14.
Figure 14
Weve drawn our asymptotes as dotted lines, since they themselves are not a part of the function.
Unit three 64
Now we make a table of values, choosing at least three points in each section created by
our asymptotes. We will omit this process and show the final picture in Figure 15.
Figure 15
There are some patterns youll find as you graph a few of these rational functions
Well cover some of the uses of rational functions in the exercises.

Example 4a
Solve 32 = 15.
This is an exponential equation. To solve it, we must recall that the inverse of taking a
number to a power is to use a logarithm of the base of the number. In our case, then, we
must use a logarithm of base 3. Like all equations, what we do to one side we must do to
the other; hence
log 3 32 = log 3 15
2 = log 3 15.
We must now evaluate log 3 15. Recall that the change of base formula is
log
log = log ,
Where > 1. We will use the natural log, ln, but you are free to use any other base
that fits the previous restriction.ii We have
log 3 15 =
ii
ln 15
2.46.
ln 3
For example, using a base 10 logarithm would also be a wise choice.
We have not yet answered the question. To solve or , we must solve

2 = 2.46
and hence
= 4.46.
Be sure to check your answer.
Example 4b
1
Graph = 3 3 + 1.
There arent any special tricks when it comes to graphing exponential functions; just make
a table of values. As always, choose enough to make a decent picture. Figure 16 shows
the finished graph.
Figure 16
Be sure to choose some negative numbers, too.
Example 5a
Solve the equation log 5 ( + 2) = 3.
To solve this equation, we just need to undo the logarithm of base 5. This amounts to
exponentiating each side by 5. Symbolically, we have
5log5(+2) = 53 ,
which gives us
+ 2 = 125
= 123.
Unit three 66
Example 5b
Graph () = log 2 .
A table of values is all we need. To evaluate each of our inputs, well need to use the
change of base formula. We will not show our table of values, but the final graph is shown
in Figure 17.
Figure 17
Be sure to choose some numbers between 0 and 1, too.
You will need some basic knowledge on how to solve and graph these equations. As for
third-degree and higher polynomials and Trigonometric functions, we will cover that
separately and in more depth at a later and more relevant time.
Many of the exercises will be geared to reviewing what you already know about these
functions, but also extending them in order to prepare you for Calculus.
Exercises
1.)
Solve the following equations.

(A) 17 + 4 = 55
(B) 3 2 2 = 5
3
4
(C) 1 + 1 = 5
1
(D) 6 = 4
2
2.)
(E) log 3 (2 + 1) = 10
1
(F) 4 + 3 = 6

(A) () = 3 + 4
(B) () = 2 + 7 + 12
(C) () = 1 2
(G) 2 81 = 0
2
4
(H) +3 = 3
(I)
(J)
(F)
1 2
(2)
+ 10 = 110
4 ln( 1) = 16
() = 3 ( 1) + 2
(G) () = ( + 2)2 + 1
(H) () = 3 + 2
(D) () =
3.)
4.)
2
2 4
(I)
() = ln + 4
2 4+4
(J) () = 2 20
(E) () = log 5 ( 1)
With the boring basics out of the way, we can now hone into some of the more
interesting parts of functions. First up is linear functions.
(A) What is the slope of the following line? First find the slope using and ,
then and .
(B)
(C) Compare your two results from (A). Are they different? Predict whether the
slope will be the same or different if you use and .
(D) What about if you go backwards? Find the slope from to .
(E) Make a conclusion about the slope of a linear function.
Use the following image of line to help you answer the following questions.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
(F)
Draw any line and name it such that it is parallel to .

What is true of the slopes of and ?
Will this be true of any line that is parallel to ?
Now draw any line and name it such that it is perpendicular to .
What is true of the slopes of and ?
Will this be true of any line that is perpendicular to ?
Unit three 68
5.)
6.)
Now lets look at quadratics and slope.

(A) Find the slope of the following parabola. First find the slope from to ,
then to .
(B) Were the slopes the same or different? Make a prediction about the slope
from to ; will it be the same or different than the other two slopes?
(C) Will the slope of a quadratic equation be equal given any two points on the
parabola?
(D) Now, as you go from to , then to , how will the slope change? Increase
or decrease?
(E) What about going in the opposite direction? Start at , then go to the left.
Is the slope increasing or decreasing?
Now that weve established that the slope of a parabola will always change, lets
look at how to find the slope of a quadratic at a given point.
(A) Consider the following parabolas. Which of the following lines ( or )
would be more accurate to calculate the slope at ? Why?
(B) Is there a way to get the slope of the quadratic at point more accurate
than in line ? How?
7.)
8.)
Lines are easy. Curves (e.g., parabolas) are not. But look at the next two pictures,
which are of the same function.
(A) What do you notice about the second picture? Is the scale the same? If not,
what is different?
(B) What would happen if we zoomed in even further on point ? Would the
graph around that point appear more or less linear?
The picture below is of the same function from 7.).
(A) Estimate the slope given that each gridline is 0.02 in distance.
(B) Can we take any function and zoom in enough to make it appear to be
linear?
(C) If so, what can we then do with the slope of any function?
Unit three 70
9.)
In the previous course you learned that rational functions have asymptotes.
1
(A) The horizontal asymptote of the function 2 is = 0. Use a graphing utility
(such as GeoGebra) to view the graph and then informally explain what a
horizontal asymptote is.
(B) The vertical asymptote of the function
2
+2
is = 2. Use a graphing utility
(such as GeoGebra) to view the graph and then informally explain what a
vertical asymptote is.
2
(C) The slant asymptote of 2 is = + 2. Again use a graphing utility to view
both this graph and the asymptote and then informally explain what a slant
(or oblique) asymptote is.
(D) Is it possible for a rational function to actually touch one of the asymptotes?
Try graphing 2 4 and see whether the graph ever has a -value of 0.
Polynomials
Although weve already encountered a few polynomials, well spend our time in this
section paying careful attention to them, not only formally defining them, but working
with them as we will shortly work with them in Calculus. Indeed, many of the objects youll
work with in Calculus will be polynomials.
At this point, you should already know the basic definition of a polynomial and how to
find its zeros. As always, if you are not comfortable with this you must review this material.
We will look to extend our understanding in this section.
Since the formal definition of a polynomial is a bit arcane, let us begin with a very informal
definition. A polynomial is some function that contains variables, addition or subtraction
symbols, and exponents (which must be whole numbers). Thus,
2 3 + 2
is a polynomial. Also
3
is a polynomial, because
3 = 3 0 .
However,
2.1
2 Polynomials 71
is not a polynomial, since 2.1 is not a whole number. Also,

2
is not a polynomial, since

2
= 2 1
and 1 is not a whole number.

With this in mind, we can quickly verify that both linear and quadratic functions are
polynomials. We can also see that rational, exponential, and logarithmic functions are not.
Forgive the very informal definition. But dont worry, youll make a formal definition in the
Exercises.
Example 1a
Is () = 3 4 5 a polynomial? If so, write it in standard form and classify it.
The answer here is yes; it fits all the criteria in our informal definition. To put it in standard
form, we put the highest-exponent-term first. Thus we have
() = 4 5 + 3 .
This is a fifth-degree polynomial (because it is to the fifth power) and, since there are two
terms, we would call this a binomial.
Example 1b
3
Is () = 3 4 + 4 2 a polynomial? If so, write it in standard form and classify it.

The answer here is yes. Putting it in standard form gives us
3
() = 2 4 + 3.
4
This is a second-degree polynomial, which occurs often enough that we give it the special
name of a quadratici polynomial. Because there are three terms, we would say this is a
trinomial.ii
Quadratic comes from the Latin Quadrare, which means to square.

Any polynomial with four or more terms doesnt get a fancy name. So 1 + + 2 + 23 would just be
called a four-term-polynomial.
i
ii
Unit three 72
Before we solve polynomials, lets review the fact that we can also operate upon
polynomials.
Example 2
Let 1 () = 2 + 2 1, 2 () = 3 2 5 + 1, and 3 () = 1. Evaluate (A) (1 +
2 )(), (B) (2 3 )(), and (3 3 )().
These are fairly straightforward problems. We just need to substitute and then simplify.
Thus, for (A), we have
(1 + 2 )() = 1 () + 2 () = 2 + 2 1 + 3 2 5 + 1
and, after combining like terms, we get
4 2 3.
Likewise, for (B), we just substitute and combine like terms. We get
2 () 3 () = 3 2 5 + 1 ( 1)
which implies our final result is
3 2 6 + 2.
And finally, for (C), we have
3 () 3 () = ( 1)( 1)
whence we get
2 2 + 1.
Finding the zeros of a polynomial is a very useful concept, and one that you will need to
know. We will assume you have experience with this, and show one example of how to
find the zeros of a polynomial.
Example 3
Find all solutions to the polynomial () = 3 2 2 5 + 6.
There is no quadratic formula for cubic polynomials and above. iii So what well need to
use is our good friend the zero-product property. Its possible that our polynomial can be
factored into a form of ( + )( + )( + ) = 0, where , , . If thats the case, then
we can just set each group equal to zero and solve them individually. This will give us our
OK, there is something for cubic and quartic polynomials, but Well, you dont want to use it. Dont say
we didnt warn you!
iii
2 Polynomials 73
zeros, or solutions. Sadly, factoring a cubic polynomial isnt straightforward we have to

guess what one of our zeros is, then use polynomial division to find the other two factors.
Fortunately, the Rational Root Theorem narrows down our guesses immensely. This
theorem states that the only possible rational roots are
where is the set of all factors of the constant term (in the present case, =
{ 1, 2, 3, 6}) and is the set of all factors of the leading coefficient (in the present
case case, = { 1}). We then list out each possibility:
1
2
3
6
, , , .
1
1
1
1
Now we just plug in each number for , one at a time, and determine which one makes
() = 0. We find that
(1) = 13 2(1)2 5(1) + 6 = 0,
and thus we know that = 1 is a solution (or zero) of our polynomial.
This then tells us that that one of the factors of () is 1.iv
If this is the case, what are the other two factors? To determine this, we will divide this
polynomial (that is, ( 1)) into (). This will leave us with a smaller-degree polynomial,
(in our case, a quadratic) which we can then solve.v Dividing, then, we get the following.
2 6
1 3 2 2 5 + 6
3 2
2 5
2 +
6 + 6
6 + 6
3
2
Hence we conclude that 2 5 + 6 = ( 1)( 2 6). We can now easily
solve the rest of the problem, since we know that if
2 6 = 0,
Right? Because if 1 = 0 then = 1.

Although, in some cases, we have to repeat the process again until we get a polynomial that we can
easily solve.
iv
v
Unit three 74
Then
= 3 = 2,
Next we will look at how to graph polynomials. We are already aware of how to graph
linear and quadratic functions (which, recall, are both polynomials). To graph higherdegree polynomials, however, well have more work to do.
Example 4
Graph () = 3 2 2 5 + 6.
Our first objective is to find the zeros for the previous equation. We did this in the previous
example, and we have that
= 2 = 1 = 3.
These are the zeros of our polynomial. As previously mentioned, this means that inputting
any of the above for will output a 0 for . Thus, we have three points on our graph:
(2, 0), (1, 0), (3, 0). We plot these points below in Figure 18.
Figure 18
Perhaps you can now see why we often call these points zeros.
What remains is to find how the graph behaves between these points. In the previous
course, we found this out by arbitrarily choosing -values between each point. This is what
we will do in this course as well, but we will (eventually) point some things out that will
help build your Calculus intuition. Figure 19 shows the inputs weve chosen and their
corresponding outputs.
2 Polynomials 75
Figure 19
We chose integers as our inputs, although that is not necessary. Also, it is likely you will have to play around with the scale
of your graph, since polynomials will often get very large or very small very quickly.
One thing must be mentioned about our choice of inputs and the resulting shape
produced by it. Point was not the maximum value of the function between points and
. Nor was point the minimum of the function between the points and . So how do
we know precisely where the maximum and minimum are located? That is a question
which requires Calculus! For now, you will have to input as many numbers as it takes to
get an accurate picture.
There are noticeable patterns and behaviors that polynomials exhibit. For example, for the
previous polynomial, , was increasing over a large interval. An interval is a set of realnumbered - or -values that contain a starting and ending point (sometimes the
endpoints are included and other times they are not). Then it stopped increasing, and
began decreasing for another interval. As we encourage you to verify,vi this is the case
with all polynomials there will be increasing and decreasing intervals, and thats it.
To verify this, try using GeoGebra, desmos.com, or wolframalpha. Type in some polynomials, and notice
what graph is produced.
vi
Unit three 76
Example 4
Use the graph of () = 3 2 2 5 + 6 to answer the following questions: (A) Upon
what interval is increasing? (B) Upon what interval is decreasing? (C) What is the
maximum and minimum value of ?
Most simply, a function is said to be increasing if the graph is going up as you go from
left to right.vii So we can see that at some points, this polynomial is increasing. But it is
also decreasing in some points. Our job is to determine when it is doing which. Note that
it is asking for an interval, therefore, we will use interval notation, which is a convenient
way to write a subset of real numbers.
For (A), It appears that our function is increasing from its beginning all the way up to
approximately = 0.7.viii Recall that all polynomials have a domain of , so it doesnt
really have a beginning. To account for that, well just use the symbol . Therefore,
one interval upon which our function is increasing is (, 0.7]. But this isnt the only
interval upon which our polynomial is increasing; looking at the end of our function we
can see that it is again travelling upwards. The interval for this is approximately [2.1, ).
Since there are two intervals upon which this function is increasing, we must combine
these two sets. To do this, we use the symbol , which means union. Thus we write that
is increasing over the interval
(, 0.7] [2.1, ).
Considering (B), we must find the inverse of the previous situation. In other words, a
function is decreasing if its -value is going down as we go from left to right. In this case,
our function is decreasing from approximately [0.7,2.1]. This is the only interval upon
which our function is decreasing, and thus, to answer part (B), we write that is decreasing
over the interval
[0.7,2.1].
Finally, for part (C), we have to determine what the maximum or minimum value of the
polynomial is. This is an interesting question. Certainly, we have a maximum value
between 2 and 1. But this is not the true maximum value; try = 100, for example. Isnt
that output larger than the output we get for 0.7? So we should distinguish between
a local maximum and a global maximum. The local maximum for this function is
Thats a terribly informal definition, so if youre cringing and hoping youll get a more formal one, here
you go: A function is said to be increasing if a growth in the value of implies a growth in the value of .
viii
Note that weve guessed what the -value of this local maxima is. There is a better way to do it, but it
requires Calculus. For now, then, let us just approximate.
vii
2 Polynomials 77
approximately (0.7, 8.2). But since there is an -value which produces a -value that is
larger than 8.2, we cannot state that the previous point is also a global maximum. Clearly,
our function will keep getting larger and larger as gets larger and larger. Because of this,
we say that the global maximum is .
We face a similar problem with the minimum. We can say that the local minimum is
approximately (2.1, 4.1). And since, as gets smaller and smaller, () gets smaller and
smaller, we state that the global minimum is .
Example 4b
Use Figure 20 to determine the interval upon which () is (A) increasing and (B)
decreasing. Then (C) state the maximum and minimum values.
Figure 20
This is the polynomial () = ( + 2)( + 1)2 ( 1).
There are two intervals where is increasing, and we write them together as a single set
by writing
[2.6, 1] [0.4, ). ix
This answers part (A).
There are, likewise, two intervals upon which is decreasing. We write them as a single
set by writing
(, 2.6] [1, 0.4].
ix
Again, we are approximating.
Unit three 78
This answers part (B).

As we attempt to answer part (C), notice that there are two minimum values. x They are
(2.6, 0.3) and (0.4, 2.8). While each of these could be referred to as local minima,
certainly the latter is the global minimum value, since there is no -value for which our
polynomial can be less than 2.8.
As for maxima, there are multiples of those too, arent there? For example, the point
(1,0) is a maximum over the interval (1.6, 0.4). But this is certainly not the highest point
of our graph. In this case, there is no highest point, since our gets larger and larger as
gets larger. This is also the case as gets smaller and smaller. Regardless of the fact that
both the beginning and the ending of this polynomial are getting larger and larger,
we report that the global maximum is .
Much of the preceding section was review. We will spend the majority of our time in the
exercises asking you exploratory questions. These questions will help develop that
Calculus intuition. Perhaps you will even discover some Calculus on your own!
Exercises
1.) Which of the following are polynomials?
(A) 3 4 + 5
(B) 17
(C) 0
13
(D)
(G) 3 2
(H) :
(I)
4
(J) 2
(E) + 24
(K) 24
(F) 3
2.) Write a formal definition of polynomials.
3.) Write a single equation which constitutes all possible polynomials.
4.) Let () = 2 + 3, () = 5 + 7, () = 2 5 36, () = 9, and () =
5 + 2 + 12. Evaluate the following.
(A) ( + )()
(F) ( )()
(B) ( )()
(G) ( + )()
(C) ( )()
(H) ( + )()
2
(D) ( + )()
(I) ( )()
(E) 2 () + 3 ()
(J) 2 ()2 + 5
5.) Let be some polynomial of degree and some polynomial of degree .
(A) If = , what is the degree of the polynomial resulting from ( + )()?
The plural of minimum is minima, and the plural of maximum is maxima. Also note that the word
extrema is a general term meaning maxima or minima.
x
2 Polynomials 79
(B) If > , what is the degree of the polynomial resulting from ( + )()?
(C) What is the degree of the polynomial resulting from ( )()?
(D) Prove the results from (A), (B), or (C).
6.) Solve the following polynomials.
(A) () = 2 + 10 + 16
(F) () = 3 3 + 2 108
36
(B) () = ( 1)( + 3)(3 1)
2
3
(G) () = 4 3 3 11 2 +
(C) () = ( 4)( + 5)
3 + 10
(D) () = 3 + 4 2 + 6
(E) () = 2 3 + 9 2 + 7 6
7.) Graph the following polynomials.
(A) () = 2 + 10 + 16
(F) () = 3 3 + 2 108
36
(B) () = ( 1)( + 3)(3 1)
2
3
(G) () = 4 3 3 11 2 +
(C) () = ( 4)( + 5)
3 + 10
(D) () = 3 + 4 2 + 6
(E) () = 2 3 + 9 2 + 7 6
8.) Sketch the following polynomials.xi
(A) Increasing from (, 1), decreasing from (1, ).
(B) Increasing from (, 3) (1, ), decreasing from (3,1).
9.) List the intervals upon which the polynomial is (A) increasing, (B) decreasing, and
then (C) approximate the extrema. Finally, (D) report the global maximum and
minimum.
(B)
(A)
Note that sketch means that your graph will not be perfect. It certainly cannot be perfect in this
instance, since you do not have any extrema.
xi
Unit three 80
10.) If a polynomial is decreasing, what is also true of its slope? If a polynomial is

increasing, what is also true of its slope?
11.) Is it possible that a mistake was made in the reading? We asserted that the
polynomial 3 2 2 5 + 6 was increasing on the interval (, 0.7] and then
decreasing on the interval [0.7,2.1]. But then we have a problem! How can a
function be both increasing and decreasing at the same point?
(A) If the function is neither increasing nor decreasing, what must it be doing?
(B) Fix the intervals from Example 4a and Example 4b.
12.) Consider the following two points, which are each on the same polynomial.
(A) Must the polynomial cross the -axis? How do you know?
(B) Now try to prove it. Well even give you a hint: Assume temporarily that it
does not cross the -axis.
(C) Look up the Intermediate Value Theorem, a theorem proved in Calculus.
How does it relate to the previous problem?
13.) Consider the following graph.
(A) If you were to estimate the slope of the polynomial anywhere on this interval
(, 0.2), would the slope be positive, negative, or zero?
2 Polynomials 81
(B) If you were to estimate the slope of the polynomial anywhere on the interval
(0.2, 1.5), would the slope be positive, negative, or zero?
(C) Is there anywhere on this polynomial where the slope will be zero?
(D) Using the previous problem, i. make a statement about the relationship
between a function that is increasing and its slope. Then ii. make a similar
statement about the relationship between a function that is decreasing and
its slope. Finally, iii. make a statement about the relationship between a
function that is neither decreasing nor increasing and its slope.
14.) Answer True or False.
(A) All linear functions are polynomials.
(B) All quadratic functions are polynomials.
(C) All constant functions (e.g., = 3) are polynomials.
(D) The domain of all polynomials is .
(E) The codomain of all polynomials is .
(F) The sum of two binomials will always result in another binomial.
82
Part two: Trigonometry

Trigonometry is the study of angles and their relationship to triangles. As youll soon see,
we attempt to relate the angles of a triangle to its sides. It is perhaps unsurprising that
this Part is closely related to Geometry well ask that famous question, What is the
relationship? What is interesting, however, is that this Part is also closely related to
Algebra. We will often work with equations and use algebra to change them into
something different.
This reveals one reason why Trigonometry is studied: It is, in some sense, a union of those
two great disciplines of Geometry and Algebra. It takes what you know in each discipline
and applies it, so that you can expand each.
This branch of mathematics is also studied at this point because it is a very important
Calculus concept. Calculus teachers and textbooks will assume that you can evaluate, e.g.,
sin 4 in seconds. You will also be expected to have deep insight into the graphs of the
Trigonometric functions. Since youll often be finding the area of a Trigonometric function
or, perhaps, determining its behavior as it goes to infinity.
Many students struggle with Trigonometry. This is mostly likely due to their deficiencies
in Geometry, Algebra, or both. We will give a small review of right triangle Geometry,
which we think will be helpful for you. But many of you may need to do some reading,
research, and practice on your own to get you up to par. Even when you are well-versed
in the pre-requisites, you must also be prepared to spend time practicing and mastering
new techniques as well.
Another issue that you must be aware of is that Trigonometry is very vertical. That is,
anything learned serves as a foundation for the next thing. If you dont learn something,
therefore, its nearly impossible to progress. The cornerstone of this Part is most assuredly
right triangles. You simply must master the special right triangles presented in the first
section. Failure to do so will nearly guarantee failure. As such, you must approach each
section with due diligence, and master any and all of the content.
1 Linear functions 83
Unit four
Right triangle Trigonometry
Greek for Trigonometry. Literally meaning triangle measuring.
Unit four 84
Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that looks at triangles, angles, and circles. Its a
complex and often rigorous art that requires intuition over skills. It is imperative to
develop and master the foundational knowledge of Trigonometry, because without it,
success is very difficult.
Although we assume the reader knows nothing of Trigonometry, it might be wise to have
some experience before beginning this Unit. Additionally, there are a few Geometry
theorems that are assumed to be known. If any of the following seems difficult, it is highly
recommended to consult the previous texts.
We begin by studying some basic Geometry. After this, we then introduce the basic
Trigonometric functions: Sine, cosine, and tangent.
Right triangles
Since the word Trigonometry literally means triangle measure, perhaps it is no surprise
that we begin working with triangles. Recall that a triangle is a polygon with three sides,
and that a right triangle is so called because one of its angles measures 90 (which we
define as a right angle). Thus, Figure 21 is a right triangle.
Figure 21
All right angles will have a box (like the one next to ) to denote the fact that they are 90. Recall that it is not good
enough to look like its 90 - it must have the box.
This simple object contains many profound truths, some of which you may have learned
in Geometry class. Perhaps the most well-known and profound truth is known as
Pythagoras Theorem. It has been known and used for millennia, contains more than 300
different proofs, and is used in just about every branch of mathematics. i
Pythagoras Theorem
Given a right triangle with lengths , , , where is the hypotenuse and , are the
legs, then
2 + 2 = 2 .
Even statistics has a use for Pythagoras Theorem!
1 Right triangles 85
We will usually prove each basic and foundational assertion in this course. However, we
believe that most will have already proved this theorem on their own. Therefore we will
not prove this assertion here.ii
Example 1
Find the length of the missing side in Figure 22.
Figure 22
Pictures are not (and never will be) drawn perfectly to scale.
The hypotenuse always opposite of the right angle is side length , which has a
length of 31. Thus we can say that , which represents the length of the hypotenuse in
Pythagoras Theorem, is 31. And since is one of our legs, we will let
= 11.
Given this, we now have
112 + 2 = 312
121 + 2 = 961.
This is now a simple algebra problem. Solving for we get
2 = 840
= 28.98.
Some right triangles are special; they come in knowable ratios. And if we know the ratios
of all three sides, then we do not need to use Pythagoras Theorem at all.
Consider the right triangle shown in Figure 23.
ii
The internet is a great resource. Use it.
Unit four 86
Figure 23
The tick marks on the two legs indicate that those two lines are the same length.
This is an isosceles triangle, which means that two of the side lengths are congruent.
Consequently, we can make the following assertion.
Isosceles right triangle side ratio
Given an isosceles right triangle with a leg of length , then the other leg has a length
of and the hypotenuse has a length of 2.
Proof.
Construct isosceles right triangle with leg = . Then = because we have an
isosceles right triangle.
Further, we know that the length of the hypotenuse is
2
+ =
by Pythagoras Theorem. But we know the length of both and , and so, by
substitution, we have
2
2 + 2 = .
Whence, after simplification, we have
2 2 =
= 2,
Which is what we wanted to show.
Example 2
Determine the lengths of the missing sides in Figure 24.
Figure 24
Applying the special triangle ratio, we have that = 15. Thus the other leg,
= 15,
and the hypotenuse,
= 152.
Keep in mind Pythagorass Theorem can still be used to determine the previous triangle,
although you would have to apply the fact that = .
Lets take a look at one more special right triangle ratio.
30 60 90 Right triangle ratio
Given a right triangle with angles of 30, 60, and 90, then the short leg has length ,
the longer leg has a length of 3, and the hypotenuse has a length of 2.
We will prove the previous result, but our proof will be a bit messy. Well look for a better
way to prove it as we continue through this Unit.
Proof.
To fully prove this assertion, we will need to prove three different possibilities:
Unit four 88
I.
A right triangle with legs of and 3,
II.
A right triangle with a leg of and a hypotenuse of 2, and
III.
A right triangle with a leg of 3 and a hypotenuse of 2.
We will prove the first point, then leave the final two proofs to the reader.
We are given a right triangle with lengths of and 3. Thus, using Pythagoras, we have
= , = 3
whence
2
2 + (3) = 2 .
Consequently, we get that
2 + 3 2 = 2
4 2 = 2
= 2,
which is what we wanted to show.
Example 3
Complete the right triangle shown in Figure 25.
Figure 25
To complete a right triangle means to determine all of its side lengths and angles
measures. In our case, we must determine one angle measure and the length of both legs.
We begin with the angle measure. Recall from Geometry that the sum of three angles in
a triangle is always 180. Thus our missing angle (which well call )iii is
= 180 (30 90)
It is my custom to name sides with lower-case Latin letters, , , , and then call their opposite angles
with lower-case Greek letters, , , , respectively. This is my own personal convention, and I welcome you
to develop your own.
iii
= 60.
Well use the ratios shown in our previous result to determine the side lengths. Recall
from Geometry that that the shortest side of a triangle will always be opposite the shortest
angle. Since, in a 30 60 90 triangle, the hypotenuse is always twice the length of
the shortest side (which well call ), we can write
14 = 2,
And hence
= 7.
To determine the one remaining side, which is the longer leg (since it is opposite the 60
angle), we simply multiply our previous result by 3. Hence our remaining side (which
well call ) is
= 73.
We show our final results in Figure 26.
Figure 26
Pythagoras Theorem allows us to determine the third side of a right triangle when only
given two other sides. This is very useful, but it leaves out some other information. For
example, what if we wanted to determine the angle measures when given two side
lengths? Unless we measure it, we wouldnt be able to tell. iv Or, what if we had only known
one of the sides of our triangle? Then we could not determine anything else.
This is one of the reasons that these special right triangles are so useful. Well use that
fact a myriad of times in this Part and well come back to it very shortly. Doubtless, of
course, you also see the advantage to solving a right triangle as quickly and efficiently as
we just demonstrated.
And even if we did measure it, we would have to draw our triangle perfectly to scale, and even then,
there is a degree of error in measurement.
iv
Unit four 90
Allow us to reiterate the importance of this section: You simply must become very adept
at solving special right triangles. We cannot overemphasize how foundational this is. You
will utilize this tool again and again in the forthcoming sections. Weve given you many
practice problems in this section, but you will need to take extra care to master it for
yourself.
Exercises
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)
In the following problems, assume that and are the lengths of legs, and that
is the length of a hypotenuse. Find the length of the missing side.
(A) = 12, = 15
(E) = 113, = 201
(B) = 1.5, = 2.3
(F) = 4.5, = 1
(C) = 24, = 8
(G) = 27, = 24
(D) = 12.5, = 19
(H) = 10, = 1
Assume you have a triangle with leg lengths of 5 and 7.
(A) Troy lets = 5 and = 7. Tina lets = 7 and = 5. Do they get the same
result for ?
(B) Prove that and are interchangeable when using Pythagoras Theorem.
Are all triangles possible? For example, can you have a right triangle with legs of
length 10 and 20 and a hypotenuse of 15? Why or why not?
Recall that all triangles angles add up to 180. With this in mind, complete the
following right triangles.
(A)
(C)
(B)
(D)
5.)
So far, weve seen that 2 + 2 = 2 is true for all real numbers that is, at least
one of the three lengths was irrational. Is it possible that all three lengths are
integers? Lets explore
(A) = 3, = 4, =?
6.)
7.)
(B) =? , = 12, = 13
(C) See if you can discover three other Pythagorean Triples.
The following table represents a small list of Pythagorean Triples. (Each row
contains the three side lengths of the triangle.)
5
Side lengths 3 4
10
Side lengths 6 8
Side lengths 9 12 15
(A) What pattern exists in this table?
(B) Use the pattern to list out three more Pythagorean Triples.
(C) How many Pythagorean Triples exist?
(D) These were all multiples of the smallest (and most common) Pythagorean
Triple, the 3,4,5 triangle.v Will this trick work with other distinct Pythagorean
Triples, like the 5,12,13 triangle?
Complete the following right triangles.
(A)
(F)
(B)
(G)
(C)
We highly encourage you to memorize the 3,4,5 triangle. It pops up enough that memorizing it will save
you some considerable time.
v
Unit four 92
(D)
(H)
(E)
8.)
As a matter of convention, we often rewrite any ratios that have an irrational

number in their denominator such that the numerator is entirely rational. For
example,
1
1 2 2
=
= .
2
2 2 2
In most cases, this is purely by convention. One reason for doing this is that you
will only need to memorize one set of numbers when it comes to specific Trig
ratios.
(A) What is the denominator in the example shown above? And what is the
1
numerator and denominator of the number multiplied by ?
2
(B) What is
(C) Based on your answer to (B), has the value of
1
2
changed after the
multiplication? Use a calculator if youre not convinced.

(D) Use the above example to rationalize the following denominators.
3
3
i.
v.
ii.
iii.
iv.
9.)
3
4
2
2
3
vi.
vii.
viii.
4
5
22
24
12
3
10
Answer True or False.

(A) A 45 45 90 triangle can never have three side lengths which are all
whole numbers.
10.)
11.)
12.)
13.)
14.)
(B) The shortest side of a triangle is always opposite of the shortest angle.
(C) The hypotenuse is always the longest side of a triangle.
(D) A triangle can never have more than one 90 angle.
(E) There is an infinite amount of Pythagorean Triples.
In your own words, describe the shortcut to completing an isosceles right triangle.
In your own words, describe the shortcut to completing a 30 60 90 triangle.
Will you forget these special triangle ratios?
Where will you look if you forget them?
Youre sure you wont forget them??
The Sine, Cosine, and Tangent functions
We used Geometry in the previous section (and we will frequently fall back on it) and it
had some good uses, but in this section we will discover a new set of tools that will allow
us to do even more.
More importantly, though, is that well be able to relate angle measures and side lengths.
Certainly, this will allow us to calculate more than we could previously, but we will also
find a shred of truth that we felt was there but couldnt quite ascertain.
To begin with, well define a function that takes an acute angle as its input and returns a
ratio of two side lengths.
The Sine function
The Sine function accepts as an input an acute angle of a right triangle, and then returns
the ratio of the side opposite to the angle to the hypotenuse. Symbolically,
sin = .
We could also state that
sin = .
Note that our current definition only accepts acute angles of a right triangle.
Unit four 94
Example 1a
Write the ratio of the sine of angle and given Figure 27.
Figure 27
Lets start with the sine of angle , which is denoted as sin . This is just a ratio so all we
need to do is create a fraction. Since weve defined this function as the side opposite to
the hypotenuse, we just need to write
sin =
3
,
6.7
Since 3 is the side opposite and 6.7 is the hypotenuse. It really is that simple!
The sine of angle is handled the same way, except notice that the side opposite is
different than the side opposite of . In this case we have
sin =
6
.
6.7
Whatever angle is, when we input it into the sine function, we receive as an output
6.7
The same is true for ; when we input into the sine function, we receive as an output
6
6.7
Of course, that hasnt really revealed to us any new information. Lets try a problem that
teaches us something, shall we?
Example 1b
Evaluate sin 30 given Figure 28.
Figure 28
2 The Sine, Cosine, and Tangent functions 95
To answer this, we simply need to set up our ratio. Based on what weve been given, we
have
sin 30 =
2
.
hypotenuse
But what is the length of the hypotenuse? We can easily find that out using what we
learned in the previous section.i Since 2 is the length of the short leg, then the hypotenuse
must be twice that length. Hence we conclude that they hypotenuse has a length of 4.
Therefore
sin 30 =
2 1
= .
4 2
So what did we find out? Well, if you input 30 into the sine function, you should get out
1
. But theres a very important question to answer: Will this only happen when the short
leg of a 30 60 90 triangle has a length of 2? Put another way, does the size of the
triangle play a role in determining the result of sin 30?
To answer this question, we will do as all mathematicians do: We will explore, we will
experiment, we will play! Well make a new triangle with an angle of 30 that has a different
size and observe what happens.
Example 1c
Evaluate sin 30 using Figure 29.
Figure 29
This is exactly what we mean we say that you will need to be very adept at the previous section. This is
often how well calculate our Trig functions by setting up a special right triangle, and filling in the rest of
the information. Therefore, well state it again: Learn the previous section!
i
Unit four 96
We apply the same procedure. In this case, the hypotenuse must be 20. Since the sine
opposite
ratio is hypotenuse, and the side length opposite to 30 is 10, we conclude that
sin 30 =
10 1
= .
20 2
Now wait just a minute, thats very interesting! Why did a different size triangle give us
the same result? This is most unexpected!
Indeed, much of mathematics was discovered in the same way. It starts with a simple
curiosity, and then a conscious effort to poke and prod whatever you have until it gives
up some profound truth.ii Think of math like a piata, which contains so much delicious
truth. But the only way to get at it is to swing at it a few times (and oftentimes this
swinging is truly difficult!).
1
In this case, the profound truth seems to be that sin 30 = 2 no matter what size triangle
we have. Thus we share the following very important theorem.
The dependency of sin
The output of sin only depends on . The size of the triangle is irrelevant.
There is, of course, a reason that sin does not depend on the size of the triangle, and
well briefly explore this in the Exercises.
This profound truth will allow us to construct any size triangle we wish when we go about
determining the sine of any angle. This is useful, since some choices will be easier than
others. In fact, it is this very fact that will motivate our work in the next unit. Lets briefly
explore this idea.
Example 1d
Evaluate sin 45.
Based on what we just learned, we should create a 45 45 90 triangle, and then
create a ratio using the lengths of the opposite side and the hypotenuse. It would be fair
to ask what triangle, exactly, you should create. We start with the basics in Figure 30.
And this process of experimentation and verification can be as quick and painless as we just witnessed,
or it could take several years. Or centuries. But its the journey that counts, right?
ii
Figure 30
Weve drawn some isosceles right triangle. Now how should we label the angles and the
side lengths? Certainly, the two non-right angles must be 45 (since they are both equal
and must equal 90), but what about the side lengths? We could, for example, start with
the legs, and label each, say, 10. Once weve made that decision, we must conclude that
the hypotenuse is 102.iii We draw this in Figure 31.
Figure 31
Theres nothing wrong with the previous picture, but it also isnt the best. Should we
choose a small number? Or, shouldnt we choose some number where we wont have any
simplification?
Because of this, why dont we let the legs be of length 1.iv Then we have Figure 32.
See the previous section.

You may not see that this is the simplest number. Thats fine! This is something you find out through
experimentation and exploration.
iii
iv
Unit four 98
Figure 32
To calculate sin 45, then, we just need to set up our ratio accordingly.v We have
sin 45 =
1
2
What if we had chosen the original triangle, where the legs had a length of 10? Then we
would have had
sin 45 =
10
102
1
2
Which is the same answer, although it was one less step to get to the answer. In future
sections, well be picking a very particular triangle to work with when we want to evaluate
some Trig function. We are just being clever, and trying to save ourselves some time
although this is not mandatory, and you are free to pick any triangle you like.vi
A single step may seem insignificant, but since well be going back to these two special
triangles again and again,vii youll want to streamline the process as much as possible.
Regardless, we now have another value or ratio to add to our list, which youll work on
completing in the Exercises.
One more note before we continue on: Most textbooks will tell you that sin 45 =
2
.
2
Are
they wrong? And where did they get that answer from? And why would they bother
writing it like that? Good questions!
Let us now move on to the Cosine function. By its very name, we can infer that it is related
to the sine function, and as well soon see this is very much the case.
Will it matter which 45 angle we choose? See for yourself!

We will reiterate this point in future sections.
vii
And again!
v
vi
The Cosine function
The Cosine function accepts as an input an acute angle of a right triangle, and then
returns the ratio of the side adjacent to the angle to the hypotenuse. Symbolically,
cos = .
cos = .
The Cosine function is very similar to the Sine function. It, too, accepts an angle as an
input. But this time it returns as an output the side length adjacent viii to over the
hypotenuse. This again has only been defined for acute angles in a right triangle.
Example 2a
Write the Cosine ratio of given Figure 33.
Figure 33
All we need to do is make a fraction of the length of the adjacent leg over the hypotenuse.
This is simple: We get
Note that adjacent means touching. And while, yes, the hypotenuse is touching , what we really mean
is the adjacent leg.
viii
Unit four 100
4
cos = .
5
It is important to note that these ratios will only work with right triangles. Was the above
triangle a right triangle? It might look that way, but how can we be sure?ix Up to this point,
weve always seen the box at the right angle. Here we dont have one so is our result
incorrect?
This is an excellent question and one you must be aware of. Pythagoras Theorem tells us
that for any right triangle,
2 + 2 = 2 .
The converse of Pythagoras Theorem that is, if 2 + 2 = 2 then you have a right
triangle is also true. Since
32 + 42 = 52 ,
we can conclude we have a right triangle. Thus the aforementioned conclusion (that
4
cos = 5) is correct.
Example 2b
List out the Sine and Cosine ratios for angles and in Figure 34.
Figure 34
Remember to first verify that you have a right triangle. Since

52 + 122 = 132 ,
we can move on to the next step.
For example, if the unnamed angle, call it , is equal to 89.99 (which is really close to 90) then our Trig
ratios are inaccurate. We must be positive we have an actual right triangle; it is not good enough to
almost be a right triangle.
ix
Let us deal with first. Our ratios for are

sin =
5
13
cos =
12
.
13
sin =
12
13
cos =
5
.
13
and
Then, with respect to , we have
and
But isnt there something peculiar about our results? Look again is there anything that
you can see?
Why is it that
sin =
5
= cos ?
13
sin =
12
= cos ?
13
Or that
This is a note-worthy find! Why should two different functions (with different inputs)
produce the same output?
Before we formalize our next theorem, let us consider the relationship that exists between
the two non-right angles in a right triangle.
First, let us (in Figure 35) draw some right triangle.
Figure 35
Unit four 102
Let us label the two non-right angles as and . Is there some relationship between
them?
We now need some sort of starting point so lets think back to other relationships in
triangles. The biggest one, perhaps, is the theorem that the sum of all three angles in a
triangle are 180. So lets begin with this, play with it a bit, and then see if we cant uncover
something of note.x
Using the previous relationship, we would then have
+ + = 180.
But we know = 90, since it is a right angle (and by definition, all right angles equal 90).
Substituting this in, we see that
+ = 90.
This yields us one important relationship: and are complementary. This seems
benign But let us consider the word Cosine for a moment. It is actually a shortened form
of the term Complement of the sine. Wait a moment Is it a coincidence that we just
showed that and are complementary and the Cosine function has in its very name the
word complement? Most certainly not!xi Weve discovered some profound truth! We
now provide a formal proof.
Proof.
We want to show that the two non-right angles of a right triangle must be
complementary, that is, that their sum must be 90.
Construct right with right angle .
Of course, our exploration may turn out fruitless. Thats OK! Believe it or not, finding out what doesnt
work can also very helpful. Additionally, dont get discouraged if youre not correct the first time very
few mathematicians are!
xi
Which doesnt mean Never. It just means unlikely. Some may scoff at the simple logic we used here,
but keep in mind were showing a process of coming to an informal conclusion. You may wish the
explanation was more formal, and if thats the case, I commend you and encourage you to write your own
textbook.
x
Because the sum of all three angles in a triangle is 180, we know that + + = 180.
But = 90, since (by definition) all right angles are equal to 90. Then, by substitution,
we have that + 90 + = 180. Using the subtraction property of equality reveals that
+ = 90, which is precisely what the word complementary means.
We have thus shown what we wanted to show.
With this in mind, let us formalize the previous.
The relationship between the Sine and Cosine functions.
The two non-right angles in a right triangle are always complementary.
Example 2c
Evaluate cos 30.
We go through the same procedure found in Examples 1c and 1d. We first draw a right
trianglexii (Figure 36).
Figure 36
We chose to make our hypotenuse 1 here. There are a few other nice choices, as well.
Based on the triangle that we chose, we have that

cos =
adjacent
.
1
Remember that we are free to draw any right triangle we want. Well, as long as is it has a 30 angle,
anyway.
xii
Unit four 104
But what is the length of the leg adjacent to ? We can figure this out because this is a
special right triangle, viz., it is a 30 60 90 triangle. Since our hypotenuse is 1, the
1
short leg (not marked) must measure 2. Then, to find the long leg, we multiply
Thus the long leg, , must be
3
.
2
Since =
3
,
2
1
2
by 3.
we conclude that
3
3
cos = 2 = .
1
2
We have one more Trigonometric function to uncover. Well define it here, but in the
exercises you will derivexiii it yourself.
The Tangent function
The Tangent function accepts as an input an acute angle, and then returns the ratio of
the side opposite to the angle to the side adjacent to the angle. Symbolically,
tan = .
tan = .
The Tangent function appears a bit different from the Sine and Cosine function, and, to
be sure, there are some key differences. But youll also discover in the exercises that it is
closely related to the Sine and Cosine functions! Additionally as youll soon see we
work with it in the same manner.
Example 3a
Write the Sine, Cosine, and Tangent ratios using of the triangle shown in Figure 37.
What this means is that youll take something you already know, work with it, and come out with the
function were about to define! Obviously this is the better way to do it, but we dont want to spoil your
fun.
xiii
Figure 37
All we need to do is substitute. The only problem we have is that we dont have a length
for the hypotenuse. No matter this is easily found. We use Pythagoras Theorem and
find that the hypotenuse must have a length of 8.54. With this in mind, we have
sin =
8
,
8.54
cos =
3
,
8.4
and
8
tan = .
3
Example 3b
Evaluate tan 45.
We follow the same procedure as Examples 2c, 1c, and 1d. We create any size right
triangle with a 45 angle, as in Figure 38.
Figure 38
Recall that any 45 45 90 triangle will also be isosceles. Both legs, therefore, are also congruent.
Now all we need to do is write our ratio. We have

tan 45 =
Thus we conclude that tan 45 is 1.
1
= 1.
1
Unit four 106
Usually, evaluating a Trig function given any input is very difficult to do. Of course, in
todays world, we have ready access to calculators, which are very good at the tedious
process of approximating, so it isnt too difficult to evaluate sin 2, for example. Youll
need to have a calculator on hand.
Example 4a
Determine the length of given Figure 39.
Figure 39
As we did extensively in Geometry, we should first establish some relationship. For

example, we know (from Pythagoras) that 2 + 2 = 2 . In this case, however, we dont
know or , and so Pythagoras Theorem yields us no help. Since we have been given an
angle measure and one side length, it stands to reason that we should use a Trig function.
We have three different choices (Sine, Cosine, and Tangent), so which one should we use?
In this example, we will try all of them and show you that there is really only one good
choice.xiv First, let us try the Sine function. Given that sin =
opposite
, we have (after
hypotenuse
substitution)
sin 20 =
.
45
If we try the Cosine function, we have

cos 20 =
adjacent
?
= ,
hypotenuse 45
where the question mark represents the unknown length of the adjacent.
If we try the Tangent function, we would have
tan 20 =
opposite
= ,
adjacent ?
where, again, the question mark represents the same unknown length of the adjacent.
xiv
This wont always be the case. Sometimes there will be two or three good choices.
Based on what we just saw, the Sine is the function we will choose. This is because we
have an equation,
,
45
sin 20 =
which can be solved for the missing variable . If we used the Cosine function, we could
find the length of the adjacent, but that would not get us the length of .xv The Tangent
function is even worse; we would have two variables in our equation, which would put us
in an untenable position.
To solve this equation, we should evaluate the left side, and then get the variable all by
itself. Using a calculator, we find that sin 20 0.342. Hence
0.342 =
45
15.39 .
The key to these problems is to identify the correct relationship. Then its just a matter of
substituting and solving, both of which are basic Algebra skills.
Example 4b
Determine the length of given Figure 40.
Figure 40
We face a similar problem. Here the best relationship to use is Tangent, since we can then
form the equation
tan 50 =
7.8
.
Then we just solve the equation whence

That being said, we could find the length of after we find the length of the adjacent. Its not an ideal
process though, as we have to go through the entire procedure again, or, alternatively, use Pythagoras
Theorem. Either way, its much more efficient to use the Sine function.
xv
Unit four 108
6.54.
Example 4c
Complete the right triangle shown in Figure 41.
Figure 41
Recall that when we are asked to complete a right triangle, it just means that we should
find out the length of every side and the measure of every angle.xvi
We have some freedom in how we approach this problem, but there are also some
limitations.xvii Let us first find . To do this, we must ask that ever-popular question: What
is the relationship? In this case, we couldxviii use the Sine function to get
12
0.85
12
sin 58 =
10.18.
Now that we have , we can easily find by using Pythagoras Theorem. We can also find
easily, since the sum of the three angles must be 180. Hence
6.35, = 32.
Before you begin practicing these concepts, there are three other Trig functions which
exist. These are rarely used by themselves, but they will be of some importance later. We
mention them here for the sake of completion.
That makes a total of six things were looking for, although we must be given at least three of them to
determine the other three.
xvii
For example, could we find any of the sides using Pythagoras Theorem?
xviii
We say could because we could also find the length of by using the Cosine function. Could we use
the Tangent function here? Why or why not?
xvi
The reciprocal Trigonometric functions
The Cosecant function:
csc =
The Secant function:
sec =
The Cotangent function:
cot =
The name reciprocal Trig functions is very apropos. See if you can find out why.
Exercises
1.)
Write the ratios of the Sine, Cosine, and Tangent function (for both and ) given
the following triangles.
(C)
(A)
(D)
2.)
(B)
Our next goal is to create a table for the Sine, Cosine, and Tangent functions. First,
however, well only focus on those really nice angles which produce special right
triangles.
(A) What are the really nice angles of which we speak? (Hint: Think of the
angles seen in all of our special right triangles.)
Unit four 110
3.)
(B) Draw any two triangles with the information from (A). Make sure you label
the sides and angles.
(C) Now create a table of values for the Sine, Cosine, and Tangent functions.
Use (and expand) the incomplete table below as a model.

1
30
2
45
2
2
We have not yet defined sin 0 and cos 0, so lets do that now. Consider the
triangle below, where is a very small angle.
Note that, in the above case, sin will be relatively small (which you should
verify).
4.)
5.)
(A) What will happen to the length of the side opposite of as the angle of
decreases?
(B) Finally, imagine that = 0. What will the length of the side opposite to
be?
(C) Given your answer for (B), what must sin 0 be equal to?
(D) Now lets consider the Cosine function. Already, the length of the side
adjacent to and the length of the hypotenuse are very close. What is cos
given the picture?
(E) As gets close to zero, what will happen to the length of the hypotenuse in
relation to the length of the adjacent side? (Hint: Try drawing smaller and
smaller angles for )
(F) Given your answer for (E), what must cos 0 be equal to?
(G) Verify your results for (C) and (F) with a calculator.
Now lets define the results of sin 90 and cos 90.
(A) We should try to use a similar approach as the previous problem. Draw a
right triangle where is close to 90, but not quite that large.
(B) Based on your picture, what will sin 90 and cos 90 be?
(C) Verify your results with a calculator.
Create a table of values for all three Trig functions from 0 to 90. Increment each
row by 5 (so your first number is 0, then 5, then 10). You should use a
calculator for this problem.
6.)
Complete the following right triangles.
(A)
(D)
(E)
(B)
7.)
8.)
9.)
(C)
(F)
The previous concepts can also be applied to quasi-real scenarios.
(A) Benny leans a ladder against a 24 foot wall, so that the top of the ladder
touches the top of the wall perfectly. The angle that is created with the
ground and the ladder is 70. Determine the length of the ladder.
(B) Building A is shorter than Building B. To determine how much shorter, the
mayor lays a tape measure from Building A to Building B and sees that the
slant height is 45 m. Then he also figures out that the angle between the
tape measure and Building B is 62. How much shorter is Building A than
Building B?
(C) A water slide is housed inside a tower that is 50 ft tall. The water slide travels
in a straight line down toward the ground, where it hits the ground at a 24
angle. How much space is needed on the ground for this slide?
(D) A trees shadow is 10 ft long. The angle that the sun creates with the flat
ground is 80. Determine the height of the tree.
Create your own quasi-real situation, similar to one of the previous problems, that
requires Trigonometry to solve.
Look at the table of values you created for the Sine function.
(A) What is the maximum value of sin ?
Unit four 112
10.)
11.)
12.)
13.)
14.)
(B) What is the minimum value of sin ?

(C) Are those maximum and minimum values true for any value of ? Try
sin 500 or sin(100) to verify.
(D) Describe any patterns you see with the Sine function.
Look at the table of values you created for the Cosine function.
(A) What is the maximum value of cos ?
(B) What is the minimum value of cos ?
(C) Are those maximum and minimum values true for any value of ?
(D) Describe any patterns you see with the Cosine function.
Look at the table of values you created for the Tangent function.
(A) What is the maximum value of tan ?
(B) What is the minimum value of tan ?
(C) Are those maximum and minimum values true for any value of ?
(D) Describe any patterns you see with the Tangent function.
Imagine for a moment that you measure a triangle in yards, and you find that the
two legs measure 3 and 4 yards, while the hypotenuse measures 5 yards. You send
this information to your friend who lives in a European country that normally uses
meters instead.
(A) Calculate sin using the initial correct measurement that used yards.
(B) Now convert yards into meters (round to the nearest hundredth). Calculate
sin in meters.
(C) Assume that when you sent this triangle to your friend, you did not label
your measurements. So your friend assumes you mean 3 meters, 4 meters,
and so on. Calculate sin with this incorrect information.
(D) Was your answer any different in (A), (B), or (C)? What does that tell you
about Sine and Cosine ratios (viz., do units matter)?
One popular mnemonic device for remembering the different Trig ratios is SOH
CAH TOA. Explain what this means and how it helps you to remember how to set
up your ratios. (If you dont know it, look it up)
Let us now derive the Tangent function. To accomplish this, we only need the Sine
and Cosine function.
(A) When deriving things, it is often useful to rewrite them in their most basic
terms. Before we can do that, however, let us draw a right triangle. Choose
any non-right angle and call it . Then label the sides (according to your
choice of ) as opposite, adjacent, and hypotenuse.
(B) Using your picture, write out the Sine and Cosine ratios.
(C) Is there any way we can take our Sine and Cosine ratio and turn them into
opposite
our Tangent ratio? Recall that Tangent is adjacent . Try adding, subtracting,
multiplying, or dividing them.
(D) Why is it better to derive the tangent function than to define it? Put another
way, what issues would you run into if you just defined everything in math?
Relationships between the Trig functions
In our final section, well look at how the three main Trig functions are related to one
another. We already know a few relationships, viz. that the Cosine function is the
complement to the sine function. So it is fair to believe that there are other relationships
that exist, and in this section, we will tease them out. We will spend our time deriving and
formalizing many of the basic and fundamental identities in this section. An identity is a
different way to write an equivalent statement. For example, 2 + 2 = 4 is an identity; 2 + 2
is simply a different name for 4.
Before we embark on learning some identities, let us first look at a more basic question:
Does knowing one Trig ratio lead us to find any of the others? Put another way, if we
know one Trig ratio, can we find all of the other?
Example 1a
3
If sin = 5, write the other six Trig ratios.

Let us first draw a picture. Because the Sine ratio is the side opposite to to the
hypotenuse, it makes sense to draw Figure 42.
Figure 42
As before, this isnt the only triangle that you could draw.
This drawing makes our life much easier. Now what well do is determine the other ratios.
Starting with Cosine, we would have
cos =
adjacent
.
5
Unit four 114
But what is the length of the adjacent side? This can be easily figured out with Pythagoras
Theorem, although, in this case, we recognize that we have a Pythagorean Triple, and thus
the adjacent side is 4. With this in mind, the rest of the Trig ratios are elementary. They
are
cos =
4
,
5
tan =
3
,
4
5
,
3
csc =
sec =
5
,
4
4
cot = .
3
Example 1b
5
If tan = 7, write the other six Trig ratios.

You should, again, start with a picture.i We draw the triangle shown in Figure 43.
Figure 43
Before we write out any of our ratios, how about we find the length of the missing side,
which in the present case is the hypotenuse. Since we do not recognize this as a
Pythagorean Triple, we go ahead and use Pythagoras Theorem. We find that
52 + 72 = 2
= 74. ii
With this value, we can now write all six ratios:
sin =
i
ii
5
74
cos =
7
cot = .
5
7
74
tan =
5
,
7
csc =
Sensing a pattern yet?

You should always leave this number in exact form. Simplify it if you can.
74
,
5
sec =
74
,
7
3 Relationships between the Trig functions 115
Note that it isnt necessary to rationalize the denominators, although it might be good
practice for you to do so. Also note that some textbooks and standardized tests will
require you to do this, so make sure you know how to do this.
Example 1c
Given that sin = , find all six Trig ratios.
This seems more difficult than the previous problems. Do not let first appearances
intimidate you you just need to draw a picture. The only issue with our picture is that
we only seem to have the length of one side, . But recall that = 1, so we can draw our
picture as seen in Figure 44.
Figure 44
So whats the length of the adjacent side? We can figure this out using Pythagoras
Theorem, which, unsurprisingly, is exactly what we did in the previous Examples. We let
be the length of the adjacent side, and set up our equation like so:
2 + 2 = 12 .
We will let you finish this Example in the Exercises.
We have seen how we can relate one Trig ratio to the others. We will next relate the
functions themselves.
A good starting point is to begin with what we know, and build from there. We know that
(1)
cos = sin iff + = 90.
This is a fine relationship, but lets make this more useful. One issue is that there are two
variables, so lets try to simplify that statement.
Unit four 116
Example 2a
Rewrite (1) in terms of .iii
We are given that cos = sin iff + = 90. We can thus make a substitution. Since
+ = 90
then we know that
= 90
and hence
cos = sin(90 ).
Example 2b
Given cos 20, what is the equivalent cofunction?
To answer this, we need only use the previous result. In the present case, = 20 and
hence
cos 20 = sin(90 20) = sin 70.
The answer were looking for is sin 70. A calculator can quickly verify that indeed,
cos 20 = sin 70.
Do recognize that the cofunction of Cosine is Sine, and vice versa. Which Trig function is
the cofunction of Tangent? Or how about Cosecant? Is there an easy way to tell?
Example 2c
Write all of the cofunctions identities.
We will not write all of them, but instead, will write one of them and leave the rest to the
reader.
sin = cos(90 ).
Other cofunction identities exist, and you will have to write them out in your exercises.
The cofunction identities can be useful, but mostly they just highlight the relationship
between the Sine and Cosine function (and the other co-Trig functions).
iii
In other words, there should only be one variable, .
Let us now explore what happens when we square the Sine or Cosine functions. First of
all, if we write sin 2 there could be a bit of confusion.iv So, if we mean (sin )(sin ), we
will write
sin2 .
If we mean sin( 2 ), where the angle is squared but not the function, well write it as
sin(2 ).
Example 3
Evaluate sin2 given Figure 45.
Figure 45
Recall that sin2 = (sin )(sin ), and since sin = 5, we have, by substitution,
3 3
( )( )
5 5
9
.
25
Youll work to explore squared Trig functions in the exercises.
Now lets see what happens when we add two squared functions.
Lets try sin2 45 + cos 2 45. Since sin 45 =
2
,
2
sin2 45 =
This is also true of cos2 45, since cos 45 =
2
.
2
we can conclude that

2 1
= .
4 2
Thus we have
sin2 45 + cos 2 45 =
1 1
+ = 1.
2 2
This is quite nice. Will this always be true?

iv
Are we squaring the angle or squaring the function sin ?
Unit four 118
Example 4
Evaluate sin2 60 + cos2 60.
From the previous section, we have memorized that sin 60 =
1
3 v
.
2
Thus sin2 60 = 4. We
also have memorized cos 60 = 2, and thus cos2 60 = 4. We thusly conclude that
sin2 60 + cos 2 60 =
3 1
+ = 1.
4 4
But thats strange Why have we gotten the same answer? And why is that answer so
pleasant? Have we stumbled upon some remarkable truth?
Pythagorean identity
For any angle ,
sin2 + cos2 = 1.
Well revisit this identity in graphical format, but that will be after we reveal the Unit Circle.
It is there that we will prove this identity, as it is very easy to do when we view it graphically.
It would be safe to ask if this is the only such relationship between cofunctions. For
example, is tan2 + cot 2 also equal to one? You will explore that in the exercises.
In 2, we briefly introduced the Reciprocal Trig functions, such as Secant. These are
defined as the reciprocals of their respective Trig function. In case, for example, we want
to find the ratio of the hypotenuse to the opposite, we would then use the Cosecant
function. And since
csc =
hypotenuse
opposite
sin =
opposite
,
hypotenuse
while
we recognize that these are reciprocals (thus the name).

Recall that one way we can write a reciprocal is to put it under one. Lets put that into
symbols. If is some number, and we want to find its reciprocal, we can just evaluate (or
And if you havent memorized it, thats ok too. You will then need to construct a 30 60 90 triangle
and write out the ratio, then simplify what you have.
v

1
leave, if we prefer) . So if we want to find the reciprocal of the number , we just need to
1
evaluate 3 , which is 3, as you should verify.

4
With this in mind we can now define the Reciprocal identities.

Reciprocal identities
1
1
,
csc =
csc
sin
Of course, there are other reciprocal identities, but you will write the remainder in your
exercises.
sin =
Let us now put these identities to use.

Example 5a
sin
cos
Simplify csc + sec .

The key to this problem is to rewrite this expression into something easier. So what well
want to do is identify some aspect of the expression that can be rewritten. In this case,
lets try rewriting csc and see what we get. Since
sin
1
= sin
csc
csc
and
1
csc
= sin , we can say that

sin
= sin2 .
csc
This same procedure will reveal that

cos
= cos2 .
sec
So we can rewrite each addend in our original problem and we end up with
sin2 + cos 2 ,
which isnt too bad. But we can rewrite that expression as something even more simple!
Since that is a Pythagorean identity and is equal to one, our final result is simply
1.
How did we know to change csc and sec ? Nothing but intuition in other words, when
we work with these sorts of problems, there is no prescribed method to simplify the
expression. Experience is a big help, but do not underestimate planning and patience,
Unit four 120
either. And of course, you must be well-versed in the various identities that weve learned
so far. Youll find that if you dont know the identities very well that simplifying expressions
in this manner will be very difficult. No matter how good you become at these identities,
however, be prepared to spend some time with them. Even very good mathematicians
sometimes struggle with these, so dont feel incompetent if you dont get the answer right
away.
One rule of thumb which well reiterate to you: You will most likely want to convert any
Trig functions into Sine or Cosine, if possible. We have many identities which work with
Sine and Cosine, but only a few that work with the reciprocal Trig functions. This isnt
always the case, but its usually the best place to start.
Example 5b
sin
Simplify cos .
You should have already found this out in the Exercises in the previous section, but this
one is so important that going over it a second time will be helpful to you. Note that the
procedure we use here will very rarely be used by you in your Exercises. But again, the
result is so important we feel it necessary to include.
One way we can rewrite sin and cos is in terms of their ratios. But ratios require a
triangle, right? And we dont have one, so what shall we do? Well, how about we make
one? Consider Figure 46, which will allow us to find the ratios of our two Trig functions.
Figure 46
This isnt the only way you can draw this triangle, either. The key is just to draw one.
With this in mind, we can now substitute, since sin =
sin
= .
cos
and cos = , we have
Recall that one can divide two fractions by multiplying by the reciprocal. Thus we have

.

But is one, and therefore the values cancel out. This leaves us with
This is a ratio! And in fact, it is no more than the Tangent functions ratio. Thus we conclude
that
sin
= tan .
cos
You will use this identity many, many times, and so we formalize it below.
Quotient identity
tan =
Example 5c
sin
cos
Simplify cos tan .

Following our rule of thumb, lets convert everything into Sines and Cosines. To do this,
we simply rename tan using our identity above. We then have
cos
sin
cos
whence we see that the Cosines cancel. This simply leaves us with
sin .
This process of simplifying expressions will be formalized in Unit six. Until then, the goal
is to introduce you to this kind of thinking.
Exercises
1.)
Use the given Trig ratio to write out all six Trig ratios in each problem.
12
10
(A) sin = 13
(E) cos = 13
4
(B) tan = 3
(C) cos = 25
1
(D) sin = 4
(F)
tan = 6
7
(G) csc = 2
(H) sec =
10
7
Unit four 122
2.)
3.)
4.)
Let us complete Example 1c. If sin = , what are the six Trig ratios?
Now let tan = .
(A) What are the six Trig ratios given this?
(B) Compare this answer to the previous.
In Example 1c, we let the length of the hypotenuse of the triangle to equal 1. Is
that OK? Why dont we let the hypotenuse equal , to allow for any and all
possibilities? Now suppose sin = , and the lengths of your triangle are , , and
, with the hypotenuse equaling .

(A) What are the six Trig ratios?
(B) Compare this with the previous two results.
5.) Given the Trig functions and angle measure, write the equivalent cofunction.
(A) sin 30
(F) tan 14
(B) cos 10
(G) csc 47
(C) cot 7
(H) sin 25
(D) sec 64
(I) tan( + )
(E) cos 31
(J) sin
6.) Write out all of the cofunction identities, including the ones we discovered in the
reading. Hint: There are six of them.
7.) Now write out all of the reciprocal identities. Hint: There are six of them.
8.) Evaluate the following.
(A) sin2 30
(F) sin2 60
(B) cos2 30
(G) cos 2 60
(C) tan2 30
(H) tan2 60
(D) cos2 45
(I) sin(302 )
2
(E) tan 45
(J) cos 2
9.) Write out a table of values for sin2 , cos2 , and tan2 , starting at = 0, going up
by 5 each row, and ending at = 90. You will need a calculator for this Exercise.
10.) Use your results from the previous Exercise to answer the following questions.
(A) What is the maximum value of sin2 , cos 2 , and tan2 ?
(B) What is the minimum value of sin2 , cos 2 , and tan2 ?
(C) Are there any similarities or differences between sin2 and sin ? Compare
your results from the previous section.
11.) One of the most important relationships in Trigonometry is the Pythagorean
Identity we discussed in the reading. Write this identity down now.
12.) Evaluate the following.
(A) sin2 60 + cos 2 60

(C) sin2 ( 2 ) + cos2 ( 2 )
(B) cos2 30 + sin2 30
(D) sin2 (3 + ) + cos 2 (3 + )
13.) It is often helpful to rewrite sin2 or cos 2 . Use the Pythagorean Identity to rewrite
sin2 and cos 2 .
14.) Simplify the following.
(A) tan csc

(B) (sin + cos )2
15.) Are there any other Pythagorean Identities? To find this out, use a calculator and
try the following for different values of .
(A) sec 2 + csc 2
(B) tan2 + cot 2
(C) There are two other Pythagorean Identities. First, using the previous two,
guess what they might be. Then, if you cant figure it out, look them up and
write them down now. Well discover how to arrive at these results when we
have some better tools.
(A) sin = cos( 90)
(B) sin2 + cos2 = 1 iff + = 90
(C) sin2 = sin
(D) sin2 is sometimes negative.vi
vi
Assume .
Unit four 124
Unit five
Radians and the Unit Circle
Degrees are fine for everyday measurements. But Trigonometry marks a turning point
in math, when the student lifts his gaze from the everyday towards larger, more distant
ideas. You begin exploring basic relationships, deep symmetries, the kinds of patterns
that make the universe tick. And to navigate that terrain, you need a notion of angles
thats more natural, more fundamental, than slicing up the circle into an arbitrary
number of pieces. The number , strange though it may seem, lies at the heart of
mathematics. The number 360 doesnt. Clinging to that Babylonian artifact will only
distract you and obscure the elegant truths youre searching for.
Ben Orlin
1 Radian measure 125
Up to this point, weve measured all of our angles using degrees. In this unit, well
endeavor to find a different and perhaps better method of measuring angles. Then well
use that to graph points in a new type of plane. Finally, after this, we introduce perhaps
the most important thing in Trigonometry: The Unit Circle.
Radian measure
Degrees were invented millennia ago, perhaps by the ancient peoples living in modern
day Iraq. Knowing the origins of this unit could shed some light on its usefulness, and
whether there isnt a more useful unit to use.
There are various theories as to why degrees were used and why they are the way that
are. Almost certainly, however, it has to do with a circle. As with anything, its often useful
to consider portions or fractions of the whole.i The ancients chose to chop the circle up
into 360 equal portions, calling the angle created by each portion a degree, as (partially)
shown in Figure 47.
Figure 47
Each of the individual spokes above measures a single degree. If we were to continue creating these spokes, there would
be 360 of them.
Why 360? Perhaps because it is a nice number with many factors. So cutting a circle in
half gives you a nice number of 180, in thirds 120, fourths 90, and so on. This means
This is why, for example, we have yards. Could you imagine measuring things if the smallest unit we
could get was miles? And even that isnt enough, which is why continue to subdivide the units smaller and
smaller.
i
Unit five 126
that commonly used ratios are left with a whole number. This wouldnt be the case if the
number, say, 10, was used. Then only a half-circle and a fifth-of-a-circle would have whole
numbers. Another supposition is that there are approximately 360 days in a year. And
since, each year, seasons repeat themselves, a circle makes a nice representation of a
calendar.
Whatever the reason, however, we want to see if there is a better way of measuring angles.
Of course, better is relative, and different situations might call for different units. So
when we say better, perhaps what we should say is more appropriate for our work in
Trigonometry.
Consider the circle shown in Figure 48. What is the length of the arc from to ?
Figure 48
There are a few ways we could answer this question. One is to measure it the oldfashioned way. That, however, leaves room for error, and wouldnt help us to measure an
arc from a different circle. Another way we could do it is to find the circumference of the
.ii This
circle, then multiply by the fraction of the outside of the circle represented by
isnt the worst thing in the world, but then How will we measure the angle which will
takes up? As you can see,
allow us to find the fraction of the outside of the circle that
we have a bit of an issue.
As weve done a few times in this course, we should go back to what we know for certain.
We know that the circumference of a circle is
= 2,
For example, if the arc were half of the outside of the circle, you would multiply the circumference of the
1
circle by , right?
ii
where is the radius of a circle and is the mathematical constant approximately equal
to 3.14. We also know that every radius in a circle is congruent. And thats about it. But
this does show us that if were trying to figure stuff out about a circle, it is usually a good
idea to involve a radius. Thats what well do in Figure 49.
Figure 49
In keeping with our tradition, weve used the Latin letters and for the lengths of the
radius and arc respectively.
Now, lets see what happens when we relate the radius to the arc length. Lets assume for
. This would allow us to
a moment that = , i.e., that the radius is the same length as
create that angle seen in Figure 50, right?
Figure 50
This angle, which well call , is unique. In other words, there is one and only one angle
. Figure 51 shows this to be true.
for which the radius is the same length as
Unit five 128
Figure 51
Here, = 1.5. As a consequence of this increased arc size, the angle is larger, and therefore .
This is interesting for a couple of reasons. First of all, notice that there is one and only one
angle that comes out as a consequence of the comparison to the radius and arc length.
Secondly, and perhaps more importantly, the size of the circle (and, by extension), the
lengths of the radius and arc, wont matter.iii Thus we make the following definition.
Radian measure
The angle formed by the ratio of the arc length to the radius in a circle. Symbolically,
= ,
where is the radius and is the length of the arc.
Example 1a
What does an angle measure of 1 radian look like?
This is an excellent question, and a great starting point to see the intuition behind radians.
A radian is a ratio between the arc length and the radius, or , where is the radius of a
iii
Well show this explicitly in the forthcoming Examples.
circle and is the length of the arc were concerned with. Using our definition, then, we
have
1= .
But this will only be true if = . Therefore, a measure of 1 radian will look like Figure 52,
are equal.
where the radius and
Figure 52
Weve chosen a radius and arc length of 3, but we could have easily chosen any other length so long as = .
Notice that our angle measure is 1? You might be wondering what the units of this angle
measure are, but there arent any! You could say 1 radian, but if an angle measure is
reported with no unit, it is assumed to be measured in radians.iv
Did you notice that our circle had a radius and arc length of 3? We wanted an angle of 1,
and that is only true when = . So we could have also chosen = = 5, or = = 100,
(and so on) if we wanted to. Do you see why?
Example 1b
What does an angle of 2 look like?
This is a similar question, so we again go back to the definition. The equation
2=
must be true. There is an infinite amount of possibilities for both and , such as =
6, = 3 (which we show in Figure 53).
iv
This is another reason to prefer radians.
Unit five 130
Figure 53
As you can see, the ratio is whats important. The fact that the arc length is twice the length of the radius is what tells us
we have an angle measure of 2. Appreciate, also, how the angle is clearly different from the previous Example.
The previous two examples were there to help you get a grasp on radians, but we still
havent seen its best feature. We explore that now.
Example 2a
What is the length of the radius given Figure 54?
Figure 54
Now this is interesting. We are given an angle and an arc length, and are told to find the
length of the radius. Using the definition of a radian, we can work backward and easily
get the answer. Since, according to our definition, we have
3=
24
,
we simply solve the previous equation for and get

= 8.
Easy! But to really appreciate radians, consider Figure 55, where we have used degrees
instead.
Figure 55
Could we find ? The answer is no degrees are a measurement found completely

independent of the size of a circle. Thus it offers us no help at all. Radians, therefore, give
us free information!
Example 2b
What is the length of the arc subtendedv by an angle of 6 and a radius of 10?
No picture is provided, and it would be helpful for you draw one, but it is not necessary.
We simply use the definition:
6=
.
10
Hence
= 60.
There are a few more important questions which must be asked if we are to succeed with
radians. For example, how many radians are in a full rotation? We know there are 360 in
a full rotation, but what about radians?
Let us answer this question with a specific circle, and then generalize afterwards. Consider
a circle with a radius of 1.vi Since the definition of a radian tells us that
= ,
And we have = 1, we have
This is a fancy, perhaps old-fashioned word which means formed or created by. So the arc is created by
the angle.
vi
We could have chosen any value for the radius, but we chose 1. Any thoughts on why we would choose
this number and not, say, 23?
v
Unit five 132
= .
If we are considering a full rotation, however, we are not looking at an arc, but the full
circumference of the circle. Therefore, = 2 and hence
= 2.
This is an important fact, and we list it below for your convenience.
Radians in various rotations
Full rotation: 2
Half rotation:
Quarter rotation:
Thus, there are 2 radians in a full rotation.

This allows us to answer our next most important question: How do radians relate to
degrees? In other words, how does one convert from one to the other?
To find this answer, let us find out how many degrees are in one radian. To do this, we
just need to convert. We will use dimensional analysis to help us do this, as we show
below.
360
1 rotation
180
57.30
=
1 rotation 2 radians
radians
1 radian
The rotations cancel, and leave us with our result of approximately 57.3 for every 1 radian.
This is a strange number, and we will rarely use it. Instead, the fraction
180
is what you
should memorize and become comfortable with. That said, it is helpful to know how much
1 radian is in degrees, since it will help you get a picture of what youre working with.
Example 3a
Convert 6 radians into degrees.
Since there are
180
Thus 6 radians is
degrees for every one radian, we simply multiply this number by 6.
343.8.
Example 3b
Convert 75 into radians.
This is the opposite of the previous problem. Thus, we need a new conversion factor. We
apply the same principle to obtain a conversion factor:
2
1 rotation
=
1 rotation
360
180
This tells us that one degree is 180 radians. And since we want to find out how many
radians 75 is, we just multiply the previous by 180. We get

75
75 5
=
= .
180 180 12
When working with radians, we never want an approximation.

Did you notice how similar the conversion factors were? You should have them
memorized, as youll need them in this section and beyond.
Exercises
1.)
2.)
Determine the measure of (in radians) given the following radii and arc lengths.
(A) = 10, = 20
(C) = 15, = 100
3
(B) = 30, = 10
(D) = 4 , = 16
given the following radii and angles. Then sketch a
Determine the length of
circle with the given information and the length of the arc.
5
3
(A) = 5, = 2
(C) = 3 , = 4
1
(B) = 3, = 3
(D) = 10, =
2
3.)
Determine the length of the radius given the following arc lengths and angles.
= 35, = 7
= 10, = 3
(A)
(C)
= 5, = 5
= 6, = 1
(B)
(D)
4.)
Sketch the following angles.

(A) 1
(E) 5
(B) 2
(F) 6
(C) 3
(G) 0.5
(D) 4
(H) 6.28
Convert the following angle measure from angles to radians or vice versa.
(E) 12
(A) 200
(B) 100
(F) 720
(C) 50
(G) 5
(D) 1.5
(H)
The following Figure is a circle with various rotations on it. Assume that is located
at the origin, and that there are four Quadrants, as normally defined on a
, then rotates counter-clockwise up
coordinate plane. Each angle begins with
to the next point.
5.)
6.)
Unit five 134
(A) Write each of the angle measures in radians.vii
(B) Which is the larger angle, 4 or 2 ?
7.)
(C) Assume that we continue this pattern, so that in Quadrant II the next angle
is 30 more than 90, then 45 more than 90, and so on (including
Quadrants III and IV). Write each of these angles in degrees.
(D) Now write each of the angles you found in (C) in radians.
One of the problems that students have with radians is that theyre terrible with
fractions. Accordingly, let us practice our fraction intuition.
1
1
(A) Which number is larger, 4 or 2? How can you tell without having to divide
the numerator and denominator?
1
1
(B) Make an argument for why 4 is less that 2. (Hint: Try using money!)
(C) Likewise, which is larger:
or 6 ?
(D) When comparing a whole number to a fraction, its often useful to convert
5
the whole number into a fraction. For example, which is larger, 2 or 3? To
5
see, lets convert 2 into a fraction that has the same denominator as 3. Now
5
answer the question: Which is larger, 2 or 3?
(E) Which is larger: or

(F)
Which is larger:
15
4
5
5
6
or 2?
8.)
How can you tell that
9.)
denominators in your fractions.)

11
Which Quadrant is 6 in? How can you quickly tell? (Hint: Use the Figure from 2.)
is less than a half-rotation? (Hint: Try using common
to help you visualize.)

10.) Of course, you can always convert the radians into degrees to check which one is
7
5
larger. Convert 4 and 3 into degrees and then determine which one is larger.
11.) Now take
vii
7
4
and
5
3
and get common denominators. Which one is larger?
And just to reiterate: Your answers must be in exact form.
12.) A wheel has a radius of 12 inches.viii

(A) If the wheel makes a full rotation, how far has the wheel traveled from its
starting point?
(B) If the wheel makes a half rotation, how far has the wheel traveled from its
starting point?
(C) Suppose the wheel has rotated 10. How far has it traveled?
(D) If the wheel has traveled 36 inches, how much has it rotated?
13.) Suppose a wheel is 24 inches around.
5
(A) If the wheel has rotated 6 , how far has it traveled?
(B) If the wheel has traveled 10 feet, how much has it rotated?
14.) Suppose a wheel has traveled 10 feet.
13
(A) If it has rotated 6 , what is its radius?
(B) If it has rotated
3
4
, what is its circumference?
Introduction to the Polar Plane
After a brief hiatus, we now return to our Trig functions. We will use what you learned in
Unit four extensively in this section; you will need to be able to calculate Trig ratios very
quickly.i We will also begin to work with Trig functions where our angles are in radians.
To help us practice and memorize these Trig functions, we will now introduce a new way
to graph.
Before we do this, a few words on what makes the coordinate plane so effective. There
are numerous ways one could set up a graphing system, but, ideally, we would like it be
simple to use and effective. The coordinate plane is great because it requires just two
components (an - and -value) to plot any point. So its effective and easy to use.
So if were going to come up with a new way to plot points, it should be just as simple
and effective. In other words, we should come up with a system that only requires two
components to plot any point. Anything more than that will render our system far less
effective.
So let us consider a system that uses circles instead of rectangular gridlines, as shown in
Figure 56.
Assume that the wheel is a perfect circle.

Or, as we suggested, you should simply memorize them.
viii
i
Unit five 136
Figure 56
Let us emphasize that we have circles here, not rectangular gridlines. So using an - and
-value will not suffice. We need two different components entirely. How about we use
an angle measure and a radius? That should allow us to plot any point on this plane using
only two components.
Figure 57
Consider Figure 57. We have two components, 2 and 30. Lets start with the 2. Formally,
its a radius that is, it is the distance from the center to the point. Another way of looking
2 Introduction to the Polar Plane 137
at it is that our point must be on the second circle. ii The second component, 30, tells us
where upon that second circle we must put our point. So we place our point 2 away from
the origin,iii then rotate the point 30 up. We show this process in Figures 58 a and b.
Figure 58a and b

We started by making a segment of length 2, then rotating that segment up 30. Note that the segment only helps to
place the point; what we really care about is the point.
This process works very well, so let us now define our new way of graphing
Graphing on the Polar Plane
A point (, ) is plotted by creating a line segment of length , and then rotating that
segment .
Just like with the coordinate plane, we should label our circles. You may have noticed
lines extruding from the pole, or origin of the Polar Plane. These lines form angles with
positive -axis, and look awfully similar to a problem from the previous section. Well
label them below in Figure 59.
Theres a disadvantage to this perspective, since we could also have 1.5 as the radius. In this case, we
need to draw a circle halfway between the first and second circle. So its not too much of a stretch to us
this logic.
iii
Which well give a different name shortly.
ii
Unit five 138
Figure 59
As with the coordinate plane, we dont have to choose these angles. However, there is
good reason to choose these particular angles, and well reveal that answer shortly.iv
Also of important note: The angle measures always start on what we normally call the
positive -axis and rotate up from there.v
Example 1a
Plot the point (2,45).
To do this, we simply go to our second circle, then rotate up 45. We show the plotted
point in Figure 60.
If youve not already figured it out yourself.

This is by convention. Someone somewhere decided that they were going to do it that way, and weve all
followed suit.
iv
v
Figure 60
Example 1b
Graph the point (3.5,10).
Neither of the two components in is on a line, but, like the coordinate plane, we can
easily approximate their locations. We show this in Figure 61.
Figure 61
It might be helpful to draw a line for a 10 angle. It might also be helpful to draw a circle halfway between the third and
fourth circle.
Unit five 140
Example 1c
Graph the point (2.2, 2 ).

In this example, we are using radians to measure our angles and not degrees. Recalling
that 90 and 2 are equivalent, we can easily graph Figure 62.
Figure 62
Many of your Exercises will use radians, so the above graph weve provided may not be
the most helpful. You will want to create a Polar Plane with the radians listed and not
degrees. But dont worry, this will be one of your Exercises.
We have not yet discussed negative angles. Up to this point, you might think that angles,
like lengths, can only be positive. But angles (unlike lengths) have a direction. So far weve
always rotated up, which has amounted to a counter-clockwise rotation. Nothing is
stopping us from rotating in the opposite direction, i.e., clockwise, but we havent had a
good way to label this other than spelling it out entirely. Let us therefore agree that a
negative angle measure tells us to rotate clockwise, while a positive angle measure tells
us to rotate counter-clockwise.
Example 2
Graph the point (3, 60).
The negative angle tells us to rotate 60 clockwise. Since we know our point must be on
the third circle (due to the radius being 3), we just need to determine how to rotate
clockwise. Using the same Polar Plane as before, but counting in the opposite direction
(and applying appropriate labels), we come up with Figure 63.
Figure 63
Perhaps you noticed that we did not complete labeling this Polar Plane. As you might have guessed, yes, this will be one of
your Exercises.
But theres something quite curious as to the above: This is a point we could have made
using our Polar Plane from before. If we take the same point but switch the labels back,
we get Figure 64.
Unit five 142
Figure 64
Weve left the label from the previous Figure for you to help you compare.
Notice that our point is now located at (3,300). So it appears as though 300 is equivalent
to 60. This is interesting!
Coterminal angles
Two different angles that end up in the same spot are said to be coterminal.
So 60 and 300 are coterminal, since they end up in the exact same spot. Another way
of looking at this is that the point created by (, 60) and (, 300) will be the same
(where > 0).
Example 3
Plot the point (2, 840).
This problem contains another strange angle. After all, there are only 360 in a rotation.
But whos to say that we can only do one rotation? To account for multiple rotations, we
can have angles that exceed 360.vi How many rotations is 840? Well, if 360 is one
rotation, then two rotations would be
vi
Likewise, we can also have angles that are less than 360.
360 + 360 = 720,

right? Likewise, we can see that three rotations would be 1,080. So it seems as though
we have two full rotations and then some left over. To account for this, well just subtract
two full rotations from what we have, 840:
840 720
120.
So we have two full rotations and then 120 more. This helps tremendously when we
graph 840, since now all we have to do is identify the 120 angle on our Polar Plane. We
show this in Figure 65.
Figure 65
This also tells us that 840 and 120 are coterminal.

And this, in turn, tells us how many coterminal angles each angle has. Can you figure it
out?
Well further explore these ideas in the Exercises, as well as prepare for our more formal
introduction to the Polar Plane in Unit seven. The brevity of this section will give you time
to practice the basics and, perhaps more importantly, pave the way for success in the last
section of this Unit, which is perhaps the most important.
Unit five 144
Exercises
1.)
2.)
3.)
Plot the following points. You may use the same Polar Plane if you wish.
(A) (2, 30)
(G) (0.5, 60)
(B) (1, 45)
(H) (3.5, 135)
(C) (3, 300)
(I) (20, 180)
(D) (2, 150)
(J) (1, 260)
(E) (4, 315)
(K) (3.5, 0)
7
(F) (2, 210)
(L) (2 , 350)
Before you start plotting points using radians, create a Polar Plane just like we did
in this unit, except instead of using 30, 45, use the corresponding radian
measures. Make sure each angle is labeled.
Now that you have a Polar Plane with radians, plot the following points.
(H) (2,
(B) (3, 3 )
(I)
(C) (4,
(2, 6 )
(J)
(300,
(D) (1,
)
3
4
(E) (4,1)
11
(F) (3, 6 )
4.)
5.)
6.)
(A) (2, 2 )
(K) (5,
(L)
(2,
(M) (3,
3
7
4
7
6
(G) (2, )
Now lets work with negative angles.
(A) What does a negative angle represent, or tell you to do?
(B) Now create a Polar Plane just like you did in 2.), except this time label each
angle as 30, 45, as we started to do in the reading. Make sure each
angle is labeled.
(C) Create another Polar Plane, except this time use negative radian measures.
Again, make sure each angle is labeled.
Plot the following points.
(A) (2, 45)
(G) (5, 25)
2
(H) (2, 2)
(B) (3, 3 )
(I) (3, 100)
(C) (1, 180)
(J) (4, 2)
7
(D) (2, 4 )
(K) (3, 135)
3
(E) (3, 300)
(L) (2, 4 )
5
(F) (4, 6 )
Now lets work with coterminal angles. This is incredibly important for our work in
trigonometry, and was one of the main reasons we chose to work with the Polar
Plane before working with the Unit Circle. Use the Polar Planes you created from
previous exercises to help you.
(A) Give two different coterminal angles (in degrees) of the given angle
measure.
i. 30.
vii. 200
viii. 10
ii. 45
ix. 0
iii. 90
x. 330
iv. 135
xi. 240
v. 150
xii. 120
vi. 180
(B) Give two different coterminal angles (in radians) of the given angle measure.
7
i. 6
ix. 6
5
ii. 4
x.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
2
2
3
3
4
5
6
viii.
7.)
xi.
xii.
xiii.
xiv.
xv.
4
4
3
3
2
5
3
7
4
11
6
xvi. 2
Let us now explore how to convert a Polar point into a normal rectangular point.
Consider the Figure below, of (3,30). We will create a triangle using this point
and the Pole.
Notice that if we find the lengths of the two legs of the created right triangle,
then we will have found the and distance, and thus, the - and -coordinate
Unit five 146
of our point? Converting a Polar point to a rectangular one, then, amounts to

finding lengths of a triangle.
But we know how to do this!
8.)
(A) Find the length of each leg of the triangle shown above.
(B) What, then, are the rectangular coordinates of the given Polar point?
Using the same method above (and drawing a picture), convert the following Polar
points into rectangular points.
(A) (1,60)
(B) (1,45)
(C) (1,90)
(D) (2, 6 )
(E) (1, 3 )
(F)
Did any of your previous results seem familiar to what youve already
learned? How so?
(G) Can you generalize the process of converting Polar coordinates into
rectangular coordinates? It seems like theres some treasure hidden in this
Exercise
The unit circle
We now embark on perhaps the most important section in Trigonometry. It is imperative

that you learn and master the techniques in this section, as it will make much of
Trigonometry (and, subsequently, Calculus) much easier. In this section we provide a tool
to help visualize and efficiently evaluate most of the Trig functions youll run into. Of
course, as has been the case in many of these Trig sections, you must be adept at the
previous lessons as well, including quickly evaluating sin 30, for example.i
Up to this point, weve worked with only a few Trig functions, such as cos 30. And, as we
mentioned, there are many Trig functions that we simply cant evaluate with any sort of
efficiency. In this section well learn how to evaluate a handful more an infinite amount,
actually! quickly and efficiently.
Recall that the main reason were able to evaluate a Trig expression like tan 45 is because
we can create a special right triangle (in this case, a 45 45 90 triangle) which we
can find the length of the sides for very quickly. Then we just have to write the
i
Although, frankly, at this point, this warning should not be necessary.
3 The unit circle 147
corresponding ratio.ii Without these special right triangles, we would have to resort to
approximation methods, which arent very interesting to study.
But let us bring back our Polar Plane from the previous section in Figure 66. Then let us
see if we cant create any other special right triangles.
Figure 66
Can you create any special right triangles using this picture? Try making a point on one of the angles.
It turns out that not only can we make a few, but we can make many of them! We consider
one example below.
Example 1
Given the point (2, 120), create some special right triangle.
We first plot the given point. We show this in Figure 67.
ii
We must also bring up the fact that the size of the triangle we choose does not matter.
Unit five 148
Figure 67
Two possible right triangle present themselves, and we show them both in Figure 68a and
b.
Figure 68a and b
To draw these right triangles, we just dropped a straight line down from the point the axis (in Figure a) and then a straight line to the right from the point to the -axis. Right
triangles are great, and this allows us to use what weve learned in previous sections. But
it would be even better if they were special right triangles, right?
But thats exactly what each of them are! And it is made even more evident by drawing
them on our Polar Plane like we did. In Figure 68a, for example, you can see that we have
a 30 60 90 triangle, which we draw separately in Figure 69.
Figure 69
This is significant, and well demonstrate why as we proceed through this section. Hold
on to this thought for a moment because we need to establish something else before
making our greater point.
One of the Exercises from the previous section saw you converting Polar coordinates into
rectangular coordinates. This was done by forming a right triangle (not unlike our previous
Example) and then using your memorized Trig functions to find the missing lengths of the
right triangle (which corresponded to the - and -values of the pointiii). Let us reconsider
that with some more formality and see if we cant uncover some truth.
Example 2a
Convert the Polar coordinate (2, 45) to rectangular coordinates.
Although you did this problem in the previous section, let us formalize this process. We
first plot the given point, and then create a right triangle, as shown in Figure 70.
iii
Huh? Did you miss something? Theres something very interesting going on here; can you feel it?
Unit five 150
Figure 70
Now we can redraw that triangle by itself, adding in what we know, viz. the radius. We
Figure 71
Recall that when we graph something on the coordinate plane, we go right some distance,
and then up some distance. In the case of our picture, do you recognize that the origin is
the point to the left of the right angle? Then if we travel right to the right angle, and then
up, wouldnt we have just went through the process of plotting a point on the rectangular
plane?iv Thus, if we find the length of each leg, well have our - and -coordinates, right?
So thats what well do. And this is quite easy, since this is an isosceles right triangle, we
just divide the hypotenuse by 2, and find that each leg has a length of
That is confusing in words. Try doing what I wrote to help you see that youre just following the same
procedure youve used perhaps thousands of times to plot a point. Or ask your teacher to demonstrate.
iv
.
2
Let us rationalize this number so we can perhaps recognize it after were done with it:
2
2 2
22
= 2.
2
So each leg measures 2 in length, and this tells us that the point (2, 45) can also be
written as (2, 2).
This is neat, but more importantly that number 2 reminds us of a number that popped
up quite a few times in the previous unit:
2
.
2
In fact, our result was twice that of
2
.
2
Why
is this interesting? Because what is sin 45? And what is cos 45? And is this a coincidence??
Example 2b
Convert the Polar coordinate (3, 30) into rectangular coordinates.
Lets do one more test before trying to generalize and formalize our results. Following our
previous procedure, then, we end up with Figure 72.
Figure 72
From here, we once again draw a right triangle, and, once again, in Figure 73 we see a
special right triangle, dont we?
Unit five 152
Figure 73
Again, what were looking for are the legs of this right triangle, as that will tell us the and -coordinates of the point were looking for. Using what we learned from Unit four,
we see that the short leg is 1.5 and the long leg is 1.53. And hence our point can be
written in the rectangular plane as (1.5,1.53).
1
Let us again highlight the results: Remember that cos 60 = 2? Well, our -coordinate is
that times 3, isnt it? What about sin 60? What relationship does that have with our result
of 1.53?v
Isnt it interesting that the rectangular coordinates of a point from the Polar Plane keep
coming up as multiples of Trig functions that weve memorized? Let us now generalize
the result and make our major point of this section.
You might ask how we knew about this relationship. Good question! Were not trying to teach a
procedure here for you to follow, but only pointing something out, viz. that these familiar numbers keep
popping up. Of course, there is a reason we chose 3 in this Example and 2 in the previous Can you see
where we get those two numbers from?
v
A point on a circle in rectangular coordinates

Any point on any circle is given by the rectangular coordinates
( cos , sin ),
Where is the radius of the circle and is the angle of rotation from the positive -axis
to the point.
We cannot overstate how important this discovery is. So let us restate it another way. We
can find the coordinates of any point on a circle using our Trig functions and the
information above.
Perhaps more importantly, however, is that this establishes a relationship that we can use
to find the values of other angles that we input into Trig functions. In our original
definition of Trig functions, we could only use acute angles. This relationship, namely that
= cos , = sin ,
Where and have the usual meaning as - and -coordinates of a point in the
rectangular plane, helps us to find the output of any angle put into a Trig function. With
some simple Algebra, well make it more clear:
cos =
Let us now practice this concept.
Example 2a
Evaluate sin 120.
, sin = .
Unit five 154
Did you memorize sin 120? Because you shouldnt have. Theres a better way to deal with
these angles than simply memorizing.vi Using our Polar Plane from before, we place some
point on the 120 angle. We did this in Example 1, and, since the previous Example had a
radius of 2, lets stick with that.vii
Then we can create the right triangle we saw in Figure 68a, which we redraw in Figure 74
with the radius length added. Note that based on the way we came about our previous
definition, that is, that cos = , we must use the -axis as the base of our triangle.viii
Figure 74
Then, using the relationship previously stated, viz. that
sin = ,
we can easily get our answer. Although we input 120, what we are working with is the
60 angle seen in the triangle in Figure 74.
We see that = 2, because that was our chosen radius. But what is ? In this case, its the
vertical leg of the triangle drawn in Figure 74. What is the length of this leg? Hopefully
youve not forgotten about 30 60 90 triangles, as well find the value of that leg
using this technique. We show the lengths of the triangle in Figure 75.
Although, that being said, dont let us stop you from memorizing if thats what youre really good at.
Does the radius need to be 2? Excellent question! Well cover that in Example 3.
viii
By base we mean that the right angle must be located on the -axis. This was not the case in Figure
68b. It is possible to use that Figure, but then we would need to change our definition.
vi
vii
Figure 75
Now we have enough information to write our answer; we get

sin 120 =
3 ix
.
2
Lets do another example.

Example 2b
What is cos 225?
We follow the same procedure. This time, we need to plot a point on the Polar Plane at
225. What radius should we use? How about we stick with 2, for consistencys sake. We
show this point, that is, (2, 225) in Figure 76.
ix
That seems oddly familiar Wasnt that the same thing as sin 60?
Unit five 156
Figure 76
We now draw a right triangle using the -axis as that base for our right angle. We show
this in Figure 77.
Figure 77
Since were looking for Cosine, and, based on our findings,
cos = ,
we need to find the length of the horizontal leg.

Then we just use our knowledge of special right triangles to complete the triangle. We
get Figure 78, as shown.
Figure 78
We can now substitute, since we know (we chose it to be 2) and , which is the length
of the horizontal leg, which is 2. We have
cos 225 =
2
.
2
But is this correct? One way to check our result is to plot it in the coordinate plane. Our
-coordinate is given by the horizontal distance, which in this case corresponds to the
horizontal leg in Figure 78.
A quick glance shows that we must be wrong. The point in Figure 76 was in Quadrant III,
and this requires a negative -value, right? We have an issue.
Or do we? There is an easy way to rectify this error: We simply make our result negative.
This seems awfully artificial, and it is. But thats where our Polar Plane comes in handy. We
have a picture to see that, clearly, our -coordinate must be negative. Therefore, our result
is
cos 225 =
2
.
2
Lets do one more example before introducing you to a special circle.

Example 2c
Evaluate all six Trig functions using
We are looking for sin
5
3
, cos
5
3
5
3
as the input.
, and so on. We have radians as our input, and this is fine,
since we know how to work with them. The first thing we should do is plot the point
(2,
5
3
) on the Polar Plane. We do this in Figure 79.
Unit five 158
Figure 79
Do you see that
5
3
is equivalent to 300?
Before proceeding, do you see how is in Quadrant IV? Thus > 0 and < 0. You might
want to make a note of this for each of the problems like this you do, so that you dont
forget.
Now we create a right triangle with the -axis as our base. We get Figure 80 as shown.
Figure 80
Verify that weve completed this special right triangle correctly.
Now all we need to do is write the appropriate ratios. We see that

sin
5
3
=
3
2
because Sine is opposite to hypotenuse. It must be negative since we are in Quadrant IV.
We further see that
cos
5 1
= ,
3
2
and, since we are in Quadrant IV, we must be positive.

sin
What about the other Trig functions? First, recall that tan = cos . And since sin
negative while cos
5
3
5
3
is
is positive, then Tangent must be negative.x Then we just need to
find the ratio from the previous Figure, and make it negative. We get
tan
5
= 3.
3
Finding the reciprocal Trig functions, like Secant, is easy. We just need to find the
reciprocal of the previous three results. Note that finding a reciprocal does not change its
sign. Therefore,
csc
5
2
=
,
3
3
sec
5
=2,
3
cot
5
1
= .
3
3
We leave the rationalization to the reader, if they wish.

Up to this point, weve always used a radius of 2. Just because. But certainly there has to
be a better choice, right? Indeed, there is, and we call it the unit circle.
The unit circle
A circle centered at the origin whose radius is 1.
This simple definition has some profound implications. For example, recall that, using a
circle of radius , we have the relationship
cos = .
But if we have a unit circle, where = 1, then we have the simpler relationship
cos = .
This also holds with sin , of course:
sin = .
The quotient of a negative number and a positive must be a negative number, right?
Unit five 160
Not only is this easier to write, but it also helps us to find the Sine (or Cosine, or) of any
angle pretty easily. We show this intuition in Figure 81.
Figure 81
Any point on the circle has an -coordinate of cos and a -coordiante of sin .
Example 3a
Evaluate sin 135.
The unit circle is a picture to place into your head so you can evaluate Trig functions like
this very quickly, efficiently, and accurately. At first, youll need to draw it out and it might
take some time. But eventually it becomes second-nature, and it is indispensable in
Calculus. So while someone adept at math might not need to draw it out, we will do so in
each of these examples.
We draw a 135 angle on the unit circle in Figure 82.
Figure 82
Since has - and -coordinates of cos and sin , respectively, all we need to do to
evaluate sin 135 is to find the -coordinate of . But this amounts to the same thing we
in the previous set of Examples, using the Polar Plane. The only difference is that our
radius will always be 1.xi Thus we need to make a right triangle with the -axis as our base
as shown in Figure 83.
Figure 83
If you have difficulties seeing what type of special right triangle you get, use your Polar Plane. It will be more evident since
each angle is marked. Also note we rationalized the denominators on each leg.
Now we just use substitute. We get that

sin 135 =
2
.
2
And yes, our result should be positive. Another way to see that our result must be positive
is because, if we start at the origin, we had to travel up to get to , correct? And isnt up
a positive direction?
Example 3b
Evaluate cos
11
6
We first draw an angle of
xi
11
6
on our unit circle in Figure 84.
As opposed to whatever we want. Why choose 1, again?
Unit five 162
Figure 84
Again, use your Polar Plane to help you find
11
6
. However, youll want to have a very firm grasp of radians so dont
completely rely on you Polar Plane.
Again, we now create a right triangle using the -axis as our base. We get the special right
triangle shown in Figure 85.
Figure 85
Then we just substitute, knowing what ratio we get with the Cosine function. Hence
cos
11 1
= .
6
2
This, also, should be positive, since we went to the right to get to .

Be patient and resilient as you learn the unit circle. Mastery will come, but only with
practice and perseverance. Once you master the unit circle, Trigonometry becomes your
plaything.
Exercises
1.)
Plot the following points on the Polar Plane, then create a right triangle where the
-axis serves as the base.
(A) (2,135)
(D) (3, 6 )
(B) (3,300)
(C) (2,
)
3
(E) (1,
(F)
2.)
5
4
(4, 3 )
Determine whether the result of the following expressions will be positive or

negative.
(E) tan 3
(A) sin 45
2
(B) cos 3
(F) sin 190
5
(G) cos 299
(C) sin 6
4
11
(H) tan 3
(D) cos
6
3.)
4.)
5.)
It might be helpful to list out which Quadrants produce which sign for each Trig
function.
(A) Which Quadrants is Sine positive? Negative?
(B) Which Quadrants is Cosine positive? Negative?
(C) Which Quadrants is Tangent positive? Negative?
(D) True or False: If Sine is positive, then its reciprocal, Cosecant, must also be
positive.
(E) List out which sign the reciprocal Trig functions use for each Quadrant.
(F) Go online and see if you cant find a convenient mnemonic device to help
to you remember.
Convert the following Polar points into rectangular points.
7
(A) (2, 330)
(C) (2, 6 )
(B) (2, 210)
4
(D) (3, 3 )
Let us now use the unit circle. First, lets practice finding the coordinates of a point
thats on the unit circle. In the following problems, use the given angle of rotation
to list the coordinates of the point on the unit circle.
4
(A) 120
(E) 3
3
(B) 4
(F) 300
(C)
6.)
(G)
7
4
(H) 330
(D) 225
Now lets put the unit circle to use and evaluate some Trig expressions.
3
(A) sin 120
(E) sin
4
7
11
(B) cos 4
(F) cos
(C) sin
5
6
(D) cos 210
(G) tan
(H) tan
6
3
4
4
3
Unit five 164
7.)
One thing weve not covered is points on the unit circle that are also on one of the
axes. For example, look at the Figure below.
The coordinates of are quite trivial, are they not? They are (1,0). More
importantly, however, this does allow us to input angles such as ,
(A) Evaluate the Sine function when the input is ,
(B) Evaluate the Sine function when the input is ,
(C) Evaluate the Sine function when the input is ,
8.)
9.)
3
2
3
2
3
2
2
3
, and 2.
, and 2.
, and 2.
, and 2.
In the previous Unit, we learned that sin2 + cos 2 = 1 for all . Let us now prove
that this is so.
(A) Write out the equation of a circle centered at (0,0) with radius 1 in terms of
and .
(B) What is the name of the circle whose equation you wrote in (A)?
(C) What are the coordinates of a point on that unit circle? (Maybe write out
the equality first)
(D) Now write a formal proof of why sin2 + cos 2 = 1.
Now create a table of values for Sine, Cosine, and Tangent. Start with 0, then
2
, , , , , and so on. There should be 16 inputs for each function.
6 4 3 2 3
10.) It might be helpful to identify some decimal approximations with their exact
counterpart. List the decimal approximations (to the nearest thousandth) of
2
2
3
.
2
and
11.) Given some circle with (3,4), list the six Trig ratios.
12.) Find the exact value of each of the remaining six Trig functions of in the given
Quadrant. (Hint: Draw a picture!)
3
5
(A) sin = 5, Quadrant II
(E) sin = 13, Quadrant I
(B) cos =
12
40
, Quadrant IV
(F)
(G) tan = 3, Quadrant III
13
(C) sin = 25, Quadrant III

11
(D) cos = 61, Quadrant II
cos = 41, Quadrant III

4
12
(H) tan = 5 , Quadrant II
13.) One thing weve not looked at is negative angles. We can evaluate these in like
manner with the rest our problems by using our handy unit circle. Evaluate each
Trig expression.
(A) sin ( 6 )
(B) cos (
(C) sin (
3
5
4
(E) sin ( 3 )
(F)
(G) tan ( 4 )
(D) cos(150)
cos ( 4 )
(H) tan (
2
3
14.) Are you noticing anything interesting? Is there some sort of relationship with
positive and negative angles? For example, did you see that sin ( 6 ) = sin ( 6 )?xii
(A) Find one other Sine equivalence.
(B) Does Cosine have this same relationship? To test, determine if cos ( 6 ) =? =
cos ( 6 ).
(C) Is it always, sometimes, or never true that sin() = sin ?

(D) Look up the definition for an even function. Write it down here.
(A) When any acute angle is input into a Trig function, the result will always be
positive.
(B) If Sine is negative, then Cosine is always negative.
(C) The unit circle will always have a radius of 1.
xii
If not, then verify that right now!
Unit five 166
Unit six
Trigonometry and Algebra
1 Solving Trigonometric equations 167
While most textbooks now segue into Trigonometric identities, and leave this Units
material for a later time, we find this to be a bit counter-intuitive. In order to solve and
graph Trig equations, one must rely very heavily upon the previous Unit. We feel,
therefore, that putting this material here is most beneficial.
In this Unit we will apply our knowledge of Trig functions and ratios and use them in the
context of Algebra. This is useful for the sake of Algebra, obviously, but it will also expand
and deepen our knowledge of Trig.i We begin with solving Trig equations, which is a fairly
mild foray into the merger of Trig and Algebra. Then we embark on graphing Trig
equations. This can often be a long and difficult process, with many different factors
complicating the process. Finally, we revisit the Polar Plane by graphing Polar equations.
The entirety of this Unit serves to reinforce the concepts of the unit circle so that, by the
end, you will have mastered the unit circle.
Solving Trigonometric equations
A Trigonometric equation is, as its name implies, an equation with some Trig function in
it. Weve already seen some, e.g.,
3
sin = .
5
In Algebra, we spent much of our time solving equations so that the unknown was
isolated. In Trig, (at least so far, anyway) weve spent much of our time not caring a whole
lot about the unknown. We spent more time worrying about the ratio, or evaluating a Trig
expression with some angle input.
As one might guess, that will soon change. We will spend this unit isolating the variable
in all of our Trig equations.
Before we begin deriving the process we will use to accomplish this, let us recall what
exactly a Trig function is: Its a function. And we dont mean to patronize you, but when
the question arises, How can I undo the Sine next to the alpha?, this becomes an
important fact. Since Sine (and all of its cohorts) are functions, we have to undo them
using their inverse function.
But what is the inverse function of Sine? Thats an excellent question, and one that will
take us a few steps to work out. First, consider the following Example.
Indeed, this is a neat feature of math. The study of one branch, say Geometry, often enriches other
branches, like Algebra, Number Theory, and more.
i
Unit six 168
Example 1a
If sin =
3
,
2
then what is ?
To answer this question, we will not use any Algebra. Instead, we will simply work
backwards, using either a table, our memory, or even the unit circle. We have a number
of Sine expressions memorized: sin 0 = 0, sin 6 = 2, and sin 4 =

had a problem like
2
,
2
for example. So if we
If sin = 2, then what is ?
We would conclude that the answer is , since, if you input , you will get out . In some
sense, this is a guess-and-check method. Yet, you should be comfortable enough your
Trig ratios that this should be a straightforward process.
Back to our Example. If we input 3 , we get out
3
,
2
right? Therefore our result is
= .
3
It is good to acquire this answer, and indeed, this is often the procedure well use to
determine the value of the variable. But more importantly, it tells us how we should build
our inverse Sine function. We will consider a table of values for and sin , as normal, but
then well switch them around as we did in Unit two.

0
0
1
6
2
2
4
2
3
3
2
1
2
Now, let us switch the inputs and outputs.

0
1
2
2
2
2
At this point we can rename our columns. One way to do this would be to rename the left
column and the right column sin1 .ii
3
2
1
But the notation sin1 does not work well with our previous decision to write
(sin ) (sin ) = sin2 ,
Since an exponent of 1 tells you to take a number and write its reciprocal. But our inverse
Sine function, as weve defined it, is not equal to the reciprocal Trig function, Cosecant, as
you should verify.iii Therefore we will come up with a more historical name for the inverse
Sine function: The Arcsine function.
In like manner, we can also define the Arccosine, Arctangent, and so on. But before we
formally define these functions, there are a few things that we need to work out.
First a quick example on how to use the table from above.
Example 1b
If sin =
2
,
2
then what is ?
We can (and will) use the same procedure. But in this Example, lets highlight the use of
Arcsine to undo the Sine function and isolate the variable .
Recall that to do undo a function, one needs to use the inverse function. So we will use
the Arcsine function, as mentioned above. Thusly,
arcsin(sin ) = arcsin
2
2
Becomes
= arcsin
But what is the Arcsine of
2
?
2
2
.
2
We can simply look to our table (or use the same intuition
we used in Example 1a) and discover that

The left column should be a Latin letter, since we are inputting of a ratio of two sides. The right column
should use function notation, since it is an output, but should also denote that it is an inverse.
ii
iii
Use Wolfram Alpha and evaluate sin1 ( ) and csc ( ). Are they the same?
Unit six 170
= .
4
So far our Arcsine function works quite nicely. But there is an issue which we need to
consider.
1
If cos = 2, then what is ?

We use the Arccosine function to each side, and therefore get
1
= arccos ( ).
2
1
But what is the Arccosine of 2?

We could use the same procedure as seen in Example 1a. When we look to a table for
cos , we see
0
1
3
6
2
2
4
2
1
3
2
0
2
And therefore, creating a table of values for the Arccosine function, we get the following.
1
3
2
2
2
1
2
0
2
But we dont see the desired result, do we? So what should we do? Keep going and
expanding our table is one option. To do this, well need to go back to our Cosine function,
and use the unit circle. Look back to the table on the page 170. Did you see that inputting
into cos outputs 2? This is the opposite of what we want, so why not try cos ( 3 )?
When setting this up on the unit circle, as shown in Figure 86, we get the following.
Figure 86
Recall that a negative angle tells us to rotate clockwise.
Then, making a triangle, which we show in Figure 87, we can see that
1
cos ( ) = .
3
2
Figure 87
Hence = 3 is not a solution; we want a negative 2 not a positive one.
Of course, something interesting happened here It seems that cos ( 3 ) = cos 3 , doesnt
it? Strange Well shelve this interesting result and examine it further later.
Back to our original question. We need to try something different. Let us return to our
unit circle. When will cos output a negative number? Only when , the point on the unit
circle, is in Quadrant II and III, right? So let us choose some angle that puts into Quadrant
II or Quadrant III.
Unit six 172
We try Quadrant II first. We know that cos = , so we need a angle in whatever triangle
we set up in Quadrant II. The only choice that will give us this angle is
below in Figure 88.
2
3
. We show this
Figure 88
If you use the point created by a
angle, right? And if you choose a
us with
2
3
6
3
4
angle of rotation, you would then create a right triangle (in Quadrant II) that has a
angle of rotation, you would then create a right triangle that has a angle. This leaves
, which gives us the triangle that we seek (viz., one that has a angle).
Thus we have a right triangle with a

the answer that we seek.
angle, which we complete in Figure 89, and can get
Figure 89
We see now that cos

that in the equation,
2
3
= ,iv which is what we were seeking all along. Thus we conclude

2
1
cos = ,
2
That
1
= arccos ( )
2
=
2
.
3
This is correct. But is that all? Shouldnt Quadrant III also contain an answer? Lets quickly
check.
We draw the unit circle similar to Figure 89, except choose a point in Quadrant III. We
Figure 90
Do you see that we must use
With this picture, we see that cos
4
3
4
3
= 2, as well.
1
So going back to our original equation, cos = 2, we see that

=
2
4
.
3
3
Recall that we are in Quadrant II, which means we have to go to the left of the origin. Thus, our
horizontal distance must be negative.
iv
Unit six 174
We ask again: Is this all? Recall that there an infinite amount of coterminal angles. For
example, wont rotations of
about
2
3
and
4
3
2
3
and
8
3
produce the same point on the unit circle? And what
? We could keep going, couldnt we? So it seems that are an infinite

1
amount of correct solutions for our equation of cos = 2.

This is very interesting! And there are two ways that we deal with it. The first way is to
simply list all the solutions. The second is to restrict the set from which we can get an
answer.
Well use the first method when we literally want to find all of the solutions. This can be a
bit confusing, and well need a picture to help us work with it. v As such, well wait until the
next section to deal with this.
What we want is an inverse function. We must restrict the set from which we can get an
answer.vi So, for now, we consider the second option.
We can now make the following definitions.
The Arc functions
If sin = , then = arcsin for 1 1 and 2 2 .
If cos = , then = arccos for 1 1 and 0 .

Example 2a
Evaluate arcsin (
2
).
2
In this Example, we are practicing how to account for the codomain of the Arcsine
function. We also seek to formalize the process of evaluating an Arc function.
The best way to handle these problems is to change them into a problem like we saw in
Example 1.vii So we let
arcsin (
2
) = ,
2
And then, applying the Sine function to each side, we get
And in order for us to get a picture, well need to learn how to graph Trig functions.
A function, recall, by definition, may have one and only one output for each input.
vii
This is because we know more about the Sine function than the Arcsine function.
v
vi
Now, when is sin =
2
2
2
= sin .
2
such that 2 2 ? Visualizing the unit circle,viii we see that
the only way Sine can be negative is if we have a point in Quadrant III or Quadrant IV.
But look at our definition again, which states that 2 2 . This means we can only
select an angle or rotation that is in Quadrants I and IV, right?ix Because of this, we can
rule out Quadrant III as a potential spot for our solution.
Looking only at Quadrant IV, and thinking about what angle will give us
2
,
2
we see that
we must have an angle of 4 . Thus we choose the angle as shown in Figure 91, which will
give us a result of
2
2
(which, because we are in Quadrant IV, we go down
2
),
2
and thus,
2
.
2
Figure 91
Because the angle we used was 4 to produce

arcsin (
2
,
2
we conclude that
2
)
2
is
.
4
Which you still may need to draw at this point.
Again, look at your unit circle. Find a angle of rotation, and then increase until you get to .
viii
ix
Unit six 176
Example 2b
Evaluate arccos 1.
As in the previous Example, let us rewrite this in terms of Cosine, since we know more
about that function. If
arccos 1 = ,
Then
1 = cos .
This is asking For what angle will the Cosine be equal to 1? You should not need the
unit circle for this question, as there is only one time when cos = 1, and that is when
= 2.
Let us reemphasize that we are only seeking solutions such that 0 .x
Our result, thusly, is
.
2
One thing you should see is that solving a Trig equation often involves intuition, and not
calculation. You are really working backwards using what you know of Trig functions. It
also highlights an important relationship between input and output, functions and their
inverses, and as a result, serves you well.
Let us look at a few more complicated examples.
Example 3a
Solve 2 sin 1 = 0.
This is just a normal equation, and you solve it as you would anything else. Our goal, then,
is to get by itself. We will first want to isolate the sin portion of the equation, so that
we can use the Arcsine function on that alone.xi Hence
2 sin = 1
1
sin = .
2
The restrictions are different on the Arccosine. Go back and look.

For example, would it be easy to evaluate arcsin(2 sin 1) ? How would you even go about doing
that?
x
xi
Now we just Arcsine each side Although, since we are using intuition to evaluate this
Arc function, its easier to leave it as it is, and ask What angle, when Sined, gets me a
1
ratio of 2? The answer to that is
= .
6
Again, do not forget the restrictions that 2 2 .

Example 3b
Solve cos (3
5
6
)=
3
.
2
We have the same goal: Isolate . Here we have an expression inside a Cosine function,
so we can start by using the Arccosine function.xii Since arccos
3
3
2
is 6 , we have
5
= ,
6
6
whence we just solve as normal. We get

3 =
= .
3
So far weve only input a small set of numbers into our Arc functions, ones that we have
1
memorized. But what about, say, arcsin 4? Do we know what angle measure, when Sined,
1
outputs 4? I certainly dont! So for some problems well need to rely on a calculator. This
is fine, but be warned that most calculators use the notation sin1 to signify their Arc
functions.
We have not defined the Arctangent, nor will we. You will do this in the exercises. But
know that it and the reciprocal Trig functions have an Arc function.
We now take a quick look at an application of the Arc functions.
Example 4
Complete the right triangle seen in Figure 92. Measure all angles in degrees.
xii
If you cant see that, try letting 3 + 1 = . Then you have cos =
we're solving for , not .
3
2
. If you do that, dont forget that
Unit six 178
Figure 92
Recall that to complete a right triangle, you need to supply all the missing angle
measures and side lengths.
We can find straightaway using Pythagoras Theorem. Theres nothing tricky there; we
find that
6.3.
What about the angle measures? This seems like a tough question, but if we use one of
our Trig ratios, say, Tangent, we can set up an equation which we can then easily solve.
We have
6
tan = .
2
Since we have not memorized tan = 3, we simply plug it into a calculator. Since we are
asked to measure our angles in degrees, we must make sure that we are in Degree mode
on our calculators. Typing in
tan1 3
We get approximately
71.6.
How should we find ? We could set up another Trig equation and then solve, but itll be
easier just to use the fact that the sum of the three angles in a triangle is 180. From this
we see that
= 18.4.
Lets now take a look at how the Arc functions work with one another.
Example 5a
12
Evaluate cos (arcsin 13).

The Cosine function will not undo the Arcsine function. So how will we go about this
problem? One way is to draw a picture, first considering the expression inside the Cosine
12
function. In the present case, that is arcsin 13. Recall that the Arcsine takes the ratio of the
opposite to the hypotenuse and outputs an angle. Thus we can let
(1)
= arcsin
12
.
13
From here, we can apply the Sine function to each side, and get
sin =
12
.
13
Then we can draw a picture. Since the Sine function outputs the ratio of the opposite side
length to the hypotenuse, do you see that we should draw a right triangle as in Figure 93?
Figure 93
This isnt the only way you can draw this triangle. As long as you draw a right triangle such that sin =
12
, youre good.
13
12
Now, substituting (1) back into the original expression, cos (arcsin 13), we have
cos .
But this is now just a question from Unit four. We simply need to determine the ratio of
the adjacent side to the hypotenuse. This is
5
,
13
as one can see after using Pythagoras Theorem.
Unit six 180
Example 5b
Evaluate sin(arctan ).
This is the same problem as the last one, except instead of a known quantity we have
some variable. The procedures for this problem are identical. We let
(2)
= arctan ,
then, using the Tangent function to each side, we get

tan = .
Now we draw a picture to represent this equation, as shown in Figure 94.
Figure 94
In this case, tan = , right? Isnt that the same thing as tan = ?
1
When we substitute (2) into the original equation, we then have

sin ,
And so all we need to do is determine the ratio of the opposite to the hypotenuse. Since
the hypotenuse is currently unknown, we use Pythagoras Theorem. If we call the
hypotenuse , then we have
12 + 2 = 2
whence
= 1 + 2 .
The Sine ratio, then, is
1 + 2
Which we can rationalize, but that seems a bit unnecessary at the moment. Hence
is our final result.
1+2
Exercises
1.)
Evaluate each of the following expressions. Be sure to use the restrictions of the
Arc functions.
1
(F) arccos 1
(A) arcsin 2
1
1
(G) arcsin ( 2)
(B) arccos
2
(H) arccos ( 2)
(C) arcsin 1
3
2
2
arcsin 2
(D) arccos
(E)
2.)
(I)
(J)
3
)
2
2
arccos ( 2 )
arcsin (
Solve the following equations. All angles should be measured in radians.

1
3
(A) sin + 2 = 1
(F) cos 2 =
(B) cos 2 =
(C) 2 sin =
(D)
cos
3
=6
2
2
(G) sin 2 =
2
2
2
(H) cos 2 = 0
3
4
(E) sin 2 = 2
(I)
sin( 5) = 1
(J)
cos(2 + 1) =
3
2
3.)
Solve the following equations using a calculator. All angles should be measured in
radians.
(A) 1 + sin = 1.25
(C) 3 sin = 1
cos
1
(B) cos 0.25 = 1.1
(D)
=
4.)
We did not define the Arctangent function, so let us do that now.

(A) Make two tables (similar to Example 1b) first with and tan . Then switch
the two columns for the second table. Make sure you label the first column
of the second table with and the second column with arctan .
(B) Use this table to evaluate the following.
i. arctan 1
iv. arctan(1)
ii. arctan(3)
v. arctan 0
iii. arctan ( 3 )
vi. arctan (
3
)
3
(C) Now lets consider what restrictions exist (if any) for the Arctangent function.
Use a calculator to help you determine the domain of the Arctangent. Is
there any value you can input into the Arctangent function such that you
will not get an answer?
Unit six 182
5.)
6.)
(D) What is the codomain of the Arctangent function? In other words, what do
we expect to receive as output when we input side ratios into the function?
Use a calculator to help you out.xiii
Solve the following equations which contain the Tangent function.
3
(A) tan 1 = 0
(C) tan 2 = 3
(B) tan 2 = 3
(D) tan( 1) = 3
One use of the Arc functions is to complete a right triangle where we do not know
an angle. First, set up your Trig ratio (as you did in Unit four), then isolate the angle
measure using techniques learned in this section.
Complete the following right triangles.xiv
(A)
7.)
(B)
True or False:
(A) arcsin(sin ) = ,
(B) arcsin =
4
8.)
2
2
(C) arccos 0 = 0
(D) arctan 100 is undefined, since 100 is not in the domain.
The statement sin(arcsin ) = is False if . Restrict to make the statement
True.
Once you see a picture of the Tangent function, and, subsequently, the Arctangent function, the
domain and codomain will make more sense.
xiv
Recall that, to complete a right triangle, you must supply all the missing side lengths and angle
measures.
xiii
9.)
Find the exact value of each expression.

(E)
(F)
(G)
(H)
(A) cos (arcsin 5)

4
(B) sin (arccos 5)

5
(C) tan (arcsin 13)
sin(arctan )
cos(arcsin )
tan(arccos )
sin(arccos(2 1))
24
(D) cos (arctan 7 )
Graphing Trigonometric functions
Let us now turn our attention to graphing Trigonometric functions. It is our goal to graph
a Trig function, say () = sin , on the coordinate plane. This will help us to see the Trig
function and its many behaviors, one of which is very important to know. We also have a
few loose ends from the previous section which well aim to tie up.
Let us begin by simply graphing the Sine function.
Example 1
Graph () = sin . i
In the previous course we spent a great deal of time graphing functions. And one reliable
method we had to graph any function was to make a table of values, and plot the resulting
points. Although we want to try and make this process a bit easier, this is an excellent
method to begin with.
With other functions, we chose points like 0, 1, and 2, but do you know what sin 1 is? And
while you can calculate that fairly quickly with a calculator, why dont we choose inputs to
which we know the output for? Therefore, we choose the following inputs, and list their
corresponding outputs below. As we have for some time now, well be using radians for
our angles.

0
1
2
Yes, were going against our standard convention by calling an angle measure , which is a Latin letter.
The reader will forgive us, though, as we want to highlight the fact that were working with the coordinate
plane, and each point has an - and -coordinate. Using here is OK, but we only want to use when we
have a Polar equation. More on that in the next section.
i
Unit six 184
2
4
2
3
3
2
1
2
Before we plot these points, how should we set up our scale? Usually, weve just counted
by 1 on each axis, but that wouldnt be very helpful in this case, because where is 6 is
relation to 1? It is true, we suppose, that you can approximate 6 , but it will be more helpful
to choose a scale that measures with respect to the choice of input. Consequently, we will
count by
on the -axis. As for the -axis, we will count by 2, since we have as outputs 0
and 1.ii We show this in Figure 95.
Figure 95
Were counting by on the -axis. It might help you to use common denominators when you first start. Then youd have
4
2 3 4
4
. This is equivalent to what you see above, correct?
Have we plotted enough points here? Nope We need some more. It has not yet achieved
the general shape of the Sine function. As with other functions, the Sine function will have
a particular shape which you should look for, and if you dont have enough points to get
that shape, you need some more.
Let us now add some more inputs.iii We show these in the following table.
Yes, we have some irrational numbers here too, but the fact that weve got 0 and 1 as outputs means we
can easily use rational numbers as our scale. As for our inputs, we only have one rational number 0 so
its less helpful.
iii
Again, choosing inputs for which we have memorized the output for.
ii
2 Graphing Trigonometric equations 185
2
3
3
2
3
2
4
2
5
1
6
2
0
7
1
6
2
5
2
4
2
4
3
3
2
3
1
2
5
2
3
2
7
2
4
2
11
1
6
2
2
0
Now we should have enough points. We plot them in Figure 96.
Figure 96
We finally come face-to-face with the snaking, repeating Sine function. We will connect
the dots and reveal the entire picture in Figure 97.
Unit six 186
Figure 97
There are some very interesting traits that this graph exhibits, and these features will help
us further use the Sine function.
The first feature which should pop out at you is the repeating nature of the Sine function.
Perhaps even as you made your table of values, seeing the same numbers pop up time
and again made you scratch your head. But seeing the picture, we can see that the Sine
function will repeat itself over and over again. Due to this reiterative behavior, we call the
Sine function a periodic function.
And this is good news. Because we wouldnt want to have to plot as many points as we
did in Example 1. Instead, we can use the periodic nature of the function, plot a few points,
and then the copy them down appropriately.
Usually, it is only necessary to graph one period of the function. If the reader then needs
more than one period, it is easy enough for him to copy it as he needs. So let us first
concentrate on what we mean by period.
A period is one iteration of the function, which then gets repeated. We show one period
of the Sine function in Figure 98.
Figure 98
One period of the Sine function has been bolded.
It doesnt matter where you start your period, either. So we could have also shown one
period as we do in Figure 99.
Figure 99
Either way, you can see that what we have bolded will continue on indefinitely.
How long is the period? For example, the seasons are periodic, in that they repeat
indefinitely. And every year they repeat themselves, right? Therefore we would say that
seasons have a period of a year. In the case of Trig functions, we will look to the -axis to
determine the period. In the case of sin , the period is 2. After we go 2 to the right,
the function will begin anew. This is important information, and will help us to graph in
this section, but also to tie up one loose end from the previous section.
Example 2a
List all solutions of the equation sin =
2
.
2
From the previous section, we can Arcsine each side and get = 4 . But the problem does
not just ask for the solution such that 2 2 , it asks for all of them.
We could go back to the unit circle to get our second answer, but let us instead graph.
The two sides of this equation are equal, so, by the transitive property, we can say that
= sin and =
2 iv
.
2
Then we just graph =
2
2
and = sin on the same coordinate
plane. Weve already graphed = sin (see Figure 97), and =

that passes through the point (0,
iv
Does this change the original equality?
2
).
2
2
2
is just a horizontal line
We show this below in Figure 100.
Unit six 188
Figure 100
Recall that the solutions to this system of equations are the points of intersection
between each graph. We see that have two of them, one at = 4 and the other at =
3 v
.
4
But there are more, arent there? After all, the Sine function repeats indefinitely. So will we
have to expand our graph and find all the other points of intersection? Thankfully, no, we
will not, since the Sine function repeats itself in a pattern, viz., every 2. Thus we can state
that another solution will be
=
+ 2.
4
We can also state that another solution will be

=
+ 2 + 2.
4
We can also state that another solution will be

=
+ 2 + 2 + 2,
4
and
=
+ 2 + 2 + 2 + 2,
4
and so on. Let us not forget that we can go backwards as well, so we also need to include
The corresponding -values should be easy enough to find. What was the equation of the horizontal
line, again?
v
2, = 2 2,
4
4
And so on.
But this is tedious to write. And since there seems to be a nice pattern to our solutions,
well shorten it up. Let . Then our solutions are
=
+ 2.
4
So if we want to find some solution, we let equal, say, 2. Then our solution is
=
+ 4.
4
We could also let = 3. Then our solution would be

=
6.
4
So the is just some integer constant that allows us to conveniently write out an infinite
amount of solutions.
We now write out the final result:
=
3
+ 2, =
+ 2: .
4
4
It is very important that you define what is. If is a rational number, for instance, then
the above statement is false.
Previously, we made the statement that the Sine function repeats itself every 2. This is
true for () = sin , but will that always be the case?
Example 2b
1
List all solutions to 2 = sin(2).

We first graph this function. To do this, we again make a table of values, which we show
below.
sin
0
3
2
1
Unit six 190
3
3
2
0
2
2
3
3
2
3
1
4
5
3
6
2
0
This looks a bit different than all of our other tables But let us go ahead and graph it
and see, in Figure 101, what it looks like.
Figure 101
It appears that this graph repeats itself more quickly. Indeed, as we highlight in Figure
102, the period of the function sin 2 is , and not 2.
Figure 102
This fact is very important: We need to determine the period in order to list all the
solutions. Well reveal how to determine the period of the Sine function after we complete
this example. For now, we make a note that the period of our function is .
1
We next graph the horizontal line = 2 on the same graph as = sin 2. We get Figure
103, and this Figure shows us 2 solutions.
Figure 103
To the thousandths place, the points are (0.262, .500) and (1.309, .500).
The problem in our Example tells us to find the exact value, and the 0.3 (and 1.3) is only
an approximation. What is the exact value of ?
To find this out, we first recognize that
sin
1
1
= .
6 2
But instead of sin = 2, we have sin 2 = 2. So we will set each underlined portion equal
to each other, getting
= 2.
6
Solving for , then, we get
=
.
12
What about the other -value? There are a couple ways we could get that exact value.
One way is by intuition: We have symmetry in our Sine function, and so if one of our
values was gotten 12 after = 0, the other must be 12 before = 2 .vi Another way of doing
it is think back to the unit circle. We know that Sine is positive in Quadrants I and II. Weve
vi
See that when = 0 and =
then the function is equal to zero?
Unit six 192
taken care of Quadrant I when we used

the angle in Quadrant II, which is
(which subsequently got us
. Then we see sin

6
5
6
). So now we find
12
= 2 and sin 2 = 2 whence
5
= 2
6
=
5
.
12
Verify these results on your calculator.

But dont forget that these are only two of the infinite solutions. Since we have a period
of , these solutions will repeat every time increases by , right? Therefore we write
=
5
+ , =
+ : .
12
12
Before we do one more example, let us formalize the process for finding the period of the
Sine function.
Period of the Sine function
The period of sin is given by
Example 2c
List all solutions of sin 2 =
, where and is a constant.
3
.
2
We once again begin by graphing. To help us with graphing, let us first find the period. In
this case, we have sin 2 and hence = 2. Therefore our period is

2
= 4.
1
2
With this in mind, we choose the following points, as shown in Figure 104.
Figure 104
Now we just need to graph the line =

this produces Figure 105.
3
,
2
and determine the intersection points. Doing
Figure 105
Finally, to determine the exact value of the -values of our intersection points, we write
out sin
4
3
3
,
2
sin
5
3
3 vii
,
2
and sin =
2
3
,
2
and create two equations from the
underlined portions. We get

4
5
=
=
2
3
2
3
whence
=
8
10
=
.
3
3
We then add the rest of the solutions by using the period of the function:
=
8
10
+ 4, =
+ 4: .
3
3
Example 2d
List all solutions of the equation sin(3 ) = 1.
This equation is a bit different than the ones in the past, since we have an expression
inside our Sine function. We will begin by graphing = sin(3 ). The procedure for
this is a table of values; we show the chosen (and resulting) points in Figure 106.
vii
Both of the values,
4
3
and
5
3
, we obtained from the unit circle, visualizing where sin was equal to
Again, draw out the unit circle if you do not see this.
3
2
Unit six 194
Figure 106
One period of = sin(3 ).
In this case, we just randomly chose the normal points, and plotted. But there is something
here to notice: The period of this function is
2
3
. If we were given sin(3 ), how did we
get that period? It appears that the period of the Sine function only has to do with the
coefficient of the -value, and has nothing to do with anything that gets added or
subtracted (in this case, the minus pi; it had no impact on the period).
Now we add in the line = 1 in Figure 107.
Figure 107
Theres something really nice about this: There is only one solution per period. But is that
right? The previous examples each had two solutions per period, right? Think of it this
way: On the unit circle, how many times is sin equal to 1? Only once, right? Only when
= 2 . Every other point on the unit circle is less than 1. So our picture is correct.
In our case, its very easy to tell that =
is the exact value of our graph that produces 1
(since its on a grid line). But what would we do if it wasnt? The same thing we did in the
previous examples: Write sin(3 ) = 1 and sin 2 = 1, and then set each underlined
portion equal to each other. This gives us
3 =
whence
3 =
+
2
3
2
= .
2
3 =
Factoring in the period (to determine the other solutions), we conclude that
=
2
+
: .
2
3
Before continuing on, lets say a few words about that minus pi we had in the previous
function. Recall that ( ) is a horizontal translation of the function () by units to
the right. We had the same setup Example 2d, right? This function, sin(3 ), is
therefore a translation of the function sin 3 by units to the right. We now add in all of
the transformation rules of the Sine function.
Transformation rules for the Sine function
Consider the equation
sin( ) + .
gives the amount of vertical stretch.
2
is the period.
represents the amount to horizontally shift the function.

represents the amount to vertically shift the function.
Example 3
Graph 2 sin ( + 2 ) + 2.
As always, you are welcome to create a table of values and simply graph the resulting
points. Some of the Exercises youll be given, however, might give you some pause, since
your points will seem abnormal. Knowing the transformational rules can therefore make
Unit six 196
the process easier and will also help you to determine whether what youve graphed
makes any sense.
We start with the period. To determine this, we simply substitute 1, the coefficient of ,
into the formula,
, whence our period is

2.
The next thing well do is take the important -coordinates of the parent Sine function,
= sin , translate horizontally, stretch them, and then translate them vertically. What
exactly are the important points? How about we find everywhere the Sine functions
crosses the -axis, its maximum and minimum point in one period, and beginning and
ending point.viii Well show this by creating a table of values and then graphing those
points in Figure 108.
3
2
2
0
1
0
1
0
The beginning and ending point are arbitrary. Is it necessary that I begin the period at = 0? No, of
course not. But for the most part, that makes sense to begin there. Then ending point will then be one
period away from that starting point. Of course, keep in mind that there will be times when choosing =
0 as the starting points wont be such a good idea.
viii
Figure 108
Now we move each point
to the left, then multiply each -value by 2, and finally from
there move up 2 units. Well move point to in Figure 109 to give you a picture of this
process.
Figure 109
Note that the value were stretching is not the -value, but the -value. Therefore, in moving to , we multiply 0, the value, by 2, which is a stretch of nothing. Then we move 2 up. Notice that thats different for the move from to .
Unit six 198
Completing this process will get us the completed graph, which we see in Figure 110.
Figure 110
Knowing your transformational rules will be very helpful to you in this section, so be sure
to review them if necessary.
You will discover how to graph the Cosine function on your own. So we now turn our
attention to the Tangent function, which is different than the Sine and Cosine functions.
Example 4
Graph = tan .
As we did with the Sine function, let us first make a table of values for the Tangent function
and then plot the resulting points (Figure 111).

0
3
3
1
3
Undef.
Figure 111
This is most assuredly not enough points, so lets choose some more, then plot them in
Figure 112.
6
2
3
3
4
5
6

.
3
1
3
3
3
1
3
1
Unit six 200
Figure 112
At this point, we notice a pattern. We therefore connect the dots and show the complete
Tangent function in Figure 113.
Figure 113
This picture reveals some very interesting features. The first thing that comes to mind is
how different it appears than the Sine function. But there are other things that manifest
themselves, too. What is the period of the graph above? What is the maximum value of
the Tangent function? What is the minimum value?
Example 5
List all solutions to the equation tan 2 = 1.
As with the Sine function, the key to this problem is to determine the period. There is a
simple way to do this, like the Sine function, but first let us see how the 2 changes the
problem by examining it the old-fashioned way. We make a table of values and then
graph (connecting the dots) in Figure 114.
2
2
3
3
4
5
6

0
3
.
3
0
3
.
3
0
Figure 114
Unit six 202
It appears that the period is , right? This being the case, we can state that we can
2
determine the period of the Tangent function in the same manner that we did the Sine
function (and well formalize this soon).
To answer the Example, we will next graph = 1 on the same graph. We get Figure 115.
Figure 115
Since the period of = tan 2 is , this picture contains a full period of the function. Note that, to the thousandths place,
2
the -value is 0.393.
We are again faced with the question of how to determine the exact value of the -value
of the intersection point. We proceed using the same procedure as we did with the Sine
function: We write tan 4 = 1 and tan 2 = 1. Then we set the underlined portions equal
to each other, and solve. Hence
= 2
4
= .
8
One of the consequences of the Tangent function is that there is only one solution per
period.ix Therefore, to list all of our solutions, we need only write
=

+
: .
8
2
Let us formalize the transformational rules for graphing the Tangent function.
You can verify this on your own. Look at the graph of = tan , and draw any horizontal line through it.
In each period, how many points of intersection are there? How many can there be?
ix
Transformation rules for the Tangent function

Consider the equation
tan( ) + .
gives the amount of vertical stretch.
is the period.
represents the amount to horizontally shift the function.

represents the amount to vertically shift the function.
Example 6
1
Graph 2 tan(2 + ) 1.
We follow the same process seen in Example 4. We take the points from the graph of =
1
tan , then move them to the left, then stretch that -value by 2, and finally move them
one down. We end up with Figure 116, which shows both = tan and the function that
results when performing the previously mentioned transformations.
Figure 116
Of course, if you prefer, you can always graph these functions the old-fashioned way.
Exercises
1.)
Graph at least 2 periods of the following functions.

(A) = sin
(E)
(B) = tan
(F)
(C) = sin 2
(G)
(D) = tan 2
(H)
= 2 sin
= 3 tan
= sin + 2
= tan ( 2 )
Unit six 204
2.)
3.)
Write the equation of the Sine function that contains the following transformations.
(A) 3 up
1
(B) Vertically stretched by a factor of 2
(C) Moved to the right and 1 down
(D) Flipped over the -axis
(E) Move 4 to the left and vertically stretched by a factor of 4.
Write the equation of the graph shown in the picture.
(A)
(B)
(C)
4.)
(D)
List all solutions to the following equations. Answers must be in exact form.
3
(F) tan 2 = 1
(A) sin = 2
1
(G) sin =
2
2
(B) tan = 3
2
(H) tan 3 = 3
(C) sin =
2
(I) sin 3 = 1
3
(D) tan = 3
(J) tan 4 = 0
1
3
(K) sin(2 1) = 2
(E) sin 2 =
2
5.)
6.)
7.)
Let us now view the Cosine function.

(A) Graph the Cosine function by making a table of values.
(B) Compare and contrast the Sine and Cosine function. (Comment on the
shape, period, values, etc.)
(C) Try using the Cosine function to answer 3.) (A) and (C).
(A) () = cos
(C) () = cos ( 4 )
(B) () = 2 cos
(D) () = cos 1
List all solutions to the following equations.
1
(A) cos = 2
3
2
2
2
(B) cos 2 =
(C) cos =
8.)
(D) cos 2 = 1
(E) cos 4 = 2
One physical feature of periodic functions is their amplitude. This quality is

essentially the height of the graph of the periodic function. The amplitude is
defined as one-half times the height of the function. Determine the amplitude of
the following functions.
(A) () = 2 sin
(B) () = cos
(C) () = 10 sin
(D) 2 () = 12 cos
Unit six 206
9.) Use the Cosine function to create a graph that is equal to = sin .x
10.) The following graphs are a bit curious Graph them.
(A) = sin2 + cos 2 .
(C) = 2 sin cos .
sin
(D) = tan cot
(B) =
.
cos
11.) A function is defined to be even if () = (). Looking at this graphically, this

means that the function has symmetry across the -axis. Which Trig function is an
even function?xi
12.) The next two equations are important in Calculus. Graph them.
1cos
sin
(B) =
(A) =
13.) Let us turn our attention to the Arc functions.

(A) Make a table of values for the Sine, Cosine, and Tangent functions.
(B) Now switch the columns of the tables around, and graph the resulting
points.
(C) Is your graph of the Arcsine function (as graphed in (B)) a function? What
about the Arccosine function? What about the Arctangent?
(D) To make them functions, restrict the codomain so that they are functions.
(Hint: Look back to the previous section.)
14.) We finally turn our attention to the reciprocal Trig functions. Graph the following.
(A) = csc
(B) = sec
(C) = cot
15.) List all solutions of cot = 4 .

16.) What is the behavior of the Sine function as it gets bigger and bigger? Does it
settle down onto a single point? Does it get very large?
Polar equations
For our final section in Unit six, we return to the Polar Plane. Previously, we only graphed
single points on the Polar Plane, but now we will plot a collection of points which will
produce a shape of some sort. We will also connect Polar equations with rectangular
equationsi by learning how they relate to one another and how to convert between the
two.
By equal, we mean that the two graphs are exactly the same, and contain exactly the same points.
Youll need to know for this for later, so you might want to highlight this Exercise.
i
A rectangular equation is a normal equation, that is, an equation that is graphed on the coordinate
plane.
x
xi
3 Polar equations 207
Recall that a point on the Polar Plane requires two components: A radius and an angle. It
is possible to relate these two quantities in the form of an equation and then graph the
resulting points.
In this section we will do something a bit curious, so let us explain our rationale. Although
Polar points are written with the radius first, then the angle (e.g., (2, 4 )), you will notice
our tables of values have the angle in the left column, as though they were the first
component. The reader will notice we view the angle as the input of Polar equations,
even though, technically, the radius is in the first component (and therefore the radius
should be the input). This is a conventional choice by the author, and not necessarily
something you will see in other texts.
Example 1a
Graph = 2 cos .
This is a Polar equation, and the choice of variables make this clear. We will get points for
our Polar graph the same way we obtained points for a rectangular graph, viz., we will
make a table of values. We show this below.
0
2
3
6
2
4
1
3
0
2
2
1
3
3
2
4
5
3
6
2
We can graph the points whose radii are positive, and we do so in Figure 117.
Unit six 208
Figure 117
Last reminder here: Weve switched the components around so that the angle measure is first and the radius is second.
Thats it. Dont let such a small and subtle change throw you into a state of confusion!
So what should we do about the negative radii? Perhaps the best way to deal with it is to
use the negative -axis as a starting point, then rotate the desired angle. So if we have a
radius of 1, we go 1 to the left of the Pole, then rotate the desired angle,
this in Figure 118.
ii
Which, notice, is still a counter-clockwise direction.
2 ii
.
3
We depict
Figure 118
We went 1 to the left and placed an open circle (since it is not part of our graph), then rotated that point
We now complete this process and produce the shape seen in Figure 119.
2
3
Unit six 210
Figure 119
The points produced seem to produce a circle, so weve gone ahead and connected the
points in that manner.
Let us practice another basic example.
Example 1b
Graph the equation = 3 sin .
This might appear to be very similar to the previous Polar equation, but perhaps it is
different. We will check by making a table of values and then plotting the subsequent
points on the Polar Plane (which we show in Figure 120).
0
3
2
32
2.12
2
33
2.60
2
2
2
3
3
4
5
6
3
33
2
32
2
3
2
0
Figure 120
We will not connect the points here, but you can see that this will produce a circle.
It appears we have another circle, although this one is above the Pole, whereas the
previous one was to the right of the Pole. Does this have a connection with what we know
about Sine and Cosine?
Some things to consider: We stopped choosing points when we got , and points and
produced the same point. So why did we stop at ? Only based on intuition we knew
what shape would be produced, and upon seeing it, stopped picking points. As we get
Unit six 212
into more unique shapes, you may need to pick out more points than we have so far. As
for why we stopped, consider inputting the angle
3
2
. Upon doing this, we see that our -
value is 3, and plotting this on the Polar Plane produces the exact same point as from
Figure 120. Plotting that point, then, is not a good use of our time.iii
Let us now try something a bit more unique.
Example 2a
Graph = 1 sin .
We proceed as before, creating a table of values, and then plotting the subsequent points,
this time in Figure 121.
2
2
3
3
4
5
6
1
1
2
2
1
0.29
2
3
1
0.13
2
0
3
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
And knowing that Trig functions are periodic and therefore repeat, one might be led to believe that
eventually all Polar graphs will create closed shapes, like circles and ovals. This as we will demonstrate
is not always the case.
iii
Figure 121
Because of space, we have not listed the coordinates of each point. Note that we have zoomed in on this graph. Another
alternative would be to change the scale, so that each circle would be 0.5 (or less) in radius.
This shape looks peculiar. As such, we will continue to plot points. We show the table and
the subsequent points in Figure 122.
7
6
5
4
4
3
3
2
5
3
7
4
11
6
2
3
2
2 + 2
1.71
2
2 + 3
1.87
2
2
2 + 3
2
2 + 2
2
3
2
1
Unit six 214
Figure 122
Having filled in all of the points, we see our resulting shape, which is known as a Limaon,
which comes from a Latin word meaning snail. This specific type of Limaon is called a
cardioid because it turns inward on itself, almost appearing like a heart. This shape is very
unique, and not one that is easily graphed in the coordinate plane.iv Lets graph another
cardioid.
Example 2b
Graph = 1 + 2 cos .
We follow the same procedure. We will choose points all the way up to 2, then plot them
in Figure 123.
iv
One way to graph the cardioid shown is to use the equation 2 + 2 = 1
2 + 2
. Yeah, not fun.
2
2
3
3
4
5
6
1 + 3 2.73
1 + 2 2.41
2
1
0
1 2 0.41
1 3 0.73
7
6
5
4
4
3
3
2
5
3
7
4
11
6
2
1 3
1 2
0
1
2
1 + 2
1 + 3
3
Figure 123
The inner portion is gotten from negative radii. You may need to review that to help you with these problems.
Unit six 216
Something quite curious happened with this cardioid. As you can see, there are points
inside the heart-shaped object. There is nothing wrong with this, and, in fact, this will
often happen with cardioids. There is nothing special to do when this occurs just plot
the points you get from your table of values.
We will show one more examplev and then relate Polar equations to their rectangular
brethren.
Example 3
Graph = sin 2.
Following the same procedure, we get the table shown below which is graphed in Figure
124.
2
2
3
3
4
5
6
3
2
1
3
2
0
3
2
3
2
0
7
6
5
4
4
3
3
2
5
3
7
4
11
6
2
3
2
1
3
2
0
3
2
1
3
2
0
This next example isnt necessary for teaching, per se. But the shape is so cool we just had to include it!
Figure 124
If you have difficulty graphing a Polar equation, try picking out different angles of rotations. We have only chosen the
angles we did since we have those ones memorized, but you have a calculator, so it shouldnt be too difficult to input, say,
.
12
The previous object is known as a Polar rose, which is a very unique and interesting shape.
Polar roses are not relegated to just 4 petals, either. But well let you explore them a bit
further in the Exercises.
The final thing well do in this section is relate Polar equations to our usual rectangular
equations. The key to doing this is to remember our very good friend, the unit circle.
Recall that a point on the unit circle has coordinates (, ). But further recall that we
could have also listed the coordinates as (cos , sin ), where is the angle from the
positive -axis that produces the point in question. And there it is, our relationship laid
bare:
= cos , = sin .
Of course, this only works for the unit circle, and we wont always have that luxury.
Accounting for a point on any circle, then, our relationship is
= cos , = sin ,
where is the length of the radius. And how does one find the length of the radius? To
answer this, consider Figure 125.
Unit six 218
Figure 125
Notice that we can create a right triangle with the - and -values and the radius? Then
we can use Pythagoras Theorem to demonstrate that
= 2 + 2 .
Example 4a
Convert the Polar equation = 2 cos into a rectangular equation.
We previously graphed a Polar equation very similar to this one and found out that it was
a circle. We will now see that not only is it a circle by Geometry (that is, by how it looks)
but also algebraically as well.
In order to convert a Polar equation into a rectangular equation, we must change the
equation so that it does not contain and variables, but rather, and variables.
To do this, all we need to do in this problem is substitute. Since = 2 + 2 , we can
write
(1)
2 + 2 = 2 cos .
How should we rewrite cos , since we have the relationship = cos ? Why not solve
for cos ? Hence
(2)
cos = .
We now substitute (2) back into (1), getting us
2 + 2 = 2 ( ).
But we still have that pesky variable. But we can take care of that easily: Just substitute
= 2 + 2 in. Hence
2 + 2 =
2
2 + 2
This looks ugly, and nothing like the rectangular form of a circle, right? To help with this,
let us multiply both sides by 2 + 2 . Doing this gets us
2 + 2 = 2,
which looks very close to a circle. To clean it up, we need to put it into standard form. This
requires the technique known as completing the square, which we now show:
2 2 + 2 = 0
( 2 2 + 1) + 2 = 1
( 1)2 + 2 = 1.
In Figure 126a and b, we show the Polar graph and the rectangular graph.
Figure 126
It appears as if the two graphs are identical, and, indeed, they are. So why have two
different ways of writing their equations? One reason is that it is much easier to write =
Unit six 220
2 cos than ( 1)2 + 2 = 1. The other reason was intimated in an earlier Example, viz.,
that some equations are best left in Polar form than in rectangular form.vi
Example 4b
Convert the rectangular equation = 2 + 1 into Polar form.
To accomplish this, we just need to substitute. Since = sin and = cos , we have
sin = 2 cos + 1.
We should solve this equation for ; hence
sin 2 cos = 1
(sin 2 cos ) = 1
=
1
.
sin 2 cos
This is our final solution, and one way to verify that it is correct is to graph it on the Polar
Plane, and then compare the graph to that of = 2 + 1 on the rectangular plane.
Exercises
1.)
2.)
3.)
Graph the following Polar equations.

(A) = 2 cos
(H) = 2 cos 2
(B) = 4 sin
(I) = 2 sin 3
(C) = 2 sin + 2 cos
(J) = 3 sin 5
(D) = 1 + cos
(K) = 4cos 2
(E) = 1 cos
(L) = sin2 + cos2
(F) = 1 + 2 sin
(M) = vii
(G) = 1 3 sin
(N) = 2
Convert the following Polar equation into rectangular equations.
1
(A) = sin2 + cos2
(C) = 1cos
1
(B) = 3 cos
(D) =
cos sin
Convert the following rectangular equations into Polar equations.

(A) 2 + 2 = 9
(C) = + 1
(B) = 4
(D) = 2
This is true, I suppose, of many things, but the first thought that comes to mind is language. When I first
heard the phrase, I came, I saw, I conquered, I wasnt very impressed. But upon hearing the same phrase
in Latin Veni, Vidi, Vici I was stunned by its beauty and magnitude.
vii
Try using some negative angles here (and in (N)), too.
vi
4.)
5.)
6.)
7.)
viii
Lets try to generalize some of our Polar graphs. First up, circles.
(A) Look at the graph of = 2 cos , which should have already been graphed.
Describe it in words, using the terms radius and center.
(B) Based on your description, draw = 3 cos . Then check to make sure your
answer was correct.
(C) Lets generalize: What is the graph of = cos ?viii
(D) Look at the graph of = 4 sin . Describe it in words.
(E) Based on your description, draw = 2 sin . Then check to make sure your
answer was correct.
(F) Generalize: What is the graph of = sin ?
(G) What is the difference between = sin and = cos .
Now lets generalize limaons. First of all, lets look at cardioids, which is a special
type of Limaon.
(A) Look at the graphs of = 1 + cos and = 1 cos . How are they alike?
How are they different?
(B) Now graph = 1 + sin , also a Limaon. How is it alike with = 1 + cos ,
how is it different?
(C) What will = 1 sin look like?
Now we look at looped limaons.
(A) Look at the graph of = 1 + 2 sin . Describe it in words.
(B) Now graph = 1 2 sin . How is it alike with = 1 + 2 sin and how is it
different?
(C) Now graph = 1 + 2 cos . How is it alike with = 1 + 2 sin and how is it
different?
(D) If = + cos , then the graph will be a looped Limaon iff < 1. Write
an equation that will produce a looped Limaon.

Next we move to Polar roses.
(A) Look at the graph of = 2 sin 2. How many rose petals are there? How
does that relate to the given equation?
(B) Theres a pattern involving the number of rose petals, here, but youll need
to do some experiments to find it. Graph = 2 sin 3 , = 2 sin 4 , =
2 sin 5, until you discover the pattern. Describe the pattern.
(C) What does the value in front of the Sine function do? Again, experiment to
determine this.
(D) What is the difference between = 2 sin 2 and = 2 cos 2?
(E) Does Cosine follow a similar pattern to the Sine function when it comes to
Polar roses?
(F) Now, to generalize: Describe the shape of the graph of = 2 sin .
Again, use the term radius and center.
Unit six 222
8.)
9.)
ix
Now on to some fun ones. An interesting feature of Polar equations is that they
produce some varied, beautiful, and unique graphs. Well take a look at a few here.
Graph the following. Be sure to use negative angles as well. ix
(A) = tan
(C) = cos + sin2
(B) = tan 2
(D) = sin2 2
Use Wolfram Alpha and do some experiments of your own. Write down at least
three really neat Polar graphs that you found. Be prepared to share them with the
class. (A couple of suggestions: Use Tangent, or any of the reciprocal Trig
functions. Try using the Arc functions. Go crazy!)
Some of these are difficult to graph and take a while, but the resulting shape is worth the effort!
223
Unit seven
Trigonometric identities
Politics is for the present, but an equation is for eternity.
Albert Einstein
Unit seven 224
In our final Trigonometry unit, we will work with identities, a topic weve hinted at.
Identities can be tough, but then, most students also havent been building their critical
thinking, proof, analysis, and experimentation skills as we have.
We begin by discovering the Law of Sines and Cosines, both of which we will need to
prove various Trig identities. With these in hand, we then prove the major Trig identities,
leaving a few for you to discover on your own. We then endeavor to use the Trig identities
for the sake of proof.
The Law of Sines and Cosines
Up to this point, our Trigonometric functions have only worked on right triangles.
Although this is very useful, since many triangles fit that bill, it would be better if we could
use the Sine or Cosine function for any triangle. So we will attempt to do just this.
So we draw the following general triangle in Figure 127.
Figure 127
As of right now, the only thing we can do with, say, the Sine function, is to input an angle
of a right triangle (which then outputs a side-length-ratio). So well make a right triangle
out of this triangle by constructing perpendicular line through , as shown in Figure
128.i
We will use a slightly different naming convention for this triangle. We will let angle measures be
denoted by capital Latin letters, and side lengths by lowercase Latin letters. As before, will always be
opposite of , and so on.
i
1 The Law of Sines and Cosines 225
Figure 128
Note that = 1 + 2 , and 1 is the length of while 2 is the length of . is the length of .
Now, what relationships exist here? One helpful way to discover things is to just list what
you know. We know, for example, that
sin = ,
And
sin = .
There are a few other relationships that we could list, but did you notice how each of the
previous two equations contain the same variable? This means that we can relate each of
them to each other using the Transitive Property. Since
= sin
and
= sin ,
we can state that
sin = sin .
Better yet, we can get corresponding angles and side lengths next to each other with
some simple Algebra:
sin sin
=
.
Unit seven 226
This can be done with the other angles and side lengths, too, and youll have to prove
that in the Exercises. For now, we formalize the Law of Sines.
The Law of Sines
In any triangle ,
Example 1a
sin sin sin

=
=
.
What is the length of in the triangle given in Figure 129?
Figure 129
It is rare to measure triangles using radians, so youll see degrees for most of this unit. Is your calculator in the right mode?
We simply use the formula. Let = 38, = 81, and = 12. Then we have
sin 38 sin 81
=
12
whence we solve for :
12 sin 38 = sin 81
7.39 = 0.99
7.46.
Example 1b
What is the measure of in the triangle given in Figure 130?
Figure 130
We again use the formula. We have

sin 62 sin
=
25
20
whence we solve for :
. 035 =
sin
20
0.71 = sin
45.23.
Note that we use the Arcsine function in order to undo the Sine function, just as we
learned in Unit six.
Will the Law of Sines help us to solve any triangle? Consider Figure 131.
Figure 131
Would the Law of Sines help us here? Substituting what we know into our equation, we
have
sin 60 sin
=
.
5
This doesnt help us, since we have two variables. We could try
Unit seven 228
sin 60 sin
=
,
6
but wed run into the same problem. We might even try to substitute, since both of the
previous two equations have the same variable, , in them. This leaves us with a third
equation that has two different variables, and were back where we started.
It would seem, therefore, that the Law of Sines has some limitations. So let us return to
the drawing board to see if there isnt some other relationship we can discover.ii
Look at Figure 132, redrawn from before (except with variables and a perpendicular line
of length drawn from through ). If , and are known quantities, what relationship
exists?
Figure 132
We know, among other things, that
sin = ,
1
cos = ,
and
2 = 1 .
Using Algebra, we can show that
= sin ,
1 = cos ,
ii
By the way, that isnt a guarantee well find anything.
and
2 = cos .
We now redraw the previous Figure using the newly-known quantities in Figure 133.
Figure 133
Using Pythagoras on the right triangle on the top, we can now see that
( cos )2 + ( sin )2 = 2
and, using Pythagoras on the right triangle on the bottom, we have
( cos )2 + ( sin )2 = 2 .
The bottom one seems more useful, so well use that one. We expand each term on the
left side and get
2 2 cos + 2 cos2 + 2 sin2 = 2 .
Then, factoring and simplifyingiii we reveal that
2 2 cos + 2 (cos 2 + sin2 ) = 2
2 = 2 + 2 2 cos .
This now gives us enough information to solve the previous problem.
Example 2a
Complete the triangle seen in Figure 134.
iii
What was sin2 + cos 2 equal to again?
Unit seven 230
Figure 134
We use the relationship which just found, that is,

2 = 2 + 2 2 cos .
We know = 5, = 6, and = 60, so we just substitute and solve. We have
2 = 52 + 62 2(5)(6) cos 60
2 = 31
5.57.
We now know one angle and three side lengths, which is great, but the directions tell us
to complete the triangle, so we still have more work to do.
How should we find the other two angles? We could use the previous relationship in a
slightly different way, but notice that now we can use the Law of Sines. Since this is easier,
thats what well do. We have
sin 60 sin
=
5.57
5
and hence
51.02.
To find the last angle, we could use the Law of Sines another time, but theres a far easier
method, right? We conclude that
68.98.
We now formalize the previous relationship.
The Law of Cosines

Given a triangle ,
Then
Or
2 = 2 + 2 2 cos ,
2 = 2 + 2 2 cos ,
2 = 2 + 2 2 cos .
Example 2b
Complete the triangle seen in Figure 135.
Figure 135
This triangle is a bit different from the previous one; can we solve it using the Law of
Cosines?
Before diving into a problem like this, it is always wise to try the Law of Sines first (even if
you only mentally set it up). The Law of Cosines can be difficult to remember and can
contain some tricky computations, whereas the Law of Sines is easy to remember and
generally very easy to calculate.
In this instance, the Law of Sines will not work. So we need to use the Law of Cosines. How
do we set that up?
Unit seven 232
There is no real advantage to choosing any particular angle, and so, we will start by
calculating . Since we want to know the measure of angle , we look to our three
formulas from above, and select the one that contains . Do you see that there is only
one relationship from above that contains ? Thus we use
2 = 2 + 2 2 cos
and hence, after substitution,
212 = 102 + 142 2(10)(14) cos .
Now we just need to solve for . Simplifying, we get
441 = 100 + 196 280 cos
441 = 296 280 cos
145 = 280 cos
.52 = cos
121.19.
Now that we have one angle measure, can we use the Law of Sines? Lets see:
sin 121.19 sin
=
.
21
10
It appears we can. Solving for we get
sin 0.41
24.20.
From here we can easily calculate , and we conclude that
34.61.
Using both of these laws is not difficult. But you will need to be aware of when to use
which one. In our experience, students also have a tendency to forget their order of
operations.
Exercises
1.)
Use the naming convention as outlined in the beginning of this section to help you
draw and complete the following triangles.
(A) = 10, = 75, = 5
(F) = 3, = 7, = 100
(B) = 5, = 3, = 25
(G) = 10, = = 15, = 30
(C) = 14, = 44, = 101
(H) = 15, = 5, = 3
2.)
3.)
(D) = 100, = 25, = 40

(I) = 12, = 105, = 41
(E) = 12, = 14, = 55
(J) = 60, = 30, = 5
We used the Law of Sines and Cosines only on non-right triangles. Will the Law of
Sines and Cosines work on right triangles?
(A) Create a right triangle such that = 3, = 4, = 5. Find the measure of the
angles using the Trig functions as we did in Unit four.
(B) Now use the Law of Sines to determine the angles measures.
(C) What do you conclude?
(D) Do the same thing with the Law of Cosines.
(E) What do you conclude?
It might be helpful to determine when the Law of Sines will work and when it wont.
(A) For lack of a better acronym, lets call the following triangle a SSS triangle,
since we know all three sides.
(B) Draw a triangle.iv

(C) Complete the following table to determine when you should use the Law of
Sines and when you should use the Law of Cosines.
Type of triangle
Law of Sines? Law of Cosines?
No
Yes
4.)
We proved the Law of Sines and ended up with
sin
. Prove that
sin
sin
sin
sin
sin
5.)
Use the proof in the text and the previous Exercise to prove that
6.)
We proved the Law of Cosines and ended up with 2 = 2 + 2 2 cos . Prove

that 2 = 2 + 2 2 cos .
Another use of the Law of Sines is that it allows us to calculate area. Given the
1
following triangle, then = 2 sin . Of course, it could also be =
7.)
1
2
iv
sin
sin . Theres another possibility, too.
The angle that we know must be in between two side lengths that we know.
Unit seven 234
Calculate the area of the triangles with the given information.

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
= 12, = 14, = 45
= 5, = 4, = 100
= 4, = 14, = 14
= 10, = 20, = 30
Double- and Half-angle identities
Now that we have the Law of Sines and Cosines, we can put them to use to help us find
new identities. Of course, were not just hunting for identities for the sake of finding
identities,i but rather are trying to uncover some truths that happen to be useful.
With that in mind, lets consider the following situation: If we know what sin 15 equals,
can we then figure out what sin 30 equals? More generally, can we derive sin 2 from
sin ? This would be quite helpful: After all, we can easily and quickly evaluate sin 30,
but currently dont have a way to do this with sin 15, unless we approximate with a
calculator.
We can make a quick check of this, since we know sin 30 and sin 60, and sin 45 and
sin 90. So before we get too carried, away, lets compare our answers for both pairs and
see if we cant discover something interesting.
1
Recall that sin 30 = 2 and sin 60 =
3
.
2
Further recall that sin 45 =
2
2
and sin 90 = 1.
Anything interesting here? Put another way, could we look at those two pairs and gather
enough information to what sin 15 is?
I dont think so So let us continue on. We need to create a triangle that will give us some
sort of information, so let us start with a right triangle, which we show in Figure 136.
Although, in some sense, we are, since that in and of itself is interesting.
2 Double- and half-angle identities 235
Figure 136
Using this Figure, we know that sin = . With this relationship in mind, let us double .
How should we do this? Well, why dont we add to it?ii Then we have Figure 137, which
opens up many potential possibilities.
Figure 137
This is interesting by doubling , weve created a congruent triangle (which we have

shown by using primes, denoted by apostrophes).
We wanted to determine what sin 2 was, right? We now have a way to do this, dont we?
Let us first redraw our triangle by combining and and and (see Figure 138).
ii
Isnt + = 2?
Unit seven 236
Figure 138
Lets use the Law of Sines and see what we have:

sin 2 sin
=
2
(1)
sin 2 =
2 sin
.
We have found a relationship for sin 2, but its a bit messy. To clean it up, lets make
some substitutions. Looking back at Figure 137, we see that
cos =
and hence
=
.
cos
Substituting this back into (1), we see that
(2)
sin 2 =
2 sin
cos
sin 2 =
2 cos sin
.
But this is still quite unseemly. Worse, we have three different variables, , , and . We
would like to change this equation so that there is only one variable then it would be
useful, not to mention interesting.
How should we proceed? Lets begin by observing that we have two variables, but only
one of each of the other two. So let us try to change the and in such a way that we
only have an variable. Recall that
(3)
sin =
(4)
sin = .
and
From (4), we see that

=
,
sin
Which we now plug into (3):

sin =
sin =
sin
sin
.
This we can plug back into (2), getting us a remarkable result:

sin 2 = 2 sin cos .
This result is extraordinary: We can take a double-angle, of which we usually know little
about, and change it into something we have worked with extensively up to this point.
Example 2a
Use the double-angle identity to verify that sin 120 =
3
.
2
To do this, we just use the formula. Since we want to verify sin 120, we let = 60,
whereby we have
sin(2 60) = 2 sin 60 cos 60
sin 120 =
23 1 3
= .
2 2
2
This is the same answer we got in the previous Unit, when we used the unit circle to
evaluate something like sin 120.
Example 2b
3
If sin = 5, determine sin 2.

We turn to our formula, sin 2 = 2 sin cos .
Unit seven 238
We can substitute sin in pretty easily, but what is cos ? Figure 139 makes this easy to
determine.
Figure 139
Well remind you for the millionth time: Draw a picture!
This Figure reveals that, by Pythagoras Theorem, the adjacent side is 4 and hence
4
cos = .
5
Then
3 4
24
sin 2 = 2 ( ) ( ) = .
5 5
5
Lets return to a concept we talked about earlier. In Unit four, we simplified expressions
using identities. We did this as a basic warm-up; now we will do formal identity proofs.
This procedure is entirely algebraic, i.e., there are no words to write, but they can still be
difficult. Lets take a look at one right now.
Example 3a
Prove that sin 2 sec = 2 sin .
Be very careful of the wording of this problem. We are asked to prove that the equation
is true thus, we cannot assume it is true until we demonstrate it to be. This means we
may not use properties of equality. In other words, we may only work with one side of an
equation at a time, and cannot move quantities from one side to the other.
The first step to proving an identity is to choose a side. If youre clever enough, it wont
matter, but often, theres a good choice and a bad choice. Generally, youll want to choose
the side with more information on it, since you will then have more options. Going with
this rule of thumb, we rewrite the left side below:
sin 2 sec .
After choosing a side, well next want to rewrite something in the expression, often that
will lead us to simplification. As a general rule, we like working with Sines and Cosines,
1
and not the reciprocal functions. So well first rename sec into cos . iii We now have
sin 2
.
cos
Next well rewrite sin 2 using the relationship discovered on P. 237. This gives us
2 sin cos
.
cos
Then we can cancel the two Cosines, whence
2 sin .
But this is the same thing as the right side of the equation, and we can thus conclude our
proof with a Q.E.D.iv
Example 3b
Prove that
sin +sin 2
cos
= tan + 2 sin .
We choose the left side, since it has more information:

sin + sin 2
.
cos
We use properties of fractions to rewrite the previous as
sin sin 2
+
.
cos cos
We rewrite the first fraction in a simpler form:
tan +
sin 2
.
cos
Now we rewrite sin 2 as before, whence we have

tan +
2 sin cos
.
cos
This is a reciprocal identity. Look it up in Unit four, 3.

Technically, wed also need to prove it in the other direction as well. In other words, wed have to start
with the right side to end up with the left side. But that is not required in this course.
iii
iv
Unit seven 240
We see that the Cosines will cancel, and that leaves us with
tan + 2 sin ,
As was to be shown.
Your proofs will follow this format in general, but theres no way to prepare yourself for
every single proof that youll have to do. You simply need to develop patience,
perseverance, and intuition to solve them effectively. You can do it!v
Let us now return to a double-angle, viz., if we had used the Cosine instead.
Consider Figure 140, which is the same picture as we used to determine sin 2.
Figure 140
It might help you to review how we got this triangle: We copied the triangle on the left and pasted it to the right.
Therefore = and hence + = 2 (and recall that were trying to determine cos 2).
The last time we saw this Figure, we combined the two triangles into a single one and got
Figure 141, which we will again reproduce.
Figure 141
Plus, those are some nice qualities to have.
Then we used the Law of Sines; after all, its the easiest of the two Laws weve learned. But
that tells us nothing about the Cosine function. So now well endeavor to use the Law of
Cosines. Using 2 as our main focus, then, we have
(2)2 = 2 + 2 2 cos 2.
Since = , we can make some simplifications:
42 = 2 + 2 2 2 cos 2
42 = 2 2 2 2 cos 2
22 = 2 2 (1 cos 2)
22 = 2 (1 cos 2).
Our goal is to determine what cos 2 is, so we now move to solve for it:
1 cos 2 =
(5)
22
2
22
cos 2 = 2 + 1.
Weve run into the same problem we did before: This is ugly. So lets try to equate our
variables in terms of (also what we did before).
Recall, using Figure 140, that
sin =
and hence
= sin .
Then, substituting this back into (5), we have
cos 2 =
2 2 sin2
+1
2
cos 2 = 2 sin2 + 1.
This is nice, but it is often written as
cos 2 = 1 2 sin2 .
Unit seven 242
Example 4a
A Trig identity sheet onlinevi states that cos 2 = 2 cos 2 1. Is this true?
Good question; whats stopping us from determining this on our own?
We have just shown that cos 2 = 1 2 sin2 , right? So let us see if
1 2 sin2 = 2 cos2 1.
If so, then cos 2 does indeed equal 2 cos 2 + 1.
Let us start with the left side:
1 2 sin2 .
Recall that sin2 + cos2 = 1 and hence, sin2 = 1 cos2 . Substituting this in, we get
1 2(1 cos 2 )
Whence
1 2 + 2 cos2
2 cos 2 1,
Which was to be shown.
Example 4b
The identity sheet also states that cos 2 = cos 2 sin2 . Is this true as well?
Again, theres nothing stopping us from verifying this. Let us prove that
1 2 sin2 = cos2 sin2 .
Let us start with the left side:
1 2 sin2 .
Recall that sin2 + cos2 = 1. Substituting this into our expression above we get
sin2 + cos2 2 sin2
whence
cos 2 sin2 .
These can be very helpful, so look them up if you wish. But just memorizing the identities and knowing
nothing else is a waste of your time (not to mention it wont be good enough for success in this course or
Calculus).
vi
Each of these three forms for cos 2 are commonly used. Youll want to get used to each
of them, as they come in handy in various situations.
Example 5
Prove that
cos 2
sin
= csc 2 sin .
We begin by choosing the left side:

cos 2
.
sin
As before, we need to rewrite cos 2. The challenge this time around is that we have three
different options on how to rewrite it. Which one is best?
To help determine this, you should look at the right side and see what you have. In the
present case, we are left with Cosecant and Sine which is a major hint that we should
use the 1 2 sin2 version, right?
Hence we write
1 2 sin2
.
sin
Using a property of fractions, we write
1
2 sin2
sin
sin
whence we get
csc 2 sin ,
which was to be shown.
We now turn our attention to the half-angle identities. These are actually very easy to
show now that we have double-angle identities.
Lets start with the Cosine function. For our purposes, we will use the version
cos 2 = 2 cos 2 1.
Notice that is one-half of 2? So we can then write
cos = 2 cos2
1
2
And keep the equality true. Since we want to find out what cos 2 is equal to, we now
endeavor to solve for it. Using algebra, we have
Unit seven 244
cos + 1 = 2 cos 2
cos 2
cos
cos + 1
=
2
2
cos + 1
=
.
2
2
Although this is a bit messy, it only has one variable, so we can use this to our advantage.
Example 6
What is the exact value of cos 15 ?
One of the issues we ran into with the unit circle is that there were only so many values
we could effectively evaluate. Our newest identity opens up more possibilities.
We know that cos 30 =
from above:
3
.
2
We also know that 15 is one-half of 30, so we use the formula
cos 30 + 1
cos 15 =
2
whence
3
2 +1
cos 15 =
2
cos 15 =
3 + 2
2
2
3 + 2
cos 15 =
4
cos 15 =
3 + 2
.
2
Verify this on your calculator.

Well now uncover one more half-angle identity: The Sine half-angle identity.
We might be tempted to use the double-angle formula for Sine and solve for sin , just
2
like we did with the Cosine function. However, this leads to some major headaches.
Instead, well take the identity cos 2 = 1 2 sin2 and work back to sin 2 .
As before, we recognize that we can rewrite 2 as if we rewrite as 2 . This give us
cos = 1 2 sin2 .
2
Solving for sin 2 will reveal the answer that we seek. Doing this gets us
2 sin2
sin2
sin
= 1 cos
2
1 cos
=
2
2
1 cos
=
,
2
2

Example 7
Write sin 12 in exact form.

We use the same procedure from Example 6. We substitute accordingly, then simplify our
result. We get
1 cos 6
sin
=
12
2
3
1 2
sin
=
12
2
sin
2 3
=
12
4
sin
2 3
=
.
12
2
The half-angle identities are rarely used to prove other identities. The square roots are
less than ideal to work with. You should nevertheless be very comfortable with the half-
Unit seven 246
angle identities, since they give us a way to determine exact values of Trig functions that
we previously could not.
Double- and half-angle identities
sin 2 =
cos 2 =
sin
=
2
cos
=
2
Exercises
1.)
Write out each identity as stated in the text in the box above and in your notebook.
(C) sin 2
(A) sin 2
(B) cos 2
(D) cos
2
2.)
12
Determine the exact value of the following expressions assuming that sin = 13.
(A) sin 2
(B) cos 2
(C) sin 2
(E) 2 sin
(F) 2 cos
1
(G) 2 sin
(D) cos 2
3.)
(H)
cos
4
(E) 2 sin
(F) 2 cos
1
(G) 2 sin
(D) cos 2
5.)
Determine the exact value of the following expressions assuming that cos = 5.
(A) sin 2
(B) cos 2
(C) sin 2
4.)
(H)
Answer True or False.

(A) sin 2 = 2 sin
1
(B) 2 cos = cos 2
Prove the following identities.

(A) tan cos = sin
(B) sin 2 tan = 2 sin2
sin 2
(C) sin = 2 cos
(D)
sin 2sin2
2 cot
=1
1
2
cos
(C) cos 2 = 2 sin cos

sin 2
(D) sin = 2
(E) cos 2 + 1 = 2 cos 2
cos 2
(F) cos = cos tan sin
(G) cos 2 1 = 2 sin2
(H) sin2 2 + cos2 2 = 1
6.)
7.)
8.)
Give exact answers for the following expressions.
(D) cos 8
(A) sin 15
3
(B) cos 15
(E) sin 8
(C) sin 8
(F) cos 67.5
Lets see if we cant derive a formula for tan 2.
(A) Rewrite tan 2 in terms of Sine and Cosine.
(B) Using cos 2 = cos2 sin2 , rewrite (A) using both identities learned in
the text.
1
(C) The result of (B) is a tough fraction. Try dividing top and bottom by cos .
What do you get?
(D) Make sure everything is in terms of Tangent, (i.e., the only Trig function that
can be used is Tangent), then write the identity out.
Is there a difference between an equation and an identity? Consider the number
of solutions of say, + 1 = 4 and sin2 + cos 2 = 1.
Addition and subtraction identities
We now continue our search for interesting identities. We found that there is a very nice
relationship when you input double the angle of ; but about if we add some unrelated
quantity to ? Essentially, we wish to find out what
sin( + )
can be simplified into.i To determine this, we will take a different approach: First, we will
find something easier, like cos( ),ii and second, we will return to the unit circle.
Consider Figure 142, which contains two points, and , both generated by the input of
two different angles, and .
And keep in mind, our search could prove fruitless.

Proving sin( + ) was tough for me. The proof you see here took me four honest efforts and quite a bit
of research!
i
ii
Unit seven 248
Figure 142
Recall that each radii is equal to 1.
Note that both angles start at the positive -axis.

Recall that each point on the unit circle is located at (, ), but, as we learned in Unit
five,
= cos , = sin ,
and therefore, we can find the coordinates of any point with (cos , sin ).iii Verify that
we have labeled our two points, and correctly.
Next we shall subtract the angles. This amounts to drawing negatively (that is, clockwise)
right where ends, as in Figure 143.
Figure 143
We have an angle of above. In some sense, then, we are actually doing + ().
iii
To avoid confusion, weve used here as a variable for an angle because we used in the Figure above.
3 Addition and subtraction identities 249
We want to find cos( ), but how can we do that? We need to find something to relate
it to. So let us reveal everything that we have so far in Figure 144, and then see if we cant
identify anything.
Figure 144
It appears as though we have two congruent triangles ( and ), right? We will

demonstrate this before we get too carried away.
First, notice that two pairs of sides are congruent ( and ) because each
of them is a radius of the unit circle (and all radii are equal). Thats not enough information
to show that these two triangles are congruent, however we need one more congruent
corresponding pair. Lets consider the central angles. We see that
=
And that
= . iv
Thus they are equal. We can now conclude that the two triangles are congruent by .
More importantly, though, because the triangles are congruent, we can state that
because corresponding parts in a congruent triangle are certainly also congruent.v
And this sets up a relationship that we can explore.
iv
v
We have to chop off that first portion, right? And didnt that first portion equal ?
Most Geometry classes would give the reason as CPCTC.
Unit seven 250
To simplify matters, lets make a substitution:

= cos , = sin , = cos( ) , = sin( ) , = cos , = sin .
We now write our relationship out to see what weve got:

( )2 + ( )2 = (1 )2 + (0 )2 .
This seems complicated, but lets work through it. First, we square each side, then simplify
as much as we can. We get
( )2 + ( )2 = (1 )2 + ()2
(1) 2 2 + 2 + 2 2 + 2 = 1 2 + 2 + 2 .
This still looks messy. But consider the expression on the left side, 2 + 2 : If we substitute
back, we would get
(2)
cos 2 + sin2 ,
Which conveniently equals 1. This happens in another spot in this equation as well.
Rearranging our terms from (1) gives us
(2 + 2 ) + ( 2 + 2 ) 2 2 = ( 2 + 2 ) + 1 2
And hence
1 + 1 2 2 = 1 + 1 2
2 2 2 = 2 2.
Note that identity (2) works for any angle, so long as they are congruent. So even
cos2 ( ) + sin2 ( ) = 1.
Further simplifying, we get
2 2 = 2
+ = .
Substituting back, we get
cos cos + sin sin = cos( ).
Hey, thats not bad! This is, in fact, the subtraction formula for Cosine. Youll want to write
that down.
And yes, there are two variables in this equation. But we also started with two variables in
cos( ), so this is not an issue.
Example 1a
Verify the difference formula by finding the exact value of cos 60.
1
We already know that cos 60 = 2. We will now test our previous formula to see if it works
with what we know to be true.
So we now consider cos(90 30) so that we can test our formula. Then, using the
formula, we have
cos(90 30) = cos 90 cos 30 + sin 90 sin 30
cos(90 30) = 0
1 1
3
+1 = .
2
2 2
This confirms that our formula works.vi

Example 1b
Determine the exact value of cos(195).
We do not have this value memorized, so we must use our formula from above. We first
select two numbers that we do know the exact value of and are equal to 195. We select
225 and 30,vii so that we can now evaluate
cos(225 30).
Using our formula, we have
cos(225 30) = cos 225 cos 30 + sin 225 sin 30.
Now we just evaluate the right side, and we consequently conclude our answer to be
2 3
2 1
+ ( )
2 2
2
2
6
2
+ ( )
4
4
Confirm is a bit powerful, as only one example doesnt show much at all. But if you doubt this formula
(and your skepticism is a good thing), try a few more examples like this one.
vii
Although other choices exist.
vi
Unit seven 252
6 + 2
.
4
What about cos( + )? Surely there is a nice formula for that as well, right? There is, and
obtaining it is very easy if you recall that the Cosine function is an even function and Sine
is an odd function.
Since
cos() = cos ,
sin() = sin ,
lets take our previous formula,

cos( ) = cos cos + sin sin
and change into . Then we have
cos( ()) = cos cos() + sin sin()
cos( + ) = cos cos sin sin .
This should also be written down.
What about the Sine function? Does it have an addition identity? To find this out, let us
use a cofunction identity from Unit four. Recall that
sin = cos ( ).
2
So if we want to determine, say, sin( + ), we need only substitute + . Doing this, we
see that
sin( + ) = cos ( ( + )).

2
We will only work with the right side. Using our Cosine difference formula (and treating
+ as a single number), we see that
cos ( ( + )) = cos cos( + ) + sin sin( + ),

2
2
2
which presents a problem, since we dont know what sin( + ) is yet. But what if we
consider 2 as a single number? Then we would have
sin( + ) = cos (( ) + )
2
whence
cos (( ) + ) = cos ( ) cos sin ( ) sin .

2
2
2
Doesnt the term cos (2 ) look familiar? Didnt we just recall that it was equal to sin ?
Therefore, we make that substitution (along with the fact that cos = sin ( 2 ), as you
should verify):
sin( + ) = sin cos cos sin .

This should also be written down.
Well leave the difference formula of the Sine function to you in the exercises.
Example 2
Determine the exact value of sin 75.
As in our previous Example, we need to split 75 into two angles that were more familiar
with, such as 45 and 30. Then we can use the identity above. We have
sin(45 + 30) = sin 45 cos 30 cos 45 sin 30.
Simplifying the right side, we conclude that
sin(45 + 30) =
2 3 2 1 6 2 6 2
=
.
2 2
2 2
4
4
4
Example 3
4
Let sin = 5. Determine cos( + ).

We start, perhaps unsurprisingly, with a picture (Figure 145).
Figure 145
Unit seven 254
So how do we go about determining the value of cos( + )? Do not be tempted to split

it up into cos + cos , which is, as youll discover in the exercises, false. The only thing
we can do here is use our formula. Since
cos( + ) = cos cos sin sin ,
we simply need to find each of those values. We already know sin since it was given.
3
Finding the others is simple, thanks to our picture. Since sin = 5 , cos = 5 , cos = 5, we
have
cos( + ) =
3 4 4 3 12 12
=
= 0.
5 5 5 5 25 25
This seems like a strange result, so lets do a bit of investigation. What is + in the given
Example? Whatever and are individually, they must be complementary. So what we
really evaluated was cos 90, which we know to be equal to 0. Therefore, our answer checks
out.
Weve only done a few examples in this section, but you should be well equipped to
succeed. A few of your exercises will have you following our format of proof to prove
some things on your own.
The addition and subtraction identities
sin( + ) =
sin( ) =
cos( + ) =
cos( ) =
Exercises
1.)
2.)
Write down the addition and subtraction formulas for Sine and Cosine in your
textbook and in your notebook.
When looking at a formula sheet online, Billy notices the addition and subtraction
formulas for Cosine are written together:
cos( ) = cos cos sin sin .
(A) Why are the plus-and-minus signs different? Is there a significance? (Hint:
Write out each separately to see what this implies)
(B) The Sine function is written out as

sin( ) = sin cos sin cos .
How are the plus-and-minuses signs written here? Is there a significance?
3.)
4.)
5.)
6.)
7.)
8.)
Determine the exact value of the following.

(A) sin 15
(B) cos 75
5
(C) sin 12
(E) sin 255

(F) cos 285
Is cos( + ) = cos + cos ? Prove that this is false with a counterexample.
Is sin( + ) = sin + sin ? Prove that this is false with a counterexample.
12
Let sin = 13. Determine the following.
(A) cos( + )
(B) cos( )
1
Let cos = 3. Determine the following.
(C) sin( + )
(D) sin( )
(A) cos( + )
(C) sin( + )
(B) cos( )
(D) sin( )
Do not use a calculator for the following problems. Instead, use the intuition gained
from this section and the identities youve learned.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
9.)
(D) cos 12
sin 15 cos 30 + sin 30 cos 15

cos 20 cos 10 sin 20 sin 10
sin 100 cos 10 sin 10 cos 100
7
cos 12 cos 6 + sin 12 sin 6
It is now your turn to prove the difference formula for the Sine function: Prove the
difference formula for the Sine function.
10.) Let us now attempt to derive the addition formula for Tangent.
(A) Write the Tangent function in terms of Sine and Cosine.
(B) Use (A) to rewrite tan( + ).
(C) Now rewrite what you have in (B) and simplify it down as much as you can.viii
11.) Use the previous result to determine the following.
5
(A) tan 75
(C) tan 12
17
(B) tan 15
(D) tan
12
12.) Another way to derive the double-angle formula is through use of the addition
formula, since 2 = + .
(A) Prove the double-angle identity using this method.
(B) Which proof do you think is better?
viii
Itll be a little messy At least, its not as nice-looking as the addition formula was for Sine and Cosine.
Unit seven 256
13.) Lets try to create a triple angle identity: See if you can find a good identity for
sin 3.
The power-reducing identities
Our final section is a brief look at one last set of identities. This set of identities is used in
Calculus and the Calculus student would do well to learn the following identities now. We
will also include a short foray into product-to-sum (and vice versa) identities.
Recall that
sin2 = sin sin .
While there is nothing inherently wrong with sin2 , it would be nice if we could reduce
the power into something were more comfortable with.i
Recall that
cos 2 = 1 2 sin2 ,
so one way we could reduce the power of our equation would be to use this identity,
right? We solve for sin2 :
cos 2 1 = 2 sin2
1 cos 2 = 2 sin2
sin2 =
1 cos 2
.
2
Example 1
Determine the value of sin2 30.
This would be easy to evaluate on its own and without the help of an identity, but let us
use this example (which is easily checked) to show that our identity from above works.
We have
sin2 30 =
1 cos(2 30 )
2
sin 30 =
The same, of course, goes for higher powers.
1
12
2
1
= .
4
4 Power-reducing identities 257
You should verify that this is correct.

The power-reducing identity for Cosine can be found in a similar manner. You will do this
on your own in the Exercises.
The last thing well do in this section is consider an interesting result. We will take a sum
and change it into a product.
Consider sin( ) + sin( + ). This can be simplified, cant it? It may not seem that
way, but lets write out the previous expression using the difference and addition identities
from the previous section. We have
(sin cos + sin cos ) + (sin cos sin cos ).
But dont we have like terms here? Indeed, and we can write
2 sin cos .
This is very nice, and if we divide each side by 2, well end up with the following identity.
Product-to-sum identity for Sine
1
sin cos = (sin( ) + sin( + ))
2
Why would we want to change something nice and simple, like, sin cos into the
complicated sum we see on the right side? In many cases, we wouldnt. But there are
occasions for this. There are times, as you know, when adding is easier than multiplying.ii
Example 2
1
Verify that sin 30 cos 60 = 4.

We will use the identity from above to verify this. We have
1
sin 30 cos 60 = (sin(30 60) + sin(30 + 60))
2
whence
1
1
1
1
sin 30 cos 60 = (sin(30) + sin 90) = ( + 1) = .
2
2
2
4
In fact, this is the main idea behind a Slide Rule, a device that, for example, helped NASA put a man on
the moon. Except it used logarithms to change products into sums.
ii
Unit seven 258
This is a rarely used identity in the context of Calculus.iii So instead of practicing the
application of these identities, well spend our time in the exercises practicing proof
writing and reviewing identities.
Power-reducing identities
sin2 =
1 cos 2
2
cos2 =
Product-to-sum identities
1
sin cos = (sin( ) + sin( + ))
2
cos sin =
sin sin =
cos cos =
Exercises
1.)
Practice using the power-reducing formula for sin2 by evaluating the following.
Then check your answer.
(A) sin2 45
(B) sin2 3
(C) sin2 2
2.)
3.)
(D) sin2 120

Derive a power-reducing identity for cos2 . Write your results in your textbook
and notebook.
Practice using the product-to-sum identity for Sine by evaluating the following.
Check your answer.
(A) sin 45 cos 45
(B) sin 60 cos 45
(C) sin 3 cos 2
(D) sin 4 cos 6
iii
I cant remember ever using it for Calculus
4 Power-reducing identities 259
4.)
5.)
6.)
7.)
8.)
Lets go in the opposite direction: What if we want to change a sum, sin + sin ,
into a product? Derive an identity for this.
Is sin cos = sin cos ? Verify by using = 6 and = 4 .
Based on your previous result, see if you can derive cos sin . (Hint: Use the same
method we did in the reading.)
Now see if you can determine identities for sin sin and cos cos .
Choose any two of the identities and write a formal proof for them.
260
Part III: Precalculus

The topics in the following section offer a small focus on various Calculus concepts, some
of which you will run into in the first semester of Calculus. We will endeavor to review
topics from the previous two Parts as much as is relevant.
Matrices are not featured in Calculus until second or third semester Calculus, but they
contain many useful applications and extensions of things weve previously learned.
Further, they allow us to talk about operations upon things that are not numbers.
Vectors, which we will explore as two-row matrices, dominate third semester Calculus. But
they give us a chance to review Trigonometry, since one of the chief questions of vectors
is What is the angle between them? Since they also are prevalent in Physics, a course
which many students take concurrently with Precalculus, studying vectors is useful.
We then move into sequences and series, which we will use to talk of limits. And limits are
the very foundation of all Calculus. Additionally, infinite series are a major focus of second
semester Calculus.
Our final unit is on parametric equations. Parametric equations give us another tool to
graph functions, and, as well see, give us another opportunity to practice skills weve
already learned. Parametric equations occasionally pop up in first and second semester
Calculus.
261
Unit eight
Matrices
[A matrix] gives you mini-spreadsheets for your math equations. We can take a table of
data (a matrix) and create updated tables from the original. Its the power of a
spreadsheet written as an equation.
Kalid Azad (Betterexplained.com)
Unit eight 262
In the previous course, you worked with matrices at a basic level. Although they were
interesting, they didnt connect awfully well to what we had previously learned. We will
attempt to rectify this by using matrices to help us solve certain problems, like rotating a
shape. Our goal, therefore, is to extend matrices into the realm of application and use.
Introduction to matrices
A matrix can be thought of as a spreadsheet, or table of numbers.i So

[
3 4
]
1 0
is a matrix. But so is
5
1
[ ]
5
and
1 2
[
2 0
3 101
0
45
].
4
We define matricesii by their number of rows and columns, and usually use capital Latin
letters to name them. So
=[
3 7 10
]
1 0 5
is a 2 3 matrix. Sometimes we want to refer to a specific cell within the matrix. If we

want to state where the number 5 is in the previous example, we would say 23 .
Matrices are interesting. They are not numbers, and yet contain numbers inside of them.
This tempts us to want to operate with them, and thus weve even defined how to operate
with them. Consider the next few examples.
Example 1a
Let = [
i
ii
7
4 5 1
] and = [3
0 2 1
4 0
1
6 2 ]. Evaluate + .
It doesnt have to be numbers, either. But in this course you will only see numbers.
Matrices is the plural form of matrix.
1 Introduction to matrices 263
11 1
The answer is [ 3 8
1
1 ]. Can you see how?
2
Example 1b
Evaluate 2 .
The answer here is
7 4 0
2
1]
][
3 6
1
2
8 10
[
0 4
1
14
2
3].
[
3 2
2
Can you see how?
One important note on matrix addition: Two matrices may only be added if they have the
exact same dimensions. Therefore
[3 4] + [2]
1
is undefined, since the first matrix is a 1 2 matrix and the second one is a 2 1 matrix.
Example 1c
Solve the equation + = , where is some 2 3 matrix.
The addition and subtraction properties of equality work with matrices, and therefore, if
we wish to solve for , we isolate it in the same manner that we always have. Therefore
=
whence
3 9 1
3 ].
=[
3 4
2
Interestingly, when it comes to addition and subtraction, matrices behave just like
numbers do. Therefore, they also follow all the basic numeric properties as well. We will
prove the Addition property of commutativity for all matrices.
Proof.
Let and be matrices. We wish to show that
Unit eight 264
+ = + .
Since is an matrix, it has rows and columns. We can therefore write it as
11
21
=[
1
12
22
1
2
],

where a trio of dots means and so on. , written in a like manner, would be
11
= [ 21
12
22
1
2
].
Then
11
21
+ =[
1
12
22
1
11
2
21
]+[

1
12
22
1
2
]
which is the same thing as

11 + 11
+ 21
[ 21
1 + 1
12 + 12
22 + 22
2 + 2
1 + 1
2 + 2
].
But each cell consists of a sum of numbers, for example, cell ( + )11 is 11 + 11, and
numbers are commutative with respect to addition. Therefore, we could also write
11 + 11
21 + 21
[
1 + 1
12 + 12
22 + 22
2 + 2
1 + 1
2 + 2
],
which is the same thing as + . This is what we wanted to show.

Other addition properties will be left to you, but youll find that they are extremely similar
to what is shown above.
We might be tempted to believe that multiplication is just as simple as addition was. This,
however, is not the case. Although we could define multiplication however we like, it is
more helpful to define multiplication is a way that isnt at first apparent.
Let us first multiply two 3 3 matrices to see the general procedure.
Example 2a
1 2 3
2 4 5
Evaluate such that Let = [ 3 2 1 ] and = [1 2 3].
1 2 3
1 5 6
We multiply each number of the first row by each number of the first column, then find
the sum of all the results, and this will produce the number we put in the first row, first
column of the product matrix. So
1 2 3
2 4 5
[ 3 2 1 ] [1 2 3]
1 2 3
1 5 6
1st row times 1st column
= [2nd row times 1st column
3rd row times 1st column
1st row times 2nd column

2nd row times 2nd column
3rd row times 2nd column
1st row times 3rd column

2nd row times 3rd column].
3rd row times 3rd column
To find the number that goes in the first row, first column of the product matrix, we should
evaluate
1 2 + 2 1 + 3 1 = 7.
We now put this into our matrix below:
1 2
[3 2
1 2
3
2
1 ] [1
3
1
4 5
12+21+31
2 3] = [
5 6
1 2 3
2 4
[ 3 2 1 ] [1 2
1 2 3
1 5
5
7
3] = [
6
].
We will now complete the matrix. Pay careful attention to where we get the numbers from:
1 2 3
2 4 5
[ 3 2 1 ] [1 2 3]
1 2 3
1 5 6
7
1 4 + 2 2 + 3 5
3
2
+
2
1
+
1
1
3 4 + 2 2 + 1 5
=[
1 2 + 2 1 + (3) 1 1 4 + 2 2 + (3) 5
15+23+36
3 5 + 2 3 + 1 6 ],
1 5 + 2 3 + (3) 6
and thus we conclude that

7
15
= [ 9
13
3 23
29
27 ].
17
Generalizing the process of multiplying matrices is not easy. Perhaps the best way to
explain it is that it is a process by which you take the first matrix and each of its rows cells
and multiply them by the second matrix and each of its columns cells, then add each
Unit eight 266
individual product. This will get you a single number in the product matrix in the cell
located in the respective row and column that you just multiplied together.
Also, there are some matrices that cannot be multiplied together, as we will shortly show.
Its easier to demonstrate this process than explain it, so well do two more examples and
then show one that doesnt work.
Example 2b
Evaluate given that = [
1
2
3 4
] and = [7].
1 2 1
3
At first glance, it might appear that these two matrices cannot be multiplied together.
However, that is not the case. Our first goal is to find the number that goes into the first
row, first column of the product matrix. This number can be found by multiplying the first
row of by the first column of , and adding those individual products. This amounts to
2 1 + 3 7 + 4 3 = 33.
So the number that goes into the first row, first column of our resulting product matrix
will be 33.
The next thing wed normally do is multiply the first row of by the second column of ,
but there is no second column of . So we proceed to multiply the second row of by
the first column of . We get
1 1 + (2) 7 + 1 3 = 12.
Are there any rows that havent been multiplied by any columns? The answer is no weve
done everything that we can, and thus, are finished. Our final answer is
[
33
].
12
Interestingly, we started with a 2 3 and 3 1 matrix, and ended up with a 2 1 matrix.

Did you notice the where those two numbers came from? Well now formalize this
concept.
Dimensions of a product matrix
Given that is an matrix and is an matrix, then is an matrix.
Example 2c
Evaluate 2 given that = [
2 1
].
4 3
Exponents have the same meaning with matrices as they do numbers, viz., you should
multiply a number by itself as many times as the exponent. In our case, we have
2 = = [
2 1 2 1
][
].
4 3 4 2
Using the same procedure, we first look to find the number in the first row, first column.
This is accomplished by multiplying the cells of the first row of by the cells of the first
column of our second matrix, which in this case happens to be as well. We get
2 2 + 1 4 = 8.
Proceeding in the same manner, we see that
2 = [
8
20
4
].
10
Note also the dimension of the product matrix, seen directly above, is 2 2.
Example 2d
Evaluate given that = [
1 2 3
2 4 1
] and = [
].
4 5 1
5 7 3
It seems as though we should be able to multiply these matrices together, right? Their
dimensions are, after all, the same. To find the number that goes into the first row, first
column of our product matrix, we multiply the cells of the first row of by the cells of the
first column of , then find their sum. That gives us
1 2 + 2 5 + 3 ?,
whence we run into a bit of an issue. What will we multiply 3 by? There are only two
numbers in each column of , whereas there are three numbers in each row of .
This problem is therefore undefined, and it allows us to make the following statement.
Multiplication of matrices
A matrix with dimension of may only be multiplied by a matrix such that is
has rows.
Lets put this in different terms. Matrix can be multiplied with if has dimensions 1
3 and has dimensions of 3 4. Lets put those two numbers together
13
3 4.
Unit eight 268
Notice the two inside numbers are the same? If this isnt the case, multiplication is not
defined.iii
We will determine a few of the properties of matrix multiplication in the Exercises. Perhaps
the most important one to determine is whether matrix multiplication is commutative.
Well show very quickly that no, matrices are not commutative with respect to
multiplication.
Example 2e
Let = [1
3
2] and = [ ]. Determine whether or not = .
4
We can quickly establish this to be false, since = [11], while is undefined. As such,
matrices cannot be commutative with respect to multiplication. Even for when a general
matrix and , such that both and are defined, they will not, in general, be
commutative.iv
Well use matrix multiplication in this section for few quick Exercises. Well run into its
chief use (and, quite frankly, the main reason we define matrix multiplication the way we
do) in 3. Well also see a counterpart to matrix multiplication in the next unit.
The next question which we will explore is whether we can divide matrices. Recall that
division was a process that undid multiplication. So the question we are asking, perhaps,
is what is the opposite of the process we just used?
Mathematicians will say that there is no division of matrices, at least, not one that is yet
defined. This is unfortunate, because that would leave us without a way to undo matrix
multiplication. While that might seem arbitrary, consider the usefulness division had when
solving an equation like
3 = 21.
Despite the lack of division, there is still a way to undo matrix multiplication. In the same
way that one might argue that the equation above is solved not through division, but
1
multiplication of the inverse (in this, 3). Thus, instead of trying to define a division
As was the case in Example 2d, where we had a 2 3 multiplied by a 2 3 matrix. The two inside
numbers are not equal and therefore, we conclude that the product is undefined.
iv
As we will see, however, there are a few matrices that are commutative with respect to multiplication.
Note that for us to assert that numbers have such and such a property, it must always be true. Since
matrices are not always commutative with respect to multiplication, we say that matrices do not have the
property of commutativity for multiplication.
iii
operation, what we should do is attempt to find a process for finding the inverse of a
matrix.
What we are seeking, symbolically, is, given matrices , , and , all such that they can be
multiplied together, we want to find 1 such that
= => 1 = 1 => = 1 .
The inverse of a 2 2 matrix
Given a matrix = [
], then its inverse is
1 =
[

].
Well talk a little bit about where this formula comes from in the exercises and in the next
section.
Example 3a
5
Find the inverse of = [
3
1
].
4
Follow the formula. We get

1 =
1
1 4 1
4 1
[
]=
[
].
5 4 1 3 3 5
17 3 5
1
If you wish, you can distribute the scalar 17 to each cell.

Example 3b
4
Find the inverse of = [
8
1
].
2
Following the formula once more, we see that

1 =
1
1 2 1
2 1
[
]= [
],
4 2 1 8 8 4
0 8 4
Which cannot be, since we cannot divide by zero. As such, we must conclude that there is
no inverse matrix of . We thus conclude that is not invertible.
Example 3c
2
Solve the equation = , where = [
3
3
1
] and = [ ].
5
2
Unit eight 270
We want to solve for , and, as always, we must isolate . Since we cannot divide matrices,
we have to come up with some way to cancel the from the left side (whereby the
would be left all alone). This is where the inverse comes into play; since
1 = ,
where is the identity matrix,v and
= ,
for all matrices such that and have the same dimensions, it is evident that we must
multiply each side of our equation by 1 .
So we first set out to determine 1: Using the formula, we have
1 =
1
5 3
5
[
]=[
3
2 5 3 3 3 2
3
].
2
Now we take this result, and multiply it by each side:

1 = 1
whence
= 1 .
Thus, to find , we must multiply 1 and . Since
1 = [
5 3 1
] [ ],
2
3 2
we conclude that
1
= [ ].
1
We can check this result by multiplying and together. When we do this, we get
2 3 1
1
=[
] [ ] = [ ].
3 5
1
2
Thus our result is correct.
1
There is another way to solve the previous Example, too. What if we started with = [ ]?
2
Multiplying would then yield
More on that in the Exercises.
21 + 32
],
31 + 52
and then, to be equal to , these equations would have to equal 1 and 2 respectively,
whereby we would just have
{
21 + 32 = 1
,
31 + 52 = 2
which seems quite familiar. Have we come full circle back into Algebra? More on this in
3.
Exercises
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)
5.)
6.)
1 5 7
1
2
2 ].
3
Let = [ 2 8 9 ] and = [ 5
3 10 101
1 6 2
(A) Determine the dimensions of .
(B) Determine 32 and 21 .
(C) Determine the dimensions of .
(D) Determine 21 and 13.
(E) Is there a 31 ? If so, what is it?
(F) Create such that it is a 3 1 matrix.
(G) Is + defined? Why or why not?
A scalar is some number that changes the scale or size of something. We used this
word early in this section without defining it. Lets work with this idea a bit.
5
7
1 5
Let = [
] and = [
]. Evaluate the following.
15 2
4 11
(A) +
(F)
(B) 5
(G) 2
(C)
(H) 3
(D) + 3
(I) 1
(E)
(J) 1
4
Let = [ 3 ] and = [1 3 5].
10
(A) Is defined? Why or why not?
(B) Is defined? Why or why not?
(C) If is defined, evaluate it. If is defined, evaluate it. If neither product is
defined, create a matrix such that is defined, then evaluate it.
Write out the formula for inverting a 2 2 matrix.
4 7
1 4
Solve the following equations. Let = [
] and = [
].
1 5
1 2
(A) + =
(C) =
(B) =
(D) =
Unit eight 272
7.)
True or False.
(A) Two matrices that are the same dimension can always be multiplied
together.
(B) All matrices are invertible.
(C) You may divide any two matrices.
(D) + = +
8.) We introduced a matrix in the reading called the identity matrix. A 2 2 identity
matrix looks like
1 0
[
],
0 1
While a 3 3 identity matrix looks like
1 0 0
[0 1 0].
0 0 1
(A) Write out the 4 4 identity matrix.
(B) We usually denote the identity matrix with the symbol . If dimensions are
important, wed call, say, a 3 3 identity matrix 3 . What would we call an
identity matrix of dimension 5 5?
2 3
(C) Verify that = . Let = [
].
5 4
9.) Lets now set about proving some properties of matrix arithmetic. Prove the
following.
(A) + ( + ) = ( + ) +
(B) ( + ) = +
(C) () = ()
10.) It is, at first, a bit surprising that matrix multiplication is not commutative,
particularly given that the operation is associative. Prove that
.
11.) One application of our definition of matrix multiplication is that it allows us to
create transformational matrices. For example, to rotate a point by 90, you
0 1
multiply by = [
].
1 0
(A) To make this work, we need to rewrite each point as a one-column matrix.
2
So (2,3) would become = [ ]. Rewrite (5, 2) as a one-column matrix.
3
(B) Now rotate by 90.
(C) Rotating a single point this way isnt much better than methods we already
know. However, if we have many points, this method will save us time. To
write many points as a single matrix, let each point represent a column. So
1 3 5
the points (1,2), (3,4), and (5,6) would be written as = [
].
2 4 6
Order isnt terribly important, but it is important to associate each column

with a single point. Write the points (3, 7), (5,10), and (11,12) as a
single matrix.
(D) Now rotate points , , and by 90.
cos sin
12.) In general, the rotation matrix is = [
], where is the desired angle
sin cos
of rotation. Use this rotational matrix to determine the following.
(A) Rotate (1,3) by 45.
3
(B) Rotate (2,3) by 2 .
(C) Rotate (5,10) by
2
3
(D) Rotate (6,2) by 150.
Determinants
One of the chief questions in the previous sections dealt with how to invert a matrix. We
saw one way of inverting a matrix, but only for 2 2 matrices, and we were simply told
the way to do it, and not where it came from and why it works. Well endeavor to explore
that further in this section.
First, a definition.i
Determinant of a 2 2 matrix
The determinant of a 2 2 matrix,
=[
denoted det(), is
],
det() = .
Perhaps the formula above looks familiar, and indeed, it should be. We can rewrite our
formula for finding the inverse of a 2 2 matrix as
1
[
det()
].
This immediately allows us to define the following property

Invertibility of a matrix
A matrix is invertible iff det() 0.
Well derive the determinant shortly.
Unit eight 274
Indeed, Example 3b from 1 shows this: Since

=[
4 1
],
8 2
and
det() = 4 2 1 8 = 0,
we could conclude (as we did previously) that 1 is undefined.
Example 1
Let = [
2 8
]. Evaluate det() and state whether is invertible.
10 3
We follow the formula. We see that

det() = 2 3 8 10 = 86.
Because
86 0,
must be invertible.
So we can see that determinants are a quick way to determine if a 2 2 matrix is invertible
or not.
Finding a 3 3 determinant is a tricky process, but can be done efficiently if you know a
few tricks. Lets consider some necessary basics before we actually find the determinant
of a 3 3 matrix.
Consider
1 3
= [1 4
0 6
2
5 ].
2
The method well use is not intuitive, so pay close attention. What well do is find the
determinants of submatrices within this larger matrix . The determinants of these smaller
matrices-within-a-matrix are called minors. What we want to do is find the determinant
of some 2 2 submatrix within , so well choose a number, say, 1, and cross off every
number in the same row and column of 1, as we show below:
1 3 2
[1 4 5 ].
0 6 2
2 Determinants 275
Then we have the remaining submatrix,

[
4 5
],
6 2
which we can find the determinant for, which is

4 2 5 6 = 38.
This determinant, which was found using a submatrix, we call
11 ,
since it is a minor submatrix formed by crossing off row 1 and column 1.
To calculate 12 , we cross of row 1 and column 2,
1 3 2
[1 4 5 ],
0 6 2
then form the remaining submatrix,
[
1 5
],
0 2
whence
12 = 2 0 = 2.
Let us find one more minor, which is 13 , and proceed as before, crossing out the first
row and the third column:
1 3 2
[1 4 5 ].
0 6 2
Now we find the determinant of the remaining submatrix, and conclude that
13 = 6 0 = 6.
It is possible to find minors for every cell in a matrix. As you practice the basic skill of
finding minors, youll be told which ones to calculate. But the time will come when you
will have to determine which ones to find.
Example 2
2 5
Let = [3 1
0 6
7
4]. Evaluate 31 , 12 , 33 and 22 .
9
Unit eight 276
Start by writing out the original matrix, finding the cell in question, and then crossing off
the row and column that that cell is contained within. In our case, we see that 31 = 0,
and thus we write
2 5 7
[3 1 4].
0 6 9
Then we just find the determinant of the remaining submatrix,
5
[
1
7
],
4
whence
31 = 20 7 = 13.
We will show 12 next, and then only reveal the answers for the others, to allow you to
practice on your own. As before, we identify 12 = 5, then cross off the row and column
that it is contained in:
2 5 7
[3 1 4].
0 6 9
This leaves us with a submatrix of
[
3 4
]
0 9
whence
12 = 27.
For your own reference, 33 = 13 and 22 = 18.
We next turn our attention to cofactors.
The cofactors of a matrix are equal to the minors of a matrix, except possibly by the sign.
Let us return to Example 2 and then compare cofactors and minors. Note that cofactors
are denoted with a lowercase Latin and the cell number we need to work with.
Example 3
2 5
Let = [3 1
0 6
7
4]. Evaluate 31 , 12 , 33 and 22 .
9
Cofactors are nearly identical to minors, but the sign may be different. Let us begin with
31 :
2 Determinants 277
2 5
[3 1
0 6
7
4].
9
Then we just find the determinant of the remaining submatrix, which is 13. This is the
cofactor of row three, column one. Thus
31 = 31 .
Now let us find 12 :
2 5 7
[3 1 4].
0 6 9
Finding the determinant of the remaining submatrix, we have
27.
But that is not our answer; our answer is actually 27. Where does this negative come
from? Excellent question! Now that weve seen that cofactors are essentially the same
things as minors, except perhaps the sign, let us define cofactors.
Cofactors of a matrix
Using the checkerboard method,
+
[ +
+
+
],
+
The cofactors of a matrix are equal to the minors of a matrix, except in cells where the
checkerboard method has a negative sign; then it is opposite.
With this definition, we see that, for example,
11 = 11 , 13 = 13
but
12 = 12 , 23 = 23 .
How does this all fit into the determinant of a 3 3 matrix? Let us define a 3 3
determinant now and see.
Unit eight 278
Determinant of a 3 3 matrix
Let
= [
Then
].
det = 11 + 12 + 13 .
This isnt a very general form, and well see that there is some leeway in our approach.
Well work on nailing down good practices on 3 3 determinants in the Exercises in this
section. For now, let us do an example to see the above in action.
Example 4a
1 3
Let = [4 1
0 7
2
2]. Evaluate det .
3
Using the formula from above, we have

det = 1 11 + 3 12 + 2 13 .
Since
11 = 1 3 (2 7) = 18, 12 = (4 3 (2 0)) = 12, 13 = 4 7 (1 0)
= 28,
we conclude that
det = 1 17 + 3 12 + 2 28 = 109. ii
Our formula above intimates that we can only use the first row. This, however, is false. We
could have also used the second row. We could have also used the third row, or any
column. This begs the question: Which one should we have used?
This is an excellent question. Logically, since we use the cells value as a coefficient, it
would make sense to use a row (or column) that contains a zero. And if there are two
zeros in a single row or column, then we have an easy and obvious choice. Lets redo
Example 4a except use the first column.
ii
Dont forget the checkerboard method!
2 Determinants 279
Example 4b
1 3
Let = [4 1
0 7
2
2]. Evaluate det .
3
We are free to choose whatever row or column we wish. But well always want to choose
the one with the most zeros in it. In the present case, that leaves us with row three or
column one. Since we used a row in the previous example, lets try a column, shall we?
Then we have
det = 1 11 + 4 21 + 0 31 .
Something nice happens with our third term, 0 31 , since anything times zero is nothing.
Thus, we can write
det = 1 11 + 4 21 ;
This is easier. Since weve already calculated 11 = 17, lets quickly calculate 21 :
21 = (3 3 2 7) = 23.
Then we conclude
det = 1 17 + 4 23 = 109,
Which is the same result we obtained in the previous example.
Example 4c
1
Evaluate det ([ 5
17
21
9
8
3
0]) .
0
Seeing the previous example, we should look for the row or column that contains the
most zeros. In the present case, the third column is our best bet, so we select it. Using our
formula, then, we would have
1
det ([ 5
17
21
9
8
3
0]) = 3 13 + 0 23 + 0 33
0
whence
1 21
det ([ 5
9
17 8
3
0]) = 3 13 ,
0
Which is remarkably easier than the first formula. We see that our determinant is
Unit eight 280
113.
So we see that zeros are very nice to have in a matrix when trying to evaluate its
determinant. But most matrices we encounter will not have a single zero in them are we
to just deal with that reality? Or is there a way that we can force a zero (or two!) into our
matrix, to make our life much easier?
The answer, as you might suspect, is that we can indeed take a matrix without any zeros,
and rearrange it so that it does have zeros in it. The procedures used to get zeros in our
matrices are called elementary row operations. An elementary rowiii operation is a basic
math procedure on a single row, although you may need to use a second row to change
the first. For example, consider
1 2
= [4 5
1 7
3
6],
8
which has no zeros. But we can make an elementary row operation to create a zero in the
third row. We can do this by subtracting row one and row three, then placing that
difference into row three. Symbolically, well write
1 3 3 .
Notice that we are not doing anything to row one; were merely using it to help us rename
row three. Then we have
1 2
3
[4 5
6 ],
0 5 5
which is what we wanted, since we now have a zero in one of our rows. In the previous
case, the elementary row operation was the subtraction of the two rows. But we have
more power than that. We can also add (or subtract) two columns, and replace the sum
(or difference) into one of the columns. See how 32 = 33 ? So why dont we subtract the
second and third columns. We can write the difference in either the second or third
column, but well choose the second column to write the difference. This gives us
1
[4
0
1 3
1 6 ].
0 5
Now the determinant is relatively easy to find:
iii
Interestingly, columns also apply!
2 Determinants 281
1 1 3
det ([4 1 6 ]) = 5 (1 1 1 4) = 5 3 = 15.
0 0 5
This procedure is not required, although it is very helpful, particularly for determinants of
3 3 (and larger) matrices. It is also not required to find more than one zero sometimes
its more efficient to get a single zero in your 3 3 matrix, since getting a second one
requires some more work.
2 Exercises
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)
5.)
Let = [
2 1
11 12
2 1
5 15
], = [
], = [
] and = [
]. Evaluate the
3 5
0
1
4
1
2 6
following.
(A) det
(B) det
(C) det
(D) det
(E) Which of the previous four matrices were invertible?
4 2 1
Let = [1 7
8 ]. Evaluate the following.
5 2 3
(A) 11 , 12 , 13 , 22 , 31 , 32
(B) 11 , 12 , 13 , 22 , 31 , 32
4 7 0
1
3
5
Let = [ 2
2 3]. Evaluate the following.
4
6 ] and = [ 1
2 3 4
1 2 3
(A) det
(B) det
Use elementary row operations to create a zero in the desired location. Write out
what operation you chose and the resulting matrix.
0
3
6
(A) Let = [ 1
4
5 ]. Make 21 = 0.
1 7 10
4 5 12
(B) Let = [3 1
4 ]. Make 32 = 0.
2 2 6
Use whatever method you like to find the following determinants.
1 1 0
(A) det ([ 3
4
7 ])
12 5 3
12 24 36
(B) det ([ 0
1
3 ])
12 4
1
1 2 3
(C) det ([ 3 2 1 ])
1 2 3
Unit eight 282
6.)
7.)
8.)
9.)
10.)
11.)
12.)
13.)
14.)
1 5 6
(D) det ([ 2 5 6])
3 4 8
If a matrix has zeros everyone but the main diagonal, it is said to be triangular. In
0 0 0
0 0 0
general, then, a matrix = 0 0 0 , is triangular.

[0 0 0 ]
(A) Write any 2 2 matrix that is triangular.
(B) Write any 3 3 matrix that is triangular.
1 0
Consider = [
].
0 6
(A) Is triangular?
(B) What is det ?
2 0 0
Consider = [0 3 0].
0 0 4
(A) Is triangular?
(B) What is det ?
Write a theorem about triangular matrices and their determinants.
Prove your theorem for all 2 2 matrices.
Does it matter if the matrix is lower triangular only? Will that change your
2 1 4
previous theorem? For example, is det ([0 1 24]) = 2 1 3?
0 0 3
What about upper triangular? Will that change the determinant?
Knowing
what
you
know
about
triangular
matrices,
evaluate
1 14 13 12
0 2 100 2
det ([
]) .
0 0
3
10
0 0
0
4
One way to determine the inverse of a matrix is to use determinants. Look up a
way to find the inverse of a 3 3 matrix using determinants. (Hint: Youll need the
adjoint, or classical adjugate, to find it as well). Write out all steps.
Solving systems of equations
One of the main reasons weve defined matrix multiplication as we have is because we
can use it solve systems of equations. We already have skills to solve systems of equations,
but as they get more complex and contain more variables, it is often easier to consider
them as matrices.
To illustrate this point, consider the product of the two matrices
3 Systems of equations 283
such that
1
=[
3
1
2
] , = [ ].
4
2
Using what weve learned,

+ 22
= [ 1
].
31 + 42
If this product matrix were equated to another matrix, say
=[
12
],
24
then we would have that

= => [
1 + 22
12
] = [ ].
31 + 42
24
And the only way those two matrices can be equal is if

1 + 22 = 12
31 + 42 = 24,
Which is nothing more than a system of equations, and something that youve done quite
a bit of.
We can always solve this equation in the traditional manner, that is, using Algebraic
methods such as substitution or elimination. But there are other ways to solve it,
particularly if we think of it in terms of matrices.
An important note: Weve chosen to name our variables 1 , 2 , and, when necessary, 3 .
This is instead of the usual , , and , respectively. This is only a naming convention, and
we like it because it if we are going to name a matrix , it would make sense that its
components, or individual cells, would have similar names. Consider how
1
= [2 ]
3
Makes sense and looks nice.i
Obviously this is just a particular convention that this text uses. You are welcome to use your own.
Unit eight 284
Example 1a
Let = and = [
1
1 2
5
] , = [ ], and = [ ].
1 2
2
1
We first multiply whence

= [
1 + 22
].
1 + 22
Setting this equal to , we have

1 + 22 = 5
1 + 22 = 1.
We can now proceed to solve this using methods we already know. Elimination would
work great here. We could then conclude that
1 = 3, 2 = 1.
But let us for a moment consider the problem as a matrix, and use matrix methods to
solve. At first, this might seem strange or even more complicated. But let us see if we
dont find something interesting.
We started with
= .
If we multiplied both sides by 1 , we would get
= 1 ,
whence we could easily figure out .
So one way to find 1 , 2 is to use the inverse of the matrix .
This can be cumbersome, since 1 isnt always easy to find or easy to work with.
So let us consider another, and usually more preferable way to do it. What if we had
=[
]?
1
5
Then, using our equation = , with = [ ], we would have
1
1
5
[
] [ ] = [ ],
2
0 1
1
which would imply
1 + 2 = 5
And, more importantly,
01 + 2 = 1
Whence
2 = 1.
This tells us 2 , which we can then substitute back into our equation and solve using
normal methods. The point is, if we can zero out an entire row except for one cell (which
well want to be 1), then we can immediately determine that variable. This process is
known as Gaussian Elimination.ii
Of course, our example started with row two having a zero and a one, and this is very
rarely the case. And when we endeavor to use Gaussian Elimination, well need to bring
along the solutions as well. We can do this by creating an augmented matrix.
Example 2a
1
2
5
] and = [
], and = . Create an augmented matrix and then
2 6
12
solve by using Gaussian Elimination.
Let = [
To create an augmented matrix, we simply combine matrices and to create a 2 3

matrix:
[
1
2
5
|
].
2 6 12
Usually, we put a vertical line to separate the two matrices, although this isnt necessary,
since we only need to care about a single matrix.
Now we want to solve this system using Gaussian Elimination. To do this, let us zero-out
21 , and get 22 = 1. To do this, well need to perform elementary row operations. The
first thing we should notice is that simply adding or subtracting will not get us a zero in
21 , so well need to change that row by way of a scalar. Do you see that each number in
1
row two is a multiple of 2? So well multiply each number in row two by , which gets us
2
1
2 5
[
| ].
1 3 6
This is named after the German mathematician, Carl Friedrich Gauss, who is perhaps one of the greatest
mathematicians ever.
ii
Unit eight 286
Now it is easy to see that, to get 21 = 0, we can simply add the two rows, and put the
sum into the second row. This gets us
[
1 2 5
| ].
0 1 1
Our next step is to get 22 = 1. To do this, all well need to do is multiply the second row
by 1. This gives us
[
1 2 5
| ]
0 1 1
Whence we conclude that

2 = 1.
With this, we can substitute into the first row, which, recall, represents 1 + 22 = 5,
getting
1 + 2(1) = 5
Whence
1 = 3.
Thus solving our equation.
Notice that this process is an awful lot like Elimination:
{
1 + 22 = 5
21 62 = 12
+ 22 = 5
{ 1
1 32 = 6
and then, upon adding the two equations, we would get

2 = 1
whence
2 = 1,
which is the same conclusion we reached before.
So this Gaussian elimination is very similar to elimination, then.
Lets try a 3 3 matrix next. The same principles apply.
Example 2b
1 1 1 4
Solve the augmented matrix = [1 2 3 |6].
2 3
1 7
This matrix has already been augmented for us, so we just need to solve it using Gaussian
Elimination. This, however, is a more difficult process, since there are more cells to zero
out. In this instance, we want to get 31 = 0, 32 = 0, and 33 = 1.
First, well multiply the first row by two, then subtract rows one and three. Multiplying the
first row produces
2 2 2 8
[1 2 3 |6],
2 3
1 7
and then subtracting the first and third rows, and replacing the difference into the third
row gives us
2 2 2 8
[1 2 3 |6].
0 1 3 1
This is great now let us get 32 = 0. To do this, let us return row one back to its original
form.iii Then we have
1 1 1 4
[1 2 3 |6].
0 1 3 1
At this point, we might be tempted to add the first and third rows again. After all, that will
produce 32 = 0. But doing that would be quite vexing, as wed get
1 1 1 4
[1 2 3 |6],
1 0 4 5
and this seems to show us that weve undone our previous work of getting 31 = 0.
Indeed, we cannot only add the first and third rows to get to our goal, as well constantly
bounce back and forth putting a one (or some other number) where we had a zero and
zeroing out a cell where we had a number. This is annoying. So let us go back to where
we were,
iii
Alternatively, if you prefer, we could also multiply the first row by . Since it is easy to go back and forth
like this, it is not necessary to leave rows in their scaled form.
Unit eight 288
1 1 1 4
[1 2 3 |6],
0 1 3 1
and try to use row two.
At first, it seems we have the same problem. If we add rows two and three, wont we be
changing 31 so that it is no longer equal to zero? Before we can get 32 = 0, therefore,
we must get 21 = 0. That way adding (or subtracting) the two rows will keep 31 = 0.
This is easily done, as subtracting rows one and two will get us 21 = 0. Subtracting them
both we get
1 1 1 4
[0 3 4 |10].
0 1 3 1
This is good because, as we mentioned before, we can now safely add rows two and three
without changing 31 .
To zero out 32 , let us multiply row three by 3. We get
1 1 1 4
[0 3 4 |10].
0 3 9 3
Now we can add rows two and three to get 32 = 0:
1
[0
0
1 1 4
3 4 |10].
0 13 13
Finally, we multiply row three by 13, and this gives us

1 1 1 4
[0 3 4 | 10 ]
0 0 1 1
Whence
3 = 1.
Now we can substitute this into our other rows to reveal the other results. Looking at row
two, and writing it as an equation, we would have
32 43 = 10,
but we know what 3 is, so now we just need to substitute and solve. We get
32 4(1) = 10
32 + 4 = 10
32 = 6
2 = 2.
Then we take row one, which can be written as
1 + 2 3 = 4,
and, making the proper substitutions,
1 + 2 + 1 = 4,
we conclude that
1 = 1.
We can follow a rigid procedure when using Gaussian Elimination, but occasionally, it will
be far more beneficial to apply some intuition to our work, since we can save considerable
time and do far fewer steps. Lets look at an example like this next.
Example 2c
41 32 63 = 12
Solve the system of equations { 31 + 22 + 43 = 9 .
91 62 + 53 = 10
We first want to create an augmented matrix from this system of equations. Doing this
gets us
4 3 6 12
= [3 2
4 | 9 ].
9 6 5 10
As we learned in the previous Example, well want to get 21 = 0, 31 = 0, 32 = 0, and
33 = 1.
It is wisest to begin with 21 . To get 21 = 0, let us multiply row two by three and then
add rows two and three. Doing the multiplication gets us
4 3 6 12
[9 6 12 |27]
9 6 5 10
Whence, by addition, we get
4 3 6 12
[0
0 17 |17].
9 6 5 10
Unit eight 290
Something very nice happened here, didnt it? We were able to zero out two cells in row
two, thereby leaving us with what we see above. When we translate this row back into an
equation, wed just have
173 = 17
whence
3 = 1.
This was a bit of a coincidence, and we wont always be able to eliminate two cells with
one elementary row operation like that. Still, it can happen, so be on the lookout for two
rows having multiplies line up as they did in this example. Also, it is not an absolute
requirement to zero out 21 , 31 , and 32 as we just saw. So use your intuition and attempt
to zero out a row thats easiest.
Of course, were not done with our problem. Going back to the original problem, with
three equations, we substitute 3 = 1 into both the top and bottom equations:
41 32 6(1) = 12
91 62 + 5(1) = 10
whereby we have the remaining system of equations:
{
41 32 = 18
.
91 62 = 15
At this point, youre welcome to use elimination, substitution, or proceed using matrix
methods. Well finish this problem using matrices, since you should already have plenty
of practice using usual Algebra methods. Creating an augmented matrix, then, we have
= [
4 3 18 iv
|
].
9 6 15
Based on our first few examples, wed try to get 21

= 0, but this will be a messy process,
since well have to multiply both rows one and two to match up the numbers in the first
column. But notice that the second column has some common multiples? So why dont
we try to get 12
= 0? Then well easily be able to solve for 1 , right? Therefore, we multiply
row one by 2, getting us
8
[
9
6 36
| ],
6 15
Well call this matrix since it is not equal to our original matrix, . But since weve created it using ,
well choose a name that reminds us where it came from.
iv
and then add rows one and two. This get us

[
17 0 51
| ].
9 6 15
Then we just multiply through by 17, getting us

1
[
9
0 3
| ].
6 15
This allows us to conclude that

1 = 3.
Finding 2 is now quite elementary, and using basic Algebra, we find that
2 = 2.
In conclusion, Gaussian Elimination does not require that the third row be eliminated with
31 = 0, 32 = 0, 33 = 1. You just need one row where two of the numbers are zeros.
Lets show just one quick example of this to really drive this point home.
Example 3
1
Determine the value of 1 given the matrix = [3
2
0
0 15
12 7 | 9 ].
6 51 1
Do not be enslaved to the procedures that we outlined earlier they are a guide to help
you begin to understand, but, as weve seen, there is freedom in Gaussian Elimination that
allows us to more easily solve problems. The first row is already eliminated in a very
convenient manner, namely, it has two zeros in it. Thus we can take the first row, and write
it as an equation like
1 + 02 + 03 = 15
and hence
1 = 15.
If you strictly followed our guidelines, youd get 21 = 0, then get 31 = 0, then get 32 =
0, then get 33 = 1, and then (finally!) youd be able to determine 3 . Meanwhile, someone
Unit eight 292
who actually used her intuition would have gotten a variable approximately ten minutes
before you!v
Exercises
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)
Write the following systems of equations as an augmented matrix.

3 22 = 6
+ 2 = 5
(A) { 1
(D) { 1
41 + 2 = 12
2 = 17
1 + 2 = 1
2 + 33 = 6
(B) {
1 152 = 1
(E) { 1 3 = 9
31 + 2 3 = 9
2 + 23 = 6
(C) { 1 + 22 + 3 = 4
51 + 102 3 = 10
Write the following augmented matrices as a system of equations. Use 1 , 2 , and
3 as your variables.
1 2 5
1 1
2
(A) [
| ]
3
1
4 3 6
(D) [
3 |0]
7 1 2
4
5
(B) [8 1 | ]
14 1 5 1
2 30
0 6 24
(E) [
| ]
1 1 2 10
2 5 10
(C) [2 3 3 | 9 ]
0 2 3 8
6
7
8 8
(F) [3 0 7 | 9 ]
2 6 0 10
Use Gaussian elimination to solve the following augmented matrices for 1 and 2 .
2 1 4
1 1
0 1
(A) [
| ]
(D) [7 3 5 |12]
1 3 5
4 5 8
3 7 15 28
(B) [
| ]
2
1
2
3
1 1 1
1 3 9
(E)
[
|
4
2
5
7 ]
(C) [
| ]
6 1 3
13 6 15 24
2
1
1 2
(F) [10 13
14 | 26 ]
10 13 14 26
Solve the following systems of equations using matrix methods.
3 + = 7
2 11 = 6
(A) {
4 = 6
(C) { 2 + 2 = 2
7 + 6 = 9
+ 2 + 3 = 6
(B) {
3 + = 4
3 + = 0
(D) { 3 + = 0
+ 13 5 = 2
This is a point your teacher should have already made and already made many times: Oftentimes
students blindly follow procedures because then they dont have to think. (And, lets be honest, thinking is
hard!) In the long run, however, just following the steps often takes longer and is more frustrating,
because you miss the potential shortcuts and are more often wrong without knowing why.
v
5.)
6.)
7.)
Youll need to be careful when creating augmented matrices; you must make sure
that the solutions are in the augmented portion of the matrix, while the coefficients
are on the other side of the vertical line. It will be very helpful, then, to put linear
equations into standard form before creating an augmented matrix. Create
augmented matrices for the following systems of equations.
= 3 1
2 = 3
(A) {
2 = 4
(D) { 4 = 2
+ 2 = 2
10 = +
(B) {
3 + 4 = 0
++=1
3 = 2 + 1
= 2 + 3
(E) {
(C) {
5 = 19
3 + 4 = + 3 10
Systems of equations can also be solved using matrix inverses. Recall that
=
Can be solved by multiplying both sides times the inverse of , 1 . To wit:
=
1
= 1
= 1 .
So let us test this method out using problems youve already solved.
2 1 4
1 3 9
(A) [
| ]
(C) [
| ]
1 3 5
6 1 3
3
1 7
4 5 8
(D) [
| ]
(B) [
| ]
1 4 6
1 1 1
Another way to solve systems of equations using matrices is a method called the
Gauss-Jordan Method. This is like Gaussian elimination, except you must make
your matrix have all ones down the main diagonal, and zeros everywhere else.
Symbolically, you must take
4 3 6 12
[3 2
4 | 9 ]
9 6 5 10
And, using nothing but elementary row operations, make it appear like
1 0 0 3
[0 1 0 | 2 ].
0 0 1 1
The answer to this matrix is
1 = 3, 2 = 2, 3 = 1.
Note that we dont have a particular goal with the solutions (in this case, on the
right side of the augmented matrix), they just become whatever they become.
(Hint: When using this method, youll want to go in order, getting zeros in 21 ,
then 31 , then 12 , then 32 , and so on. If not, youll be going in circles.)
Solve the following matrices using the Gauss-Jordan Method.
7 6 9
(A) [
| ]
3 1 4
1 1
0 1
(B) [7 3 5 |12]
3 7 15 28
Unit eight 294
8.)
Recall that not all matrices will have solutions, and that some systems will have
infinite solutions. What does that look like when solving them in matrix form? Solve
the following problems to find out.
1 1 0
(A) [
| ]
1 1 4
1 2 5
(B) [ 1 1 | 5 ]
2
(C)
Unit nine
Vectors
It is the direction and not the magnitude which is to be taken into consideration.
Thomas Paine
Unit nine 296
Let us now turn to an application of matrices: Vectors. You should have some experience
with vectors, either from a previous math course or Physics. Either way, we will go through
them assuming that you know nothing of them. The big addition in this course is the
multiplication of vectors, which well see in 2. This will permit us to revisit some of our
previously learned Trigonometric concepts.
Vector basics
A vector communicates two pieces of information in a visual manner. It is a line segment

that shows a direction and a length. The length communicates how much, and the arrow
communicates which direction the object in question is traveling.
As a more concrete example, a vector can represent something like the wind. If someone
asks you about the wind, it would not be sufficient to say Its traveling east, as that does
not tell anyone how fast it is traveling. Rather, you would say Its traveling east at about
10 mph. More importantly, though, is that we can draw this situation using tools we
already have. Consider Figure 146, which shows the wind vector you described to your
friend.
Figure 146
The vector is the line segment with the arrowhead on it. The arrowhead indicates the direction. Note that an east wind
means that the wind is coming from the east and blowing toward the west. Well come up with a better way to describe
wind direction shortly.
So a normal line segment only communicates length; it does not state which direction the
object is traveling, and often, it implies that there is no movement at all. Thus, vectors
allow us to visualize movement, where line segments do not. If a quantity, such as
distance, only has one piece of information to share, it is known as a scalar quantity.
While a quantity that has two pieces of information to share, such as the wind, is known
as a vector quantity.
2 Multiplying vectors 297
Vector
A line segment that communicates magnitude (by the length of the line segment) and
direction (by the way which the arrowhead is pointing).
How should we represent a vector? One way to do it would be to list its length and its
direction, right? So the previous case, where we had a 10 mph easterly wind, could be
represented as
(East, 10),
where East is the direction and 10 is the magnitude, or length, of the vector.
But this is very specific, and perhaps even misleading, since a car traveling east would be
going in the opposite direction of an easterly wind. So why not try angles, instead? Let us
agree to the following rule (shown in Figure 147 for vector angles and specific things, like
the wind direction, or the direction a boat is traveling in, etc.).
Figure 147
So any vector on the positive -axis is at a 0 angle, and so on. Does this look familiar? Because it should!
With this in mind, we could represent the previous vector as

(180, 10).
Hmm That looks an awful lot like a point on the Polar Plane doesnt it? Well explore this
more later, but thats actually not how mathematicians generally represent a vector
quantity. Instead, they mighti represent it as
< 10,0 >,
There are a few different ways that mathematicians represent vectors. As far as I know, vectors are one of
the most inconsistently notated math objects, at least at this level. Notation is only a convention, and so,
as weve made abundantly clear in this text, there really isnt a right way to do it, but a little more
consistency might be nice.
i
Unit nine 298
Which is essentially just an - and -coordinate (although the < and > signs tell you
that youre certainly working with a vector, and not just a point). There are advantages to
this approach, but we will represent a vector slightly differently. We would represent the
10 mph easterly wind as
= [
10
].
0
You can see that this is a matrix, and that the number in the first row represents an coordinate and the number in the second row represents a -coordinate. We write
vectors, then, by listing its ending point in the form of a one-column matrix. We will use
lowercase Latin latter with a right-facing harpoon over-top to show that this matrix is a
vector. There are many other ways to represent a vector, and we will introduce you to
these in the Exercises.
So why do mathematicians like to represent a vector which, recall, communicates a
magnitude and direction as a point in the rectangular plane, when that point neither
tells us the magnitude nor direction?ii Lets explore why with a few examples and
definitions.
Example 1
1
3
Evaluate +
when = [ ] and
= [ ].
2
4
Weve written each vector as a matrix, so why not add them just as we would add a matrix?
In fact, thats what well do:
2
1
3
+
= [ ] + [ ] = [ ].
6
2
4
One reason we chose the ending point of the vector as the way to write it, then, is because
we can write it as a matrix and easily operate with it. Subtraction will behave the same
way.
Of course, we can define addition of vectors so that it behaves like addition of matrices, iii
but this would be foolish if it doesnt make sense. So let us plot both
and
, then plot
the sum vector, +
, to see whether this makes any sense.
In order to figure these things out, well have to do some work. Wouldnt it be better if these things were
given to us right off the bat??
iii
Or anything else that we want, really. Nothing stops us from arbitrarily defining whatever we please. Of
course, some definitions will be better than others, not to mention the fact that some definitions will be
absurd.
ii
Example 2
1
3
Plot and
such that = [ ] and
= [ ]. Then plot the sum vector, +
.
2
4
All we need to do to plot these three vectors is place their ending points, then connect a
line segment from the origin. We do this in 148.
Figure 148
Do not forget to draw the arrows on each vector; they are very important!
But what does the sum vector, +

, have to do with anything? It might seem irrelevant,
but let us move
so that it starts at the end point of (Figure 149).
Unit nine 300
Figure 149
Weve left the original
(as a dotted line) so that you can compare.
Based on the previous Figure, it appears that the sum vector, +

, creates a triangle.
While this is neat as a picture, consider the following: Suppose Martin drives 1 mile east,
then 2 miles north. After a brief stop, he then travels 3 miles west then 4 miles north.
Where is he after all of his travels? Well, he is 1 mile east of his starting point and 4 miles
north of his starting point. But this is our sum vector, +
!
Thus, adding two vectors will give you the final position after making each movement (as
shown above). In other words, adding two vectors will show you the displacement.
Example 3
Matthew wants to hide a treasure discreetly. He decides to make three separate
movements to throw people off his trail. For his first movement, he goes 60 meters south
then 50 meters east. Then, for his second movement, he goes 50 meters north. Finally, for
his last movement, he goes 10 meters north and 35 meters east. From his starting spot,
where is the treasure hidden?
It might help you to draw this picture out. Well label his first movement
, his second ,
and his third movement
. Well draw the situation out in Figure 150.
Figure 150
We are not obligated to start at the origin, by the way. But why not? Itll make our life much easier, wont it?
Looking at a picture, we can easily see that hell end up 15 meters to the west of his
starting point. But there is an easier way to calculate this: Simply add the three vectors.
+ +
= [
0
50
35
15
]+[ ]+[
] = [ ].
50
60
10
0
Either method works. And this is a big reason why we write vectors the way that we do.
So far weve only really dealt with the ending points of vectors, and we could have easily
answered these questions with simple line segments. But vectors give us more
information than just location. Let us now look at this.
Example 4
A boat is traveling directly west at a speed of 50 mph. But there is a north wind blowing
at 10 mph. At what rate is the boat traveling?
You might be tempted to say, 50 mph, duh!, but be careful. The wind will affect the
speed of the boat, and we must take this into account. To do this, well draw a picture of
the situation in Figure 151, with representing the boats speed and
representing the
wind speed.
Unit nine 302
Figure 151
This Figure shows us the final position of our boat, but how will we determine the speed?
To do this, recall that a vector gives us two pieces of information: A magnitude and a
direction. So what we should do is add the two vectors to produce a third vector. We do
this in Figure 152.
Figure 152
Our picture shows the direction of +

, now what about the magnitude? Recall that
when we first talked about vectors, we talked about angle and length. The angle
corresponds to the direction, so the length must therefore correspond with the
magnitude. Thus, to find the speed of our boat, well only need to find the length of our
sum vector, +
. This is something weve done many times before: We just use
Pythagoras Theorem. Hence the speed of the boat is the length of +
, which is found
by calculating
502 + 102
Which is approximately
51.0
Miles per hour.
Magnitude
The magnitude of a vector , denoted
||,
Is found by calculating the distance of the vector.
In summary, then, we can find the magnitude of the vector by calculating its length.
Exercises
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)
4
2
0
3
Let
= [ ] , = [ ] ,
= [ ], and = [ ].
3
5
3
4
(A) Graph each vector on the same coordinate plane.
(B) Evaluate the following.
i.
+
iii. +
ii. +
iv. +
Now graph
, , and
+ all on the same coordinate plane (but different from
before).
(A) First, graph each starting at the origin.
(B) Next, graph starting at the end of
.
(C) Finally, graph
starting at the end of .
(D) Look at your coordinate plane: What shape have you created?
Does
+ depend on the order?
(A) First, verify that
+ = +
.
(B) Now make a geometric argument for why order will not matter. Look at 2.)
for some extra help.
We can also multiply vectors by a scalar.
(A) Vectors are just matrices, so multiply the following scalars just like we did
with matrices.
1
i. 2
iii. 3
ii. 3
iv.
(B) To find out what that word scalar means, lets do a few experiments. Graph
each of the following on their own graph (so there should be two vectors
on each graph).
1
i.
, 2
iii. , 2
1
ii. , 3
iv.
,
5.)
6.)
(C) What did the scalar do to the vector? In other words, how did the vector
change when multiplied by a constant?
(D) What about scaling by a negative? First, guess what multiplying by a
negative will do.
(E) Now evaluate the following
i.
iii. 2
ii.
iv. 10
We can also subtract vectors. Evaluate the following.

(A)

(C)
(B)
(D)
Based on your work in 5.), is

=
+ ()?
Unit nine 304
7.)
8.)
9.)
10.)
11.)
12.)
13.)
14.)
15.)
What does subtracting vectors do geometrically?

(A) Graph
, , and
all on the same graph (but different from before).
(B) Now graph by starting it at the end of
. Do you make a shape with

like you did with
+ ?
(C) What could you do to make a triangle, as we did when we added vectors?
(D) How does this fit with what you learned in 4.)?
(A) |
|
(C) |
|
|
(D) ||
(B) |
Based on what you just found, which vector has the greatest magnitude?
An airplane is flying 500 mph northwest, but the wind is blowing at 50 mph south.
What is the speed of the plane given the wind, and what is the planes direction?
A subway and a car are each traveling east. The vector representing the subways
speed is 3 times as long as the vector representing the car. What does this tell you?
12
50
Determine the displacement of a car if it first travels using = [ ] then
= [
].
13
50
Lets prove some basic properties of vectors.
(A) Prove that +
=
+ .
(B) Prove that + (
+ ) = ( +
) + .
Lets see what happens when we represent vectors a bit differently. Let us represent
a vector not by its end point, but by its direction and length.
(A) Let = (45, 2).
i. Graph .
ii. Evaluate ||.
(B) Let
= (210, 3).
i. Graph
.
ii. Evaluate |
|.
The previous definition is absurdly simple, because it tells us the important
information about each vector immediately. But what happens when we add two
vectors that are represented this way?
(A) Add +
by simply adding their components (so add their angles, then
add their magnitudes).
(B) Does this resultant sum vector produce anything or mean anything?
Multiplying vectors
We next turn our attention to multiplying vectors. We have seen how vectors behave just
like matrices, and so our definitions of addition and subtraction were quite obvious. We
did have a definition for multiplying matrices, but recall that it was not a strange definition.
In fact, we defined it quite especially for the solving of systems of equations. Since vectors
do not have this same purpose, it would make sense that we will multiply them differently
than matrices and, indeed, this is the case.
Before we consider how to multiply matrices, lets first consider something that might be
useful. This useful knowledge will build a foundation for us to see how to multiply vectors.
Consider Figure 153, which shows two vectors, and
.
Figure 153
2
5
Note that = [ ] and
= [ ].
3
2
One nice thing about vectors is that they can be scaled, as we saw in the previous section.
So while is nice, it only tells us about that specific vector. What if we wanted to know
more about a vector traveling in the same direction, but having a different magnitude?
For example, what if we wanted to know more about (which extends past ) shown in
Figure 154?
Figure 154
Unit nine 306
One way to determine more about would be to scale by some constant. But which
constant should we choose? We could find this out by dividing each component of and
, and then multiplying that quotient by each component in . But this requires us to find
both components of , which isnt always easy, nor is it the most efficient.
So what well do is find a vector , which well call that unit vector of , which travels in
the same direction of has a length of 1.i
How will we determine the components of ? To do this, well divide each of the
components of by ||. Well denote this with
=
,
||
which we could also write (generally) as

=
1 1
[ ].
|| 2
We see (using methods from the previous section) that

|| = 13.
2
Then, our unit vector, = [13

3 ], which we show in Figure 155.
13
Figure 155
Weve included a unit circle on this Figure, which reveals another definition of a unit vector: Its the vector that has one
endpoint on the unit circle and travels in the same direction as .
Note that there are many unit vectors (infinite, in fact). We are merely finding the vector that travels in
the same direction as and has a length of 1.
i
This vector, the unit vector, is very easy to scale. This allows us to find other vectors
traveling in the same direction but having different magnitudes.
Example 1
2
]. Determine and then give the coordinate of
such that
travels in the
7
same direction as and has a magnitude of 10.
Let = [
It might help to draw a picture first, and thats what we will do with Figure 156.
Figure 156
We first find ||, and using Pythagoras Theorem, we see that

|| = 53.
Then we can find by dividing each component of by ||. This reveals that
53 .
7
[ 53 ]
Unit nine 308
We are asked to find a vector

such that it is traveling in the same direction as and has
a magnitude of 10. This is now very easy to do:
= 10 = 10
53 .
7
[ 53 ]
You can distribute the 10 to each component if you wish, but we will leave it alone.
Finding unit vectors can be a useful skill, and, as well see, well need to find unit vectors
to multiply two vectors together.
Well make one more stop before determining how to multiply two vectors together. Let
us consider how to find a projection of one vector unto another.
A vector projection of onto
, denoted by
, means that you will take and put it onto
so that is traveling in the same direction as

and creates a 90 angle. We show this
in Figure 157.
Figure 157
Note that
is the longer vector, while
is the shorter vector on top of
.
As the previous Figure shows, || |

|.
One way of looking at the projection of one vector onto another, is to say how much of
the one vector is traveling in the same direction as the other. This is useful in many
different contexts, such as determining the amount of force or the amount of velocity of
some object.
How should we calculate the projection vector? We already have the tools with which to
do so, we just need to apply them appropriately.
Example 2a
2
5
Let = [ ] and
= [ ]. Determine
.
3
2
To find
, we first find
, which is
1 5
=
[ ].
|
| 29 2
Now, to find
, we need to stretch
out. The question becomes, then, how much
should we stretch it? Do you see how the vector
seems to stretch with respect to ?
So why not try to stretch it in regards to the size of ? To do this, well multiply each
component of
with each component of . Doing this gives us
5
29
2=
10
29
and
2
29
3=
6
29
What do these two numbers represent? They represent the amount of stretch we should
make on our unit vector,
. We could apply this stretch in two separate stretches, one to
the horizontal component and one to the vertical, or we could combine them into a single
stretch. Well do the latter, and we can do this by adding the two stretch factors, as we
show below:
10
29
6
29
16
.
29
This stretch factor we can apply straight away to our unit vector,
:
5
80
16 29
= [29].
32
2
29
29
[29]
This vector is what we were seeking,
.
Unit nine 310
Example 2b
3
5
Let = [ ] and
= [
]. Find
and |
|.
4
12
Now that we have discovered the process lets systematize it.
We first find the unit vector of

,
, by evaluating |
. Since |
| = 13, we have
|
5
= [ 13 ],
12
13
as we show in Figure 158.
Figure 158
We have, again, added the unit circle to help you more clearly see the unit vector,
.
Then we need to stretch this vector out by adding the horizontal and vertical stretches of
with respect to
. This amounts to
3
5
12
33
+ 4 ( ) = .
13
13
13
Now we multiply this number by

to get our result,
. We do this by
5
165
33 13
[
] = [ 169].
12
396
13
13
169
This vector seems strange, so well show and explain it in Figure 159.
Figure 159
Our projection vector,
, went backwards. This is the only we could project a new vector onto
that was also
perpendicular.
Now we need to find the length of this projection vector. Thats as easy as using
Pythagoras Theorem, and we find that
|
| 2.54.
Well discover one other thing before we move on to the main point of this section, which
was multiplying vectors.
Example 2c
3
1
Determine
if = [ ] and
= [ ].
3
1
We proceed using the same pattern. We first find
; since |
| = 2, we have that
2 .
1
[ 2]
Unit nine 312
As before, we now find the scaling factor of

with respect to . This amounts to
3 (
1
) + 3 ( ) = 0.
2
2
We now stretch
by 0, and get
2 = [0].
1
0
[ 2]
Huh, this is strange. Let us draw a picture in Figure 160 to find out whats going on here.
Figure 160
Is there any way to project onto

such that the resulting vector creates a 90 angle?
The answer is no, and this reveals a very important piece of information! It tells us that
our two vectors, and
are perpendicular.
0
To conclude our example, then, we say that
= [ ] , |
| = 0, and we can even state that
0
and
are perpendicular.
This revelation seems to indicate something to us: We can determine the angle between
two vectors using this process.
So let us turn our attention to Figure 161, which consists of two vectors, and
.
Figure 161
What well do here is create is create the projection of onto

,
. For simplicitys sake,
we let |
| = , as seen in Figure 162.
Figure 162
This is a familiar setup, and at this point we can go back to our Trigonometry to determine
. But, as weve found out, some choices are better than others. If, for example, we were
to try and use the Sine function, wed set up the equation
sin =
.
||
Note that we need to find ||, since we need a length to input into our Sine equation.
But in most cases, well have some trouble figuring out , since it has no inherent
relationship with either of our two vectors.ii
What about using Cosine, instead? Then we would set up the equation
cos =
,
||
In this case, its very easy to determine , since weve given you two vectors that whose endpoints are
known, and the perpendicular line weve constructed to create just so happens to be vertical. This will
not always be the case.
ii
Unit nine 314
Where is whatever length we obtain after chopping off

at the dotted line. In the
present case, weve made it very easy to see that we have to chop off 2, (so in the present
case, = |
| 2), but this will not always be so obvious.
But isnt a very good variable to have, since it has no relationship with either of our two
vectors. So let us rename it using some Algebra. Since
cos =
,
||
we know that
= || cos .
Plugging this back into the same equation we got it from would be foolish:
cos =
|| cos
||
cos = cos ,
Which is a true statement, and an obvious one at that. What we need, therefore, is some
other relationship. And conveniently, we already have this, since we know is just the
length of the projection vector, which we know how to find. Recall that to find the
projection vector, we first need to find the unit vector,
, and we can do this by taking
and multiplying it by
1
.
|
|
Once we do this, we then stretch out this factor with respect
to , as we did in the previous three examples. Let us agree to the notation of

to denote this process of stretching. In symbols, then, we have that the length of the unit
vector, |
|, is equal to
.
|
|
But this is equivalent to . Therefore we can make the following substitution:
= || cos .
|
|
Since |
| is just a length (and therefore some real number), we can multiply this to both
sides to reveal a profound truth:
= |
||| cos .
This formula is profound for two reasons: First of all, it reveals how to find the angle
between any two vectors. But it also seems to indicate to us how to multiply two vectors.
Let us work with this definition a little before we formally define it.
Example 3a
4
2
Let = [ ] and
= [ ]. Determine
.
0
4
Based on our previous formula,
= |
||| cos , we just need to find |
|, ||, and cos .
The first two are easy:
|
| = 2, || = 42.
Now what about cos ? While we might occasionally be told the measure of , here we
have nothing to go on. So what well do is draw a picture and see if we cant figure this
out for ourselves. We draw and
in Figure 163.
Figure 163
It is clear from our drawing that the angle between the two vectors is 45. Thus, = 45,
and
= 2(42) cos 45 = 82 (
2
) = 8.
2
So it seems that multiplying two vectors in this fashion outputs a real number.
Unit nine 316
Example 3b
Evaluate
if
= [
3
3
] , = [ ], and = 195.
2
1
Again we just follow the formula. This time we are given , although, well need to use a
calculator to approximate cos 195. We have
|
| = 13, || = 10, cos 195 0.97,
and hence
= 0.97 13 10 11.06.
Before continuing on, lets recall that
= |
||| cos .
Let us also recall that, before we wrote this formula out, we had
= || cos .
|
|
When we were calculating the left side, we first found
,
|
|
then stretched it out with
respect to . This gives us a hint at another way of multiplying vectors, which we now
formalize below.
The dot product
1
1
Let
= [ ] and = [ ]. Then their dot product, denoted by
, is
2
2
= |
||| cos = 1 1 + 2 2 .
We give this type of multiplication a special name because it is not the only way in which
to multiply two vectors. Thus, when you want to use the definition above, you must use a
small bullet (or dot) to show thats what you are doing.
Example 4a
4
2
Let = [ ] and
= [ ]. Determine
.
0
4
This is the same Example from Example 3a, but now lets try a different approach.
According to what weve seen from the box above, we just can simply multiply the
corresponding components, then add their products. Thus

= 4(2) + 4(0) = 8.
This agrees with what we found from before, and it seems to be a bit easier too.
Example 4b
Evaluate
if
= [
3
3
] , = [ ], and = 195.
2
1
This, again, is the same thing as Example 3b; let us try the other method here.
All we must do is multiply the corresponding components then add those products. We
get
= 3(3) + (2)1 = 11.

This is not exactly what we got in Example 3b, but recall that we rounded from 11.06.
Although this is easier computationally, it hides the fact that a dot product serves a
wonderful purpose namely, it allows us to find the angle between two vectors.
Example 5
4
2
Determine the angle between the vectors

= [ ] and = [ ].
3
1
We use the first formula,
= |
||| cos , and solve for . Since
|
| = 17, || = 13,
and
= 8 + 3 = 5,
we can substitute into our formula and get
5 = 221 cos
and hence
cos =
5
221
Using the arccosine function on our calculators shows us that

= 109.65.
There is at least one other way to multiply vectors, and well briefly explore that in the
Exercises. Well practice some of these techniques and even extend them into three
dimensions.
Unit nine 318
Exercises
1.)
2.)
What is a unit vector? Use an explanation and a picture to answer this question.
Find the unit vector of each of the given vectors.
4
0
(A) [ ]
(C) [ ]
7
3
3
12
(B) [ ]
(D) [
]
5
14
3.)
Find the projection of onto

,
. Given the following.
2
1
2
5
(B) = [ ] ,
= [ ]
(A) = [ ] ,
= [ ]
3
3
3
2
Is
=
?
Check
using
one
of
the
previous
problems.
Is it possible for
=
? Can you think of an example when this would be the
case?
Evaluate
given the following vectors for
and .
1
2
12
1
(A) = [ ] ,
= [ ]
1 ],
2]
(D)
=
[
=
[
3
2
8
4
1
3
(B) = [ ] ,
= [ ]
0
4
(E) = [3] ,
= [3]
1
12
1
7
(C) = [ ] ,
= [ ]
0
11
9
24
(F) = [ ] ,
= [ ]
4
12
Is
=
? Consider the definition of
= 1 1 + 2 2 to help you answer
your question.
Now prove your previous finding.
Find the angle between the two given vectors.
1
3
2
3
(A) = [ ] ,
= [ ]
(C)
= [
] , = [ ]
6
10
8
2
4
4
0
0
(B) = [ ] ,
= [ ]
(D)
= [ ] , = [ ]
0
3
2
1
In the reading, we asserted that if
= 0, then
. Does this work in the other
direction? Namely, if
, does that necessitate that
= 0?
If the projection vector
= 0, what will the value of the dot product be?
Based on your previous answer, make a new theorem about the angle between
two vectors when their dot product is equal to zero.
One of the interesting things about vectors is that they are easily transferred into
higher dimensions. This allows us to work with things that are three-dimensional
and above quite easily.
1
2
(A) Let = [2] and
= [ 3 ]. Evaluate
.
5
1
0
1
3
3
(B) Let = [ ] and
= [ ]. Evaluate
.
4
0
6
5
4.)
5.)
6.)
7.)
8.)
9.)
10.)
11.)
12.)
13.)
14.) In the previous section we occasionally used polar coordinates to denote vectors.
1
Recall that the vector = [ ] would then be written as = (45, 2), with the first
1
component representing the direction of the vector and the second component
representing its magnitude (or length).
(A) How could we use the dot product with vectors represented as polar
coordinates? Consider = (30, 2) and
= (45, 4). Now find the dot
product
. (Hint: Use the formula
= |
||| cos . Dont you know
|
|, ||, and ?)
(B) Use this method to find the dot product of = ( 2 , 2) ,

= ( 4 , 3).
15.) There is another way in which multiply two vectors: The cross product, which is
denoted by
. One useful feature of the dot product was that it gave us a quick
way to determine if two vectors were perpendicular to one another. The cross
product will produce a third vector which just so happens to be perpendicular to
both factor vectors, and
!
(A) Can you always draw a third vector 3 from two vectors 1 and 2 such that
1 2 3 ?
(B) What about in three dimensions? Would it be possible to always create a
third vector such that 1 2 3 ?
1
1
16.) Let us define the cross product:

Let = [ 2 ] and
= [ 2 ];
=
3
3
2 3 3 2
[(1 3 3 1 )]. Now evaluate
.
1 2 2 1
1
3
(A) = [ 2 ] ,
= [2]
1
3
1
5
(B) = [3] ,
= [3]
4
1
Unit nine 320
Unit ten
Sequence and series
To infinity And beyond!
Buzz Lightyear
1 Sequences and series 321
Our next topic features quite heavily in Calculus. We will begin by studying patterns and
then attempt to add them even add them into infinity. We will conclude this section
with a brief introduction to limits, a concept that forms the very foundation of all Calculus.
Sequences and series
Youve no doubt encountered various number sequences as youve studied math and
even in real life. For example, the list of numbers
1,3,5,7
is a sequence. Its just some collection of numbers that form a discernable i pattern.ii
Sequences could be finite, like the previous example, or infinite, such as
2,4,6,8, ,
where the " " tells us that this pattern continues forever following the same pattern. Each
number is called a term, and, in the previous example, the first term is 2, the second term
is 4, and so on. We denote the first term with 1 , the second with 2 , and so on.
Sequences can have any set of rules that we like, so long as there is, in fact, a pattern.
Thus
3, 9 , 27, 81, ,
is a pattern, and contains a common ratio of 3. But so is
1, 6, 16, 36, ,
where there are two things happening: Add two to the previous number then multiply by
two. More types of sequences exist than this, too.
Example 1
Determine the pattern of the sequence 4, 1, 6,
Here we start at 4, then subtract 5 for each subsequent number.
While this is easy, we would like to have more power than this. For example, what is the
eleventh number in this sequence? One way to do it would be to carry the pattern out
until you get to where you want to be. We then have
Discernable is a bit of an ambiguous term, but, for practical purposes, this means that you should
expect to be able to decipher the pattern of the sequence without too much strain.
ii
Technically, it doesnt even have to be numbers. But in this course, well only talk about numerical
sequences.
i
Unit ten 322
4, 1, 6, 11, 16, 21, 26, 31, 36, 41, 46.

Thus the eleventh number is 46. But what if we were asked for one-thousand eleventh
number? Would we really want to carry out this pattern over a thousand times?
Surely not, which is why well develop some intuition to help us out. An equation would
be very helpful here, and thats what well now strive to create. A sequence that has a
common difference is called an arithmetic sequence. An arithmetic sequence is very
much like a linear equation, and so we can create an equation for this type of sequence
almost exactly like we would create a linear equation.
Explicit form of an arithmetic sequence
= + ,
Where > 0 and represents the desired term number in the sequence, and
, , and is the number in the sequence, is the common difference, and is
some number.
Example 2
Determine the 1,001st term using the previous sequence,
4, 1 , 6, .
We first get an equation. The common difference here is 5, and thus
= 5.
We are looking for the 1,001st term, so = 1,001. So far, then, we have
1,001 = 5(1,001) + .
We will need to determine , which is just some number that affects our starting point.
To do this, well need to choose a term from our sequence that we already know. For
example, we know the first term,
1 = 4,
so why not plug that in to find ? That gets us
4 = 5(1) +
and hence
= 9.
Then we simply solve our equation:
1,001 = 5(1,001) + 9 = 4,996.
Sometimes sequences cannot be defined using an explicit formula. If thats the case, well
use a recursive formula. A recursive formula defines the desired term ( ) in terms of the
previous term, usually called 1 . So the sequence
10, 11, 12, 13, ,
could be defined recursively as
= 1 + 1.
It is usually very easy to define a sequence recursively, but it also isnt as useful. Therefore,
we will rarely use it.
A geometric sequence is some sequence which has a common ratio. Thus, the sequence,
1, 2, 4, 8,
is a geometric sequence. We can easily extend this pattern, as before, but well want to
have a way in which to make an equation of it, to make things more simple.
Since we have a common ratio, it would make sense to make an exponential equation,
and, indeed, thats what well do.
Explicit formula for geometric sequences
=
Where > 0 and , , (with 1, 0) and represents the common ratio
and is some number.
Example 3
Determine the 10th and 15th term given the geometric sequence
12,
12 12
, , .
5 25
We know that this is a geometric sequence, so we use the formula shown above. We first
find , the common ratio. To do this, we can simply divide two adjacent terms, such as the
first and second terms. We find that
=
12
1
12 = .
5
5
Then, so far, we have

1
= ( ) .
5
Unit ten 324
To find , well need to input something we already know, then solve for . Well pick the
first term, 1 = 12. Then we have
1 1
12 = ( )
5
and hence
= 60.
This tells us our formula is
1
= 60 ( ) .
5
To determine the 10th term, we just substitute 10 into its rightful spots. Then we have
1 10
10 = 60 ( )
5
whence
10 =
12
.
1,953,125
We will leave you to find 12 . Its a very small number, but is easily found using the formula.
Let us next take a look at series. A series is the sum of some sequence. Thus, if we have
the sequence
= 1, 2, 3, 4,
then its series is given by
= 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10.
So a series is just the sum of every term within the sequence.
We usually use a different notation for the sum of a series, viz., the Greek capital letter
sigma, .
Series
A series is the sum of every term in a sequence. If the sequence is given by , and there
are terms in , then the series is denoted with
.
=1
Example 4
Evaluate
10
2.
=1
The brute-force method is easy, although, a bit tedious. You simply list out each term in
the sequence. Here, our sequence is 2, and were starting at = 1 and ending at = 10.
Thus our sequence, , is
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20.
Then we just need to find its sum, which is easy for us to calculate. We conclude that
10
2 = 110.
=1
Of course, thats not too bad when you have a small number of terms in your sequence,
but what if you had 20 terms? 500 terms? An infinite amount of terms? You certainly
would not want to add each term individually.
Thankfully, math has a way of taking such a complex problem and making it very
elementary.
Sum of an arithmetic series
Given some series
,
=1
Where is the sequence, = 1 is the starting point (or lower limit), and is the ending
point (or upper limit), then the sum is given by
1 +
= (
).
2
Proof.
Let be the sequence
1 , 2 , 3 , ,
where is the final term in a sequence with terms.
Then let
Unit ten 326
(1)
= = 1 + 2 + 3 + + .
=1
To make (1) easier to work with, let us rename each term in terms of 1 . Since this is an
arithmetic sequence, we can find 2 by adding , 3 by adding 2, and so on. Thus we
rewrite (1) as
(2)
= 1 + (1 + ) + (1 + 2) + + (1 + ( 1)).
Of course, we can also find the sum by writing it out in terms of the last term, . Thus we
can state that
(3)
= + ( ) + ( 2) + + ( ( 1)).
Now add (2) and (3) together, and get

2 = 1 + + (1 + ) + ( ) + + (1 + ( 1)) + ( ( 1)).
Since each term is being added, and each term is some number, we can use the
commutative property to rearrange the right side of the equation. Doing this so that like
terms are next to each other gives us
2 = 1 + + 1 + + + 1 + + ( 1) ( 1).
Each term that contains a will manifestly disappear, leaving us with
2 = 1 + + 1 + + 1 + .
Since we have 1 terms and terms, we can factor them together to get
2 = (1 + ).
Now dividing each side by 2 yields
=
(1 + )
,
2

Example 5
Let = {3, 8, 13, }. Evaluate
150
.
=1
Evaluating this the old-fashioned way would be mind-numbing. Instead, well use the
formula that we just proved. We must first determine 1 and . 1 is easy to find, since it
is given: 1 = 3. To find , which in the present case is 150 , we must make an equation.iii
We use the same methods from previous Examples: The common difference is 5, so =
5, and since 1 = 3, we have that 1 = 3 = 1(5) + , which tells us that = 2 and hence
our equation is
= 5 2.
Thence
150 = 5(150) 2 = 748,
and we can now determine our sum . Using our formula, we have
=
150(3 + 748)
= 56,325.
2
That covers sums of arithmetic sequences, but we also have geometric sequences to worry
about, right? Lets cover that next.
Example 6
Evaluate
5
3 + 1.
=1
Let us first list out all the terms in this sequence. The expression is 3 + 1, and our lower
limit is 1 while our upper limit is 5. Thus we input all the integers from 1 to 5 (inclusive) to
produce our sequence. We get
4, 10, 28, 82, 244.
Now we just add each term. We get
368.
This is well and good, but well want to have a more efficient method than that. Like we
had with arithmetic sums, there is a formula for geometric sums.
iii
Or find it using brute force, by listing out all 150 terms.
Unit ten 328
Formula for a geometric sum

If
=1
Where is the sequence, = 1 is the starting point (or lower limit), and is the ending
point (or upper limit), then the sum is given by
1
= 1 (
).
1
Proof.
Let = {1 , 1 , 2 1 , , 1 1 }. Then
(1)
= = 1 + 1 + 2 1 + + 1 1 .
=1
It follows that, since , , 1 , are all numbers, we can multiply both sides by (because of
the multiplication property of equality) to produce a different but equivalent equation:
(2)
= 1 + 2 1 + 3 1 + + 1 .
We then subtract equations (1) and (2), which gets us

= 1 1 + 1 2 1 + 2 1 1 1 + 1 1 + 1 .
We can then simplify the previous equation. Eliminating all terms that cancel on the right,
and factoring out an on the left side, we get
(1 ) = 1 + 1 .
Finally, factor out a 1 on the right side, and divide each side by (1 ), and get
1
= 1 (
),
1
Example 7
Evaluate
7
1
2( ) .
5
=1
As always, you may evaluate this the old fashioned way, but it will be easier to use the
formula. We need to find the first term, 1 , the common ratio, , and the final ratio, ,
which, in the present case, is 7 . Our first term is
1 1 2
2 ( ) = = 1 .
5
5
1
We notice that = 5, and that the final ratio is

1 7
1
( ) =
.
5
78,125
Now we plug these values into our formula and get
1
2 1 78,125
= (
) 0.50.
1
5
1
5
Which is a bit interesting, since it seems to be a small number. Shouldnt a geometric
series always be very large? Well explore that thought in the Exercises, and then explore
it further in the next section, when we begin to talk about Calculus properly.
Exercises
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)
5.)
What is the difference between a sequence and a series?

What is the difference between an arithmetic sequence and a geometric sequence?
Write out the first four terms in each of the following sequences. Then state what
type of sequence you have.
(A) = 2 + 12
(D) = 3 2
+1
(B) = 4
(E) = 2
(C) = 1
1
(F) = 2 (2)
Write formulas for the following sequences. Then state the term asked for in each
letter.
(A) 3, 7, 11, ; 8
(E) 24, 123, 222, ; 201
3
(B) 3, 2, 7, ; 12
(F) 4 , 2 , 4 , ; 21
2 3 9
(C) 4, 16, 64, ; 5
(G) 5 , 10 , 40 , ; 15
3 9 27
(D) 4 , 16 , 64 , ; 20
49
343
(H) 7, 3 , 9 , ; 9
What type of series do you have in each of the following?
2
(A)
2
n 1
Unit ten 330
6.)
(3 n )
(B) n 1
(C) The equation of the sequence is the key; how can you tell what type of series
you have?
Evaluate the following series.
15
(A)
(B)
(C)
n
n 1
12
(E)
n 1
24
(F)
(3n 1)
(5 n )
7.)
8.)
9.)
32

n 1 5 3
10
(G)
n 1
5
n 1
3 2
n 1
2
5
(H) n 1 5
9
(D)
3 2
n 1
Write any arithmetic sequence.

Write any geometric sequence such that the first number is positive, the next one
is negative, then positive, then negative, and so on.
Lets explore one important property of sums.
(A) What do you think? Will
10
10
n 1
n 1
n n n ? First, guess.
(B) Now evaluate this sum using brute force.iv

(C) Use the equation in seen in (A) to find a way to solve for
10
n .
n 6
(D) Now evaluate

(E) Now evaluate
35
(n 1) .
n 10
7
n 5
(F) Generalize this property.v

10.) Now lets explore another one.
(A) What do you think? Will
n 1
n 1
2 2 n 2 2 n ? First, guess.
(B) Now evaluate this sum using methods we learned in this section.
5
1
(C) Use what youve learned here to evaluate 5n .
n 1 2
(D) Generalize this property.
iv
v
Our formulas, unfortunately, do not account for a start anywhere other than 1 , the first term.
In other words, youre making a bit of a formula for yourself (and others) to follow.
11.) We saw an interesting sum in Example 7, but you may have missed it. Lets revisit
that sum and see if we cant learn anything new about it.
n
n
7
10
1
1
(A) We found that 2 0.50 . Now evaluate 2 . What do you
5
5
n 1
n 1
notice about it?
(B) Take a guess: What do you think
100
1
2 will equal? Evaluate it to check
5
n 1
your answer.
1
(C) Take a guess: What do you think 2 will equal? Note that means
5
n 1
infinity youll just keep adding more and more terms in your sequence,
never stopping.
(D) How is it possible, do you think, for an infinite sum to have a finite result?
Infinite series and limits
Series are a very important concept in Calculus. While there is an entire section dedicated
to infinite series in second-year Calculus, we will focus on them here to introduce limits,
which are the very foundation upon which Calculus is built.
Example 7 from the previous section had a very interesting result. Namely, no matter how
many terms we added to it, it never could get past 0.5. This ceiling is commonly called a
limit; that is, a number that cannot be exceeded. We could add more and more terms
forever and ever, but the series would never exceed 0.5.i
This is strange, since, intuitively, if you add an infinite amount of numbers, you would have
an infinitely-large number, right? To help us visualize an infinite limit or process, let us
turn to a classic visualization. We draw a square in Figure 164.
In fact, it will never even reach 0.5. It will only get there if we add an infinite amount of terms which,
realistically speaking, isnt possible. Right?
i
Unit ten 332
Figure 164
The area of this square is manifestly 1, since = , and = = 1. Now lets chop this
square in half, then add each half-square together. Will the area change? Check Figure
165.
Figure 165
Chopping the square in half, we now have two rectangles. Each rectangle is equal, and
1
each area is 1 2 = 2. Adding each rectangle will give us the area of the square, and thus
1
+ 2 = 1, which was the area of the original square. This is expected chopping a square
2
in half leaves two halves, and two halves equal the whole. But notice that we created a
1
series: We had two pieces (2 + 2) which we added together.

But now lets up the ante. Lets chop our square in half. Then lets chop one of those
rectangles in half. Then lets chop one of those halves in half. We shall repeat this process
infinitely. Lets look at Figure 166 to see approximately what this looks like.
2 Infinite series and limits 333
Figure 166
Although weve only shown you a finite number of partitions, theres nothing stopping us from continuing this process ad
infinitum.
Adding each of the partitions seen above should still result in the same area of 1, right?
Theres no way we could exceed an area of 1 simply by halving our square a bunch of
times yes, even an infinite amount of times!
The above visualization can be represented with the series
1 1 1 1 1
( ) = + + +
+ .
2
2 4 8 16
=1
Let us approximate this fact first.

Example 1
Approximate
1
( ) .
2
=1
What were looking for here is some limit, so that, no matter how many more terms of the
sequence you add, you cannot exceed that limit. This seems quite arbitrary, so lets do
some exploring. First, let us evaluate
5
1
( ) .
2
=1
Why 5? At this point, theres no good reason. Were just trying something to see what
happens. Evaluating this (using the formula from the previous section) reveals that
5
1
( ) = 0.96875.
2
=1
Unit ten 334
By itself, this tells us next to nothing. We now try a different ending point, say, 10. Then
we have
10
1
( ) 0.9990.
2
=1
This gives us some very useful information. Doesnt it seem that our limit is 1? If you still
dont see that, dont fret just try another series with a larger ending point.
Because we believe this series will never get higher than 1, we say that its limit is 1. ii
When a series has a limit, we say that the series converges. In the previous Example, the
series converged to 1. The opposite of converge is diverge. When a series diverges, it
means that the sequence gets infinitely large or infinitely small.
Example 2
Does the series
( + 1)
=1
Converge or diverge?
To check this, we will again approximate this infinite series. As before, our goal is to
stumble upon some limit that we cannot reach. We begin by choosing our ending point
at 20. Then, using the formula from the first section, we have
20
( + 1) = 230.
=1
This first approximation is nice, but it really doesnt say much to us. We need another
approximation to help us see if were closing in on any one particular point. Next let us
choose 50 as our ending point. Then we have
50
( + 1) = 1,325,
=1
which, notice, appears much larger than our first sum. Indeed, if we keep increasing our
ending point, then the sum will continue to get larger and larger. Verify this on your own
by choosing larger ending points. Because this sum does not close in on a single number,
ii
Remember, this was just an approximation.
but grows ad infinitum, we can conclude that this sum diverges. Some things to think
about: What type of sum did we have in this Example? What about in Example 1? Does it
make a difference what type of sum we have when we talk about convergence or
divergence?
We will now look at infinite series more formally. We will introduce a formula for infinite
geometric series, but will only informally work with the proofs in the Exercises.
Sum of an infinite geometric series
Let
= ,
=1
Where is some geometric sequence. Then
1
,
1
Where 1 is the first term in the sequence and is the common ratio.
Example 3a
=
Does the series
1
( )
3
=1
converge or diverge? If it converges, what is its sum?

We simply apply the formula. Since
1 =
1
1
, = ,
3
3
Then we have
=
1
3
1
= .
1
13 2
1
We can also say that the limit of our series is 2.
Unit ten 336
Example 3b
Does the series
3
=1
converge or diverge? If it converges, what is its sum?

We apply the formula, and see that
=
3
3
= .
13
2
But this doesnt make much sense, does it? After all, arent all of the terms of this sequence
positive? How, then, can we add only positive terms and end up with a negative number?
Our formula, therefore, must have some flaw in it. Or, alternatively, our formula does not
work with all series. The latter is the case here this series most certainly does not
converge, and you can find this out very quickly by only adding up ten terms of the
sequence. Our formula, therefore, only works on those geometric series which actually
converge. We must find out whether a series converges or diverges before we can apply
our formula.
How does one determine this? Indeed, this is one important skill in Calculus. You will
obtain a handful of tools that will help you determine if a series diverges or converge. You
will explore what works and what doesnt in the Exercises, and write your own theorem
that states what is required for a series to converge.
Well now take a pause from series and return to sequences. Weve seen how infinite series
can have a limit, so it would follow that infinite sequences would also have limits.
1
Consider () = , a rational function. In the previous course, we stated that has a

horizontal asymptote at = 0, because the value of will get closer and closer to zero,
but never quite reach it, no matter how large a value of we input.
2
100
1,000,000
1,000,000,000,000
() =
1
= 0.5
2
1
= .01
100
0.000 001
0.000 000 000 001
It is clear that as we increase , () will get closer to zero. Notice that () will never
exceed 0 (negatively). This fits our earlier definition of a limit, doesnt it? So we can say
that the limit of () is 0 as gets very large.
Of course, thats a mouthful, and so we usually shorten up that long sentence with the
notation
lim () = 0.
When we formally say the previous aloud, it is read as The limit as gets very large of
() is zero.
To evaluate a limit, we must know where we are looking. In the previous case, we were
concerned with the limit as got very large. But that isnt always the case. More on that
in a bit.
Example 4a
1
Evaluate lim () = +4 .
You may know this answer from the previous course, but let us use a table of values to
answer this question, as we did before.
Because we are interested in where is going as gets very large, we will choose -values
in our table that are very large.
() =
99
0.95
104
9,999
10,000
.9995
10,004
1,000,000
.999995
It is quite clear that we are getting very, very close to 1.iii Hence we conclude that
100
1
= 1.
+ 4
lim
We can also look at a picture to determine a limit. We will not show the graph of (),
but if you graph it, then look at how the graph behaves as gets very large, youll see
that gets very close to 1, but doesnt ever quite reach it.
iii
And if you still dont see this, feel free to choose larger -values then we have.
Unit ten 338
Example 4b
Evaluate lim + 3.
We create a table, and substitute large values in place of .
() = +
100
103
10,000
10,003
1,000,000
1,000,003
This table is a bit different than the others, isnt it? Namely, we dont seem to be reaching
a limit of any sort. () will continue to grow, never settling on a single number as our
previous example did. Because of this, we say that there is no limit.iv
Example 4c
Let () =
sin
. Evaluate lim ().

0
This is a slightly different question, although we will handle it the same way. Namely, what
value does () approach as goes to zero. To figure this out, let us create a table (as we
did before) except we should choose numbers that get closer and closer to zero. Note
that we cannot input = 0 directly, since we cannot divide by zero.

0.84
0.96
0.99
0.997
1
0.5
0.25
0.125
It seems quite strongly that
sin
= 1,
x0
lim
Doesnt it? This is the answer, and a graph seems to verify this, as we show in Figure 167.
iv
Usually we denote this with DNE for Does Not Exist.
Figure 167
Indeed, the answer to this limit is 1. But you should have a handful of questions.v For
example, why is it that
sin sin 0
?
0
0
lim
And can we use the previous method to figure out, say, lim tan ?
These are excellent questions, and well hint at their answers in the Exercises, but the real
answers will be relegated to a To be continued status. Calculus will offer great depth
and insight into these questions and more,vi and we highly encourage you to continue
your mathematics study to discover these truths.
Exercises
1.)
In your own words, describe a limit. For example, to say that a series, say
1
2.)
3.)
+ has a limit, what does that mean?
(A)
n 5
n 1
(B)
vi
+4+
2
Think of a way that you can explain to someone that you can add an infinite amount
of stuff but yet end up with a finite sum.
Determine whether the following series will converge or diverge.
n 1 4
5
2
(D) n 1 9
(E)
Isnt it great how answers in math oftentimes lead to more questions?

And, likewise, offer even more unanswered questions.
2
n 1
Unit ten 340
4.)
5.)
6.)
7.)
(B)
(C)
8.)
3
5

(C) n 1 4
(F) n 1 4
Based on the previous results, what is required for a series to converge?
Write some non-zero infinite series that will converge.
Use symbols to write an expression based on the following sentences.
(A) The limit as gets very large of the function () = 2 .
(B) The limit as approaches 0 of the function () = tan .
Determine the following limits using a table of values or a graph.
1
3
(A) lim 1
(D) lim ( ) 4
lim
(E)
3 2 +41
1
(F)
lim (2)
lim
0 2 +1
+3
lim
0 2 +3
Let () = .
(A) Use either a table or a graph to determine lim ().
2
(B) Is lim () = (2)?

2
(C) Will this always be true? Viz., will lim () = ()? Think of at least one
counter-example.
9.) Infinite sums form the very backbone of Calculus. Lets review a few concepts we
talked of earlier in the year, but use some rudimentary ideas of limits and infinite
sums, instead. First, lets return to slope. Recall that the curves (such as parabolas)
have slopes that are constantly changing, and that, because of this, it has been
impossible to say what the slope at a given point was.
(A) Let () = 2 . Our goal is to find the slope of () at (1). First, evaluate
(1).
(B) To find the slope, we need two points. Lets start with (2) find (2).
(C) Now find the slope of using (1) and (2).
(D) But recall that the closer the two points get to one another, the more
accurate the slope will be. So choose a point closer to (1), say (1.1). Now
find the slope using (1) and (1.1).
(E) Choose three more points, this time even closer to (1). Find the slope using
each of these three points.
(F) The slope appears to be getting closer and closer to a particular number,
right? What is that number?
(G) Since the slope is getting closer and closer to a number, what does it appear
to be?
10.) Use the same technique that you just used to determine the following slopes of
curves at the given point.
(A) () = sin at = 0.
(B) () = at = 2.
(C) () = cos at = .
4
11.) Now lets talk about area. Up to this point, youve just been given some formula
and you blindly followed it. But what about for weird shapes that dont have
formulas? Then what should we do?
(A) Graph () = 2 from 1 3.
(B) Estimate the area from 0 3 by making rectangles 1 unit wide, like you
see in the Figure below.
(C) What would happen if you add more rectangles?

(D) Would it be possible to use an infinite number of rectangles to estimate the
area? Could you add an infinite number of rectangles?
12.) Some limits do not exist. For example, consider () = tan . If the limit is lim tan ,
then a table of values would reveal two different results, right?
(A) Make a table of values using values that are less than 2 , but getting closer
and closer to 2 . Since
1.57, try = 1.5, = 1.6, = 1.565. What kind of
number do you get?
(B) Now try values that are larger than 2 , but getting closer and closer to 2 .
For example, try = 1.6, = 1.58, = 1.575. What kind of number do you
get?
(C) Do these numbers match up? As such, what can you conclude about the
lim tan ?
13.) Use a similar argument to show that you may not divide by zero.
1
14.) Use a graph or table to evaluate lim (1 + ) .
15.) What do we commonly call that number seen in the previous problem?
Unit ten 342
16.) Guess whether or not the following infinite series will converge or diverge. State
why you have guessed the way you did.
1
1
1
1
(A) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 +
2
(B) 1 3 + 9 27 +
343
Unit eleven
Parametric functions
The spiral in a snails shell is the same mathematically as the spiral in the Milky Way
galaxy, and its also the same mathematically as the spirals in our DNA.
Joseph Gordon-Levitt
Unit eleven 344
This final Unit will be used as a supplemental material, of sorts, to teach two very
important concepts that didnt quite fit anywhere else. Each of these two sections
feature in Calculus, and it is important for the student to be knowledgeable in each.
We first look to a different way of graphing functions, which, if not sometimes helpful, is
at least more flexible. Then we will turn our attention to conic sections. While some texts
put a heavy emphasis on conic sections, our exploration will be cursory. We will give the
student enough to learn how to graph and identify conic sections, as well create equations
from pictures. In each section we will take time to review both Trigonometry and Polar
Graphs.
Parametric functions and graphs
We have learned of two different ways to graph. For most of our math careers, weve been
graphing on the coordinate plane, also called the rectangular plane. This required two
components, some horizontal distance (our -value) and some vertical distance (our value) from the origin. The other way was to graph on the Polar Plane, which required two
different components: An angle and a distance from the origin. In this section, well look
at a third way to graph.
First, let us set up the need for such a graph. Assume that there is a bug which you happen
to catch sight of. This bug then moves away from its starting point, sort of in the shape of
a circle, around and around, and always increasing its distance from the origin. Its
movement might look like Figure 168.
Figure 168
1 Parametric functions and graphs 345
But how could we write an equation to represent this type of movement?i

Alternatively, what if we wanted to describe the position of some object in relation to
some point, say, the origin, while also minding time? For, if something is moving, its
position depends on its time, right? So we almost need a third variable, then, to account
for this?
It is precisely these two questions that provide the impetus for a parametric function
and graph. A parametric function is some function (), such that () = ((), ()), and
its graph is formed by the solutions to () and (). This definition is confusing, but, as
youll see, in practice this is quite elementary.
Example 1a
1
Graph () = {
and 5 5.
+1
We have two parameters, and + 1. By convention, we let the top equation equal ()
and the bottom equation (). Therefore we have
= 1,
= + 1.
The solutions to both of these equations become the points that we plot for our function,
(). In other words, the table of values for (), shown below, provide the -coordinates
of our function.
()
5
6
2
3
0
1
2
1
5
4
Notice that we only chose -values in the domain given, that is, 5 5.
The table of values for = + 1 will similarly provide the -coordinates of our function.
5
2
0
2
5
()
4
1
1
3
6
It is possible to write an equation in our normal , format for the previous Figure, but it is neither easy
nor pretty.
i
Unit eleven 346
And we thus have enough information to make our graph. We combine the above tables
into one.
() ()
6
4
3
1
1
1
1
3
4
6
It is the points shown above that will provide the points for our function, (). We show
the resulting graph in Figure 169.
Figure 169
A couple things to note. Our domain was 5 5, but we have a point at (6, 4).
Isnt this outside the domain? The answer is no; our domain is our -values, and there was
no restriction on our -values, right? The only restriction was on our -values, and we
followed those restrictions perfectly.
Secondly, not all parametric graphs will be a straight line. You will learn when a parametric
graph will result in a line, for example, but beware because this isnt always the case. The
rule as it always has been is to plot enough points to be sure what shape you have.
That being said, well end up with some very unique shapes in this section, so be prepared
to plot many points.
Example 1b
sin
Graph () = {
such that 2 2 .
We follow the same procedure, although this time well make a single table of values, with
one column for and the other two for () and (). That way we will have the points for
our graph in the last two columns of our table.
()
()
1.57
2
2
.79
4 2 .71
4
0
0
0
2
.79
.71
4
4
2
1
1.57
2
2
We now graph this function, using the last two columns as our and coordinates. We
get the points seen in Figure 170.
Figure 170
This is not linear; choose more points if you dont yet see this. We complete the graph in
Figure 171, which produces an interesting (and perhaps familiar) shape.
Figure 171
Unit eleven 348
This shape is something we saw in an earlier Unit. And it begs the question: How do we
change something from a parametric equation to a rectangular equation?
Consider the previous function, () = {
sin
. This implies that
= sin ,
= .
But what we need is an equation that only has and values. So let us make a
substitution. Since we already know that = , then we can substitute this into the first
equation. We get
= sin .
We very rarely leave our equations like this, so let us solve the previous for . We get
= arcsin ,
Which is something weve already seen.
Example 2a
Convert () = {
into a rectangular equation, then state its shape.

2
Since
= ,
= 2,
we simply make a substitution. We get

= 2,
whence we conclude that () is a parabola.
Example 2b
Convert () = {
+3
into a rectangular equation, then state its shape.
2 2
We have
= + 3,
= 2 2 .
We solve the first equation, = + 3, for , then substitute into the second equation. We
get
=3
whence
= 2( 3)2
and thence () is a parabola.

Both of our examples were parabolas. Were there any hints in the parametric equations
to this fact?
Example 2c
2
Convert () = { into a rectangular equation.
tan
We have
= 2,
= tan ,
And, again, we must solve for then substitute so that we are left with a single equation
with an and value and no value. We see that
= ,
whence
= tan .
This would produce some Trigonometric equation.ii Note that we had a square term in
this function, but we most certainly would not have a parabola.
Example 3a
Convert = + 3 into a parametric equation.
There is a very easy way to do this: Let = , then becomes whatever it becomes after
substituting in place of . Thus we can state that
() = {
+3
is equivalent to our original equation, = + 3, as you should verify.

Is this the only parametric equation that is equivalent to = + 3?
Example 3b
Convert = sin into two different parametric equations.
Using the same technique as the previous Example, we have
ii
We do not need to be more specific than that.
Unit eleven 350
() = {
.
sin
But is there any other possibility? Of course there is! How about
() = {
+1
?
sin( 1)
Or
ln
() = {
?
sin
In fact, there are an infinite number of possibilities. All you must do is choose something
for to be equal to (making sure to use a parameter, which weve always used ) and then
substituting that into the equation for .
We will work on these skills and more in the Exercises.
Exercises
1.)
2.)
3.)
Graph the following parametric functions. Use 5 5 for all non
Trigonometric functions. For all Trigonometric functions, use 2 2 .

+2
2 sin
(A) () = {
(F) () = {
2 cos
tan
(B) () = {
(G) () = {
(C) () = {
(H) () = {
2
1
(D) () = {2
2
(I) () = {
+2
2
(E) () = { 2
tan
(J) () = { 2
Convert the following parametric equations to rectangular equations. Then state

(or describe) the functions shape.
sin
+ 10
(E) () = {
(A) () = {
cos
5 1
2
tan
(F) () = {
(B) () = {
cos
3
sin2
(G)
()
=
{
(C) () = { 2
cos
3
(H) () = { + 32
(D) () = { 1
3
Convert the following rectangular equations into two different parametric

functions.
(A) =
(G) = 2( 1)2 + 3
(B) = 2 + 4
(H) = 1 + 4
(C)
(D)
(E)
(F)
4.)
5.)
6.)
= 2
= 2
= ln
= cos
(I) = sin2 tan

(J) + = 4
5
(K) 3 =
(L) sin cos = cos sin

We usually use the parameter for time. Thus, the given position of our moving
object at a particular time is given by inputting some . So, let each of the following
parametric functions represent the position of a bug at time . Determine the
position (in terms of -and -coordinates) of the bug at the given time .
1
2
(A) () = { 2 at = 3
(C) () = {
at = 4
cos 2
3sin
3
(B) () = {
at = 0.5
(D) () = { 1 at = 2
3 cos
Time for some fun parametric equations.
sin
(A) Graph () = { 2
, 0 2
cos
2
3 sin
(B) Graph () = {
, 2 2
cos
cos + 2 cos(2)
(C) Graph () = {
sin + 2 sin(2)
cos + 2 cos(4)
(D) Graph () = {
2 sin sin(4)
Find some of your own unique parametric functions to graph. Use the internet or
GeoGebra to help you find something fun. Be prepared to share.
Conic sections
Our final section will have us look at conic sections. Although we covered conic sections
in the previous course, we will review their basics here, and also look at them from a
parametric and Polar perspective.
First, a definition. A conic section is any two-dimensional figure that can be created by
intersecting a plane and a double cone, as shown in Figure 172. Types of conic sections
include circles, ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas.
Unit eleven 352
Figure 172
Let us first explore circles.

A circle is the set of all points equidistant from another point, called the center. Thus,
Figure 173 is a circle, since each point on the circle is the same distance away from .
Figure 173
How can we represent this circle using an equation? One way to do it is to use the distance
formula, which, recall, is nothing more than Pythagoras Theorem. In Figure 174, we see
that (, ) is away from the center.
2 Conic sections 353
Figure 174
And since we went to the right of , then up from , we can form the triangle shown
in Figure 175.
Figure 175
Now we can set up Pythagoras Theorem:

2 + 2 = 2 .
The above will only give us information for the Figure shown above. But recall that each
point on the circle is the same distance from . Therefore we can state that must be
constant no matter what point we choose on the circle. The numbers , will not be
constant; they will take on the size of , respectively. Thus we let = and = , and
get the standard equation that we seek.
General form of a circle in the rectangular plane
A circle in the rectangular plane is given by the equation
2 + 2 = 2,
Where > 0 and represents the radius.
Unit eleven 354
Example 1a
Graph 2 + 2 = 4.
Just based on the similarity of the above with the general form of the equation, we
conclude that we have a circle. Knowing that 2 = 4, we conclude that our radius is =
4 = 2. Thus we have a circle of radius 2, which we plot in Figure 176.
Figure 176
Youll want to plot at least the above four points. Feel free to use a table of values and plot more to make your circle look better.
Example 1b
Graph ( 1)2 + ( + 2)2 = 9.
Based on our previous example, we can quickly see that we have a circle of radius 3. But
in this case, we are subtracting one to each -value and adding 2 to each -value. This is
the same thing as a translation; that is, you are taking the circle and simply moving it.
First, let us plot the circle without it having been moved, as seen in Figure 177.
Figure 177
Now we just need to translate this. We just move it one to the right and then 2 down, as
shown in Figure 178.
Figure 178
At first, this might seem a bit strange, since usually, subtracting a number moves us to the
left. Yet, here, we stated that 1 means move one to the right. An easy way to see
this is to move the previous Figure back such that its center is at the origin. Do you see in
Figure 179 how we must subtract 1 to the -value and add 2 to the -value?
Figure 179
Doing this to each point on the circle will then move our translated circle back to our
original, which was centered at the origin.
The circles well encounter wont be much more complicated than that.
Unit eleven 356
One issue we see with our general equation for a circle is that it has an and variable
on the same side. Is there a different way we can write the function without having this
issue? One way to do it is to a parametric equation.
Example 2a
Write a parametric equation of a circle centered at the origin and that has a radius of 3.
Recall that the general form of a circle is
2 + 2 = 2,
which, as we mentioned, is essentially Pythagoras Theorem. We would like to write this
in the form of a parametric equation. Of course, as we learned in the previous section,
there are an infinite amount of parametric equations to use for this one rectangular
equation, so which one should we choose? How about the easiest one?
Let = sin and = cos . Then we have
( sin )2 + ( cos )2 = 2 ,
which can be shown to be a true statement through some algebra.i
This shows that
cos
() = {
sin
produces a circle of radius .
In the present case, we want a radius of 3. Thus we write
3 cos
() = {
.
3 sin
Let us verify that this does produce a circle. We create a table of values and then plot the
resulting points.
3
2
2

3
0

0
3
3
0
0
3
And we encourage you to verify this. Because you could not, for example, let = sin and = tan ;
that would yield a false statement.
i
Plotting the last two columns gives us Figure 180, which shows the previous assertion to
be true.
Figure 180
Example 2b
Write the parametric equation of a circle centered at (2, 3) and that has a radius of 10.
If the we were asked for a circle centered at the origin, this would be elementary:
10 cos
() = {
.
10 sin
But recall that all we need to do is translate the center of the circle ii 2 to the right and 3
down. Using Example 1bs method, then, we need to subtract 2 from our -value and add
3 to our -value. Since we have
= 10 cos ,
= 10 sin ,
doing this translation gets us

2 = 10 cos ,
+ 3 = 10 sin .
We then solve each of the above for and , whence

10 cos + 2
() = {
,
10 sin 3
So it seems we can create circles using parametric equations quite easily. It also allows us
to easily try some other transformations on a circle. For example, what happens if we
stretch a circle out by a certain factor horizontally, but by a different factor vertically?
ii
In effect, moving one point moves all of them.
Unit eleven 358
Example 3a
4 cos
Graph () = {
, then state what sort of conic section it is.
sin
Notice that here we have a 4 in front of our Cosine, but only a 1 in front of our Sine. This
will stretch our circle out unevenly, and give us a shape which is not a circle. Let us graph
this using a table of values first.

0
4
0
2
4
3
0
2
2
4
Plotting these points gives us Figure 181.

0
1
0
1
0
Figure 181
Connecting these points give us an ellipse, or a circle where each -value is stretched out
by some factor 1, and each -value is stretched out by some factor 2 , and 1 2 . We
show the complete ellipse in Figure 182.
Figure 182
Dont forget that you can always choose more -values to get a more accurate picture.
Example 3b
Write the parametric equation of the ellipse shown in Figure 183.
Figure 183
The horizontal radius here is 2, and the vertical radius is 4.iii Therefore we conclude that
the parametric equation for this ellipse is
2 cos
() = {
.
4 sin
Example 3c
Create a parametric equation and graph an ellipse that is centered at (3,4) and has a
horizontal radius of 5 and a vertical radius of 1.
This problem is similar to the previous one and Example 2b. First, let us create an equation
of an ellipse with the necessary size, that is, with a horizontal radius of 5 and a vertical
radius of 1. We get
5 cos
() = {
.
sin
Now to move this ellipse, we need to add 3 to the -value and subtract 4 to the -value.
Since
= 5 cos ,
= sin ,
we get
Weve not defined the terms horizontal radius and vertical radius, but hopefully you can infer what
they mean. Often, the phrase minor radius and major radius are used to denote the smaller radius and
larger radius, respectively, but in the context of the Example, that wouldnt communicate which direction
we would need to go for the radius.
iii
Unit eleven 360
+ 3 = 5 cos ,
4 = sin
= 5 cos 3,
= sin + 4
whence
and therefore
() = {
5 cos 3
.
sin + 4
While we could make a table of values to graph this, itll be easier to sketch an ellipse
using the center and the length of the horizontal and vertical radii. We plot the following
four points using this information, then sketch the rest of our shape to get Figure 184.
Figure 184
We first graphed the center, (3,4), then counted 5 to the right and left of the center, placed points and , then, again from
the center, counted 1 up and down and placed points and .
So far weve only looked at ellipses from a parametric perspective. This is, perhaps, a
difficult way to look at something. But let us see what ellipses look like in rectangular
form.
Example 4a
3 cos
Convert the ellipse given by the parametric equation () = {
into its
2 sin + 2
rectangular form.
Recall that to convert a parametric equation into a rectangular equation, we must change
two equations into one, and remove all the varaibles. We have been given that
= 3 cos ,
= 2 sin + 2,
so we should, as we did in the previous section, solve one of the above equations for ,
then substitute that back into the other equation. Choosing the first equation, we see that
= cos
3
= arccos ( ).
3
Plugging this into the second equation, we have
= 2 sin (arccos ( )) + 2,
3
Which is a bit of a mess. We need to clean this equation up, not only because its messy,
but also because it will only produce the top-half of our ellipse.iv
To clean this up, well need to remove the Trigonometric functions. Before we can deal
with them, we should remove the numbers around them. So well subtract each side by 2
and then divide by 2, to get
(1)
= sin (arccos ( )).

2
3
Recall from Unit six, 1 how to evaluate an embedded Trig function: We recall that
arccos (3) implies that cos = 3. This gives us a major hint to draw a picture, which we do
in Figure 185.
Figure 185
What we want to do is to find sin . Using Pythagoras Theorem, we see that the opposite
leg has a length of
9 2 ,
and therefore
iv
Verify this by typing this equation into wolframalpha.com.
Unit eleven 362
sin =
9 2
.
3
Plugging this back into (1) we get

2 9 2
=
.
2
3
We are nearly finished we now want to tidy the equation up a little bit. Particularly, there
should be some resemblance between our general equation for a circle and our general
equation for an ellipse. So let us remove the square root symbol, get the variables on the
same side, and then simplify it as much as possible. Performing these steps we get
( 2)2 9 2
=
4
9
9 2 ( 2)2
0=
.
9
4
That first term isnt all that nice, and it seems as though we can simplify that fraction by
splitting it into two. We do this, and get
9 2 ( 2)2

=0
9 9
4
1
2 ( 2)2
=0
9
4
2 ( 2)2

= 1.
9
4
Finally, let us remove the negatives by multiplying each side by 1. We get our final, tidy
equation as
2 ( 2)2
= 1.
9
4
Although this was a long, arduous process, its one youll have to practice a few times in
the Exercises. Of course, there is probably an easier way to convert a rectangular-form
ellipse to a parametric-form ellipse, but well leave that for you to discover in the Exercises.
Let us now generalize the rectangular equation of an ellipse.
General equation of an ellipse

2 2
+
= 1,
2 2
Where , > 0 and represents the horizontal radius of the ellipse and
represents the vertical radius of the ellipse.
Example 4b
Graph the equation given by
( + 1)2 ( 3)2
+
= 1.
4
16
First let us note that this is an ellipse, which we can see by the equation. Next we note the
size of the ellipse: It will have a horizontal radius of 2 and a vertical radius of 4. Finally,
we see that we have a translation: 1 unit to the left and 3 units up. With this information,
we can quickly and easily graph this equation. We get Figure 186.
Figure 186
We have two more conic sections to cover, and we will do them briefly, since the skills
used to graph ellipses and convert them into rectangular equations will be the same.
Example 5a
sec
Graph () = {
such that 0 2.
tan
We begin by making a table of values.
Unit eleven 364

0
1
2
4
.
2
3
2
4
1
5
2
4
3 .
2
7
2
4
2
1
Graphing these points gets us Figure 187.

0
1
.
1
0
1
.
1
0
Figure 187
This is enough information for us to sketch this graph. Perhaps you recall this shape it
is a hyperbola, and we show the completed graph in Figure 188.
Figure 188
It seems that a hyperbola is given by a parametric equation with the Trig functions Secant
and Tangent, then. Dont forget that the same rules of translation will apply to hyperbolas
just like they did with circles and ellipses.
Let us explore the rectangular version of a hyperbola. We will attempt to use a little
shortcut to get to this form.
Example 5b
Convert () = {
sec
into a rectangular equation.
tan
Our previous method of substitution will work here, but we found that to be a bit
troublesome. So let us seek an alternative. We know that, for example,
1 + tan2 = sec 2
and thus
(2)
sec 2 tan2 = 1.
We have some similar terms, since, based on our given parametric equation, we have
= sec , = tan .
But if we squared both of the above equations, wed have
2 = sec 2 , 2 = tan2 ,
And thus could change (2) into
Unit eleven 366
2 2 = 1.
Indeed, this is the case: the parametric equation
sec
() = {
tan
is equivalent to
2 2 = 1,
This helps us to set up the general form of a hyperbola, which we now show below.
General equation of a hyperbola
2 2
=1
2 2
Where , > 0 and the positive value (either or ) represents the distance from
the center of the hyperbola to one of its vertices.
To help show this, we offer two pictures, Figure 189a and b.
Figure 189a and b

In the first Figure, the is positive (e.g.,
2
4
2
9
= 1) but in the second Figure, the is positive (e.g.,
2
4
2
9
= 1).
Example 5c
Graph
2
9
2 = 1.
We first must identify where the center is and then whether or is positive. Since
nothing has happened to or to , we recognize that there has been no translation and
thus, our center is (0,0). Then we conclude that the is positive. The number underneath
the 2 is 9. This is what 2 is equal to, or, symbolically, we say that
2 = 9.
But the distance from the center to the vertices of a hyperbola is given by , not 2 . We
thus must find the square root of that given number, which in the present case would be
3. We now plot both vertices in Figure 190.
Figure 190
We first plot the center, (0,0), then we just count three to the right and left of this center and place points. These are our
vertices.
Before we can accurately sketch this graph, lets choose one point to put into our
equation. Knowing the general shape of our hyperbola, we should choose a point such
that < 3 or > 3, right? If you happen to choose a point not in this set, like, say, =
0, youll find out pretty quickly that this was a bad choice.
Choosing = 4, we get
16
2 = 1
9
2 =
2 =
7
9
7
9
.88.
Thus we can plot two points for the price of one. Dont forget from the previous course
that hyperbolas are symmetric across the - and -axis. This means we can actually plot
four points for the price of one. We show this in Figure 191.
Unit eleven 368
Figure 191
Youll need to choose at least one point (like we did with = 4) to sketch a hyperbola. Then you just need to reflect that point.
Dont forget that some hyperbolas are vertical. In other words, they look like what we just
saw, except rotated 90.
There is one more conic section, but well leave that to you in the exercises, particularly
because youve worked with it extensively already. Well also work with conic sections in
the Polar Plane.
Exercises
1.)
2.)
Graph the following equations.

4 cos
(A) () = {
4 sin
sin
(B) () = {
cos
3 sin 1
(C) () = {
3 cos + 3
cos
(D) () = {
sin 6
2 cos
(E) () = {
4 sin
cos
(F) () = {
3 sin
(A) 2 + 2 = 9
(B)
2
9
+ =1
(C) ( 1)2 + ( + 2)2 = 25

(D)
2
4
(1)2
9
2
(E) ( + 1) +
(+4)2
4
(G) 2
(H)
(I)
(J)
=1
(K)
2
4
2
9
4
(1)2
2
=1
=1
(+2)2
9
=1
2 = 1
16
(3)2
(+1)2
=1
(F) 2( 3) + 4( 7) = 16
4
25
Convert the following parametric equations into rectangular equations.
sec
4 cos
(C) () = {
(A) () = {
tan 2
4 sin
2 sin + 4
3 sin
(D) () = {
(B) () = {
2 cos 3
cos
2
3.)
=1
5 sin 1
(G) () = {
2 cos + 2
cos + 4
(H) () = {
4 sin 1
sec
(I) () = {
2 tan
tan
(J) () = {
sec + 1
3 sec
(K) () = {
2 tan
4 sec 2
(L) () = {
tan + 3
4.)
Create an equation from the given graph. You may use a parametric or rectangular
equation.
(A)
(B)
(C)
Unit eleven 370
5.)
6.)
7.)
8.)
9.)
(D)
Let us now graph conic sections on the Polar Plane. First up, = cos .
(A) Graph = cos .
(B) Looking at (A), what shape did you get?
(C) Predict what will happen if you graph = 4 cos . Then graph it.
Now its time for = sin .
(A) Graph = sin .
(B) Predict what will happen if you graph = 4 sin . Then graph it.
(C) What is the difference between = cos and = sin ? Are they different
shapes?
Write the Polar equation of a circle centered at the pole (i.e., (0,0)) and that has a
radius of 1. (Hint: Write out the rectangular equation for this, then convert it into
Polar coordinates)
Deriving a formula for a Polar equation for an ellipse is beyond the scope of this
course. So well tell you that the following are ellipses. Graph them.
4
1
(A) = 2+cos
(B) = 1+sin
Perhaps, at first glance, you could graph an ellipse on the Polar Plane using the
equation = cos2 + sin2 , and just stretching the Cosine and Sine differently.
This will give you an ellipse, but not one that youve yet seen!
(A) Graph = 4 cos2 + 9 sin2 .
(B) Compare this to an ellipse. How is it the same, how is it different?
(C) Look up the word Superellipse and Squircle. Describe each of them
based on the pictures and definitions you see.v
10.) Same thing with hyperbolas: Deriving the Polar form of hyperbolas is beyond the
scope of this course. So were telling you the following are hyperbolas. Graph them.
8
12
(A) = 24 cos
(B) = 36 sin
11.) One conic section we did not graph is the parabola. Graph the following.
(A) = ( 1)2 + 3
(C) = 2 4 + 3
We recommend this website for superellipses:

http://jwilson.coe.uga.edu/EMT668/EMAT6680.2001/Hembree/assign2dh/assign2dh.html.
v
(B) () = { 2
+1
+2
(D) () = {1 2 1
2
12.) Now try graphing parabolas in the Polar Plane.

3
4
(A) = 12 cos
(B) = 2+cos
372
Appendices
Appendix A: Linear functions 373
You should be familiar with all of the following appendix topics, particularly this first one,
linear functions. Despite this, we recognize that a little refresher is useful to have on hand.
Additionally, youll need to be very good at all of these types of functions, so if youre not,
you should spend some quality time here (and in other places, like the prequel to this
book) to improve yourself. You should be able to graph any linear function in seconds,
and solving any linear equation should a breeze as well.
Appendix A
Linear functions
A linear function is any function of the type

() = + ,
where , and are constants, and and is the input. A linear function is given its
name since it produces a line when graphed (such as Figure 192).
Figure 192
This is the graph of the linear function () = 3 1.
It is perhaps most useful to think of a linear equation in its explicit form, () = + ,

since represents the value of the slope, and represents the value of the -intercept.
There are other useful forms of linear equations as well, which we show in the proceeding
box.
Useful forms of linear equations
Slope-intercept form: = +
Where is the slope of the function and is the -intercept.
Point-slope form: 1 = ( 1 )
Where (1 , 1 ) is a point on the graph of the function and the slope is .
Appendices 374
Standard form: + =
Where , , and are constants.
Each form has its own advantages, and using the right one at the right time can save you
time and effort. In the next examples, well graph a few functions using the inherent
benefits of each form.
Example 1a
Graph () = 2 1.
This function is in slope-intercept form. Therefore, we know the slope and -intercept
immediately, without having to do any calculations. The first thing we do in Figure 193 is
plot the -intercept, which is 1.
Figure 193
The -intercept of ().
Next, we use the slope to determine the next point. Since slope is
Rise
Run
, we know that we
have a rise of 2 and a run of 1 (i.e. we count two up from and then one to the right). We
get (1,1), which we graph in Figure 194.
Figure 194
Now we just connect the two points. Recall that a linear function has a constant slope;
that is, it is changing at the same rate. Therefore, a line between these two points will hit
every other point produced by the function. Figure 195 shows the complete graph for
().
Figure 195
This truth holds for all linear functions we only need to graph two points. This is one
reason linear functions are very easy to work with.
Example 1b
1
Graph 3 = 2 ( + 1).
This implicit linear function is in point-slope form. The best way to graph these functions
is to plot the given point, then get the second point from the given slope. Our given point
is (1,3), so we plot that first in Figure 196.
Figure 196
Appendices 376
1
The slope is ; this tells us to go from up one unit and then two to the right. Thus we
2
get (1,4), shown in Figure 197.
Figure 197
Now as we can always do with linear functions we just connect the two points using a
line. Then we will have our final graph as shown by Figure 198.
Figure 198
Example 1c
Graph 3 + 2 = 4.
There are a few ways for us to graph this linear function (such as solving for , which puts
it in slope-intercept form), but perhaps the best way is to figure out the value of each
intercept. We recognize that all -intercepts will have a -value of 0, so we input = 0
into our function. We thus get
3 + 2(0) = 4
3 = 4
4
= .
3
This is our -intercept.
To find the -intercept, we go through the same process, except this time we input = 0.
Hence
2 = 4
= 2.
We now plot our two intercepts, and connect the dots. We get Figure 199.
Figure 199
Sometimes were given information such as a graph or some words and we need to
turn that into a linear equation. Usually, we are free to use whatever form we wish,
although some forms will be easier to use than others, depending on the situation.
Example 2a
3
A line has a slope of 5 and goes through the point (1,3). Write an equation for this line.
Since we are given a slope and a point, it would make the most sense to write our equation
in point-slope form (although, again, we are free to use a different form, if we prefer). We
have
3
3 = ( + 1).
5
Example 2b
Write an equation given the graph shown in Figure 200.
Appendices 378
Figure 200
In this graph, were given a point and a line. Since we have a point, it would make sense
to use point-slope form. However, also keep in mind it would be awfully easy to determine
the slope and find the -intercept. Well use slope-intercept form, since its different than
what we did in the previous example.
2
The -intercept is 1, and the slope (by counting up and then to the right) is 3. Hence our
equation is
2
= 1.
3
Well need to use all of our knowledge of linear functions to help us answer the problems
in the Exercises.
The next topic well discuss is the slope of parallel and perpendicular lines.
Parallel and perpendicular lines
Two lines are parallel iff they have equal slopes.
Two lines are perpendicular iff the product of their slopes is 1.i
Like many theorems learned in previous courses, we will not prove this here. If you have
not taken the previous course, please refer to the Appendix which contains many of the
proofs contained there.
Example 3a
Write the equation for a line that is parallel to 3 + = 2 and goes through the point
(1,2).
Often this is referred to as their slopes being opposite reciprocals of one another.
It would be best to write our new line in point-slope form, since we have been given a
point. With the given information, we can write
2 = ( + 1).
Now we just need to find the slope of our new line. To do this, we recall the theorem on
parallel lines, which states that lines will be parallel iff their slopes are equal. This tells us
that our slope must equal the slope of the given line, 3 + = 2. The slope of that
equation is 3.ii Thus, our equation is
2 = 3( + 1).
Example 3b
Find an equation for a line that is perpendicular to 2 + 3 = 1 and goes through the
point (2,1).
Again, we should use point-slope form, since we have been given a point. At this point,
we can write
1 = ( 2).
We need to find the slope; to do this, we need to recall the theorem that states that
perpendicular lines will have slopes that multiply together to get 1. Thus, we find the
opposite reciprocal of the slope from the given equation. Since the slope of 2 + 3 =
2
1 is 3, we can say that = 2. This allows us to write our final answer which is
3
1 = ( 2).
2
We next look at a type of linear functions, known as absolute value functions. They
resemble and mostly behave like linear functions, although they are not actually linear
functions.
An absolute value function is any functions of the form
() = | + | + ,
Where , , and constant, and and is the input. The absolute value symbols
give this function its shape, which will always appear like the letter V, as seen in Figure
201.
ii
Verify this by renaming the given equation 3 + = 2 in slope-intercept form.
Appendices 380
Figure 201
The graph of () = ||. Notice the characteristic V shape.
Example 4a
Graph () = || 2.
We can create a table of values and plot some points, but there is a better way to graph
these functions, so we will use that instead. Recall from the previous course that we
translate functions up and down when we have () + . Here we have a function () =
|| 2, which is the same thing as () = || (graphed in Figure 201) except weve
subtracted 2. Thus () = () 2; this means we can simply translate () down 2 units
to produce our graph. We show the graph of () in Figure 202.
Figure 202
We can graph absolute value functions pretty quickly, since we can use transformation
rules to quickly find the vertex.iii The vertex in () = || is at the origin, so anytime we
have a simple translation, the vertex will obey the translations of the function.
Example 4b
What is the vertex of the function () = | 1| + 4?
Using our translation rules, the vertex is (1,4). Do you see where we get those numbers
from? Note that we translate opposite of the direction of the sign next to the variable.
So, although 1 is a move to the left, we will nevertheless move one to the right. The
number by itself, in this case, 4, is always as is. In other words, 4 up.
Something to note: There isnt a slope in the same sense that we saw with linear
equations, and yet, there definitely is something going on with slope here. For all > 0,
we have a slope of 1, and for all < 0, we have a slope of 1. We can use this information
to help us quickly graph absolute value functions. Lets explore that concept next.
Example 4
Graph () = 2| 1|.
We first plot the vertex, which in this case is (1,0). The slope of this equation is 2. This
means that from the vertex, for every one we travel to the right, we must travel 2 up. Of
course, we must preserve the V shape, so when we go one to the left, we must go 2 up.
We show this in Figure 203.
Figure 203
iii
In this case, the vertex is the point where the two lines meet to form the V.
Appendices 382
Lets put it altogether for Example 5.

Example 5
Graph = 3| + 1| 2.
First, we find the vertex, which is at (1, 2). After plotting this point, we then go one
to the right, then 3 down, since our slope is negative. We do the same thing when we
go one to the left of the vertex. We thus get Figure 204.
Figure 204
Use this set of Exercises to help you renew your skills on linear functions. You must be
adept at linear functions, and if youre not, you need to spend as much extra time as
possible on them.
Appendix A Exercises
1.)
Determine the slope and -intercept of each of the following linear equations.
(A) = 3
(E) = 5 + 3
5
(F) = 2 3
(B) = 4 + 1
(G) = 1
(C) = + 3
1
3
1
(H) = 3 4
(D) = 123
2.)
Determine the slope and point given by the following equations.

(A) 4 = 3( + 2)
(D) = 4( + 3)
(B) 5 = 3( 1)
(E) 1 = 3
2
5
5
1
(C) + 1 = 3 ( 3)
(F) + 2 = 6 ( 2)
3.)
4.)
Determine the - and -intercept of the following linear functions.

(A) 2 3 = 6
(C) + = 2
(B) 4 + 8 = 16
(D) 5 = 10
(A) = 3
(L) = 4( + 3)
5
(M) 1 = 3
(B) = 4 + 1
5
5
1
(N) + 2 = 6 ( 2)
(C) = + 3
1
(D) = 123 4
5.)
(O) 2 3 = 6
(P) 4 + 8 = 16
(E) = 5 + 3
(Q) + = 2
(F) = 2 3
(R) 5 = 10
(G) = 1
1
3
(S) = 1
(H) = 3 4
(T) = 3
(I) 4 = 3( + 2)
(U) =
(J) 5 = 3( 1)
(V) = 2
2
(K) + 1 = 3 ( 3)
(W) =
Write an equation given the following information.
(A) A line with a slope of 3 and a -intercept of 7.
(B) A line with a slope of 4 and that goes through the point of (3, 4).
(C) A line that is parallel to = 5 1 and travels through the point (8,7).
3
(D) A line that is perpendicular to 1 = 4 ( + 3).
(E)
(F)
(G)
(H)
6.)
7.)
A line that has an -intercept of 5 and a -intercept of 1.

A line that has a -intercept of 12 and a slope of 16.
A line that is parallel to 2 = 4 and has a -intercept of 2.
A line that is perpendicular to + 2 = 6 and travels through the point
(9,21).
Determine the vertex of the following absolute value equations.
(A) = || + 4
(D) = 3| + 1| 1
(B) = | 1| + 3
(E) = 2| + 4| + 2
5
(F) = | 1| 3
(C) = | | 2
2

(A) = || + 4
(B) = | 1| + 3
5
(C) = | 2| 2
(D) = 3| + 1| 1
(E) = 2| + 4| + 2
(F) = | 1| 3
Appendices 384
Appendix B
Quadratic functions
The next most prevalent function you will encounter in math is called a quadratic function.
A quadratic function is any polynomial whose highest power is 2. Thus,
() = 2 + + 1,
() = 3 2 ,
() = 2( 1)2 ,
are all quadratic functions. Note that this must be a polynomial, and so you cannot have
negative or rational powers in the function or equation.
Quadratic equations are solved by using the zero-product property or the quadratic
formula. While the quadratic formula will always work, youll definitely want to become
adept at factoring and then using the zero-product property, since it will save you time
and works in other places outside of quadratic equations.
Example 1a
Solve 2 + 5 + 6 = 0.
To use the zero-product property, our equation must be zeroed-out, or set equal to zero.
Since it already is, we can proceed to the next step.
We must attempt to factor the trinomial on the left side. To do this, we ask ourselves what
two factors of 6, the constant, add up to 5, the coefficient of the term. In this case, 2
and 3 work. Therefore, we have
2 + 5 + 6 = 0
( + 2)( + 3) = 0.
Notice how we can use the method of FOIL to go back one step, which assures us that we
have factored correctly.
Now we use the zero-product property, which states that if = 0, then
= 0 = 0.
In the present case, = + 2 and = + 3, and thus
+ 2 = 0 + 3 = 0.
Thence
= 2 = 3,
as can be verified by substituting both values into the original equation one at a time.
Appendix B: Quadratic functions 385
Example 1b
Solve the equation 3 2 3 + 13 = 7 + 2 2 + 4.
We must, as previously stated, zero-out this equation. Moving everything to the left side,
then, gets us
2 7 + 6 = 0.
We now ask ourselves what two factors 6 add up to 7. In this case, we see that 1 and
6 will work. We thus write
( 1)( 6) = 0
and hence
= 1 = 6.
Example 2a
Solve the equation 3 2 4 = 0.
This example is a bit different, since we have a coefficient of 3 next to the 2 term. This
will require a slightly different technique.
If , the coefficient of the 2 term is not equal to 1, then we must use the method,
which sees us multiplying that coefficient by the constant. In this case, that means
3 (4) = 12.
Now we ask ourselves the same question as before: What factors of 12 add up to 1, the
coefficient of the term? In this case, the answer is 4 and 3. Then we write
3 2 4 + 3 4 = 0,
which notice is an extra step we did not have to do previously. Now we factor the first two
terms and the last two terms, getting
(3 4) + 1(3 4) = 0.
Because we have two equivalent factors, in the present case 3 4, we can use the
distributive property to rewrite the left side as
( + 1)(3 4) = 0.
Now we have our equation in a format that will allow us to use the zero-product property.
Consequently, we conclude that
Appendices 386
4
= 1 = .
3
Example 2b
Solve 6 2 14 + 4 = 0.
We follow the same process. We multiply 6 4 to get 24. Then we determine which factors
of 24 add up to 14. We see that 12 and 2 will accomplish this. Then we write
6 2 12 2 + 4 = 0,
and then factor the first two and last two terms of the equation seen above. This gets us
6( 2) 2( 2) = 0
(6 2)( 2) = 0
whence
=
1
= 2.
3
Youll always want to first attempt to factor a quadratic equation in order to solve it. But
not all quadratics can be solved this way. If you cannot factor it, you should then turn to
the quadratic formula.
The quadratic formula
Given a quadratic equation,
then its solutions are given by
2 + + = 0,
=
Example 3
2 4
.
2
Solve 2 3 = 0.
This is really as simple as using the formula. We input the numbers into the proper
positions and then evaluate. We get
=
(1) (1)2 4(1)(3)

2(1)
=
1 1 (12)
2
1 13
.
2
You can always approximate this value, too. Dont forget that there are two solutions, as
the plus and minus sign indicate. Finally, be careful with your order of operations, as many
students neglect to follow them correctly and get the answer wrong.
Dont forget that you can also have complex numbers for an answer. So, for example, if
2 = 4,
then
= 2,
where
= 1.
Recall that a complex number is defined as
{ + : , , = 1}.
Let us now turn our attention to graphing quadratic equations, which is a necessary and
oft-used skill.
Example 4a
Graph = ( + 1)2 3.
The best way to graph quadratic equations is to first graph the vertex, then plot two points
using a table of values, and then reflect those points across the axis of symmetry, which
is just a vertical line through the vertex.
In the present case, the vertex is located at (1, 3). i Then, using a table of values, we
see that if = 0, then = 2. And if = 1, then = 1. This gives us two points to the
right of the vertex, which we plot below in Figure 205.
Where did we get these numbers?
Appendices 388
Figure 205
Now we just need to reflect points and across the axis of symmetry. The axis of
symmetry is always a vertical line through the vertex, so, in this case, its given by the line
= 1. We show this in Figure 206 with a dotted line. Weve also reflected the points as
we described.
Figure 206
You can always just make a table of values and just plot points. But this can be a long
process if you dont know where the vertex is.ii
Example 4b
Graph () = 2 3 4.
Try making a graph of the previous equation but using the values = 10, = 11, = 12. Youll see a
shape that isnt at all like a parabola.
ii
The previous problem was in vertex form, which made it easy to identify the vertex. This
function is not, and it will be more difficult to find out where the vertex is located. This
function is in standard form, and the vertex in standard form is given by
(
, ( )).
2
2
Keep in mind that a quadratic function in standard form is given by () = 2 + + .

Therefore, in our case, we have
(
3
3
, (
))
2(1)
2(1)
3
3
( , ( ))
2
2
3 25
( , ).
2
4
Now we follow the same procedure as we used in the previous section. We show the
complete picture below in Figure 207.
Figure 207
Well give you a plethora of practice problems for quadratic equations. Keep in mind that
youll be able to find many more online if you need them.
Appendices 390
Appendix B Exercises
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)

(A) 2 + 4 + 3 = 0
(B) 2 + 7 + 6 = 0
(C) 2 + 9 = 8
(D) 2 = 10 9
(E) 2 + 8 + 12 = 0
(F) 2 + 5 + 6 = 0
(G) 2 + 12 + 32 = 0
(H) 2 3 = 4
(I) 7 30 = 2
(A) 2 2 + 6 + 4 = 0
(B) 4 2 + 3 = 0
(C) 6 2 13 5 = 0
(A) 2 1 = 0
(B) 2 + + 7 = 0
(C) 2 12 + 1 = 0
(J)
(K)
(L)
(M)
(N)
(O)
(P)
(Q)
(R)
(D) 3 2 + 10 + 3 = 0
(E) 5 2 3 2 = 0
(F) 2 2 9 + 9 = 0
(D) 5 2 + + 12 = 0
(E) 12 2 1 = 0
1
1
(F) 4 2 2 + 3 = 0

(A) = ( 1)2 + 3
(B) = ( + 3)2 1
(C) = 2( + 1)2 1
1
(D) = 2 ( + 2)2 2
(F)
(G)
(H)
(I)
(E) = 2 4 + 4
Appendix C
3 2 12 = 2 2
2 + 12 = 0
2 + 3 28 = 0
2 + 2 24 = 0
2 = + 6
2 6 + 9 = 0
2 4 + 4 = 0
2 10 16 = 0
2 12 28 = 0
(J)
= 2 6
= 2 + 7 + 12
= 2 2 + 1
1
= 2 2 3
= 3 2
Rational functions
Rational functions are any function of the form

() =
1 ()
,
2 ()
where 1 (), 2 () are both polynomials and their quotient has a remainder not equal to
zero.
Thus
() =
1
+2
Appendix C: Rational functions 391
is a rational function, since dividing each polynomial will leave a remainder, as you should
verify.
Rational functions have three distinct flavors, and within each flavor there are some
unique shapes and other conditions. First, let us define the three flavors.
The three types of rational functions
()
Each type of rational function is of the form () = 1 ().

2
Type I: The degree of 1 () is less than that of 2 ().

Type II: The degree of 1 () is equal to that of 2 ().
Type III: The degree of 1 () is greater than that of 2 ().
So
() =
is a Type I rational function. Note that the degree of 1 () = 1 is zero, while the degree
of 2 () = is one. Meanwhile
2 3
() = 2
+4
is a Type II rational function, since the degrees of each polynomial are equal. Finally,
3
() =
1
is a Type III rational function, since the degree of 1 () is larger than that of 2 ().
As we said, each Type of rational function behaves differently, and there are even
differences among a single Type. Lets start by exploring Type I rational functions.
Example 1a
1
Graph () = 1.
This is a Type I rational function, since the numerator has a degree of zero, which is less
than the degree of the denominator (which is one).
We should first begin by identifying the asymptotes of this function. To find the vertical
asymptotes, we set the denominator equal to zero and solve. We get
1=0
Appendices 392
= 1.
Thus the vertical asymptote of is = 1. Notice that if = 1, we have a problem, since
1
then we would have (1) = 0, which is undefined.

With the asymptote ascertained, let us plot it. Since the asymptote is not a part of the
graph, we will use a dotted line to show it (Figure 208).
Figure 208
The next step is to determine any horizontal asymptotes. Type I rational functions will
always have a horizontal asymptote of = 0. Normally, wed want to draw a dotted line
for our horizontal asymptote, but since, in the present case, the -axis is the asymptote,
there is no need to do this here.
Finally, well just choose points on each side of the vertical asymptote. We show the table
of values below and the finished graph in Figure 209.
1
0
0.5
1.5
2
3
0.5
1
2
2
1
0.5
Figure 209
Example 1b
2+3
Graph () = 34.
This is a Type II rational function. It can be graphed in virtually the same process as seen
in the previous Example.
Therefore, we first set out to find the vertical asymptote. We do this by setting the
denominator equal to zero, and then solving. We get
3 4 = 0
3 = 4
4
= .
3
4
Hence we have a vertical asymptote at = 3.

This is a Type II rational function, and so the horizontal asymptote will not be = 0.
Instead, we find the horizontal asymptote by dividing the leading coefficients of the
numerator and denominator. In the present case, the leading coefficient on the numerator
is 2, while the leading coefficient of the denominator is 3. Thus, the horizontal asymptote
is
2
= .
3
Then we just need to choose points to the left and right of the vertical asymptote. We do
this below, and show the completed graph (along with the dotted asymptotes) in Figure
210.
Appendices 394
1
0
1
2
1
3
2
3
7
3
4
5
1
6
3
1
3
2
4
1
5
Figure 210
This is the general procedure well use to graph rational functions: sketch the vertical and
horizontal asymptotes, then choose points within each resulting section. Each Type of
rational function will follow this procedure, although, as well soon see, Type III rational
functions have a slightly ubiquitous feature.
Example 2
Graph () =
2 1
+3
This is a Type II rational function, since the degree of the numerator is larger than the
degree of the denominator. As well see, this function behaves a bit differently than the
other two, but it is similar enough that we can, for the most part, follow the procedures
just outlined.
So we begin by finding the vertical asymptotes. In this case, we see that
+3=0
= 3
is the vertical asymptote.
Type II rational functions do not have horizontal asymptotes. Instead, they have what are
called slant asymptotes. A slant asymptote is just that an asymptote that is slanted. As
we have done with other asymptotes, well need a linear equation to draw it. To obtain
this linear equation, we will divide the numerator and denominator; the quotient of that
division is what were looking for. Thus,
3
+3
+ 0 1
2 + 3
3 1
3 9
8
= 3 is the equation were looking for. Well plot it with a dotted line. Note that we
completely ignore the remainder.
2
Now we just choose points to the left and right of the vertical asymptote, as before. We
plot the completed graph in Figure 211 (along with the asymptotes as dotted lines).
Appendices 396
Figure 211
There are a couple of other things to conditions when graphing rational functions, but
the Examples weve shown are by far the most common.
We lastly turn our attention to solving rational equations. Some students find these hard,
but the trick is to remove the denominators, thereby leaving you with a polynomial.
Example 3
3
Solve 1 + +1 = 2 1.
At first glance, this Example looks tough. But we can make it much easier if we only get
rid of the fractions. There are a few ways to do this, but the best way to remove fractions
in a problem like this is to multiply by the LCM of the denominators.
In the present case, the LCM is 2 1, since 2 1 = ( + 1)( 1). Therefore, we
multiply both sides by ( + 1)( 1), which gets us
( + 1)( 1)
3
4
5
+ ( + 1)( 1)
= 2 1 2
.
1
+1
1
Now we can cancel the denominators out:

( + 1)( 1)
3
4
5
+ ( + 1)( 1)
= 2 1 2
1
+1
1
3( + 1) + 4( 1) = 5.
Which is far easier. Now its just a polynomial (viz., a linear equation) which we know how
to solve. We get
3 + 3 + 4 4 = 5
7 1 = 5
7 = 6
6
= .
7
You should always plug your result back into the original equation, just to make sure that
it is a solution. Sometimes youll plug a number back in and get a zero in the denominator,
or one side wont equal the other. If thats the case, then we would call that solution (or
solutions) an extraneous solution.
6
In the present case, = 7 is the solution. There are no extraneous solutions in this
Example.
Appendix C Exercises
1.)

1
(A) () =
2
(B) () =
1
(C) () = 2
(E) () = 2
(F)
() =
(M) () =
2 1
+2
2 +1
52
1
+2
(O) () = 2 1
(P) () = 2 +4
(H) () = +2
2.)
2 2
2
() = 1
() =
2 +2
(N) () = 2 4
(G) () = 1
(I)
() =
(K) () = 1
(L)
(D) () = 2
(J)
12+5
56
2
3
(Q) () = 1
Determine the LCM in the following list of three polynomials.

(A) + 5, 9
(D) + 3, 1, 2
2
(B) + 2, 1, + 2
(E) 2 3, 3 + 1
2
(C) + 4, + 2, + 6 + 8
(F) + 4, 3, 1
Appendices 398
3.)

2
3
(A) +5 = 9
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
1 = 2 +2
+2
(F)
+ +2 = 2 +6+8
+4
Appendix D
= 1 2
+3
5
= 3+1
23
+4
+1
3
= 1
Exponential and logarithmic functions
An exponential function is any function of the form

() = + ,
where , , and is some variable. Unsurprisingly, the variable must be an exponent
in order for the equation to be considered an exponential function.
Graphing exponential equations is a very straightforward process.
Example 1a
Graph () = 2 .
We just make a table of values and plot the resulting points. Thats really all there is to it.
We get the following table and Figure 212, as shown.
2
1
0
1
2
3
1
4
1
2
1
2
4
8
Figure 212
Appendix D: Exponential and logarithmic functions

399
Recall that 0 = 1, provided 0, and =
It is helpful to note that there was a horizontal asymptote in the previous function. Did
you notice that the function will never quite reach zero?
Example 1b
Graph () = 2 3 + 4.
Although we will follow the same procedure, let us take note of some of the
transformations that will affect our graph. Viz., we see that we have a vertical translation
of 4 units up, a stretch of factor 2, and a reflection about the -axis. This will alter our
picture; we should expect to have a horizontal asymptote of = 4 here, right?
We make a table of values (not shown) and plot the points to produce Figure 213.
Figure 213
One challenge with exponential graphs is that they grow very quickly. As such, youll need to choose an appropriate scale,
or choose points that fit your graph.
We shall next attempt to solve exponential equations. The issue that well run into,
however, is how are we to undo something to the th power? The answer is to use a
logarithm. The logarithm function is the inverse function of taking something to the th
power. Of course, there are many potential somethings, like 2 , 5 , and even . Therefore,
we need multiple logarithms. We distinguish these different logarithms by their base. This
allows us to undo any exponential function.
Appendices 400
Let us show some examples of how this works:

log 2 2 = , log 3 3 = , log 5.5 5.5 = , log = .
Do you notice the relationship between the base of the logarithm and the base of the
exponent? Namely, if they are equal, then the bases cancel and you are left with whatever
is in the exponent.
This allows us to solve some exponential equations.
Example 2
Solve 3 + 4 = 31.
We first subtract 4 to each side, then undo the exponent 3 with a logarithm. We get
3 + 4 = 31
3 = 27
log 3 3 = log 3 27
= log 3 27.
A calculator reveals that log 3 27 = 3, and hence
= 3.
Let us formalize how to evaluate logarithms.
A logarithm essentially tells us how many times you multiply the base by itself to get to
the number getting logarithmd. Consider
log 4 64.
How many times must you multiply 4 to get to 64? The answer is 3, because
43 = 64.
So one way of looking at a logarithm is that
log 4 64 = 3 43 = 64.
We formalize this below.
Logarithm
log = =
Of course, some logarithms cant easily be solved this way. Consider

401
log10 13.
This is essentially asking, How many times must you multiply 10 by itself to get to 13?
We could approximate this, sure, but getting a precise answer could be very tedious.
Luckily, we have calculators that make this kind of work very easy. Any scientific calculator
will have a LOG key this is a base-10 logarithm, and using it allows us to approximate
the previous as
log10 13 1.114.
Of course, this brings up another issue: What if we have a logarithm that isnt of base10? Thankfully, we have the change of base formula.
Change of base formula
log =
Example 3
log
.
log
Evaluate log 3 17.

We simply apply the change of base formula. We get
log10 17
2.579.
log10 3
Now we have the tools to solve just about any exponential equation.
Example 4a
Solve 2 341 + 5 = 25.
We start by removing the non-exponential numbers from the equation. We get
2 341 = 20
341 = 10.
While we could use log base-10 to each side, why not use log base-3, to nicely cancel that
3-to-the. We get
log 3 (341 ) = log 3 10
4 1 2.096.
Now we solve as normal. We get
0.774.
Appendices 402
Example 4b
Solve 3 3+5 = 9.
Here we need to recall that multiplying like bases means we can add the exponents. Thus
3 3+5 = 32+5 .
This allows us to solve:
32+5 = 9
log 3 32+5 = log 3 9
2 + 5 = 2
2 = 3
3
= .
2
Now let us consider logarithmic graphs and equations. Solving logarithmic equations is
very straightforward process, but occasionally we need to use one of the following
properties.
Logarithmic properties
log b + log b = log
log log = log

log = log
Example 5a
Solve log 3 ( 1) = 2.
We need to undo a log base-3. We do this by exponentiating 3 to each side:
3log3(1) = 32
1=9
= 10.
Example 5b
Solve log 4 ( + 1) + log 4 ( 1) = 3.
We need to use one of the above properties, viz. the first one. We then have

403
log 4 (( 1)( + 1)) = 3

log 4 ( 2 1) = 3.
Now we undo the log base-4 by exponentiating by 4 to each side. We get
4log4(
2 1)
= 43
2 1 = 64.
Finally, we solve as normal, revealing that
= 65.
Example 5c
Solve log 7 ( 5 ) = 25.
There is more than one way of doing this problem, but perhaps the best way is to use the
third property shown above. Then we get
5 log 7 = 25
log 7 = 5.
Finally, exponentiating each side by 7 we get
= 78,125.
The properties of logarithms will come in handy when solving logarithmic equations, but
they also are of use during Calculus. Youll use them particularly often when working with
integrals, as a very common integral will produce log . So be aware of the properties!
Finally, let us graph some logarithmic functions. This, like exponential functions, is very
straightforward. Generally, all we need to do is make a table of values and plot points.
Example 6
Graph () = log 2 ( 1).
We just make a table of values. Note that youll need the change of base formula to help
you fill the table out. We show the table below and the graph in Figure 214.
0
1
1.5
2
3
()
.
.
1
0
1
Appendices 404
Figure 214
This is the general shape of a logarithmic graph. Notice how it looks like an exponential graph?
A logarithmic graph looks just like an exponential graph, except its been reflected across
the line = . This reflection is true of all inverse functions, but nevertheless dont forget
the relationship that a logarithmic graph has with an exponential graph.
Finally, dont forget the natural logarithm, which behaves exactly as all other logarithms,
except it has base-, where 2.718. We usually denote natural logarithm as
ln .
Appendix D Exercises
1.)
2.)

(A) 3 14 = 5
(B) 3 2 + 3 = 8
(C) 5 5 = 2,500
(D) 4+3 + 3 = 19
2
(E) 8 = 64
2
(F) 2 4+4 = 16
(G) 4 33+1 2 = 6
(H) 3 3+1 = 243
(I) 51 542 + 3 = 28
(J) 4 4 4 = 256
2
(K) 31 = 3 +2+1
(L) 3+4 = 24
Simplify the following logarithmic expressions.
(A) log 2 () log 2 ()
(B) log 2 () + log 2
(M)
(N)
(O)
(P)
(Q)
(R)
(S)
(T)
(U)
(V)
(W)
log 3 = 3
log 4 = 2
log 5 ( 1) = 4
2 log 2 + 3 = 4
log(+5)
=1
10
ln( 2 + 6 + 8) = 2.5
log 5 ( 2 4) + 4 = 12
log 3 + log 3 (4) = 8
log 2 2 log 2 2 = 16
log 5 10 = 20
ln(4) + ln(2) = 8
(D) ln 6
(E) log 7 ( + ) + log 7 ( + )

405
3.)
(C) log 4 2 + log 4

(A) () = 2
(B) () = 3
(C) () = 7
(D) () = 2 2
(E) () = 3 4
1
(F) () = 2 2 + 2
(G) () = 2 4
Appendix F
(F)
log 6 ( 3 2 ) log 6
(H)
(I)
(J)
(K)
(L)
(M)
(N)
() = 5
() = log 2
() = log 3
() = log 4 2
() = log 5 ()
() = 2 log 6 + 2
() = log 3 ( + 3) 1
Solving systems of equations
This section will be brief, since, at this point, youll have solved many systems of equations.
As always, however, you might find it useful to see a worked example or two.
A system of equations is any group of two or more equations with two or more variables.
Therefore,
3 1 =
{
2 + 5 =
is a system of equations, and so is
3 + 2 = 10
{ 4 + + = 1 .
=9
There are different ways of solving systems of equations, and you will learn at least one
more in this text, but in this Appendix, we will help you to review the methods of
substitution and elimination. We will show an example of method with a two-equation,
two-variable system.
Example 1
Solve the system
{
= 2 + 2
.
=5
We will use the method of substitution to solve this system. This is the best method to
use here since one of our equations has been solved for . Then we just need to substitute
that expression into the second equation. Since
= 2 + 2,
Appendices 406
we can change our second equation into

(2 + 2) = 5.
This is great, since now we have a single equation with a single variable. We can easily
solve this, and we find that
3 + 2 = 5
3 = 3
= 1.
With one of our variables known, we can substitute this back into either of our two
equations and solve for the remaining variable. We get
(1) = 5
+1=5
= 4.
Thus, the solution to this system of equations is the point,
(4, 1).
Note that the solution to a two-equation, two-variable equation is a point in the
coordinate plane.
Example 2a
Solve the system
{
3 = 3
.
5 3 = 21
In this instance, well use the method of elimination. This works best in this case, since the
and variables are stacked on top of one another. This also works well since our first
equation has a 3, and so does the second one. With this, we can just subtract the two
equations and eliminate the terms. This amounts to
3 = 3
5 3 = 21
4 = 24.
This bottom equation, 4 = 24, is great, since there is a single variable in that single
equation. Now we can solve like normal. We get that
= 6.
Appendix E: Solving systems of equations 407
Now we can substitute that value back into either of our two original equations, and solve
for the remaining variable. Well choose the top equation, whereby
(6) 3 = 3
3 = 9
= 3.
Our solution, then, is the point (6,3).
Example 2b
Solve the system
{
=2
.
3 2 = 11
We should, likewise, solve this system using the method of elimination. The only problem
is that we cannot eliminate anything straightaway. Notice how none of the coefficients
match up? We can, however, fix this, and all well do is multiply one (or, perhaps, both) of
the equations by some constant that will match up one of the coefficients. In this case,
well multiply the top equations by 3. It is important that you multiply each term in the
equation by the same thing. Doing this gets us
{
3 + 3 = 6
,
3 2 = 11
whereby we can now eliminate. We just add the two equations together, and get
3 + 3 = 6
3 2 = 11
= 5.
Substituting this back into the original top equation, we find that
(5) = 2
= 7.
Our solution is therefore (7,5).
We will show one more example, and then give you some Exercises to practice these skills.
While solving a three-equation, three-variable system seems intimidating at first, we are
really just doing the same thing that we were doing before. Just be careful not to lose any
information, stay organized, and youll be fine.
Example 3
Appendices 408
Solve the system

+ 2 + = 3
{2 + 5 = 4.
3 = 5
Well first endeavor to eliminate one variable from one pair of equations, then eliminate
that same variable from a different pair of equations. It seems as though the variable
will be easiest to eliminate, so that is what well do. We choose the top and second
equation to add together. We get
+ 2 + = 3
2 + 5 = 4
(4)
3 + 7 = 1.
Well refer to this equation as equation (4). Well need a fifth equation in order to get any
information from this fourth equation. So we go back to the original three equations. This
time well eliminate the top and bottom equations. We get
+ 2 + = 3
3 = 5
(5)
4 + = 8.
Now we can eliminate equations (4) and (5). Before we are able to do that, lets multiply
(5) through by 7. This gets us
3 + 7 = 1
28 7 = 56
25 = 57.
From here, we see that
=
57
= 2.28.
25
Whats nice is that, to find the next variable, we just need to go back to (4) or (5). Well
choose (5) and solve for . We have
4(2.28) + = 8
= 1.12.
Finally, to find , we go back to any of the first three equations. Well choose the top one.
We conclude that
(2.28) + 2(1.12) + = 3
Appendix E: Solving systems of equations 409
= 2.96.
Our solution is, therefore, the point (2.28, 1.12, 2.96).
Do not forget that not all systems of equations will have solutions. And some will have
infinite solutions.
Appendix F Exercises
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)
5.)
Solve the following systems of equations.

2 = 1
=2
(N) {
(A) {
2 = 6 2
+ 2 = 5
= 3 + 10
+ 3 4 = 5
(B) {
+ 4 = 14
(O) { + = 2
=4
2 + 2 = 3
(C) {
= 3 4
2 7 + 4 = 0
+ 2 = 5
(P) {8 + 10 3 = 19
(D) {
+ 3 = 7
7 + 4 5 = 0
+ = 4
22
+ 14 17 = 27
(E) {
3 + 2 = 8
(Q) { 16 2 + 11 = 21
=4
4 + 8 + = 21
(F) {
+ = 5
2 = 2
5 2 = 13
(R) { 2 = 2
(G) {
8 + 7 = 2
= 2
= 5 26
22 + + 11 = 34
(H) {
3 + 4 = 2
(S) { 9 2 = 19
= 3 + 3
27 6 + 4 = 29
(I) {
3 9 = 9
7 3 5 = 1
3 7 = 32
14
+ 9 + = 25
(T) {
(J) {
3 + 10 = 56
14 + 3 2 = 13
2 + = 1
14 31 10 = 3
(K) {
3 + = 9
(U) {34 + 3 2 = 119
= 5 4
12 3 + 2 = 19
(L) {
= 10 + 1
=
(M) { = 4 1
Create any system of equations such that there is one solution.
Create any system of equations such that there are no solutions.
Create any system of equations such that there are infinite solutions.
Describe the picture of a system of three equations with three different variables.
Appendices 410
Glossary
Argumentum ad lapidem Literally, appeal to the
stone. It means that someone has made an
assertion without giving proof for it. E.g., Its
ridiculous that you say that. Why? Because its
ridiculous. (Unit one, 2)
Cofactors The cofactors are equal to the minors

of a matrix, except possible the sign. To determine
+ +
the sign of the cofactor, use the matrix [ + ].
+ +
(Unit eight, 2)
Arc The length of the outside of the circle, usually

this refers to only a fraction of the outside of the
circle, although, technically, the circumference of a
circle is also an arc. (Unit five, 1)
Cofunction identities A Cofunction identity is a

Trigonometric identity revealing how the
cofunctions (e.g., Sine and Cosine are cofunctions)
are related. One of the cofunction identities is
sin = cos(90 ). (Unit four, 3)
Arithmetic sequence A sequence where each

number has a common difference. E.g., the
sequence 1, 2, 3, 4, , is an arithmetic sequence.
(Unit ten, 1)
Asymptotes A horizontal, slanted, or vertical line
that a function will get closer to (as either or get
very large or very small) but never quite reach. (Unit
three, 1)
Augmented matrix A matrix that appends the
solutions of a matrix onto the original matrix. E.g., In
1 1
the matrix equation = , written out as [
]
2 2
1
12
[ ] = [ ], the augmented matrix would be
2
3
1 1 12
[
| ]. (Unit eight, 2)
2 2 3
Binomial Any polynomial which has two terms.
E.g., 2 + 3 is a binomial. (Unit three, 2)
Cardioid The shape obtained from a Polar
equation of the form = sin(), where and
are real-numbered-constants. It is given this name
since it looks a bit like a heart. (Unit six, 3)
Change of base formula The formula which
allows one to evaluate a logarithm of any base. So
log =
log
log
. (Unit three, 1)
Circle The set of all points equidistant from a point

called the center. (Unit eleven, 2)
Codomain The possible outputs that a function
can have. (Unit two, 1)
Common difference In a sequence or series, the

common difference is the difference that produces
the next number in line. E.g., in the sequence
4, 8, 12, 16, , the common difference is 4, since you
add 4 to each number to produce the next number.
(Unit ten, 1)
Common ratio In a sequence or series, the
common ratio is the factor that produces the next
number in line. E.g., in the sequence 3, 6, 12, 24, , 2
is the common ratio since you multiply each number
by 2 to produce the next number in line. (unit ten,
1)
Congruent Two objects that are not the same, but
have exact lengths, angles, areas, etc. (Unit four, 1)
Converge A series that has a limit is said to
converge. This means that no matter how many
terms you add, it can never exceed a certain
number. (Unit ten, 2)
Corollary A fact that flows directly from the
previous proposition, often without proof required.
Often a corollary is a consequence of something just
proved or proposed. (Unit one, 2)
Coterminal Two angles are said to be coterminal
if they produce the same point even though the
angles themselves are not equal. For example, a 90
rotation is coterminal with a 270 rotation. (Unit
five,2)
Glossary 411
Daughter function A function which comes from
a different function (usually called the parent
function), often after a transformation. (Unit one, 1)
Extrema A general term used when there could

be multiple maxima or minima present. (Unit two,
1)
Dilation A change in size that occurs to a function.

(Unit two, 1).
Factors A number is a factor of a number if

= 0. E.g. 3 is a factor of 12 since
12 3 = 0. (Unit one, 1)
Displacement The final ending position after a

series of movements. (Unit nine, 1)
Diverge A series that does not have a limit is said
to diverge. This means that the more terms from the
sequence you add, the larger the sum will get, and
that it will always get larger. (Unit ten, 2)
Domain The set of all possible inputs that may be
input into a function. (Unit two, 1)
Element Any individual member of a set. Note
that this does not have to be a number, since
anything can be collected into sets. (Unit one, 1).
Ellipse A circle that has been stretched
horizontally by some factor and stretched vertically
by a different factor. (Unit eleven, 2)
Equation Any relationship that equates one
quantity to another. E.g. 3 + 2 = 4 is an
equation, since one quantity, 3 + 2 is equal to
4. Note that an equation is not necessarily a
function.
Even function A function () such that () =
() for all in the domain of (). Geometrically,
this means that there is symmetry across the -axis.
(Unit six, 2)
Explicit An equation wherein the output variable
is isolated, as in = 2 . This is the opposite of an
implicit equation, such as 2 + 2 = 1. (Unit three,
1)
Explicit function A function that is solved for ,
or (). E.g. () = + 3 is an explicit function,
since the () is isolated. (Unit one, 1)
Extraneous solutions Any solution to an equation
which, when plugged back in to the original
equation, gives a false statement (e.g., 4 = 4).
(Appendix C)
Function A mathematical statement that accepts

some input and generates some output. Often
denoted as () = . (Unit two, 1)
Gaussian elimination A procedure to solve a
system of equations. You write the system of
equations as a single matrix, then, using elementary
row operations, zero-out each cell in a row except
for one, which youll want to be a 1. This reveals the
1 2 1
value of that variable. E.g., if given [
][ ] =
1 4 2
10
[ ], then you should zero-out the second row, first
4
column, by adding the first and second row
1 2 1
10
together, getting [
] [ ] = [ ], then divide
0 6 2
6
1 2 1
10
the second row by 6, getting [
] [ ] = [ ],
0 1 2
1
which implies that 2 = 1. (Unit eight, 2)
Geometric sequence A sequence where each
adjacent term is separated by the same ratio. E.g.,
1
the sequence 4, 2, 1, , , is geometric, since it has a

1
common ratio of . (Unit ten, 1)

2
Global maximum The largest -value a function

can attain across its entire domain. (Unit three, 2)
Hypotenuse The longest side of a right triangle. It
is, consequently, the side opposite of the right
angle. (Unit one, 1)
Identities A different name for an equivalent
statement. E.g., sin2 + cos 2 is equivalent to 1. So
we could call the quantity sin2 + cos 2 or 1 if we
wanted to. (Unit four, 3)
Implicit function A function that is not solved for
. E.g. 2 + 2 = 4 is an implicit function. (Unit one,
1)
Appendices 412
Increasing A function is said to be increasing if, as
its values get larger, the values also get larger.
Usually the set of number upon which a function is
increasing is reported in interval notation. (Unit
three, 2)
Input The number that gets put into a function.
We often notate this as . (Unit two, 1)
Interval notation A way of writing a subset of real
numbers. E.g., to write All real numbers between 0
and 12, including 0 but excluding 12 would be to
write [0,12). Note that a square bracket implies that
the end point is included, while a parenthesis
implies that that end point is not included. (Unit
three, 2)
Invertible A matrix that has an inverse. (Unit eight,
1)
Isosceles triangle A triangle wherein two sides are
the same length. (Unit four, 1)
Leading coefficient The coefficient of the term
with the largest exponent in a polynomial. E.g., in
the polynomial 3 2 + 6 2 + 5 7 , the leading
coefficient is 5. (Appendix B)
Lemma A written statement that serves as an
addition to a proof. This is used when something
within a larger proof requires proving. (Unit one, 1)
Limaon A Polar equation of the form = +
sin or = + cos , which is known for its snaillike shape (hence the name, which comes from a
Latin word meaning snail). (Unit six, 3)
Lower triangular A matrix that only

1 2
below the main diagonal. E.g., [0 4
0 0
eight, 2)
has zeros
3
5]. (Unit
6
Magnitude The magnitude of a vector is its

length, and its length tells us how fast, how much
force, etc. the vector represents. E.g., if a car is
traveling 50 mph north, youd draw a vector that has
a length of 50. Other quantities besides speed can
be used. (Unit nine, 1)
Main diagonal The cells in a matrix going from
the top left to the bottom right. E.g., the numbers
1,2, and 3 are on the main diagonal in the matrix
1 5 6
[7 2 4]. (Unit eight, 2)
8 9 3
Minors The determinant of a matrix-within-amatrix. The minor of the first row, first column of =
1 2 3
5 6
[4 5 6], denoted 11 , is 11 = det ([
]) =
8 9
7 8 9
3. (Unit eight, 2)
Modulo A function that divides the two numbers
and returns the remainder. E.g., 15 6 is 3, since
15 6 = 2 with a remainder of 3. (Unit one, 1)
Multiples A number is a multiple of another
number if = 0. E.g. 24 is a multiple of 12
since 24 12 = 0. (Unit one, 1)
Odd function A function () for which () =
(). Geometrically, this amounts to a symmetry
across the line = . (Unit six, 2)
Limit A certain number that a sequence, series, or

function gets closer and closer to, but can never
exceed. (Unit ten, 2)
Output The number that results from a function.

Often we notate the output of a function as ().
(Unit two, 1)
Local maximum The largest -value a function

can attain across a selected or limited domain. (Unit
three, 2)
Parallel Any two lines such that they will never

touch. (Unit three, 1)
Logarithm The inverse function of an exponential.

So if () = 2 , then 1 () = log 2 . (Unit three, 1)
()
Parametric function A function () = {
such
()
that each -coordinate is determined by a function
() and each -coordinate is determined by a
different function (). (Unit eleven, 1)
Glossary 413
Parent function Some function that serves as the
most basic of a function type. Often this is the
starting function from which other functions will
come from (i.e. daughter functions), usually after a
transformation. (Unit one, 1)
Perfect number A number where the sum of its
factor is equal to the number. E.g. 6 is a perfect
number since its factors, 1,2, and 3, when added
together, have a sum of 6 (1 + 2 + 3 = 6). (Unit one,
1)
Period The length (or time) it takes a function to
begin to repeat itself. (Unit six, 2)
Periodic function A function that will establishes
a clear pattern and then continues indefinitely. The
Trigonometric functions are periodic functions.
(Unit six, 2)
Perpendicular Any two lines such that they
intersect at a right angle. (Unit three, 1)
Pole The name for the origin on the Polar Plane.
(Unit five, 2)
Polynomial A function that contains numbers,
variables, and whole-number-exponents that are
perhaps separated with addition or subtraction
signs. (Unit three, 2)
Polygon A closed figure consisting of three or
more line segments. (Unit four, 1)
Projection A vector that determines how much
one vector is traveling in the same direction as
another. (Unit nine, 2)
Proof A written statement that logically shows
something to be absolutely true or false. (Unit one,
1)
Proof by contradiction A proof that takes a
statement (say, If then ) and temporarily
assumes the opposite consequence (If then not
) and then shows that that conclusion (not )
cannot be because it leads to a contradiction or
absurd result. (Unit one, 2)
Pythagorean Triple A set of three integers that

satisfies the condition 2 + 2 = 2 . E.g., 3,4, and 5
meet these conditions. (Unit four, 1)
Rational Root Theorem A theorem which reveals
the rational roots (or zeros) of a polynomial, if they
exist. Given some polynomial with constant and
leading coefficient , then the possible rational
roots are given by , where is the set of all factors
of and is the set of all factors of . (Unit three,

2)
Reflection A change in position to a function that
mirrors the image across a line, usually the - or axes. (Unit two, 1).
Relative extrema A point of a function where the
function goes from increasing to decreasing, or vice
versa. One might also consider this a local maxima
or local minima (which does not necessarily mean
that it is the largest or smallest value of the entire
function). (Unit two, 1)
Right angle An angle that measure 90. In radians,
the measurement is . (Unit four, 1)

2
Roster form A type of set that lists out each

element. E.g. = {0,1,2,3, } is in roster form, since
each element is listed out. Note that you do not
have to literally write out every element as long as a
clear pattern is established. (Unit one, 1)
Scalar A unit-less quantity that serves to change
the size of something. E.g., given a vector , then 3
is the same vector except three times as large. The
three serves as the scalar, scaling the vector up by a
factor of three. (Unit nine, 1)
Series The sum of every term (or a set of terms) of
a sequence. (Unit ten, 1)
Sequence a list of numbers that contains a
discernable pattern. Sequences come in many
different varieties, including finite and infinite, and
could contain many different kind of patterns. (Unit
ten, 1)
Appendices 414
Set-builder notation A type of set that generates
or builds each element in the set with a group of
instructions. E.g. = { : , } (which is read
aloud as a number over a number such that

both and are in the set of all integers) will
generate any rational number. In most instances,
this type is only used when a set cannot be listed
out explicitly in roster form. (Unit one, 1)
Slant asymptotes An asymptote that follows a
linear path that is not horizontal or vertical.
(Appendix C)
Slope The ratio of horizontal change to vertical
change in a function, often shown with the formula

= 1 2 . (Appendix A)
1 2
Slope-intercept form An explicit linear equation

of the form = + wherein represents the
slope and represents that -intercept of the
equation. (Unit three, 1)
Solutions This word can mean a couple different
things. Often, it means the values a variable can take
on to make an equation true. E.g., in the equation
3 + 1 = 13, we say the solution is = 4. In the
context of polynomials, it takes on the same
meaning as a zero or -intercept. (Unit three, 2)
Standard form A form of linear equation where
the and variables are on the same side, the
constant on the other, and all numbers are integers.
(Appendix A)
Transformation A change in position or size that
occurs to a function. (Unit two, 1)
Translation A change in position, either vertically

or horizontally. (Unit two, 1)
Triangle A polygon with three sides. (Unit four, 1)
Triangular number A number that, when broken
down into, say, dots, can be arranged in the shape
of an equilateral triangle. E.g. 6 is a triangular
number, since six dots can be arranged to form an
equilateral triangle. (Unit one, 1)
Unit circle A circle center at the origin having a
radius of 1. (Unit five, 3)
Vector A line segment whose length describes the
magnitude and that contains an arrow indicating
the direction it is traveling. A vector therefore
communicates two pieces of information:
Magnitude and direction. (Unit nine, 1)
Vertex This word has a few different meanings in
math, although, the one used in this course is the
maximum or minimum point of an absolute value
graph or a quadratic graph. (Appendix A)
-intercept The point or points where a graph
crosses the -axis. (Unit two, 3)
-intercept The point or points where a graph
crosses the -axis. (Appendix A)
Zero-product property If = 0, then =
0 = 0. This is often used to solve polynomials,
such as ( + 3)( 1) = 0. If this is true, then +
3 = 0 1 = 0 whence = 3 = 1. (Unit
three, 1)
Zeros The solutions of a polynomial. This term is
often used since the solutions of a polynomial ()
are found when () = 0. (Unit three, 2)

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Precalculus 1st Edition

Hochgeladen von

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Precalculus

1st Edition, 2016

Unit seven: Identities

To the student vii

Front matter viii

List of abbreviations, symbols, and common words and their meanings

Less than or equal to

The empty set

Greater than or equal to

The set of all whole numbers

The set of all integers

The set of all rational numbers

Divide the two numbers and

That is or In other words

The set of all real numbers

Part one: Introduction

The set of all real numbers:

= The union of all rational and

Which amount to clockwise rotations.

Define the following sets.

Evaluate the following.

i. Commutative property of addition

Operations and proof

2 Operations and proof 25

2 Operations and proof 27

into its decimal equivalent, and simply use a calculator, this

Let , , , such that and , 0. Prove that + +

Assume temporarily that it is true, that is, that + = +. First, let

Since (1) and (2) are equal, we have

2 Operations and proof 29

Two rational numbers, , , have a sum

Before we do some proofs, practice some argumentum ad lapidem facts.

(D) How should you solve a proportion (e.g. = )?

(C) Prove that if = , then

(C) Prove that = .

Now for the really fun ones.

Write the following fractions as a sum of two fractions expressions.

Now let us make things a bit harder.

(B) Prove that = .

(D) Prove that if = , then = 2 .

Let () = 4 + 3, () = 2 3 + 2 , and () = +1. Evaluate ( + )(), ( )(),

Figures 3a, 3b, and 3c

Lets briefly review how to graph functions.

After substituting this information in, we get that

Let () = 5 2 4, () = 3 3, and () = 3+. Evaluate (or simplify) the

Graph the following functions.

For what value of does

12.) Prove that functions obey the distributive property.

where (, ()) is a point. We show this picture below.

(B) Would it be more appropriate to name point a minimum or maximum?

Well cover quadratic equations in more detail in 1 of the next unit.

Composition and inverses of functions

Let () = 3 1 and () = 2 + 1. Find ( )().

since () = 2 + 1, and all that is needed to do is to substitute.

Lets try one more like this.

Let () = + 5 and () = + 4. Evaluate ( )(1).

To determine this, we simply compose the two functions. We have

Thus, is the inverse of and is the inverse of .

as you should verify.

We graph these two relations in Figure 8.

In this example, we arent given a function to manipulate algebraically, so we must use

Let () = 7 + 3, () = 2 2 + 1, () = 1. Evaluate the following.

Use the graphs of () and () to answer the following questions.

(A) Evaluate the following.