405

B98H
1906
EtfGIttEEI

AlATftEMAI
LIBRA]

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MATHEMATICAL MONOGRAPHS.
EDITED BY

MANSFIELD MERRIMAN AND ROBERT

No.

S.

WOODWARD.

5.

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
WILLIAM

E.

BYERLY,

PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

FOURTH

EDITION, ENLARGED.

FIRST THOUSAND.

NEW YORK:
JOHN WILEY &
LONDON:

SONS.

CHAPMAN & HALL,

1906.

LIMITED.

COPYRIGHT,

1896,

BY

MANSFIELD MERRIMAN

AND

ROBERT

S.

WOODWARD

UNDER THE TITLE

HIGHER MATHEMATICS.
First Edition, September, 1896.

Second Edition, January, 1898.

Third Edition, August, 1900.
Fourth Edition, January,

1906.

Engineering

&

Mathematical
i

*~

Sciences

Bf;

Library

EDITORS' PREFACE.

THE

volume called Higher Mathematics, the first edition

of which was published in 1896, contained eleven chapters by
eleven authors, each chapter being independent of the others,
but all supposing the reader to have at least a mathematical
that given in classical and engineering
publication of that volume is now discontinued

training equivalent
colleges.

The

to

and the chapters are issued in separate form. In these reissues

it will generally be found that the monographs are enlarged
by additional articles or appendices which either amplify the
former presentation or record recent advances. This plan of
publication has been arranged in order to meet the demand of

and the convenience of

teachers
that

it

may

prove advantageous

mathematical

classes,

but

it

is

also thought

to readers in special lines of

literature.

the publishers and editors to add other

to the series from time to time, if the call for the

It is the intention of

monographs
same seems

to

warrant

it.

Among

the topics which are under

consideration are those of elliptic functions, the theory of

bers, the group theory, the calculus of variations, and

numnon-

Euclidean geometry; possibly also monographs on branches of

astronomy, mechanics, and mathematical physics may be included.

hope of the editors that this form of publication may

tend to promote mathematical study and research over a wider
field than that which the former volume has occupied.
It is the

December, 1905.

444680

AUTHOR'S PREFACE.

THIS

brief sketch of .the

Harmonic Functions and

Mathematical Physics was

and Woodward's Higher Mathematics.

their use

Merriman
was intended to give

written as a chapter of

in

enough

in the

way

of introduction

It

and

illustration to serve as

a useful part of the equipment of the general mathematical

student, and at the same time to point out to one specially interested in the subject the

way

to carry

on

and reading
more difficult

his study

toward a broad and detailed knowledge of

its

portions.

Fourier's Series, Zonal Harmonics,

and

Bessel's Functions of

the order zero are treated at considerable length, with the intention of enabling the reader to use

problems, and to

this

them

in actual

work

in physical

end several valuable numerical tables

are included in the text.

CAMBRIDGE, MASS., December, 1905

CONTENTS.

ART.

i.

2.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION

HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
PROBLEM IN TRIGONOMETRIC SERIES
PROBLEM IN ZONAL HARMONICS
PROBLEM IN BESSEL'S FUNCTIONS

THE SINE SERIES

THE COSINE SERIES

Page

10
12
.

15

21

26

30
'

8.

9.

10.

11.
12.

13.
14.

15.
1 6.

17.

18.

19.

20.
21.
22.

23.
24.

TABLE

FOURIER'S SERIES

BESSEL'S FUNCTIONS.

PROPERTIES

34

36
38

40
43
45

46
47
50
51

52

APPLICATIONS OF BESSEL'S FUNCTIONS DEVELOPMENT IN TERMS OF BESSEL'S FUNCTIONS

53

PROBLEMS IN BESSEL'S FUNCTIONS

BESSEL'S FUNCTIONS OF HIGHER ORDER
LAME''S FUNCTIONS

58

I.

II.

III.

IV.

INDEX

32

EXTENSION OF FOURIER'S SERIES

DIRICHLET'S CONDITIONS
APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRIC SERIES
PROPERTIES OF ZONAL HARMONICS
PROBLEMS IN ZONAL HARMONICS
ADDITIONAL FORMS
DEVELOPMENT IN TERMS OF ZONAL HARMONICS
FORMULAS FOR DEVELOPMENT
FORMULAS IN ZONAL HARMONICS
SPHERICAL HARMONICS

55

59

59

SURFACE ZONAL HARMONICS

60

BESSEL'S FUNCTIONS

62

ROOTS OF BESSEL'S FUNCTIONS

VALUES OF J (xf)

63
63
65

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
ART.

What

is

1.

known

HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION.

as the

Harmonic Analysis owed

its

origin

and development to the study of concrete problems in various

branches of Mathematical Physics, which however all involved
the treatment of partial differential
general form.

The

use of

equations of the same

Trigonometric Series was

Daniel Bernouilli in 1753

in

his

first

researches

suggested by
on the musical

vibrations of stretched elastic strings, although Bessel's Func-

had been already (1732) employed by him and by Euler

in dealing with the vibrations of a heavy string suspended from
one end; and Zonal and Spherical Harmonics were introduced
tions

by Legendre and Laplace

in

1782 in dealing with the attrac-

tion of solids of revolution.

The

analysis was greatly advanced by Fourier in 1812-1824

remarkable work on the Conduction of Heat, and important additions have been made by Lame" (1839) ar"d by a
in his

host of

The

modern

investigators.

differential equations treated in the

have just been enumerated are

problems which

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

for the transverse vibrations of a musical string

o

for small transverse vibrations of a uniform

pended from one end

which

is

:
*

heavy string

sus-

Laplace's equation

and

for the conduction of heat in a

homogeneous

solid.

Of these Laplace's equation (3), and (4) of which (3) is a

special case, are by far the most important, and we shall concern ourselves mainly with them in this chapter.
As to their
interest to engineers and physicists we quote from an article
in

The

Electrician of Jan. 26, 1894,

by Professor John Perry:

"

There is a well-known partial differential equation, which is

the same in problems on heat-conduction, motion of fluids, the
establishment of electrostatic or electromagnetic potential, certain
motions of viscous

fluid,

certain kinds of strain

in a conductor, vibrations

strings or elastic

The

of

and

stress,

currents

elastic solids, vibrations of flexible

membranes, and innumerable other phenomena.

equation has always to be solved subject to certain boundary

or limiting conditions, sometimes as to space and time, sometimes

as to space alone, and we know that if we obtain any solution of a
particular problem, then that

more,

if

is

the true and only solution.

a solution, say, of a heat-conduction problem

is

Further-

obtained

by any person, that answer is at once applicable to analogous problems in all the other departments of physics. Thus, if Lord Kelvin draws for us the lines of flow in a simple vortex, he has drawn
for

us the lines of magnetic force about a circular current; if

for us the resistance of the mouth of an

Lord Rayleigh calculates

organ-pipe, he has also determined the end effect of a bar of iron

which

is

magnetized; when Mr. Oliver Heaviside shows his match-

HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION,

less skill

and

I)

familiarity with Bessel's functions in solving electro-

magnetic problems, he

is

solving problems in heat-conductivity or

How difficult it is to express exactly

the distribution of strain in a twisted square shaft, for example, and
the strains in prismatic shafts.

yet

how

easy

it

is

to

understand thoroughly when one knows the

How

perfect-fluid analogy!

easy, again,

it is

to

imagine the electric

current density everywhere in a conductor when transmitting alternating currents when we know Mr. Heaviside's viscous-fluid analogy,
or even the heat-conduction analogy!
"
Much has been written about the correlation of the physical
sciences; but when we observe how a young man who has worked

almost altogether at heat problems

quainted with the most

-of

physiS, we

sciences

lies in

may

say that the true correlation of the physical

the equation of continuity

=a
dt

In the
of

suddenly shows himself ac-

investigations in other departments

difficult

Theory

\a*

+ ay

a*'/

of the Potential Function in the Attraction

Gravitation, and in Electrostatics and

(3) is

Electrodynamics,*
the value of the Potential Func-

Laplace's equation
any external point (x, y, 2), due to any distribution of
matter or of electricity; in the theory of the Conduction of
Heat in a homogeneous solid f V is the temperature at any
\r\

tion, at

point in the solid after the stationary temperatures have been

established, and in the theory of the irrotational flow of an
incompressible fluid \ V is the Velocity Potential
and (3) is known as the equation of continuity.
If

we use

Function

spherical coordinates, (3) takes the form

=0* See Peirce's Newtonian Potential Function.

f See Fourier's Analytic

Theory

of

Heat.

Boston.

London and New York, 1878

Brunswick.
or Riemann's Partielle Differentialgleichungen.
and
New
London
York, 1895.
Lamb's
See
Hydrodynamics.
\

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

10

and

if

we

use cylindrical coordinates, the form

~~

In the theory of the Conduction of Heat in a homogene^

ous solid,* u in equation (4) is the temperature of any point
(x, y, z) of the solid at any time /, and c? is a constant deter-

mined by experiment and depending on the conductivity and

the thermal capacity of the solid.

ART.

HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

2.

The

general solution of a differential equation is the equation expressing the most general relation between the primitive variables

which

is

consistent with the given differential

equation and which does not involve differentials or derivatives-

general solution will always contain arbitrary

mined) constants or arbitrary functions.

(i.e.,

particular solution of a differential equation

is

undeter-

a relation

between the primitive variables which is consistent with the

given differential equation, but which is less general than the
general solution, although included in

it.

Theoretically, every particular solution can be obtained:

from the general solution by substituting in the general solution particular values for the arbitrary constants or particular

functions for the arbitrary functions but in practice it is often

easy to obtain particular solutions directly from the differential
;

when

equation

it

would be

difficult or

impossible to obtain the

general solution.
a problem requiring for

solution the solving of a

there
must always be given
determinate,
in addition to the differential equation enough outside condi(a)

If

differential equation

its

is

tions for the determination of

all the arbitrary constants or

that
enter
functions
into
the general solution of the
arbitrary
equation and in dealing with such a problem, if the differen;

tial

equation can be readily solved the natural method of pro-

HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

11

general solution, and then to determine

the constants or functions by the aid of the given conditions.

cedure

is

to obtain

its

happens, however, that the general solution of the

differential equation in question cannot be obtained, and then,
since the problem, if determinate, will be solved, if by any
It often

of the equation can be found which will also

outside
the
conditions, it is worth while to try to
satisfy
given
get particular solutions and so to combine them as to form a

means a solution

result

which

shall satisfy the given conditions

without ceasing

to satisfy the differential equation.

A differential

(b)

equation

is

linear

when

it

would be

of the

first degree if the dependent variable and all its derivatives

were regarded as algebraic unknown quantities. If it is linear
and contains no term which does not involve the dependent
variable or one of its derivatives, it is said to be linear and

homogeneous.
All the differential equations given in Art.

are linear and

homogeneous.
If

(c)

which

a value of the dependent variable has been found

satisfies a

given homogeneous, linear, differential equathe

tion,
product formed by multiplying this value by any
constant will also be a value of the dependent variable which
will satisfy the equation.

For
to the

if

all

first

the terms of the given equation are transposed

of the first-named value

member, the substitution

must reduce that member

value
the

is

first

fore

substituting the second

equivalent to multiplying each term of the result of
substitution by the same constant factor, which there-

may be

equation

zero

taken out as a factor of the whole

The remaining
is

to

factor being zero, the product

is

member.
zero and the

first

satisfied.

(d) If several values of the

found each of which

dependent variable have been

the given differential equation,

their sum will satisfy the equation
for if the sum of the values
is
in
in question
substituted
the equation, each term of the sum
satisfies

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

12

will give rise to a set of

therefore the

sum

terms which must be equal to zero, and

must be zero.

of these sets

generally possible to get by some simple device

solutions
of such differential equations as those we
particular
have collected in Art. i. The object of this chapter is to find
(e)

It is

methods

of so

combining these particular solutions as to

satisfy

any given conditions which are consistent with the nature of

Jthe

in question.

problem

This often requires us to be able to develop any given function of the variables which enter into the expression of these
conditions in terms of normal forms suited to the problem with
which we happen to be dealing, and suggested by the form of
particular solution that

we

are able to obtain for the differential

equation.

These normal forms are frequently sines and cosines, but

they are often much more complicated functions known as
Legendre's Coefficients, or Zonal Harmonics; Laplace's CoefSpherical Harmonics; Bessel's Functions, or Cylin-

ficients, or

Harmonics;

drical

monics;

Ellipsoidal

Har-

etc.

ART.

As an

Lame's Functions, or

PROBLEM

3.

IN

TRIGONOMETRIC SERIES.

illustration let us consider the following

large iron plate

n centimeters thick

is

problem

heated throughout

to a uniform temperature of 100 degrees centigrade;

its

faces

are then suddenly cooled to the temperature zero and are kept
What will be the temperaat that temperature for 5 seconds.
ture of a point in the middle of the plate at the end of that

time?

3
Given a =0.185

Take the

in

C.G.S. units.

origin of coordinates in

and the axis of

one face

X perpendicular to that face, and

temperature of any point

in

the plate

of
let

the plate
ti
be the

seconds after the cool-

ing begins.

We

shall

suppose the flow of heat to be directly across the

any given time all points in any plane parallel

plate so that at

PROBLEM IN TRIGONOMETRIC

SERIES.

same temperature.

to the faces of the plate will have the

Then u depends upon

= o,

and

a single space-coordinate

Art.

(4),

dz

o and

reduces to

I,

* = <&
3/

=
u =
u =

and
and we need to
ditions

(2), (3),

We
we

a*

(i)

= o,
o when x = o,
o when x =

Obviously,

when

100

rr

(3)

(4)

which

find a solution of (i)

and

(2)

satisfies

the con-

(4).

by getting a particular solution of (i), and

which always succeeds when the equaand homogeneous and has constant coefficients.

shall begin

shall use a device

tion

linear

is

Assume*
tute in

and

if

(i)

e& x+yt ,

where

ft

and y are constants; substi<?*+?' and we get y = c? ft*

and divide through by

= gP*+**P*

= e^x +y

then a solution of

(i)

is

a solution of

no matter what the

ft

e-We'
(d),

^.

Art.

2,

_ ,-*<(V* 4Xfe

~
i***}

e-'W

a solution, as

is

= */* is

cos IAX

( e \*-

e~v-xt\

xi

_1

Vifl

=#

^"sin/wr;

(6)
.

entirely arbitrary.

* This
assumption must be regarded as purely tentative.

by substituting

The

(5)

also

22

(i).

can modify the form of this solution with advantage.

^-"VV4 ** is a solution of (i), as is also
/i/,f then u

Let

and

ft.

We

By

this condition is satisfied, u

value of

is

1<>

in the equation,

letter i will

and

is

justified

be used to represent 4/

if it

i.

It

must be tested

leads to a solution,

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

14

giving different values to jj. we get different particular

solutions of (i) let us try to so combine them as to satisfy our

By

conditions while continuing to satisfy equation

(i).

it
^>sin }juc is zero when x = O for all values of //
when x = n if yu is a whole number. If, then, we write
"
sin mx, where
u equal to a sum of terms of the form Ae'"
m is an integer, we shall have a solution of (i) (see (d), Art. 2)

is

zero

which

satisfies (3)

Let
u

and

this solution

A A
t

When

If

A^-^

sin

+ ...,

3*

(7)

sin

-j-

sin 2.x

(i)

-j-

sin

^x

-f-

(8)

to develop unity into a series of the

to substitute the coefficients" of that

A A A

and

all

3 .

have

in (7) to

the equations of condition

(2),

and. (4>
shall

for all values of

=To

sin

+ 3 sin
-

\x

-L--"" sin

+ -<T

9a

sin

-4-

tx 4-

n.

Hence our

" sin
3*

+ L e -&0t sin

get the answer of the numerical problem

is

no object

place tables will

first

in

of u

x between o and

compute the value

there

6) that

prove later (see Art.

TtL

the

2x -f

each multiplied by 100 for

We

to

sin

reduces to

a solution satisfying
'(3),

ayt

(7)

now it is possible
(8) we have only

series

(4).

being undetermined constants.

= o,

form

**

be

= A^-**' sin x-\-A,e-*

.A lt

when x

and

solution

_j_

is

we have only
seconds.

As

going beyond tenths of a degree, foursuffice, and no term of (g) beyond

more than

will affect the result.

Since sin

fi

compute the numerical value

of

i,

we have

to

PROBLEM

ZONAL HARMONICS.

IN

A OO

a1

where

e-"*
71

= 9.2672
= 0.6990

log a?
log

log a*t

log log

and

=
=
=
=

log 400

colog n
10

9.9662

an
log e

tf**

colog

10

log u

10

5.

2.6021

9.5059

10

9.5982

10

1.7062

5Q-8.

the breadth of the plate had been c centimeters instead

it is easy to see that we should have needed

If

of

10

= 9.6378
= 9.6040
= 0.4018^

log log e

= 0.185

15

centimeters

it

the development of unity

TIX

A.

sin

a series of the form

in

2.71X

A. sm

-4-

4- A, sin

iTtX

i. An iron slab 50 centimeters thick is heated to the tem100

perature
degrees Centigrade throughout. The faces are then sudcooled
to zero degrees, and are kept at that temperature for
denly
10 minutes.
Find the temperature of a point in the middle of the

Prob.

and of a point 10 centimeters from a face

slab,

Assume

time.

nx

x\

at the

end of that

that
i

sin

sin
c

'3

nx

Tfx
.1.5
sin *

'5
-

f-

\-

from x

o to

c.

Ans. 84.o; 49, 4.

ART.

As

Two

4.

->

PROBLEM IN ZONAL HARMONICS.

a second example let us consider the following problem

equal thin hemispherical shells of radius unity placed

together to form a spherical surface are separated by a thin

air.
charge of statical electricity is placed upon
one hemisphere and the other hemisphere is connected with
the ground, the first hemisphere is then found to be at poten-

layer of

tial i,

the other hemisphere being of course at potential zero.

" field of force" due to
potential is any point in the

At what

the charge?

We

shall use spherical coordinates

potential required.

Then

F"

must

and

shall let

Fbe

the

satisfy equation (5), Art.

i.

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

16

But since from the symmetry

independent

of 0,

of the

problem

is

obviously
to the

we take the diameter perpendicular

if

plane separating the two conductors as our polar axis,

zero,

tfV

and our equation reduces to

9r

30

sin

V\s given on the surface

of our sphere, hence

V = f(ff) when r=i,

where f(tf)

Equation
an

if

(2)

<B<

-,
2

and /(0)

=o

if

(2)

< <

n.

and the implied conditions that V is zero at

and is nowhere infinite are our conditions.

infinite distance

To
which
is

is

-^

generally effective.
a function of r but not of

not of

we

find particular solutions of (i)

is

r.

Assume*
0,

and

&

shall use a

is

Since the

jn

dr*

first

member

dOJ.

but

we get

Dx

ra*(rK) _

method
where/?

a function of

Substitute in (i) and reduce, and

V = RQ

that

(3)

dO

sin

of (3) does not contain

and the

second does not contain r and the two members are identically
Let us call this
equal, each must be equal to a constant.
constant, which

is

wholly undetermined, m(m-\-

i)

then

d&

and

whence

--j^

* See the

first

-f \}R

= o,

(4)

m(m -\- i)&

= o.

(5)

m(m

}-

foot-note on page 175.

*?

PROBLEM
Equation

IN

ZONAL HARMONICS.

can be expanded into

(4)

dR m(m + i)R =
+
2r-^r
r'-^-j
d*R

o,

and can be solved by elementary methods.

solution

Its

complete

is

R-Ar m + Br- m ~\
Equation

(5)

x where x

ent variable to

(6)

can be simplified by changing the independ-

cos

It

0.

becomes

an equation which has been much studied and which

is

known

as Legendre's Equation.

We
tive
(7)

shall restrict m, which is wholly undetermined, to posiwhole values, and we can then get particular solutions of

by the following device

can be expressed as a sum or a series of

Assume* that
terms involving whole powers of x multiplied by constant
coefficients.

Let

& = 2a nx H

2[n(n

and substitute

i)a n x"-*

n(n

-f-

i)an

We

in (7).

-\- m(m +

get
i)anx

n
~]

o,

(8)

where the symbol 2 indicates that we are to form all the

terms we can by taking successive whole numbers for n.
Since

(8)

coefficient of

vanish.
(k

must be true no matter what the value

any given power

of x, as for instance x*,

must

Hence

+ 2)(k + iX
a

If

of x, the

now any

+2

k(k

+ i)a + m(m + i}a =

m(m-\-

i)

k(k

o,

-f- i)

set of coefficients satisfying the relation

(9)

= ^a^ will be a solution of

taken,
If k = m, then a t+ = o,
a k+t = o,
,

* See the

first

(7).

etc.

foot-note on page-*75^

be

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

18

Since

will

it

if we
pick out the simplest
the
condition
obey
(9), we can take

answer our purpose

set of coefficients that will

a set including a m

Let us rewrite

form

(9) in the

m -.k)(m+kbeginning with k = m
(

We

-"

get from (10),

m(m

"~- =

m(m

2)(m

i}(m

even we

is

odd, with

3)

i)(2;//-3)

2.4.6. (2m

If
is

2)(m

(2m-

m(m

2,

i)

\}(m

2. 4.

"-

I)'

4)(m

3)(;

- 3)( 2/ -

i)(2/

5)

a "" G

5)

the set will end with a

see that

if

,.

2,(2ml)

m(m- i)(m-2)(mi)(m-2)(m-3)^ m _
2.4.(2;

3)

i)(2;

where m is entirely arbitrary, is, then, a solution

found convenient to take a m equal to

(2m

3) ...

\)(2m

~^TT
and

it

will

when x

than xm

We

It is

I
'

be shown later that with this value of a m

I.

a function of

is

of (7).

x and contains no higher powers

of

proceed to write out a few values of

Pm (x)

from the

formula

(M,

w(

Qfr* w!
i)(w

2 .4.(2;

3)

r._

L
2)0;/

(2m

3)

3)

>(>>>

2.

.*

i)(2m

Pm(x\

It is usual to write it as

...

i)

-.

PROBLEM IN ZONAL HARMONICS.

We

have:

*)

=x
= (3-^

x-v\)

if r *- 3
2\ 5-*

x)
x)

or /'.(cos 0)

or /^(cos 0)
or /^(cos 0)
i)
? f\ f\r
P (m<z H\
or
^sv 1 015 pj
3-*^

3Ox*

JQX*

6)

-f-

= Pm(cos
0) is

0,

x)

i),

i( C C0b
r* r>c H
c
1^5

cos

2 rr>c
3 cos

fi\
f7

;)

<

- 30 cos'0 + 3),

or
5

70 cos

+ 15 cos

0). J

as a particular solution of

(7),

as a particular solution of (5).

/^U'j or
function, known as a Legendre's Coefficient,

0)

new

= i(35

& = Pm (x)

have obtained

Pm (cos

I,

3) or

1(63 cos

/'.(cos 0)

We

=
= cos
= (3 cos

/'.(cos 0)

and

19

or as a Surface Zonal Harmonic, and occurs as a normal form

in

many important

is

problems.

m
os 0) is a particular solution of (i), and r
sometimes called a Solid Zonal Harmonic.
j7__

rm

pm

(C

V = A,P,(cos

Pm (cos 0)

+ AsPfros + A,r P,(cos

+ ^,r />,(cos60+...
2

0)

0)

6}

>

(13)

not infinite at any point within the sphere, and

satisfies (i), is

reduces to

V = AJ>.(cos 0) + ^(cos
when
r/

_yJ

/> (cos0)

equal to zero

then
(14),

0)

(14)

i.

satisfies (i), is

If

+ A P (cos
+ /> (cos0)+...
.4 3

A^cosff)
-75-

-7-

form

0)

A,P (cos0)
t

-p-

not infinite at any point without the sphere,

oo
r
and reduces to (14) when r
i.

when

we can develop f(ff)

we have only to put

A A A

is

[see eq. (2)] into a series of the

the coefficients of this series in

get the value of Ffor a

point within the sphere, and in (15) to get the value of Fat a
point without the sphere.
place of the

lt

... in (13) to

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

20

We
o

shall see later (Art. 16, Prob. 22}

<

<

and/(0)

Hence our required

S *>

>

solution

'

'

<

<

for

n,

r3/3' (G

an internal point

/(#)

is

'

-f
at

if

jD- (cos

'

V= + 3rP (c

-'-

o for

that

12

2-4

r />6 (cOS0)-.,

(17)

and

COS ^)
_|_ii..Lll
12 2.47- />(v

?t an external point.

T
L^r

If

/>

31.

-- 7O

:_

= 0,
_I

(17) reduces to

II
-- -TO
I

024

44
^

To two
is

- and

,,

^3

12

1.3
^
O
2.

>

4
I

^B

'

since
111 *-^
S

(I)
1
/

fKV

"

F= 0.68, and the point r = -, = o

decimal places

at potential 0.68.
If r

and

(18)

and Table

is

I,

at the

end of

this

chapter, give

and the point r

If

5,

at potential 0.12.

4
the radius of the conductor

have only to replace r by

in (17)

is

and

a instead of unity,
(18).

we

PROBLEM
Prob.

ameter

is

2.

One

kept

IN BESSEL'S FUNCTIONS.

;: 1

half the surface of a solid sphere 12 inches in di-

at the

temperature zero and the other half

at

100 de-

grees centigrade until there is no longer any change of temperature

at any point within the sphere.
Required the temperature of the

center; of any point in the diametral plane separating the hot and
cold hemispheres of points 2 inches from the center and in the
and of points 3 inches from the center in a diaxis of symmetry
;

ameter inclined at an angle of 45

Ans.
**

ART.

the axis of synimetry.

50; 50; 73-9

^

'*

MO

PROBLEM

5.

tp
*

T- v

26.!

77.!

22

-9.

~-

IN BESSEL'S FUNCTIONS.

As a last example we shall

The base and convex surface of

take the following problem

a cylinder 2 feet in diameter
and 2 feet high are kept at the temperature zero, and the upper
base at 100 degrees centigrade. Find the temperature of a
:

point in the axis one foot from the base, and of a point 6 inches
from the axis and one foot from the base, after the permanent
state of temperatures has been set up.

we use cylindrical coordinates and

we shall have to solve equation (6),

If

take the origin in the

Art. I
or, representu
and
that
from
the symthe
observing
temperature by
ing
u
is
independent of 0,
metry of the problem

base

du
=0
+ tfu
+ r^
^'

tfu

s7'

(I)

'

subject to the conditions

= o when z = o,
"
u = o
r =
"
U = IOO
2 = 2.
a function
Assume u = RZ where R
u

(2)

I,

is

z only; substitute in

We
The
second

get

(i)

d*R

dr

(3)

(4)

of r only

and

of

and reduce.

_f

dR

rR dr

d*Z

Z dz

first member of (5) does not contain z\ therefore

member cannot. The second member of (5) does

(5)

the
not

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

ZZ

contain r

member

therefore the

of (5)

is

member
we can

first

when

yu

write

(5)

L^-

l^?_i-_L^R~dS~^^R~dr~

Hence each

cannot.

a constant, and

***

~Z~d?~-

entirely undetermined.

is

Hence

^-^Z=o,
cTR

idR

(7)

^+7* + "* = a

and

Equation

and

(7) is easily solved,

Z = Ae** -\-Be~
Z = C cosh (us)
We can

reduce

(8) slightly

d*R
dx

i
,

by

dR

is

or the equivalent form

D sinh

letting

=
-4-^
n

(9)

(//).

/-<r

= x, and

it

becomes

x dx

'

general solution

its

**',

-f-

(8)

0.

(10)

Assume, as in Art. 4, that 7? can be expressed in terms of

whole powers of x. Let R = ~2a n x n and substitute in (10).

We

get
\]a n x

2[n(n

n ~

'

+ na x

n -

+ ajc*\ =

o,

an equation which must be true, no matter what the value of x.

The coefficient of any given power of x, as x k ~*, must, then,
vanish,

and
k(k

or

+ ka a
^X + A- =
i)ak

k -f-

at-* =

whence we obtain

k_

= o,

0,

^ at

(n)

as the only relation that need be satisfied by the coefficients in

order that
^a/^ shall be a solution of (10).

R=

If

We

o,

ak _

can, then, begin with k

= o,

= o as

ak _ t

= o,

etc.

the lowest subscript.

PROBLEM

From
Then

at

(I i)

IN BESSEL S FUNCTIONS.

=-

*.

5,

=-

;.,

Hence

.[,-

i+-

where a t may be taken

vided the series

Take a
'

is

J v\X J
is

-,-f^

at pleasure,

+ ...],

a solution of (10), pro-

is

convergent.

^ =J (x)

and then

I,

etc.

where

T2

/
\

-a

Os

.a

zrz

2.4O

2.4

-2

,,2

/;

'

2.4*0.0

12 \/

a solution of (10).

J (x)
a

is

easily

imaginary of x,

shown to be convergent for all values real or

a new and important form, and is called a

it is

Bessel's Function of the zero

order, or a Cylindrical Har-

monic.

Equation (10) was obtained from

of

a solution

is

JJLT

=J

(^r) sinh

=y

(i).

value of

(jur)

(8),

(fjiz)

sinh

=J

n (fA.r)

satisfies

(jjz)

In order that

/*.

it

/.(/<)
is, //

It

by the substitution

no matter what the value

and u

must be so taken that

that

(8)

of

therefore

must be a root

cosh

(//#)

condition

of

jn

(2)

whatever the

should satisfy condition

= o;

and

are solutions of

(3) JA

T,0*p

(13)

of the transcendental equation (13).

was shown by Fourier that

./(//)

= o has an

infinite

num-

ber of real positive roots, any one of which can be obtained to

any required degree of approximation without serious difficulty.

is

Let

//,,

/*, //,,...

= A,J (ns) sinh

9

a solution of (i)

be these roots

(pjs)

which

then

+ AJ.(^r) sinh (/i^)

+ AJ (^r) sinh (^2) +

satisfies (2)

and

(3).

(14)

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

24
If

now we can develop

unity into a series of the form

+ BJJwr) + ^./.(/V) +
sinh

u.s)

sinh

J5,

and the conditions

satisfies (i)

We

-/

9\

o''r~'' /

-'QV"'

u.

= dx

ov^-s- /

<>

I, /-/M\~M 7^y\^,, //'\T^

<

for values of r

(4).

if//*)

~l

>+-

and

(2), (3),

shall see later (Art. 21) that

.r-v

10^

i.

Hence
200l

'

'

-I-

ifi(^i) sinh

is

'" h ^'^
^
//..\_:.-i-/'^...\~t

^sJU|

/.(^ r) sinh
..

7"

..

(^fg)
_:_u /~ .. \

'

7x
7
)

A*/i(^t) sinh(;

(2/1,)

our required solution.

At

the point r

(17) reduces to

u.
sinh /*,
sn

200

= o, =

sinh yu
sn
u.2

IOO

^,/ (// t )
1

sinh

(2yw 2 )

./X/O cosh
since

^I-

-I

L/'./aOO sinh (2/^J

/ (o) =

and sinh (2*)

^7,00

cosh

2 sinh

cosh

^r

-\
'

;r.

If we use a table of Hyperbolic functions* and Tables II

and III, at the end of this chapter, the computation of the

value of u

is

easy.

We

have

= 2.405
= o-5 i?p
/,(/*.)

=
=
/,W yu a

/i,

= 9.6189
JM = 0.2848

colog
"

"

//,

cosh^,=

9.2530

10

9.1567

10

* See
Chapter IV, pp. 162,
tions.

10

5.520

0.3402

9.2581

"

7,W=

o. 4 68 3

"

cosh^ 4 =:

7.9037

10

7.63oi

10

colog

//,

163, for a four-place table

10

on hyperbolic func-

PROBLEM

IN BESSEL S FUNCTIONS.

/i(/0 cosh /O~'

~'

= 0.1434
= - 0-0058
=

0.1376;

At

the point r

/',/,

I,

(17),

i3

reduces to

cosh

/*,/,(/0 cosh;*,

/i,

0.6698
- 10

,(/!,)

cosh

//,

= 9.

- 10

567

10;

8.9826

= - 0-1678
log / (tM =
9.2248W
7.6301;*
colog /*j/,(/0 cosh/7, =
/.(*/,)

cosh

cosh
If

= 0.0961
//,

//

by

0.0007
-9 6 8

the radius of the cylinder

only to replace

10
10;

6.8549

,)

10

j*a in (13)

is
;

= 9-7

'

a and the altitude

2/1,

nators of (15) and (17) by pj, pj),

the denominators of (16) and (17) by
.

2//,,

b,

we have

... in the denomi-

and

//,,

/*,#, //.,#, // s

//.,,

^u s

in

....

One

base and the convex surface of a cylinder 20 cenand 30 centimeters high are kept at zero tembase at 100 degrees Centigrade.
and
the
other
Find the
perature
temperature of a point in the axis and 20 centimeters from the cold
base, and of a point 5 centimeters from the axis and 20 centimeters
Prob.

3.

timeters in diameter

from the cold base

after the temperatures

have ceased to change.

Ans.

3. 9; 9.6.

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

26

ART.

As we have

THE

6.

seen in Art.

SINE SERIES.

3, it is

sometimes important to be

able to express a given function of a variable, x, in terms of sines

of multiples of x.
The problem in its general form was first

by Fourier

(1822),

and

of

its

"

Theorie Analytique de la Chaleur"

solution plays an important part in most branches

solved

in his

Mathematical Physics.

Let us endeavor to so develop a given function of x,f(x\

sin x, sin 2.x, sin $x, etc., that the function and the
series shall be equal for all values of x between o and n.
in

terms of

We

can of course determine the coefficients a

a t a3

t ,

an

so that the equation

f(x)

tf,

sin

-f- tf 2

sin

2x

-f-

a 3 sin $x -}-...

-f-

a n sin nx

(i)

any n arbitrarily chosen values of x between

good
O and n\ for we have only to substitute those values in turn
in (i) to get n equations of the first degree, in which the n coshall hold

for

only unknown quantities.

efficients are the

For instance, we can take the n equidistant values Ax,

^Ax,
(i).

nAx, where

We

f[Ax) =

Ax

71

-\-

and substitute them

sin

Ax -f-

a^ sin 2

Ax -\- a

= #, sin

2Ax

-f-

#a

sin

^Ax -(-

sin 3

Ax -j-

sin

6 Ax

= #, sin

n Ax

n equations of the
a*> af
&*
<*,-

-f-

first

a, sin

2nAx

sin

Ax

in

-f-

-{-

nAx,

a 3 sin 6 Ax

a n sin 2,nAx,

-f-

+a
J\nAx}

sin 3

an

-f-

f[$Ax)

get

-f-

j\2.Ax)

for

sin <^Ax

4-

\ (2)

n sin 3;? Ax,

-j-

#3

sin

-f-

an

sin n*Ax,

degree, to determine the n coefficients

Not only can equations (2) be solved in theory, but they

can be actually solved in any given case by a very simple and.

THE SINE

SERIES.

27

ingenious method due to Lagrange,* and any coefficient a m can

be expressed in the form

-^ AfA*) sin (K*nA*\

K=

If

now n

is

(3)

indefinitely increased the values of

for

which

(i) holds good will come nearer and nearer to forming a continuous set
and the limiting value approached by a m will
probably be the corresponding coefficient in the series required
;

to represent /(.z) for

Remembering
question

is

all

that

x between

values of

+ \)Ax = n,

zero and n.

the

limiting value

in

easily seen to be
IT

am

=-

sin

Cf(x)

mxdx.

(4)

7Tt/

This value can be obtained from equations (2) by the

lowing device without first solving the equations

fol-

Let us multiply each equation in (2) by the product of Ax

and the coefficient of a m in the equation in question, add the
equations, and find the limiting form of the resulting equation
as n increases indefinitely.

The
sin

coefficient of

KAx

sin

any

a,

aK

in

the resulting equation

mAx Ax -\- sin

2,KAx

sin

2,mAx

-f- sin

nKAx

sin

nmAx

Its limiting value, since (n-\-

\)Ax

TC,

Ax

-}-

is

Ax.

is

ir

/ sin

KX

sin

mx.dx\

but
w

w
I

if

sin

KX sin mx dx = \
.

[cos

(m

K)X

cos(m -}- K)x~\dxQ

and K are not equal.

* See

Riemann's

Partielle

Differcntialgleichungen, or

Series and Spherical Harmonic?.

Byerly's

Fourier's

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

28

The

am

coefficient of
2

//;tr(sin

is

mAx -\-s\rf 2m Ax -j- sin ynAx -f2

Its limiting

value

-f-

sin

nmAx\

is
IT
.

sm

w;r

71

.x =

The

first

member

is

2mAx Ax -fmnAx Ax,

/( J^r) sin 7z/;r J^r -\-f(2.Ax) sin

-j-/(^-^) sin

and

its

limiting value

as n

is

mx

dx.

limiting form approached

increased

is

/ f(x) sin

Hence the

by the

final

equation

is
r

/ J\x] sin

mx dx =

am

2 /'
= -J
f(*} sin

Whence

<&

(5)

7T

as before.

This method

is

practically the

same

as multiplying the

equation
f(x)

by

sin

= #,

mx dx
.

sin

x -j- a

sin 2^r -f-

sin

$x

-}-

(6)

and integrating both members from zero to

ft.

important to realize that the considerations given in

this article are in no sense a demonstration, but merely estabIt is

lish a probability.

elaborate investigation * into the validity of the development, for which we have not space, entirely confirms the results
n the
o and x
formulated above, provided that between x

An

* See Art. to for a discussion of

this question.

THE SINE
function

SERIES.

Z'J

and single-valued, and has not an

maxima or minima.

is finite

infinite

num-

ber of discontinuities or of

by y = f(x)
same mathematical law throughout its
length, but may be made up of portions of entirely different
For example, a broken line or a locus consisting of
curves.
finite parts of several different and disconnected straight lines
It

to be noted that the curve represented

is

need not follow the

can be represented perfectly well by y

As an example

a.

sine series.

of the application of formula (5) let us take

the development of unity.

Here

f(x)

am

I.

mx dx

/ sin

7t i/

/I
/

si
sin

-cos

mx dx =
.

mx

sin

mx.dx

for

if

if

4 /sin x

It is to

be noticed that

any constant
c

Prob.

4.

It

c.

Show

_=

m [i

\x

sin

sin

^ 11

Jx

+-J-.

+ ...).
.

sin

sin

3*

sn zx

s^ n

(7)

gives at once a sine development

is,

5*

"/'

sn

x between

zero and

sn

30:

""x "~3^ ~~ ~~

T8

iY*l

odd.

that for values of

fL\ //

m is

(7)

even

is

sin

= 4c(s\nx
n

^x
+ _J- + _J-

Hence

i(

cos mrr]

(i

s'n S

s ' n 7-^

j^

it

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

"30

if

= x for o < x <

/(x)

if

Fsin

2 sin

(d} sinh

< x <

for

n.

sin T.X

--

zx

sin

and /(x)

2 sin

6x

<

o for

a:

nx

sin

<

TT.

jc

nh 7t
2 sinh

Pi

[_ 2

sin

--2 sin

2X -\r
i

sin T.X

--4

io

sin

AX

-+-

17

x"

(e)

2x

<x<

for o

/(.#)

to /(*)
2

and f(x)

\
2f/zr---4
-,

7rL\i

sin

T?
--

ART.

---4

In*

2x

sin

-\-\

\3

THE COSINE

7.

sin -ix

n*
--

4x4-

SERIES.

Let us now try to develop a given function

of cosines, using the

sin

3 /

method suggested by the

of

in a series

last article.

Assume
f(x)

=b

-J-

b cos
l

-\-b^ cos 2.x -j-

/^

cos 3^

To

determine any coefficient ^ m multiply

and integrate each term from o to TT.

cos

mx .x =

(i)

-f-

( i )

by cos

mx .dx

o.

IT

/ bk cos

kx cos w^r dx=.Q,

.

/7T

if

if

and

y^

are not equal.

7T

^=

b m cos" w^r

bm

is

not zero.
.

7T

Hence
jf

is

not zero.

/'

f(x) cos

mx .dx,

(2)

THE COSINE

To

get b multiply (i) by

31

SERIES.

dx and

integrate from zero to n.

= bjt,

Jb.dx
IT

= o.

kx dx

/ b k cos

Hence
which
if

is

(3)

J*f(x}dx,

would be given by formula

just half the value that

(2)

zero were substituted for m.

To

save a separate formula

f(x)

b,

cos

and then the formula

x+

(2) will

usually written

(i) is

cos 2x

cos 3*

(4)

.,

give b n as well as the other coef-

ficients.

Prob.

5.

Show

that for values of

x between o and n

4 /cos*

cos 3*

cos 5*

-2~n\~^~

~7~

~7~

"J

_TT

8 /COS 2*

7t

COS

COS 10

6.X
,

\
-

-j,

if

/(^c)

=*

for o

<x <

for o

<

and f(x)

TT

and f(x)

o for

<

x for

A,

TT;

W
if

/(*)

(</)

sinh

= -21

x <

2
I

(cosh

it

-- (cosh n

TT V

-(cosh

7f

i)

7T|_ 2

-|

<x <

i)

cos

2^:

-- (cosh n

COS 2X

COS t*

-j-

-j- i)

i)

COS

cos

cos

30:

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

32

ART.

FOURIER'S SERIES.

8.

Since a sine series

is

an odd function of

odd function

in

of an

of

the development

such a series must hold good from

o, where
except perhaps for the value x
is
it is easily seen that the series
necessarily zero, no matter
what the value of the function. In like manner we see that

if

it

f(x)

series

to

TT,

valid from

function of

Any

an even function of

is

must be

its

development

to

x can be developed

in a cosine

n.

into a Trigonometric

it is equal for all values of x between

n and n.
of
x.
It
be
the
function
can
be
given
Let/(;r)
expressed
as the sum of an even function of x and an odd function of x

series to

which

by the following device

A*)

*)

identically

the sign of

we

x and

~'-/ ^

'

but

Therefore for
f(x\;
yv

-4'

x)'

/[

its

x\
f(
--

-(-

bm

ff

where

x\

-l-^L

and

-f-

_^
ft _

- is affected
is

it

and n

cos 2x -|-

*)
* cos w^r

'-

=a
=

2
7t

sin

^ + ^,

/y[;r)
:iA -

//

sin

/(
2

2x

^r)-

cos 3*

;
dx

only to the

consequently an odd

x between

cos

1>,

7T t/

and

when

x\

f(

yv ' +A
rA*)

where

not changed by reversing

values of

is

sign reversed,

all

=-

therefore an even function of x\ and

is

reverse the sign of x,

extent of having
function of x.

--

-A-*)

-f-

-f-

^ 3 sin ^x

sin

mx

dx.

-f-

FOURIER'S SERIES.
bm and am can be simplified a

33

little.

2 //(*)
+ /(-*)-cos mx. d^
yv '^
= --/
^
2

71

o
It

IT

mx

cos

jf(*)
o

but

if

we

cos

dx+Jf(x)

mx

replace

x by

we

x,

dx\;
-1

get

it

#) cos nix

J /(

dx=J

mx.dx =

f(x) cos

J f(x)cos mx.dx,
-IT

and we have

^w

/(*) cos w^r dx.

In the same

way we can reduce

the value of am to

ir

/ f(x^

sin

mx

dx.

71 t/

it

Hence
f(x)

=-6
M

l>

-\-

-|- #,

cos

sin

JT -}"

bt cos

-}-

2.x -f-

<^

sin 2^r -|-

cos 3* -(-...
sin 3^r -}-...,

(2)

JT

where

#,

/ f(x) cos wjr

^,

(3)

dx,

(4)

n
n

and

am

I f(x }

sm mx

7T t/

it

and

this

and

TI.

The second member

The developments
development
Prob.
f*

for all values of

development holds

6.

is

of Arts.

known

as a Fourier's Series.

6 and 7 are

special cases of

in Fourier's Series.

Show

2 sinh TrFi
7T

of (2)

x between

[_2

that for
i

all

COS* H

values of
i

'5

x from

10

COS2X

to

COS $X-\

COS4.X-H...
17

~|

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

54
2 sinh 7t
|~i

7i

Prob.
f(x)

sin

where

-j-

COS (x

(a^

Show

=-c,
2

sin

10

/?j)

and

,")

3^

AX

sin

sin ft.

+f

+
+

^a

COS (2^

fi^)

^3

COS (3*

/?,) -j-

= tan"

fi m

(a m

cm

ART.

-r^-

can be written

8,

+ A) + ^ n 2;c + A)
+ ^ sin (3* + +
b
and p w = tan"

sin (^

+ bm

. . ,

si

/?,)

where

17

that formula (2), Art.

f(x)

-4-

that formula (2), Art. 8, can be written

COS/?

cm

8.

2X

Show

-f

sin

L_2

7.

Prob.

. .

)*

EXTENSION OF FOURIER'S SERIES.

9.

is

In developing a function of x into a Trigonometric Series it

often inconvenient to be held within the narrow boundaries

rt

and x

n.

Let us see

if

we cannot widen them.

be required to develop a function of x into a

Let
Trigonometric Series which shall be equal to f(x] for all values
it

of

x between x

and x

c.

Introduce a new variable

which

is

f(x)
(2), (3),

= /(
and

*
2

We

^^
-f- tf t

where

c,

z\ can be developed

(4).

=
/(.*"*)

n when x

equal to

bm

and to n when x

in

c.

terms of z by Art.

8,

have
C S * ~^
sin ^

=
71

-(- a,

U//(

71

C S

2Z

sin 2

*}I cos

+
-J-

*#

cos 3*

sin

afe,

3.2 -j-

. ,

(i)

(2)

EXTENSION OF FOURIER'S

am

and

SERIES,

Jf\z\ sin mz

dz

(3)

IT

and

(i)

Replace z by

(i)

becomes

c-

C>

2,nx

sin
6-

and

x and

,cos

nx

(2)

n.

nx

= -. +

and

to z

value in terms of

its

/(*)

holds good from z

(3)

tf

sin

^nx

-+...;

(4)

can be transformed into

c

bm

am

/*

./v

WIT-*"

f(x) cos

r f(x)
ft \

sin

(5)

^-dx,

mnx j

^dx

(6)

and

(4)

holds good from

c to

c.

In the formulas just obtained c may have as great a value

as we please so that we can obtain a Trigonometric Series for

f(x] that will be equal to the given function through as great

an interval as we
It

choose to take.

may

can be shown that

nitely the series will

00

integral

--

if

this interval c

approach as

its

is

increased indefi-

limiting form the double

00

/ f(\)d\

cos a(h

x}da, which

is

known

as a

oo

Fourier's Integral.

So that
+
00

f(x)

ao

= -W" /(A>A f cos

a(\

- x}da

(7)

-09

for all values of x.

For the treatment of Fourier's Integral and for examples

use in Mathematical Physics the student is referred to
Riemann's Partielle Differentialgleichungen, to Schlomilch's
Hohere Analysis, and to Byerly's Fourier's Series and

of

its

Spherical Harmonics.

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

36
Prob.
xt

f(x)

Show

9.

that formula

-c

cos

/?

( 7tX

(-

cos

c,

can be written

(4), Art. 9,
o \

Pi)

--

l27tX

f*

cos
(

fl*j

-A
where

c....

sin ^o

where

^,

\-

(<",,.,"

Show

Prob. 10.

/(*)

and

ft m

aw

^i

sin

10.

tan" 1

~,
b
m

that formula (4), Art.

ART.

bm

+...,

(-^

+ A,J +

**

and

9,

c,

can be written

sin f^

DIRICHLET'S CONDITIONS.

In determining the coefficients of the Fourier's Series representing f(x) we have virtually assumed, first, that a series of
the required form and equal to f(x] exists; and second, that

uniformly convergent ; and consequently we must regard

the results obtained as only provisionally established.
it is

It

finite

is,

however, possible to prove rigorously that if f(x) is

n \.Q x =. n and has not

and single-valued from x

number
minima between x
an

infinite

for all

n and x

rr
y

maxima

the Fourier's Series of

and

TT;

to the discontinuities of f(x\ and the values

and that

if

c is a

value of

x corresponding
when x =

.discontinuity of f(x), the value of the series

and

)];

or

8,

x corresponding
it

and that Fourier's Series only, is equal to f(x}

n and TT, excepting the values of
values of x between

Art.

(2),

of (finite) discontinuities, or of

Tt

the value of the series

is

that

when

^[/(TT) -}-/(

to a
c is

n or

TT)].

and may be
This proof was first given by
in readable form in Riemann's Partielle DifferentialDirichlet in 1829,

found

gleichungen and

in Picard's

Traite d'Analyse, Vol.

I.

3?

DIRICHLET'S CONDITIONS.

A good

deal of light

thrown on the peculiarities

is

of trigo-

nometric series by the attempt to construct approximately the

curves corresponding to them.
If

a t sin 2x and add the

x and y

a sin

we construct y

ordinates of the points having the same abscissas,

tain points on the curve

y
If

now we

those of

as

at

sin 2.x

a, sin

sin

continuing this process

x+ a

a sin

construct

y
By

a, sin

+ *, sin

at

we

2x

sin

shall ob-

sin 2x.

3* and add the ordinates to

we

sin

we

shall get the curve

2x

+a

sin 3^.

get successive approximations to

+ a, sin

3*

+ a,

sin

4*

...

O/S

II

38

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

tion to this curve.

In each figure the curve

the series,

and the approximations in question are drawn in continuous

lines, and the preceding approximation and the curve corresponding to the term to be added are drawn in dotted lines.
Prob. 11. Construct successive

approximations to the series

given in the examples at the end of Art. 6.
Prob. 1 2. Construct successive approximations to the Maclaurin's
Series for sinh x,

ART.
(a)

11.

namely x

x*
-\

-\

j-

APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRIC SERIES.,

Three edges of a rectangular plate of tinfoil are kept

and the fourth at potential I. At what po-

at potential zero,

tential

is

any point

Here we have

in

the plate

to

solve

which, since the problem

is

Laplace's

(3),

Art.

I,

two-dimensional, reduces to

V= o
V= o
V= o
V=

subject to the conditions

Equation

when x
"
x
"

"

j'

= o,
= a,
= o,
=

(2)
(3)
(4)

3.

(5)

Working as in Art. 3, we readily get sinh fiy sin /ir,

sinh /?/ cos fix, cosh /ty sin fix, and cosh /?j cos fix as particular values of

V=

sinh

V satisfying
mny-

i_

sinh

V=

(i).

tmtx-

sin -

r
,
\
,
\
,
\
satisfies (i), (2), (3),

ny

and

(4).

^y

s i n h-i-^

^sin^+l-

the required solution, for

(7), Art. 6.

is

it

reduces to

*,=i+...

when y

(6)

b.

See

APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRIC SERIES.

39

harp-string is initially distorted into a given plane

curve and then released find its motion.
(b]

The

differential equation for the small transverse vibrations

of a stretched elastic string

is

9>as stated in Art.

fl
*

'

.9^
*

'

Our conditions

i.

if

we take one end

of

the string as origin are

y
y
3J
-a/

y
Using the method

=
=

o when x
"
o
x

=
= fx

of Art. 3,

we

= o,
=

(2)

/,

=
-

3)

(4)

>

o.

(5)

easily get as particular solutions

of (I)

y
y

=
=

sm

mnx

mnat

cos

and

/?/,

is

am

cos

WTT^r

f(x) sin

our required solution

Art.

mnx
j

for

it

sin fix cos afit,

cos

/?.*

cos a fit.

satisfies

-.

a m sm

where

y =
y =

sin fix sin afit,

cos fix sin

and

(4).

mrcat
;

/A\
V>

/_\

,
.

(i), (2), (3),

reduces to/(^)

when/ = o. See

9.

Prob. 13. Three edges of a square sheet of tinfoil are kept at

at what potential
potential zero, and the fourth at potential unity
is the centre of the sheet ?
Ans. 0.25.
;

Two opposite edges of a square sheet of tinfoil are

at
potential zero, and the other two at potential unity
what potential is the centre of the sheet ? Ans. 0.5.
Prob. 14.

kept

at

Prob. 15.

Two

adjacent edges of a square sheet of tinfoil are

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

40
kept

at potential zero,

what potential

is

and the other two

the centre of the sheet

Show

Prob. 16.
harp-string

is

that

if

At

at potential unity.

Ans.

0.5.

a point whose distance from the end of a

-th the length of the string

is

player's finger to a distance b

from

drawn aside by the

position of equilibrium and

at any instant is given

its

then released, the form of the vibrating string

by the equation

y
J
Show from

r~i>
r~i
^- \m
\\n
'
m=l

~~tt sin

7
^

(n

this that all the

sin

mnat
cos

~r

'

'

harmonics of the fundamental note of

the string which correspond to forms of vibration having nodes at

the point drawn aside by the finger will be wanting in the complex
note actually sounded.

An

iron slab 10 centimeters thick is placed between and

two other iron slabs each 10 centimeters thick. The
temperature of the middle slab is at first 100 degrees Centigrade
The outer
throughout, and of the outside slabs zero throughout.
faces of the outside slabs are kept at the temperature zero.
Rethe
of
a
in
of
the
middle
the
middle
slab
quired
temperature
point
fifteen minutes after the slabs have been placed in contact.
Given a 3 = 0.185 i n C.G.S. units. Ans. io-3.

Prob. 17.*

in contact with

Prob. 18.* Two iron slabs each 20 centimeters thick, one of which
at the temperature zero and the other at 100 degrees Centigrade
throughout, are placed together face to face, and their outer faces

is

are kept at the temperature zero.

Find the temperature of a point
common face and of points 10 centimeters from the com-

in their

mon

face fifteen minutes after the slabs have been put together.

Ans. 22.8

ART.
In Art.

12. f

15. i

i7.2.

PROPERTIES OF ZONAL HARMONICS.

= Pm (x) was obtained

as a particular solution of
Art.
Legendre's Equation [(7),
4] by the device of assuming
that z could be expressed as a sum or a series of terms of
4,

Ihe form a n x* and then determining the

* See Art.
f

coefficients.

3.

The student should review

Art. 4 before beginning this article.

We

PROPERTIES OF ZONAL HARMONICS.

41

can, however, obtain a particular solution of Legendre's equation by an entirely different method.

The

potential function for any point (x, y, z) due to a unit

of mass concentrated at a given point (x^y^ ,) is
=
'

and

this

(3),

Art.

If

must be a particular solution of Laplace's Equation

verified by direct substitution.
i], as is easily

we transform

coordinates

(i) to spherical

yr

2rr [cos

cos

get

_ (00,)]

V= -

we

sin O cos

0, -j- sin

= (2)
2
-f- r,

as a solution of Laplace's Equation in Spherical Coordinates

[(5),

Art.

i].

the given point (x^y^ #,) is taken on the axis of X, as it

must be in order that (2) may be independent of 0, 0,
o, and
If

J7

__^_

Vr*

2rr, cos

equation (i), Art.

Equation (3) can be written

is a solution of

^3)

-{- r,

4.

(4)

and

r \-*

(12 r cos
/

if

is

less

than r

-f-

can be developed

'"i

'"i

^ra

into a convergent

pm being

power

series.

of course a function of

Let
0.

5"/> OT

Then

be this series,
rm

F=

^pm
i

solution of

(i),

Art.

is

4.

in the equation, and remembe

that
result
must
the
identically true, we get after a
bering

Substituting this value of

slight reduction

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

42

we have

but, as

2xz-\-z*)~*

(i

equation.
(!

x = cos
Hence we

seen, the substitution of

to Legendre's equation
coefficient of the mth
i^

[(7),

Art.

4].

of

power

a function of

_ 2** + *")-* =

[I

in

the

reduces

this-

infer that

the

development of

that will satisfy Legendre's

-Z(2X -*)]-*,

and can be developed by the Binomial Theorem the coefficient

m
of z is easily picked out, and proves to be precisely the func;

x which in Art. 4 we have represented by

have called a Surface Zonal Harmonic.
tion of

We
if

but

i,

(5)

2,3r

(i

is

Any

+ *')'* =

(i

(n

which

is

than

=
^(0 =
*)"'

Surface Zonal Harmonic

of next lower orders

value of

less

!)/>,

+ ,(*)

is

i-

(6)

may be

obtained from the

by the aid of the formula

and

is

,,.

,(^)

= o,

7>

convenient when the numerical

given.

Differentiate (5) with respect to

(I

i+<s + ^ + <s

- (2 + i)^^) + w/

easily obtained,

I.

reduces to

hence

two

and

have, then,

the absolute value of z

If

Pm (x\

z,

and we get

whence

or by
(i

(5)

- 2Mt +

**)(/>,(*)

+ 2^ () .*+ S/'.W
+ P X}.z + P^.^+
f

*'

'

->

.-0=0.

(8)

PROBLEMS IN ZONAL HARMONICS.

Now
power

identically true, hence the coefficient of each

Picking out the coefficient of z and

is

(8)

of z

43

11

must vanish.

writing it equal to zero, we have formula (7) above.

By the aid of (7) a table of Zonal Harmonics is easily com-

P (x) =

puted since we have

for

cos

ART.

is

given at the

i,

and P^x)

end of

Such a

x.

table

this chapter.

PROBLEMS IN ZONAL HARMONICS.

13.

so
In any problem on Potential if Fis independent of
that we can use the form of Laplace's Equation employed in
Art. 4, and

if

the value of

can be expressed as

2a m rm

Fon

the axis of

or as

^>

-^qij,

is

known, and

we can

write out

our required solution as

jf

F=2am rmPm (cos0)

each of
or since Pm(i) =

.satisfies

^" >/?" >

r

^
;

and as we have seen

the reduced form of Laplace's Equation.

As an example,
<of

these forms reduces to the proper

in Art. 4 each of them

value on the axis

V=

or

electricity placed

and

us suppose a statical charge of

units
on a conductor in the form of a thin circu-

let

be required to find the value of the Poten"

Function at any point in the " field of force due to the

lar disk,
tial

let it

charge.

The
from

its

surface density at a point of the plate at a distance r

centre is
(T

Vd'

and

all

-S

points of the conductor are at potential

Newtonian Potential Function

The

See Pierce's

61).

value of the potential function at a point

ot the plate at the distance

x from

in

the axis

the plate can be obtained

without difficulty by a simple integration, and proves to be

M cos2a

x*

-- a

a"
.

(i)

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

44

The second member

of (i)

easily developed into a

is

power

series.

M cos

x*

MVn

x*

- a*

2a

'

-j-

x*

x'

"I

lfjr

>*

Hence

y = Mr* _
#

l_2

^/> (cos

+ 3-

0)

...

is

our required solution

,
F7 = M\~a -

a*

-Pn

_.

-[-

if

<#

and #
i

(cos 60

<

-, as

is

+ - -- P (cos
,

0)

(5)

The

and

series in (4)

(5)

are convergent, since they

may be

obtained from the convergent series (2) and (3) by multiplying

the terms by a set of quantities no one of which exceeds one
in absolute value.
For it will be shown in the next article that

Pm (cos

i.
always lies between i and
Prob. 19. Find the value of the Potential Function due to the

6)

attraction of a material circular ring of small cross-section.

The value on
integration,

is

At any point

ring.

V=
and

and

the axis of the ring can be obtained by a simple

if

y [/> (cos
>

if

-|-

in space, if r

0)

-I

is

<

the mass and c the radius of the

c

ADDITIONAL FORMS.

= *L\-p
Lf

CO S 0)

(a)

- - -(COS 0) + Il C
2 r
2 4 r
.

ART.

in

We have

ADDITIONAL FORMS.

14.

seen in Art. 12 that

the development of

45

2X2

2*

Pm (x)

is

the coefficient of

2xz-\- z*}~^ in a

(i

***''

power

series.

^-i

'

If we develop (l
#**')-* and (i
#*-*)-* by the Binomial Theorem their product will give a development for
2xz -j- z*} - *. The coefficient of zm is easily picked out
( i

and reduced, and we get

/>(cos

0)

1.3.5... ( 2m
2. 4. 6. ..a
i

If

is

3.^-1)
l)(2W

2 .(2W

3)

odd the parenthesis in(i) ends with the term con-

if
is even, with the term
containing cos o, but
the latter case the term in question will not be multiplied by
the factor 2, which is common to all the other terms.

taining cos

in

Since
positive,

all

the coefficients in the second

Pm (cos

0)

has

its

maximum

value then has already been

Obviously, then,
(b)

If

times

lound to

we
in

its

minimum

shown

member

when

of (i) are

= o,

and

its

Art. 12 to be unity.

in

value cannot be less than

integrate the value of

i.

m (x) given in (11), Art. 4,

succession with respect to x, the result will be

differ

from

-^,

volving lower powers of

/>

1.3.5.. '(2m
Ti

(2iri)

Hence

value

x than

= JL

i),
(

x,

l)

by terms m-

the mih.

,).

(2)

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

46

for

Pm (x),

- (-

0" Q"

Other forms

(c)

which we give without demon-

stration, are

.A

nj
o

COS

'

and

(4)

and

(5)

/x

can be verified without difficulty by expanding

integrating.

ART.

DEVELOPMENT

15.

Whenever,

IN

as in Art. 4,

TERMS OF ZONAL HARMONICS.

we have

the value of the Potential

Function given on the surface of a sphere, and this value depends only on the distance from the extremity of a diameter,

becomes necessary to develop a function

it

of 6 into a series

of the form

A P (cos
n

or,

a\
u

+ A/

ff)
/

, (cos
1>

what amounts to the same

0)/

+ A,PJcos +
(f)
/

*\

thing, to develop a function of

into a series of the form

The problem

is

entirely analogous to that of

in sine-series treated at length in Art. 6,

development
and may be solved by

the same method.

Assume
for

to

f(x)

<x<
i.

We

= A.PJx) + Afl*) + A

i.

Multiply

(i)

by

Pn (x)dx

get

Pfc)

(i)

and integrate from

FORMULAS FOR DEVELOPMENT.

We

show

shall

in the

next

47

article that

Pm (x)Pn (x}dx

unless

o,

m = n,

and that
-1

Am =

Hence

?}}1

/>

^~ J f(x}Pm (x}dx.

(3)

It

important to notice here; as

is

we have used

Am

mining

A*)

Am

obtaining

in Art. 6, that

amounts

the

method

essentially to deter-

so that the equation

in

A.P.(x)

+ ASM

+ ASM + ASM +

shall hold

of

x between

and

is

indefinitely in-

i,

good for n -f- I equidistant values

and taking its limiting value as n

creased.

ART.

We

FORMULAS FOR DEVELOPMENT.

16.

have seen

in Art.

Legendre's Equation

-j-\

ctx L-

4 that z

(i

= Pm (x]

dx _J -f-

m(m

is

-f-

a solution of

1)3

o.

m (x\~\
=
~* dP
~ir J + w w + o^w o,
(

9)

and

(l

Multiply

(2)

and integrate.

(i)

(2)

-^-

by

Pn (x)

We

have

[(+

i)

and

n(n

(3)

by

Pm (x), subtract, transpose.

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

48

by integration by

parts,

o.

fpm (x)P(x)dx =

Hence

O,

(6)

-i

unless

m=

y*

we

integrate from
get an important formula.
If in (4)

we

to

case, since

i)

P (x)

n(n-\-

-,

-*

(7)
v/
'

i)

m(m -f-

m=

I,

i.

-unless

to

'

m(m-\-

and as a special

ny

ny

(x]P (r}dx =

instead of from

(8)

i)

o.
i

To

get

flPJ^xftdx

is

not particularly

By

difficult.

(2),

-i

Art. 14,

By

successive integrations

Jm - K
-T-

^(x

i)

m contains
(x?

by

parts, noting that

K

i)

as a factor

if

<

m, and

FORMULAS FOR DEVELOPiMENT.

^"'"(jtT

that

\\'

= (2m}\

-5

m
\}

m+

dx

40

we get

j\x

\y(x

'

Hence

f\PJ(xNdx
J
/

'

l_

^ ^2

(u)

__[_

is

-1
1

Prob.

20.

Show

ml
J)

Pm (x}dx = o

that /

-~r~

m(m+

i)

;.

2.4.6

is

an even function of

Prob. 22.
)

Show

from

Prob. 23.

.r

Show

that

o to

if

(mi)

-T

that /7(0)

if

--L~~-

is

not zero

is

odd.

2m

Note that

-i- i

x.

= 2 S^^cos

0)

f(x)

even and

...

y iPJMr^f =
jc"

if

o from

to

i,

>=o

B] S

where

m0d0.

= o,

and

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

.30

Show

Prob. 24.
esc

0=

that

-^fi
2

(cos 60
sfi)'/',
\2 /

+ 9 (^)X(ccs

See

H)

\2 4'

.1.

(i), Art. 14.

i,

Show

Prob. 25.

that

+ (.. -

,)("

TSTote that

method

Pm (x)dx =

mm

xn

dx,

dx m

and use the

-i

of integration

Show

Prob. 26.

and

if

by parts

freely.

Fis the value of the Potential Function

of force, not imbedded in attracting or repel= /(0) when r = a,

that

at any point in a field

ling matter;

/x

/
-i

+ -)("-)
/>._(,) +
2.4

if

V=2Am~Pm (cos6}ifr<a
Ur

V=

and

where

^4

m+1
2^ m a - Pm (cos
l

I
t/

Prob. 27.

Show

that

= c when r = a
ART.

17.

0)i(r>

f(6)Pm (cos

a,

0) sin

0^.

and r

if

= rur<a,

FORMULAS

IN-

ca

.,

if

>

ZONAL HARMONICS.

following formulas which we give without demonstration may be found useful for reference

The

__,

SPHERICAL HARMONICS.

ART.

51

SPHERICAL HARMONICS.

18.

In problems in Potential where the value of V is given on the

surface of a sphere, but is not independent of the angle 0. we
have to solve Laplace's Equation in the form (5), Art. I, and
a treatment analogous

by

to that given in Art. 4

can be

it

proved that

V=

cos nd) sin"

r'"

where

//

The

cos

0,

(i

d*Pm(u)
and
dv n

factors multiplied

Zonal Harmonics play

is

in
n

0)

known

= A Pm (p) + 2

<//<"

r" in

(5),

Art.

these values are

and

i.

known

0,

as

and they

unsymmetrical problems that the

those independent of 0.
l

m=i

(A n cos

n<fy

+B

sin

0)sin"

d*-?4
/<"

Harmonic

as a Surface Spherical

V=

0) and

satisfy Laplace's Equation, (5), Art.

The

sin n<h sin" 6

are functions of

in

F=r'"Fm (,u,

and

by

They

play nearly the same part

d'TJi-n
r'"

are particular solutions of

Tesseral Harmonics.

F ,O,

V=

of the

-^ Ym

(,.<,

wth degree,

0)

I.

Tesseral and the Zonal Harmonics are special cases of

the Spherical Harmonic, as is also a form Pm (cos y] known as

a Laplace's Coefficient or a Laplacian
y standing for the angle
between r and the radius vector r of some fixed point.
;

For the properties and uses of Spherical Harmonics we

refer the student to more extended treatises, namely, to
Ferrer's Spherical Harmonics, to Heine's Kugelfunctionen, or
to Byerly's Fourier's Series

ART. 19.*

We

have seen

and Spherical Harmonics.

BESSEL'S FUNCTIONS.
in Art. 5 that

PROPERTIES.

z =^J^(x] where

* The student should review Art.

before reading this

article.

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

52
is

a solution of the equation

dz
2 =
+
--r
^>
x dx +
ax
cfz

and we have called

Harmonic

J (x]

(2)

''

a Bessel's Function or Cylindrical

of the zero order.

_ xV

dj,(x]

x*

2T4 + 2. 4

~^7~ ~2l_
is

called a Bessel's Function of the

is

a solution of the equation

x
2

.6

first

-1

2. 4 .6<.8~
order,

J<

and

*'=/,(*)

which

is

the result of differentiating (2) with respect to x.

table giving values of J*(x) and /,(-*') W1'U De found at

the end of this chapter.
for x in equation (2), then multiply
If we write
9 (x)
through by xdx and integrate from zero to x, simplifying the

resulting equation

by integration by

parts,

we

get

dx
or, since

/,(*)

-^

J'xJ (x}dx
If

we

'by x*

gration

write

j- -,

by

J (x) for z
t

in

= xj,(x\

equation

(2),

and integrate from zero to

parts,

we

get

(5)

then multiply through

x, simplifying

by

inte-

APPLICATIONS OF BESSEL'S FUNCTIONS.

we

If

replace

x by

in (2)

jjix

it

^+^+
(Fz

(See

Art.

(8),

5).

Hence

dz

becomes

/J2

/ (f*x)

is

a solution of

(7).

/ (/vr)

for

we" substitute in turn in (7)J<>(v K x)

If

tiply the

first

xj^x),

equation by

subtract the second from the

parts,

first,

and

the second by

-,

mul-

xJ^ x\
K

simplify by integration by

and reduce, we get

(8)

Hence

and

are different roots of ./(//#)

A (y")
or of wAd"*)
o,

if // K

// t

O, or of

= o.

(9)

We

give without demonstration the following formulas,

which are sometimes useful
:

^(x)

=-

C0s(^r COS 0)^0.

(lO)

7ft/

Jf

(x\

=-

/*

I
TTe/

sin"

cos (x cos 0)^/0.

They can be confirmed by developing

grating,

and comparing with

ART.

20.

(i)

and

(i i)

cos (x cos 0), inte-

(3).

APPLICATIONS OF BESSEL'S FUNCTIONS.

(a) The problem of Art. 5 is a special

The convex surface and one base of a

case of the following

cylinder of radius a
:

and length b are kept at the constant temperature zero, the

temperature at each point of the other base is a given function
of the distance of the point from the center of the base re;

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
quired the temperature of any point of the cylinder after the

permanent temperatures. have been

Here we have

(see Art.

5),

established.

to solve Laplace's Equation in the form

subject to the conditions

= o when
"
u = o
u = /(r) "

= o,
r = a,
z = b.

Starting with the particular solution of

and proceeding as
of

and

f(r)

If

(b)

(i),

= sinh(/^r)/ OO,

in Art.

5,

we

get,

if

(2)

//,,//,, /*,

= o,
Jt(t*a)
= AJ^r] + AJ^r} +

AMM +

are roots
(3)
-

>

(4)

instead of keeping the convex surface of the cylinder

we surround it by a jacket impervious to

at temperature zero

heat the equation of condition, u

= o when r = a,

placed by

=o

or

= o when r = a, will be
u = sinh (jjufyjfyir) by

if

when

dr
that

is,

/,(/*)

now

in (4)

and

at the

If instead of

= o.

(5) ;/,, ;*,, jw,,

be the solution of our

(c]

= a,

by

or
If

re-

(6)
.

keeping the convex surface of the cylinder

temperature zero we allow

it

to cool in air

the temperature zero, the condition u

'

replaced by

or

-\-

are roots of (6), (5) will

new problem.

hu

= o when

= o when r = a, h

of surface conductivity.

which is at
= a will be

being the coefficient

DEVELOPMENT

= sinh (jjiz]J

If

^(JJLT']

Pj&r)
or

TERMS OF BESSEL's FUNCTIONS.

IN

this condition

+ hJt(nr) = o

If

now

in (4)

and

(5) //,,//,,

// 3

becomes

when

ahj^d]

/"*/,(/"*)

55

a,

o.

(7)

are roots of

(7), (5) will

be the solution of our present problem.

It can be shown that

SM =

o,

(8)

/.(*) = o,
- A/U') =
*/,(*)

and
have each an

infinite

number

(9)

(10)

of real positive roots.*

earlier roots of these equations can

be obtained without serious

from the table iorj^x) and J^x)

difficulty

The

at the

end of

this

chapter.

ART.

DEVELOPMENT

21.

We

shall

now

IN

TERMS OF

BESSEL'S FUNCTIONS.

obtain the developments called for

in

the last

article.

Let
/I,,;*,,

Ar)
//,

= AJJM-+A fJM + AJ.(jis) + ...

(0

etc., being roots of

/(//)

O,

or of /,(yw)

o,

or

of

To determine any coefficient A k multiply (i) by rJ (f.i k r}dr

and interate from zero to a. The first member will become
Q

Every term
19,

of the

second

member

will vanish

by

except the term

by

(6),

Art. 19.
* See Riemann's Partielle
Differentialgleichungen,

97.

(9),

Art.

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

.50

Ak =

Hence

The development
Arts. 6 and
If

yu,

If

holds good from r

= o to r = #

(see

15).

yu a

yu s

>

/<

Ms

>

// lt

(i)

rf(f)J<$J*ip)dr. (2)

etc.,

are roots

oij^a)

etc -> are roots of /,(/*#)

etc.,

/i,,

are

roots of

= o,

= o,

(2)

(2)

jjaj^a)

reduces to

reduces to

A/ (/^)

o,

(2) reduces to

For the important case where f(r)

a

/J.f.a

frf(ry (nk r}(tr= frj,(fif)etr=^

t>

Art. 19; and (3) reduces to

by

(5),

(4)

reduces to

^*
except

for

i,

when

/^

= o,

= o, and
A, =
i

(5) reduces to

^=

(8)

we have
(9)

r.

(io'\

A cylinder of radius one meter and altitude one meter

upper surface kept at the temperature 100, and its base and
convex surface at the temperature 15, until the stationary temperFind the temperature at points on the axis
atures are established.
25, 50, and 75 centimeters from the base, and also at a point 25
.centimeters from the base and 50 centimeters from the axis.
*
O y
O
O/*
Or>
Ans. 29 .6; 47 .6; 71 .2; 25 .8
Prob. 28.

has

its

DEVELOPMENT

TERMS OF BESSEL

IN

FUNCTIONS.

,j

Prob. 29. An iron cylinder one meter long and 20 centimeters

in diameter has its convex surface covered with a so-called non-conducting cement one centimeter thick. One end and the convex

surface of the cylinder thus coated are kept at the temperature zero,
the other end at the temperature of 100 degrees. Given that the conductivity of iron is 0.185 an<^ f cement 0.000162 in C. G. S. units.

Find to the nearest tenth of a degree the temperature of the middle point of the axis, and of the points of the axis 20 centimeters
from each end after the temperatures have ceased to change.
Find also the temperature of a point on the surface midway be-

tween the ends, and of points of the surface 20 centimeters from

each end. Find the temperatures of the three points of the axis,
supposing the coating a perfect non-conductor, and again, supposNeglect the curvature of the coating.

ing the coating absent.

iS.4;

4. 85

72.8; 15. 3; 40.?

',

7 2 -5

Ans.

i-3-

Prob. 30. If the temperature at any point in an infinitely long

cylinder of radius c is initially a function of the distance of the

point from the

equation

dependent

Show

temperature at any time must satisfy the

axis, the

of z

/3*

--i ~3\

\^r\ H

(see Art.

i),

...

since

clearly in-

it is

and 0.

that

the surface of the cylinder is kept at the temperature

are roots of
o and Ak is the value
.zero, /*, , ju a // s
a (nc)
a
with
in
of
if
in
c
written
the
surface of. the cylin(3)
place
:given
are roots of J^c]
o and A k is obder is adiabatic ju,, //,, yw 3
tained from (4); and if heat escapes at the surface into air at the tem-

where,

if

perature zero yw,, /*, A/,, ...are roots of HcJ^yc}

.and A k is obtained from (5).

Ay (/v) =
o

o,

Prob. 31. If the cylinder described in problem 29 is very long

is initially at the temperature 100
throughout, and the convex surface is kept at the temperature o, find the temperature of a

and

centimeters from the axis 15 minutes after cooling has begun

the cylinder is coated, and second, when the coating is
Ans. 97. 2 o.oi.
-absent.

point

.first

when

circular drumhead of radius a is initially slightly

Prob. 32.
-distorted into a given form which is a surface of revolution about
.the axis of the drum, and is then allowed to vibrate, and z is the

ordinate of any point of the

membrane

at

any time.

Assuming that

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

58

must

ditions z
(

o,

where

satisfy the equation

show

when

that z =-

/<,, yw,, yU 8

given in (3).
Prob. 33.

Show

a,

f{~~.

when

and

when
.

drumhead be

f(r]

AJJ^Hj'} cos /./// -(o and Ak has the value

if

o.

subject to the con-

ot

_/ (A< ^) cos ^^ct -fare roots of

a (na)

that

\>

initially distorted as in

not in general give a musical note that it may be

that in this case the
so
as to give a musical note
distorted
initially
that the periods of the various
vibration will be a steady vibration
musical notes that can be given are proportional to the roots of

problem 32

it

will

J (x)

o,

and

that

are concentric circles

/.(*)

the possible nodal lines for such vibrations

whose radii are proportional to the roots of

o.

ART.

PROBLEMS

22.

IN BESSEL'S FUNCTIONS.

problem on the stationary temperatures of a cylinder

o when s = o, 21 = O when z = b, and u = f(z) when r = a,

If in a

the problem is easily solved.

responding solution 2 = cosh

can readily obtain z

(^J^r]

sin (yu^)/

as particular solutions of

(i),

and

and

x*

+ ^-r, + y

&

4- ...

(i)

is real.

!^ A
K

Jf(z\
v '

'

where

Ak

k*iz

sin

frr
/>

-j-

f(z)

J?

sin

-ft

<?

,-

dz

i2\

by Art.

9.

Hence

A *h
l

*.i

sin

u
-

, /
T{

^M

J\- b
is

the cor-

replace // by //z, we
and 3
cos (l*z)J<,(}*? i)

x*

x"

in

we

(//r/')

Art. 20

J (xi) =

Art. 20, and

If in (2),

the required solution.

LAME'S FUNCTIONS.

A
of

5'.i

table giving the values of Jo(xi) will be found at the

end

this chapter.

Prob. 34. A cylinder two feet long and two feet in diameter has
bases kept at the temperature zero and its convex surface at
100 degrees Centigrade until the internal temperatures have ceased

its

Find the temperature of a point on the axis

between the bases, and of a point six inches from the axis,
between the bases. Ans. 72. i; 8o.i.

to change.

ART.
If

BESSEL'S FUNCTIONS OF

23.

we

halt

half

way
way

HIGHER ORDER.

are dealing with Laplace's Equation in Cylindrical

Coordinates and the problem

axis, functions of the form
rn

T( x \
2"7 X

i-

2\H

I
I

is

~
A

play very much the same part

not symmetrical about an

4
.

!(

)(W

-f-

2)

by J (.r) in the
Bessel's Functions of

as that played

preceding articles. They are known as

the th order. In problems concerning hollow cylinders much
more complicated functions enter, known as Bessel's Functions
of the second kind.

For a very

brief discussion of these functions the reader

is

and Spherical Harmonics

for a much more complete treatment to Gray and Matthews'
admirable treatise on Bessel's Functions.
referred to Byerly's Fourier's Series

ART.

24.

LAME'S FUNCTIONS.

Complicated problems in Potential and in allied subjects are

usually handled by the aid of various forms of curvilinear co-

and each form has its appropriate Harmonic Funcare usually extremely complicated.
For instance,
which
tions,
Lame's Functions or Ellipsoidal Harmonics are used when
ordinates,

solutions of Laplace's Equation in Ellipsoidal coordinates are

Toroidal Harmonics when solutions of Laplace's
required
;

Equation

in

Toroidal coordinates are needed.

For a brief introduction to the theory of these functions

see Byerly's Fourier's Series and Spherical Harmonics.

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

60

TABLE
e

I.

SURFACE ZONAL HARMONICS.

TABLES.

TABLE
e

I.

SURFACE ZONAL HARMONICS.

01-

HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.

62

TABLE
X

II.

BESSEL'S FUNCTIONS.

TABLES.

TABLE
n

III.

ROOTS OF BESSEL'S FUNCTIONS.

63

INDEX.

Electrical potential problems,

Bernoulli!, Daniel, 7.

4,

Bessel's Functions:

applications

to

physical

problems,

39,

15,

43-

Ellipsoidal harmonics, 59.

53-55-

development in terms
first

used,

55-56.

of,

Fourier,

7.

Fourier's integral, 35.

Fourier's series, 32-36.

7.

introductory problem, 21.

of the order zero, 23.

applications to problems in physics,

of higher order, 59.

38-40.
Dirichlet's

problems, 25, 56-59.

properties, 51-53series for unity, 24, 56.

graphical representation, 37.

problems

development, 33, 34.

Harmonic

analysis,

7.

Harmonics:

21, 54, 57-

~
problems, 12-15, 2I 2 5

4,

5 6 57-

of, 9.

Cosine Series, 30.

determination of the

cylindrical,

12,

21,

25,

51-59,

62-

63ellipsoidal, 55.

coefficients, 30.

problems in development, 31.

Cylindrical harmonics, 52.

constants

spherical,

7, 12,

51.

tesseral, 51.

toroidal, 59.

zonal, 12, 15-21, 40, 50, 60-61.

Heat v. Conduction of heat, 7

Differential equations, 10.

arbitrary

in

7.

differential equations for, 8, 9, 10, 13,

Continuity, equation

developa-

extension of the range, 34-35.

tables, 62-63.

Conduction of heat,

conditions of

bility, 36.

and

arbitrary

Historical introduction,

7.

Introduction, historical

and

functions, 10.
linear, 10.

linear

and homogeneous,

10.

7, 8, 9-

general solution, 10.

particular solution, 10.
Dirichlet's conditions, 36.
Drumhead, vibrations of, 57, 58.

Lame, 7.
Lame's functions,
Laplace,

7.

12, 59.

descriptive,

INDEX.

66
Laplace's coefficients, 12, 51.

Spherical harmonics,

Laplace's equation, 17, 41, 43, 51.

Stationary temperatures:

in cylindrical coordinates,

10,

21.

7, 12,

51.

problems, 21, 25, 56, 57, 59.

in spherical coordinates, 9, 12.

Tesseral harmonics, 51.

Toroidal harmonics, 59.

Laplacian, 51.

Legendre,

7.

Legendre's

coefficients, 19.

Legendre's equation,

Tables, 60-63.

17, 40, 41, 47.

Vibrations

Musical

of a circular elastic
strings, 7.

differential equation for small vibrations, 7.

membrane,

of a heavy hanging string,

of a stretched elastic string,

57,

7, 39,

problems, 39, 40.

Zonal harmonics:

development in terms
Perry, John, 8.
Potential function in attraction:

first

used,

of,

46-49.

7.

introductory problem, 15.

problems, 44, 51.

problems, 21, 43, 44, 49, 50

properties, 40, 43.

Sine series, 26.

determination of the coefficients, 2628.

short table, 19.

special formulas, 50.

surface

and

solid, 19

60-6 1.

examples, 29.

tables,

for unity, 12, 29.

various forms, 45-46.

58-.

7.

40.

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