Seminar Report on

Future Trends in Investment Casting

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the seminar report entitled Future Trends in Investment Casting
submitted by Mr. xxxx, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in Manufacturing Engineering is a bona fide seminar
work carried out by him under my guidance. In my opinion the work fulfills the requirements for
which it is being submitted.

Place:

Dr. xxxx

Date:

Associate Professor
Forge Dept.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I sincerely acknowledge the help and guidance I received from Mr. Manoj Kumar without
which it would have been difficult to complete this seminar work. His constant encouragement
and words of motivation have been a source of inspiration for me. I express my sincere gratitude
to him.
I also express my gratitude to the seminar evaluation committee for providing me an opportunity
to present this work.

xxxxx
B. Tech (Manufacturing Engg.)

Table of Contents
Cover Page

Certificate

Acknowledgement

Table of Contents

4-5

1. Introduction

7-8

1.1. History

2. Modernizing of an Ancient Art

9-10

2.1. Modern Demands of a Casting Process

2.2. The Beginnings of Investment Casting

2.3. What Materials are used in Investment Casting

2.4. Examples of Investment Casting

10

3. Investment Casting Markets

11-12

3.1.

Expanding Markets
11

3.2.

The Outlook for Investment Casting

11

3.3.

The Automotive Market

12

3.4.

Threats from Alternative Materials

12

4. Investment Casting Process

13-25

4.1. Overview
4.2. Pattern Materials

13
13

4.2.1. Pattern Waxes

13
4

4.2.2. Plastics
4.2.3. Other Pattern Materials
4.3. Production of Patterns
4.3.1. Pattern Dies
4.4. Pattern Assembly
4.4.1. Design of Pattern Tree or Cluster
4.5. Production of Ceramic Shell Molds
4.5.1. Refractories
4.5.2. Binders
4.5.3. Other Ceramic Shell Constituents
4.5.4. Slurry Preparation
4.5.5. Pattern Tree or Cluster Preparation

15
15
15
15
16
16
17
17
19
19
20
20

4.5.6. Coating and Drying

4.6. Ceramic Cores
4.7. Removal of Pattern
4.8. Mold Firing and Burnout
4.9. Melting and Casting
9.1. Melting Equipment
9.2. Casting Methods
4.10. Post-casting Operations
4.11. Comparison of Sand cast and Investment Cast

20
21
21
22
23
23
23
24
26

5. Drivers for Technology

27-40

5.1. Environment
5.1.1 Shell Moulds
5.1.2 Alloys
5.2. Engine Efficiency
5.2.1 Titanium Alloys
5.2.2 Superalloys
5.2.3 Internal Aerofoil Cooling
5.3. Costs
5.4. Process Development
5.4.1 Furnace
5.4.2 Direct Patterns (Rapid Prototyping)
5.4.3 Non Destructive Testing/Evaluation
5.4.4 Process simulation
5.5. Future Influences on the Investment Casting Industry

6. References

27
27
28
29
29
30
31
32
34
34
38
39
39
40

41

1. Introduction
Investment casting is an industrial process based on and also called lost-wax casting, one of the
oldest known metal-forming techniques. From 5,000 years ago, when beeswax formed the
pattern, to todays high-technology waxes, refractory materials and specialist alloys, the castings
allow the production of components with accuracy, repeatability, versatility and integrity in a
variety of metals and high-performance alloys [10].
1.1.

History:

The history of lost-wax casting dates back thousands of years. Its earliest use was for idols,
ornaments and jewellery, using natural beeswax for patterns, clay for the moulds and manually
operated bellows for stoking furnaces. Examples have been found across the world in Pakistan's
Harappan Civilization (25002000 BC) idols, Egypt's tombs of Tutankhamen (13331324 BC),
Mesopotamia, Aztec and Mayan Mexico, and the Benin civilization in Africa where the process
produced detailed artwork of copper, bronze and gold. The oldest known examples of this
technique are the objects discovered in the Cave of the Treasure (Nahal Mishmar) hoard in
southern Israel, and which belong to the Chalcolithic period (4500-3500 BCE). Conservative
Carbon 14 estimates date the items to c. 3700 BCE, making them more than 5700 years old [10].
The earliest known text that describes the investment casting process was written around 1100
A.D. by Theophilus Presbyter, a monk who described various manufacturing processes,
including the recipe for parchment. This book was used by sculptor and goldsmith Benevento
Cellini (15001571), who detailed in his autobiography the investment casting process he used
for the Perseus with the Head of Medusa sculpture that stands in the Loggia dei Lanzi in
Florence, Italy [11].
Investment casting came into use as a modern industrial process in the late 19th century, when
dentists began using it to make crowns and inlays, as described by Barnabas Frederick Philbrook
of Council Bluffs, Iowa in 1897. Its use was accelerated by William H. Taggart of Chicago,
whose 1907 paper described his development of a technique. He also formulated a wax pattern
compound of excellent properties, developed an investment material, and invented an airpressure casting machine [11].

In the 1940s, World War II increased the demand for precision net shape manufacturing and
specialized alloys that could not be shaped by traditional methods, or that required too much
machining. Industry turned to investment casting. After the war, its use spread into many
commercial and industrial applications that used complex metal parts. The adoption of jet
propulsion for military and then for civilian aircraft that stimulated the transformation of the
ancient craft of lost wax casting into one of the foremost techniques of modern industry [7].
Investment casting expanded greatly worldwide during the 1980s, in particular to meet growing
demands for aircraft engine and airframe parts. Today, for example investment casting is a
leading part of the foundry industry, with investment castings now accounting for 15% by value
of all cast metal production in the UK [3].

Fig. 1 Some Historical things made by Lost Wax Process [10] [11]

2. Modernizing of an Ancient Art

Civilization at the start of the 21st century is dependent on the gas turbine engine for air
transportation and a significant proportion of the worlds power generation. This has been the
case for the past 50 years and is likely to remain the position for the next 50 years unless
unforeseen developments, prompted by environmental concerns, discover an alternative and
economic source of power generation. It is not possible to over emphasize the synergy between
the investment casting industry and the development of the gas turbine engine. The efficiency of
these engines is directly related to the turbine operating temperature which in turn is controlled
by both the aero-thermal design and material capability. High temperature materials by their very
nature are difficult and almost impossible to form by mechanical working and their use is
entirely due to the ability to manufacture complex external and internal geometries by the
investment casting process. However, such technology comes at a high financial cost with the
latest single crystal alloys costing well in excess of $100 / lb. This cost is a consequence of the
use of increasingly scarce metallic elements such as rhenium and the uncertainty of supply of
more abundant metals such as nickel. Since it is unlikely that alloy development will produce
less expensive materials, it is the responsibility of the investment caster to improve and develop
the process to preserve raw materials and reduce overall manufacturing costs. Environmental
concerns and fuel costs give added pressure to develop the manufacturing capability to optimize
the turbine aero-thermal efficiency with complex and accurate geometries and to reduce the
engine weight with thin section components [3].
2.1. Modern Demands of a Casting Process
Against this background, attention turned to lost wax casting to produce accurately shaped
blades. In meeting this challenge, five key problems had to be solved:

Castings had to be reproducible within close dimensional limits

Castings had to be produced in high melting point alloys
There had to be high standards of metallurgical quality
Costs had to be lower than for alternative techniques.
Castings should have less carbon foot print [7].

2.2. The Beginnings of Investment Casting

It was the successful solution of these problems that laid the foundation for the modern
investment casting industry. One buoyant niche market relies on special techniques (including
hot isostatic pressing after casting) to produce components with fatigue strengths equal to
forgings. Castings can now be made for applications with oscillating stress [7].
2.3. What Materials are used in Investment Casting
10

Investment casting is used for a wide range of applications. Small parts form the bulk of
production, but very large components can also be made commercially. Nickel and cobalt-base
super alloys account for 50% of total output by value, steels account for 35%, aluminium
accounts for about 10%, and copper and titanium alloys make up large part of the remaining 5%
[7].
2.4. Examples of Investment Casting

11

Fig. 2 Examples of castings made by Investment Casting Process [5]

3. Investment Casting Markets

Although the gas turbine industry is the major customer for the investment casting industry it is
by no means the only one. The medical and automotive industry account for a significant volume
of output, for example the world market for turbochargers in 2007 was 20 million wheels.
The CAEF (Committee of Associations of European Foundries) receive returns from member
foundries to enable the CAEF to prepare market statistics. For 2007 the output in castings by
value are shown. Internationally the total world output in 2007 was $10.2 Billion of which 37%
was from the USA and 33% from Asian countries (ref 1). Although the gas turbine market
represents the largest customer in Europe and the USA, the market in Asia has a substantial
customer base for commercial (e.g. pumps and valves) and automotive parts [3].
Table 1 European Investment Foundry Shipments (year ending 2007) [2]

3.1.

Expanding Markets
12

Investment casting markets increased steadily over 40 years to the mid 1980s, when demands for
new aircraft boosted both the sales of investment castings and industry capacity. The market
continued expanding up to 1990, when annual worldwide turnover reached about 3,000 million.
Over the next few years, aerospace and defense demands dropped and output decreased, in some
countries by as much as 15-20%. Since 1994, however, general commercial demand has picked
up and with recent aircraft orders turnover is approaching its previous high.
Based on data published in early 1996, annual world turnover is estimated as 2,800 million.
North America (essentially the US) accounts for about half, Western Europe a quarter, and the
Pacific Rim countries 20%. Within Western Europe, the UK remains the biggest national
producer with output of 300 million, followed by France (185 million) and Germany (135
million). Britain is home to about 50 of the 125 or so western European investment casting
foundries, employing roughly 5,500 people in an industry which leads the European community
[7].
3.2.

The Outlook for Investment Casting

Investment casting is recovering lost ground. Commercial business is up, land-based power
generation demand is buoyant and the aircraft market is increasingly active. Growth can be
expected until the end of the century and beyond if the industry can promote itself well enough
[7].
3.3.

The Automotive Market

European investment foundries should look to opening up the automotive market to investment
castings. Realistic pricing of standard parts, however, can only come with sufficient automation
to deal cost effectively with demand. But foundries will only invest in such equipment when
orders are secured. Industry competition - particularly price competition - is intense and likely to
get tougher. The process serves an international market in which there are growing imports from
one region to another [7].
3.4.

Threats from Alternative Materials

Other materials and processes (especially other precision casting processes) pose threats.
Superalloys have remarkable temperature capabilities through optimization of composition,
advanced processing techniques and complex internal cooling, but further developments are
limited by the melting points of nickel and its alloys. To an industry so reliant on cast nickel-base
superalloys, aluminide intermetallics, oxide dispersion strengthened materials and engineering
ceramics are a serious threat [7].

13

4. Investment Casting Process

4.1.

Overview:

14

Fig. 3 Basic Investment Casting Process Overview [5]

4.2. Pattern Materials
Pattern materials currently in use are waxes, and plastics, while other pattern materials are used
sometimes, and for specific applications. Waxes, blended and developed with different
compositions, are more commonly used, while use of plastic patterns, generally polystyrene, may
sometimes be required, to produce thin- walled, complex -shaped castings, such as in aerospace
integrally cast turbine wheels and nozzles [1].
4.2.1. Pattern Waxes
Waxes are mostly the preferred material for patterns, and are normally used, modified and
blended with additive materials such as plastics, resins, fillers, antioxidants, and dyes, in order to
improve their properties. Paraffins and microcrystalline waxes are the most widely used waxes,
and are often used in combination, because their properties tend to be complementary. Paraffin
waxes are available in many controlled grades, with melting points ranging from 52 to 68 C
(126 to 156 F). They are readily available in different grades, have low cost, high lubricity and
15

low melt viscosity. Their usage is, however, limited because of high shrinkage and brittleness.
Microcrystalline waxes tend to be highly plastic and provide toughness to wax blends. Available
in both hard, non-tacky grades as well as soft, adhesive grades, they have higher melting points,
and are often used in combination with paraffin.
Other waxes used include: Candelilla, a vegetable wax, which is moderately hard and slightly
tacky. Carnauba wax is a vegetable wax with higher melting point, low coefficient of thermal
expansion, and is very hard, non-tacky and brittle. Beeswax is a natural wax, widely used for
modeling, and in pattern blends, provides properties similar to microcrystalline waxes.
Waxes, in general, are moderately priced, and can easily be blended to suit different
requirements. Waxes have low melting points and low melt viscosities, which make them easy to
blend, inject, assemble into tree- or cluster-assemblies, and melt out without cracking the thin
ceramic shell molds.
4.2.1.1. Additives to Pattern Waxes
Waxes with their many useful properties are, however, deficient in two practically important
Areas:
(a) Strength and rigidity especially required to make fragile patterns; and
(b) Dimensional control, especially in limiting surface cavitation due to solidification shrinkage,
during and after pattern injection.
Additives are made to waxes to cause improvements needed in these two deficient areas. The
strength and toughness of waxes are improved by the addition, in required volumes, of plastics
such as polyethylene, nylon, ethyl cellulose, ethylene vinyl acetate and ethylene vinyl acrylate.
Solidification shrinkage causing surface cavitation in waxes, is reduced to some extent by adding
plastics, but is reduced to a greater extent by adding resins and fillers. Resins suitable for this
are: coal tar resins, various rosin derivatives, hydrocarbon resins from petroleum and treederived resins such as dammar, Burgundy Pitch, and the terpene resins.
Fillers are powdered solid materials, and are used more selectively in waxes than resins. This
leads to the description of pattern waxes as being either filled or unfilled. Fillers have higher
melting point and are insoluble in the base wax, thereby contributing to reduced solidification
shrinkage of the mixture, in proportion to the amount used. Fillers that have been developed and
used in pattern waxes include: spherical polystyrene, hollow carbon microspheres, and spherical
particles of thermosetting plastic.
4.2.1.2. Factors for Pattern Wax Selection
Process factors while selecting and formulating wax pattern materials, that must be addressed are
listed below, grouped with the material properties required or to be considered:
Injection: Freezing range, softening point, ability to duplicate detail, setup time.
Removal, handling, and assembly: Strength, hardness, rigidity, impact resistance, weldability.
Dimensional control: Solidification shrinkage, thermal expansion, cavitation tendency.
Shell mold making: Strength, wettability, and resistance to binders and solvents.
Dewaxing and burnout: Softening point, viscosity, thermal expansion, and ash content.
Miscellaneous: Availability, cost, ease of recycling, toxicity, and environmental factors.

16

4.2.2. Plastics
Plastic is the most widely used pattern material, next to wax. Polystyrene is usually used,
because it is economical, very stable, can be molded at high production rates on automatic
equipment, and has high resistance to handling damage, even in extremely thin sections.
Use of polystyrene is however limited, because of its tendency to cause shell mold cracking
during pattern removal, and it requires more expensive tooling and injection equipment than for
wax. However, the most important application for polystyrene is for delicate airfoils, used in
composite wax-plastic integral rotor and nozzle patterns, assembled using wax for the rest of the
assembly [1].
4.2.3. Other Pattern Materials
Foamed Polystyrene has long been used for gating system components. It is also used as patterns
with thin ceramic shell molds in a separate casting process known as Replicast Process.
Urea-based patterns, developed in Europe, have properties similar to plastics; they are very hard,
strong and require high-pressure injection machines. Urea patterns have an advantage over
plastics: they can easily be removed, without stressing the ceramic shell, by simply dissolving in
water, or an aqueous solution.
4.3. Production of Patterns
Patterns are usually produced by injecting pattern material in to metal dies, made with one or
more cavities of the desired shape, in each die. Different equipments, with different operating
parameters, have been developed to suit different pattern materials.
Wax patterns are injected at lower temperatures, (110 to 170 F), and pressures, (40 to 1500 psi),
in split dies using specially designed equipment. The wax injection equipment ranges from
simple pneumatic units, to complex hydraulic machines, which can accommodate large dies, and
at high injection pressures.
Polystyrene patterns are injected at higher temperatures, (350 to 500 F), and pressures, (4 to 20
ksi), in hydraulic machines, normally equipped with water cooled platens that carry the die
halves [1].
4.3.1. Pattern Dies
Various pattern tooling options are available for waxes because of their low melting point and
good fluidity. Many die materials are used, including: rubber, plastic, plaster, metal-filled plastic,
soft lead-bismuth tin alloys, aluminum, brass, bronze, beryllium copper, steel or a combination
of these. The selection is based on considerations of cost, tool life, delivery time, pattern quality,
and production efficacy in available patternmaking equipment.
Plastic patterns usually require steel or beryllium copper tooling. Pattern dies made by machining
17

use CNC (computer numerical controlled) machine tools and electric discharge machining.
Alternatively, cast tooling made in aluminum, steel or beryllium copper is also used effectively.
Wax can be cast against a master model to produce a pattern, which is then used to make an
investment cast cavity for this type of cast tooling [1].
4.4. Pattern Assembly
Patterns for investment casting produced in dies are prepared for assembly in different ways.
Large patterns are set-up and are processed individually, while small to medium size patterns are
usually assembled into clusters for economy in processing. For example, pattern clusters of
aircraft turbine blades may range from 6 to 30 parts. For small hardware parts, patterns set in
clusters may range from tens to hundreds. Most patterns are injected with the gates. However,
large or complex parts are injected in segments, which are assembled into final form. The
capacity of injection machines and the cost of tooling are important considerations.
Gating components, including pour cups, gating and runner components forming trees or clusters
are produced separately, and patterns assembled with these to produce the wax-tree or pattern
cluster. Standard extruded wax shapes are often used for gating, especially for mock-up work.
Preformed ceramic pour cups are often used in place of wax pour cups. Most assembly is done
manually, with skilled personnel.
Wax components are assembled by wax welding, using hot iron or spatula, or a small gas flame.
Wax at the interface between two components is quickly melted, and the components are pressed
together until the wax solidifies. The joint is then smoothed over. A hot melt adhesive can be
used instead of wax welding. Currently, laser welding units have been developed to provide
improvements in assembling of wax components. Fixtures are essential to ensure accurate
alignment in assembling patterns. Joints must be strong, and completely sealed with no
undercuts. Care also must be taken to avoid damaging patterns or splattering drops of molten
wax over the patterns being assembled.
Polystyrene pattern segments are assembled by solvent welding. The plastic at the interface is
softened with solvent, and the parts are pressed together until bonded. However, polystyrene
becomes very tacky when wet with solvent, and readily adheres to itself. Frequently, only one of
the two halves needs to be wet. The assembly of polystyrene to wax is done by welding, with
only the wax being melted.
Most assembly and setup operations are performed manually, but some automation is currently
being introduced in some investment casting foundries. In one application, a robot is used to
apply sealing compound in the assembly of patterns for different integrally cast nozzles, with
each nozzle having, from 52 to 120 airfoils apiece [1].
4.4.1. Design of Pattern Tree or Cluster
The following preliminary requirements are considered essential:

18

 Providing a tree or cluster design that is properly sized and mechanically strong enough to be
handled through the process
Meeting all metallurgical requirements
Providing test specimens for chemical or mechanical testing, when required.
Once these essentials are satisfied, other factors are adjusted to maximize profitability. Since the
process is very flexible, foundries approach this goal in various ways. Some foundries prefer
cluster design tailored to each individual part to maximize parts per cluster and metal usage.
Others adopt standardized trees, or clusters, to facilitate handling and processing. When close
control of grain is required, such as for equiaxed, directionally solidified columnar, or single
crystal casting, circular clusters are often used to provide thermal uniformity during
solidification in the casting process.
The design of the pattern tree or cluster is however, critical and important, since it can affect
every aspect of the investment casting process. The design of the assembled pattern tree, or
cluster critically impacts various stages of the investment casting process, as well as, in
effectively meeting all the quality and metallurgical requirements of the final product [1].
4.5. Production of Ceramic Shell Molds
Investment shell molds are made by applying a series of ceramic coatings to the pattern tree
assemblies or pattern clusters. Each coating consists of a fine ceramic layer, with coarse ceramic
stucco particles embedded in its outer surface. The tree assembly or cluster is first dipped into a
ceramic slurry bath, then withdrawn from the slurry, and manipulated to drain off excess slurry,
and to produce a uniform layer. The wet layer is immediately stuccoed with coarser ceramic
particles, either by immersing it into a fluidized bed of the particles, or by sprinkling or raining
on it the stucco particles from above.
The fine ceramic layer forms the inner face of the mold, and reproduces every detail, including
the smooth surface of the pattern. It also contains the bonding agent, which provides strength to
the structure. The coarse stucco particles serve to arrest further runoff of the slurry, help to
prevent it from cracking or pulling away, provide keying or bonding between individual coating
layers, and build up shell thickness faster. Each coating is allowed to harden or set before the
next one is applied. This is accomplished by drying, chemical gelling, or a combination of these.
The operations of coating, stuccoing, and hardening are repeated a number of times, until the
required shell thickness is achieved. The final coat, often called a seal coat, is left unstuccoed, in
order to avoid the occurrence of loose particles on the shell mold surface [1].
4.5.1. Refractories
Silica, zircon, alumina and various aluminum silicates are commonly used refractories for both
slurry and stucco in making ceramic shell molds. Alumina is expensive, and as such used
selectively, such as in directional solidification processes. Other refractories, such as graphite,
zirconia and Yttria have been used with reactive alloys. Yttria is used in prime coats for casting
titanium. Typical properties of refractories are listed in Table 2.
Silica is generally used in the form of fused silica (silica glass). Fused silica is made by melting
natural quartz sand and then solidifying it to form a glass, which is crushed and screened to
19

produce stucco particles, and it is ground to a powder for use in slurries. The extremely low
coefficient of thermal expansion of fused silica, imparts thermal shock resistance to molds. Its
ready solubility in molten caustic solutions provides a means of chemically removing shell
material from areas of castings that are difficult to clean by other methods. Silica is sometimes
used as naturally occurring quartz, expense of which is very low. However, its utility is limited
because of its high coefficient of thermal expansion and by the high, abrupt expansion at 573 C
(1063 F) accompanying its -to--phase transition, causing excessive cracking of shell mold, if
the mold is not fired slowly [1].
Table 2 Normal compositions and typical properties of common refractories for investment
casting [1].

Zircon occurs naturally as a sand, and used in this form as a stucco. Its primary advantages are
high refractoriness, resistance to wetting by molten metals, and round particle shape. Use of
zircon is generally limited with prime coats, as it does not occur in sizes coarse enough for
stuccoing backup coats. It is ground to powder for use in slurries, often in conjunction with fused
silica and aluminosilicates.
Aluminum silicates are generally composed of stable compound, mullite (Al2O3.2SiO2) with
some free silica, which is usually in the form of silica glass. They are made by calcining fireclays
to produce different levels of mullite, (which contains 72% alumina) and free silica.
Refractoriness and cost increase with alumina content. Fired pellets are crushed or ground and
carefully sized to produce a range of powder sizes for use in slurries, and granular materials for
use as stuccos.
Alumina, produced from bauxite ore by the Bayer process, is more refractory than silica or
mullite, and is less reactive toward many alloys. However, its use is primarily confined to
superalloy casting [1].

20

4.5.2. Binders
The commonly used binders include colloidal silica, hydrolyzed ethyl silicate and sodium
silicate.
Colloidal silica is most widely used. It consists of a colloidal dispersion of spherical silica
particles in water. It is an excellent general purpose binder. Its main disadvantage is that its water
base makes it slow drying, especially in inaccessible pockets or cores.
Ethyl silicate which has no bonding properties is converted to ethyl silicate binder by hydrolysis,
a reaction with water carried out in ethyl alcohol, using acid catalyst such as hydrochloric acid.
Ethyl silicate, with its alcohol base, dries much faster than colloidal silica. Ethyl silicate slurries
are readily gelled after rapid dripping cycles, by exposure to an ammonia atmosphere. Use of this
binder is however, rapidly declining, since it is much more expensive, and poses fire and
environmental hazards.
Liquid sodium silicate solutions are sometimes used where a very inexpensive binder is desired.
They have poor refractoriness, which limits their application.
Other Binders: The operation of directional solidification and single crystal processes, which
subject the mold to high temperatures, for longer times, along with the introduction of more
reactive superalloys, has led to the development of more refractory binders, such as colloidal
alumina and colloidal zirconia binders. Both these binders, however, are inferior to colloidal
silica in room temperature bonding properties [1].
4.5.3. Other Ceramic Shell Constituents
Wetting Agents. Slurries generally contain wetting agents, in addition to the refractory and the
binder, to promote wetting of the pattern or prior slurry coats. Wetting agents such as sodium
alkyl sulfates, sodium alkyl aryl sulfonates, or octyl- phenoxy polyethoxy ethanol, are generally
used in amounts of 0.03 to 0.3% by weight of the liquid. Wetting agents are sometimes omitted
from ethyl silicate alcohol slurries and from water based back-up slurries.
Antifoam Compounds. Where wetting agents are used, especially in prime coats, an antifoam
compound is included to suppress foam formation and to permit air bubbles to escape.
Commonly used defoamers are aqueous silicone emulsions and liquid fatty alcohols such as noctyl alcohol. These are effective in low concentrations of 0.002 to 0.10%, based on the liquid
weight.
Other Constituents. Nucleating agents, or grain refiners, which are refractory cobalt compounds
such as aluminates, silicates, and oxides are added to the prime slurry (in amounts from 0.5 to
10% by weight of the slurry) for equiaxed superalloy castings, where close control of grain size
is required. Organic film formers are sometimes used to improve green strength. Small additions
of clay have been used to promote coating characteristics [1].

21

4.5.4. Slurry Preparation

Compositions of the slurry, which are usually proprietary, are based on the particular refractory
powder and the type of binder. Slurry composition is generally in the following broad range:
Binder solids: 5 -10%
Liquid (from binder or added) : 15 30%
Refractory powder: 60-80%
Slurries are prepared by adding refractory powder to binder liquid, using agitation to break up
agglomerates, remove any air entrainment. Stirring is continued until viscosity falls to its final
level before the slurry is put to use. Continued stirring is also required in production to keep the
powder from settling out of suspension. Either rotating tanks with baffles or propeller mixers are
used for this purpose.
Control procedures for slurries vary considerably among foundries. The most prevalent controls
are the measurement of the initial ingredients, slurry temperature, density, pH and viscosity.
Viscosity is measured with a No.4 or 5 Zahn cup, or a Brookfield type rotating viscometer.
Properties of the finished ceramic shells that are monitored include: weight, modulus of rupture
(green and fired), and permeability [1].
4.5.5. Pattern Tree or Cluster Preparation
Before dipping, pattern trees or clusters are usually cleaned to remove injection lubricant, loose
pieces of wax, or dirt. Cleaning is accomplished by rinsing the pattern clusters in solution of
wetting agent, or a suitable solvent that does not attack the wax. The trees, or clusters, are usually
allowed to return to room temperature and dry, before dipping.
4.5.6. Coating and Drying
Dipping, draining, and stuccoing of clusters are carried out manually, robotically, or
mechanically. Foundries are increasingly using robots in order to heighten productivity, to
process larger parts and clusters, and to produce more uniform coatings. When robots are
introduced, they are often programmed to reproduce actions of skilled operators. Dedicated
mechanical equipment can sometimes operate faster, especially with standardized clusters. Most
dipping is done in air, but dipping under vacuum has been found, in some limited applications,
very effective for coating narrow passageways and for eliminating air bubbles. The cleaned wax
cluster is dipped into the prime slurry and rotated. It is then withdrawn and drained over the
slurry tank with suitable manipulation to produce a uniform coating. Next the stucco particles are
applied by placing the cluster in a stream of particles falling from an overhead screen in a rainfall
sander, or by plunging the cluster into a fluidized bed of the particles. In the fluidized bed, the
particles behave as a boiling liquid, because of the action of pressurized air passing through a
porous plate in the bottom of the bed.
Generally, prime slurries contain finer refractory powder, are used at a higher viscosity, and are
stuccoed with finer particles than the backup coats. These characteristics provide a smooth
surfaced mold, capable of resisting metal penetration. Backup coats are formulated to coat
readily over the prime coats (which may be somewhat porous and absorbent), to provide high
22

strength, and to build up the required thickness with a minimum number of coats. The number of
coats required is related to the size of the clusters and the metal weight to be poured. It may
range from 5 for small clusters, to 15 or more for large ones. For most applications, the number
ranges from 6 to 9. Between coats, the slurries are hardened by drying or gelling. Air drying at
room temperature with circulating air of controlled temperature and humidity is the most
common method. Drying is usually carried out on open racks or conveyors, but cabinets or
tunnels are sometimes used. Drying is complicated by the high thermal expansion and
contraction characteristics of waxes. If drying is too rapid, the chilling effect causes the pattern to
contract, while the coating is still wet and unbonded. Then, as the coating is developing strength
and even shrinking, the wax begins to expand, as the drying rate declines and it regains
temperature. This can actually crack the coating. Therefore, to prevent this, relative humidity is
normally kept above 40%, usually at a recommended value of 50% [1].
4.6. Ceramic Cores
Ceramic cores are widely used in investment castings to produce internal passageways in
castings; and cores are either self-formed or preformed.
a. Self-formed cores are produced during the mold building, with the wax patterns already having
corresponding openings. Metal pull cores in pattern tooling are used for simple shapes, while
soluble cores for other shapes are made and placed in the pattern tooling, and the pattern injected
around them. The soluble core is then dissolved out in a solution that does not affect the wax
pattern, such as an aqueous acid. Citric acid is used commonly.
b. Preformed cores are required when self-formed cores can not be used, and are produced by a
number of ceramic forming processes. Simple tubes and rods are commonly extruded from silica
glass. Many cores are made by injection molding of fine ceramic powder with a suitable organic
binder into steel dies and subjecting the cores to a two stage heat treatment. In the second stage,
the core is sintered to its final strength and dimensions. Preformed cores are normally used by
placing in pattern die and injecting wax around them. Since cores expand differently than the
shell molds, due to their differences in composition, cores must be provided with slip joints in
the mold.
4.7. Removal of Pattern
Pattern removal is the operation that subjects the shell mold to the most stresses, since the
thermal expansion of waxes are many times those of refractories used for molds. When the mold
is heated to liquefy the wax, the expansion differential leads to enormous pressure that is capable
of cracking, or even destroying the mold. In practice, this problem is effectively circumvented by
heating the mold extremely rapidly from the outside in. This causes the surface layers of wax to
melt very quickly, before the rest of the pattern can heat up appreciably. This molten wax layer
either melts out of the mold or soaks into it, thus providing the space to accommodate the
expansion as the remainder of the wax is heated. Melt-out tips are sometimes provided, or holes
are drilled in the shell to relieve wax pressure. Even with these techniques, the shell is subject to
high stress. To get the shell as strong as possible, it should be thoroughly dried before dewaxing.
Shells are subject to 16 to 48 h of extended drying after the last coat, sometimes enhanced by the
23

application of vacuum or extremely low humidity. Two methods have been developed to
implement the surface melting concept: autoclave dewaxing and high temperature flash
dewaxing.
Autoclave dewaxing is the most widely used method. Saturated steam is used in a jacketed
vessel, with a steam accumulator to ensure rapid pressurization. Autoclaves are equipped with a
sliding tray to accommodate a number of molds, a fast acting door with a safety lock, and an
automatic wax drain valve. Operating pressures of approximately 550 to 620 kPa (80 to 90 psig)
are reached in 4 to 7 s. Molds are dewaxed in approximately 15 min. or less. Wax recovery is
good. Polystyrene patterns cannot be melted out in the autoclave, but require flash dewaxing.
Flash dewaxing is carried out by inserting the shell into a hot furnace at 870 to 1095 C (1600
to 2000 F). The furnace is equipped with an open bottom so that wax can fall out of the furnace
as soon as it melts. Some of the wax begins to burn as it falls, and even though it is quickly
extinguished, there is greater potential for deterioration than with an autoclave. Nevertheless,
wax from this operation can be reclaimed satisfactorily. Flash dewaxing furnaces must be
equipped with an afterburner in the flue or some other means to prevent atmospheric pollution.
Polystyrene patterns are readily burned out in flash dewaxing. However, polystyrene can cause
extensive mold cracking, unless it is embedded in wax in the pattern (as in integral nozzle
patterns), or unless the polystyrene patterns are very small.
Hot liquid dewaxing has found some use among smaller companies seeking to minimize capital
investment. Hot wax at 177 C (350 F) is often used as the medium, while other liquids can also
be used. Cycles are longer than for autoclave and flash dewaxing, and there is potential fire
hazard [1].
4.8. Mold Firing and Burnout
Ceramic shell materials are fired to remove moisture (free and chemically combined), to burn off
residual pattern material and any organics used in the shell slurry, to sinter the ceramic, and to
preheat the mold to the temperature required for casting. In some cases, these are accomplished
in a single firing. Other times, preheating is performed in a second heating, after the mold is
cooled down, inspected and repaired if necessary. Cracked molds can be repaired with ceramic
slurry or special cements. Many molds are wrapped with a ceramic-fiber blanket at this time to
minimize the temperature drop that occurs between the preheat furnace and the casting operation,
or to provide better feeding by insulating selected areas of the mold. Gas fired furnaces are used
for mold firing and preheating, except for molds for directional solidification processes, which
are preheated in the casting furnace with induction or resistance heating. Batch and continuous
pusher-type furnaces are most common, but some rotary furnaces are also in use. Burnout
furnaces operate with temperatures between 870 and 1095 C (1600 and 2000 F), and have
some 10% excess air provided to ensure complete combustion of organic materials. Preheat
temperatures vary depending on part configuration and the alloy to be cast. Common ranges are:
150 to 540 C (300 to 1000 F) for aluminum alloys, 425 to 870 C (800 to 1600 F) for many
copper base alloys, and 870 to 1095 C (1600 to 2000 F) for steels and superalloys. Molds for
the directional solidification process are preheated above the liquidus temperature of the alloy
being cast [1].
24

4.9. Melting and Casting

Different types of equipment are currently in use for melting, and support different casting
methods adopted.
4.9.1. Melting Equipment
Coreless type Induction furnaces are used with capacities ranging from 15 to 750 lb., with
normal melting rates of 3 lb/min. They are usually tilting models, and can be employed for
melting in air, inert atmosphere or vacuum. They are extensively used for melting steel, iron,
cobalt and nickel alloys, and sometimes copper and aluminum alloys. Gas- fired crucible
furnaces are used for aluminum and copper alloy castings, while electrical resistance furnaces
are sometimes preferred for aluminum casting, since they help reduce hydrogen porosity. The
crucibles typically used are magnesia, alumina and zirconia, which are made by slip casting,
thixotropic casting, dry pressing, or isostatic pressing. Magnesium alloys can be melted in gasfired furnaces using low- carbon steel crucibles [1].
4.9.2. Casting Methods
Both air and vacuum casting methods are used in investment casting. There is some use of
rammed graphite molds in vacuum arc furnaces for casting titanium. Most castings are gravity
poured.
Air casting is used for many investment-cast alloys, including aluminum, magnesium, copper,
gold, silver, platinum, all types of steel, ductile iron, most cobalt alloys, and nickel-base alloys
that do not contain reactive elements. Zinc alloys, gray iron and malleable iron are usually not
investment cast for economic reasons.
Vacuum casting provides cleaner metals with superior properties and is used for alloys that can
not be cast in air, such as the -strengthened nickel base alloys, some cobalt alloys, titanium and
the refractory metals. Batch and semicontinuous interlock furnaces are normally used. A major
advantage of investment casting is its ability to cast very thin walls, due to the use of hot mold.
This advantage is further enhanced by specific casting methods, such as vacuum-assist casting,
pressurized casting, centrifugal casting and countergravity casting.
In vacuum-assist casting, the mold is placed inside an open chamber, which is then sealed with
a plate and gaskets, leaving only the mold opening exposed to the atmosphere. A partial vacuum
is drawn within the chamber and around the mold. The metal is poured into the exposed mold
opening, and the vacuum serves to evacuate air through the porous mold wall and to create a
pressure differential on the molten metal, both of which help to fill delicate detail and thin
sections.
In pressurized casting, rollover furnaces are pressurized for the same purpose. The hot mold is
clamped to the furnace-top with its opening in register with the furnace opening, and the furnace
is quickly inverted to dump the metal into the mold, while pressure is applied using compressed
air or inert gas.
25

 Centrifugal casting uses the centrifugal forces generated by rotating the mold to propel the
metal and to facilitate filling. Vacuum arc skull furnaces discharge titanium alloy at a
temperature just above its melting point, and the centrifugal casting is usually needed to ensure
good filling. Dental and jewelry casting use centrifugal casting to fill thin sections and fine
detail.
Countergravity casting assists in filling thin sections, by applying a differential pressure
between molten metal and the mold. This technique developed for over 30 years, works
effectively in air or under vacuum, for air melted and vacuum melted alloys, to produce castings
in aluminum and nonferrous alloys, many types of steels and superalloys, in weights from a few
grams to 20 kg (44 lb).
Countergravity Low-Pressure Air (CLA) Process has the preheated shell mold, with an
extended sprue, placed in a chamber above the melt surface of an air melted alloy. The sprue is
lowered to below the melt surface, vacuum applied to mold chamber to cause controlled filling
of the mold. The vacuum is released after castings and in-gates solidify, causing molten metal in
the central sprue to return to the melt crucible, for use in the next cycle. Besides substantial
savings in alloy usage and improved gating efficiency, the other benefits from the process
include improved casting quality with reduced dross and slag inclusions.
Countergravity Low-Pressure Vacuum (CLV) Process is similar to CLA process has the crucible
in a vacuum chamber for vacuum melted alloys such as in nickel-base and cobalt-base
superalloys.
4.10. Postcasting Operations
Post casting operations represent a significant portion, often 40 to 60%, of the cost of producing
investment castings. A standard shop routing is provided for each part, and large savings can be
realized by specifying the most cost-efficient routing. For example, it is often cost-effective to
scrap early to avoid wasting finishing time, even if this means including an extra inspection
operation. Alternative methods may be available for performing the same operation, and the most
efficient one should be selected. The actual sequence in which operations are performed can be
important. Some specifications require verification of alloy type, and this is done before parts are
removed from the cluster.
a. Knockout. Some shell material may spall off during cooling, but a good portion usually
remains on the casting and is knocked off with a vibrating pneumatic hammer or by hand. Brittle
alloys require special attention. Part of the prime coat sometimes remains adhered to the casting
surface, and the bulk shell material may remain lodged in pockets or between parts. This is
removed in a separate operation, usually shotblasting. Clusters are hung on a spinner hanger
inside a blasting cabinet, or are placed on a blasting table. If cores are to be removed in a molten
caustic bath, the entire cluster can be hung in the bath, and the remaining refractory can be
removed along with the cores. High-pressure water (6 to 10 ksi) is sometimes used instead of
mechanical knock out, especially for aluminum and other nonferrous alloy parts.

26

b. Cutoff. Aluminum, magnesium, and some copper alloys are cut off with band saws. Other
copper alloys, steel, ductile iron, and superalloys are cut off with abrasive wheels operating at
about 3500 rpm. Torch cutting is sometimes used for gates that are inaccessible to the cutting
wheel. Some brittle alloys can be readily tapped off with a mallet. Some steel and ductile iron
parts can be cutoff after soaking parts in frozen liquid nitrogen (-320 F). Gates are to be
properly notched for these two cutoff techniques. Shear dies have also been used to remove
castings from standardized clusters. Following cutoff, gate stubs are ground flush and smooth
using abrasive wheels, and small hand grinders equipped with mounted stones.
c. Core Removal. Cores can be removed by abrasive or water blasting. If blasting can not be
used, the cores can be dissolved out, using molten caustic bath (sodium hydroxide) at 900 to
1000 F, or a boiling solution of 20 to 30% sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide in an open
pot, or in high-pressure autoclave.
d. Heat Treatment. Air or vacuum heat treatments are performed extensively as needed to meet
property requirements. Before they are heat treated, single-crystal castings must be handled very
carefully to avoid recrystallization during subsequent heat treatment.
e. Abrasive Cleaning. Blast cleaning is used to remove scale resulting from core removal or heat
treatment, using pneumatic and centrifugal blasting machines. Steel or iron grit or shot, and
silica, or alumina sand are commonly used.
f. Other Post-casting operations. Hot isostatic pressing (HIP) is being increasingly adopted to
eliminate porosity, and to improve properties especially for titanium, and used selectively
for steel, aluminum, and superalloys.
Machining is often performed on investment castings, normally confined to selected areas
requiring closer dimensions. Broaching, coining and abrasive grinding are used to improve
dimensional accuracy. Straightening of investment castings, heated usually, is performed when
required, either manually or using hydraulic presses, with suitable fixtures.
Chemical finishing treatments are also used, in applications such as: acid pickling to
remove scale, passivation treatment for stainless steel, chemical milling to remove -case on
titanium, and chemical treatment to apply a satin finish to aluminum or to polish stainless steel.

4.11. Comparison of Sand cast and Investment Cast

27

Fig. 4 Comparison of Cast and welded part with singe cast investment [9]

Fig. 5 Comparison of Sand cast and Investment Cast Engine [5]

5. Drivers for Technology

5.1. Environment
28

5.1.1 Shell Moulds

The environmental protection act of 1990 for the control of air pollution was a major concern for
UK foundries using the hydrolised ethyl silicate (HES) process since both the alcohol and
ammonia used in the process were emitted to atmosphere. An alternative process was necessary
and both foundries and suppliers were engaged in extensive work to evaluate new systems. There
was little choice other than to use silica sol as the replacement binder but there were three
problems to overcome:
(i) To prevent shell cracking during dewax
(ii) To produce a shell with equivalent dimensional consistency to HES moulds
(iii) To produce a shell which did not induce casting defects such as cracks, inclusions or surface
finish issues
These problems were eventually overcome by the development of polymer additions to give
green strength and by controlled drying using a combination of humidity, airflow and
temperature in specially constructed drying tunnels. Early trials identified that shell drying
caused the temperature of the wax pattern to drop by several degrees, the subsequent warming of
the shell after drying caused the wax to expand and crack the shell. The process developed was
to ensure that the shell drying was controlled so as to prevent the harmful temperature
excursions. The issue of dimensional equivalence has not been totally resolved and there will
probably always be a small difference in dimensions when the process is changed from HES to
silica sol. It is perhaps a little ironic that the current shell binder is silica sol since over the last 60
years the binder has changed from the original HES (with MgO gel accelerator), to silica sol, to
HES (with NH3 accelerator) and back to silica sol.

Fig. 6 The silica gel cycle [3]

Since 2000 there have been, and still are, issues concerning the supply and use of shell mould
materials:

29

(i) Periodic shortages in the supply of common refractory materials, alumino-silicates, alumina
and zircon can cause quality problems as alternative sources of raw material are used. The
quality can be compromised if they are contaminated with such impurities as iron, sodium etc.
These impurities can reduce the life and quality of the slurry. Also zircon may contain an
unacceptable quantity of radioactive impurities which render it difficult to dispose of after use.
(ii) A zircon shortage in 2005-7 caused significant problems for the industry as supplies of zircon
were acquired for alternative use, e.g. domestic tiles and bathroom furniture. The alternative
sources of zircon available to the industry were not of a sufficient standard and the industry was
required to examine alternative refractories. This work continues and although alternative
materials such as mullite are used, the industry has yet to replace zircon as the material of first
choice. Suppliers to the industry continue to investigate alternatives and expect to have
environmentally friendly material available by 2010.
Silica is widely used in the industry, in addition to its use as a shell binder it is also used as a
refractory flour and stucco and is the main constituent in ceramic cores. Crystalline silica as
cristobalite is a known carcinogen and has been subject to review by the European Carcinogens
Directive. It is also the subject of social dialogs with the foundry industry. It is recognized that it
would be impossible for the industry to survive without silica and therefore the control of dust
and the personal protection for operators will become increasingly regulated.
The REACH regulations (Registration, Evaluation, Authorization, and Restriction of Chemicals)
do not directly require castings to register, but suppliers of chemicals and refractory materials are
required to register chemicals used by the foundries. These regulations were introduce in 2008
and are now implemented, foundries are required to ensure that the chemical substances used in
their process are registered with REACH. These regulations do not apply to castings made
outside the E.U.
In recent years there have been many efforts to find a use for mould scrap after cast. In certain
European countries it is difficult to dispose of zircon containing moulds because of the
radioactivity concerns, also some countries do no permit the disposal of shells in land fill sites
which contain heavy metals such as cobalt aluminate used for grain refining. Several attempts
to obtain research grants from the E.U. to investigate uses for recycled mould scrap have been
made but without success. However, the industry continues to look for alternative uses and with
the increased disposal costs it is likely that a solution will eventually be found [3].
5.1.2 Alloys
The price of superalloys for gas turbines and turbochargers depends on availability of raw
materials and market conditions; prices for nickel, cobalt, tantalum, molybdenum have been
volatile in recent years and rhenium, which is an essential metal for single crystal alloys, is
currently over $4000 /kg. There is no natural ore for rhenium and the price is likely to continue
to rise since there is an increasing demand for single crystal alloys. Since 2000 the price for
rhenium has undergone an eight fold increase. The quality of single crystal castings is dependent
on the quality of the master heat. Until recently virgin alloy has been the preferred master heat
condition. The increasing cost of master heat has forced the foundries into using recycled
material as mixed virgin/revert as 60/40 blends. For DS casting, 100% revert is currently in
foundry trials. The cost of scrap superalloy on the open market is approximately 75% of virgin,
30

therefore foundries rely wherever possible on returning scrap to be remelted and refined as toll
melt alloy. Single crystal material is sensitive to nitrogen level in the master heat and it is
essential that the reverted alloy (or blend heats) do not contain unacceptable levels of nitrogen
(>5ppm) [3].

Fig. 7 Single Crystal with high angle boundaries in a casting with high nitrogen content [3]
5.2. Engine Efficiency
Turbine efficiency is governed by the gas temperature and aerothermal efficiency of the design.
Turbine entry temperatures are typically around 14500C but are expected to increase to over
17000C in the future. Turbine blades are also expected to last for around 3000 flights which
represents around 30,000 hours for a long haul flight. For materials to survive for this length of
time in an oxidizing and corroding atmosphere at a temperature in excess of the melting point
requires the blade to be substantially cooled. This is achieved by internal cooling and by creating
a film of cooling air around the surface of the aerofoil. Around 70% of the cooling is from
internal cooling with air taken from the engine compressor. It follows that to improve the engine
and fuel efficiency it is necessary to run the turbine at the highest temperature possible, this leads
to both alloy and cooling design development. Weight is also a very important aspect of
aeroengine design and this leads to the development of lightweight high temperature materials
and thin section components [3].
5.2.1 Titanium Alloys
Titanium as Ti 6/4 has been cast in production for over 20 years and current applications include
fan casings of over 2 metres diameter. Titanium is highly reactive in the molten state and the
casting process uses inert shell systems based on zirconia or yttria. To avoid contact with
refractory ceramic crucibles the alloy is melted using direct or cold crucible methods. Since
titanium castings have an oxide layer at the surface (alpha layer) from unavoidable shell reaction,
it is necessary to remove this layer by chemical etching. This process can also be used to reduce
the section thickness and by careful masking techniques the casting sections can be selectively
reduced in thickness. The quest for lighter engines has led to the development of the titanium
aluminide intermetallics; for example the TNB alloys (Ti, 45Al, 5-10Nb, 0.2C, 0.2B atomic %).
These alloys together with their processing (moulding, melting, casting, and finishing) are
currently under development funded by the E.U. IMPRESS project. TiAl alloys have about 65%
density of Ti alloys and they can be used up to 750C. This material is normally thermomechanically processed however the cost is high. This project is aimed at developing TiAl
casting alloys but to provide the cast TiAl with mechanical properties which are equivalent those
of thermo-mechanically processed [3].
31

Fig. 8 Example of titanium compressor casing with 1mm wall section [3].
5.2.2 Superalloys
The history of superalloy development is well documented and the paper by Chester Sims gives
an excellent review up to the introduction of single crystal. Recent developments have included
the development of the so called second generation superalloys containing 3% rhenium in the
1990s. During the 1990s the importance of sulphur on oxidation resistance was investigated.
These investigations found that sulphur at the relatively low level of 2ppm was sufficient to
disrupt the protective aluminium oxide layer on superalloys. Further work showed that yttrium
additions to the alloy were effective in preventing sulphur migrating to the surface by forming
yttrium oxysulphide. At the 2ppm sulphur level it was necessary to have at least 25ppm of
yttrium to effectively contain the sulphur. Unfortunately there are a number of problems with
yttrium, the element forms a low melting point eutectic with nickel and any level over 50ppm
can result in the formation of incipient melting. The other main problem is the containment of
yttrium in the casting, yttrium will dissolve in the shell and core and it is necessary to make
additions of up to 500ppm of yttrium in the melt to retain 25ppm in the casting. The control of
this process is therefore very difficult and necessitates the use of low silica shells and alumina
cores. The problem of containing adequate levels of yttrium has been significantly helped with
the development of very low sulphur master heat. The process for making very low sulphur heats
has been greatly improved and it is now possible to produce master heats with <0.5ppm sulphur.
With this level of sulphur it is only necessary to retain yttrium at a 10-15ppm at which level it is
possible to cast using conventional ceramics. During the 1990s, 3rd generation superalloys were
developed, these were characterized by having Re content of 6%. These alloys were developed
for their high temperature creep properties but had the disadvantage of being very difficult to
solution heat treat. Single crystal superalloys owe their high temperature properties to their
ability to be solution heat treated to homogenize the structure and refine the second phase by
sophisticated ageing heat treatments. The heat treatment difficulty with 3rd generation SX alloys
and to increase further the temperature capability has led to the development of alloys containing
platinum group metals, in particular ruthenium which had the advantage of increasing strength,
32

improving heat treatability and reducing the tendency to form undesirable TCP phases. These
alloys are now generally referred to as 4th generation single crystal alloys [3].
5.2.3 Internal Aerofoil Cooling
As mentioned previously, advanced gas turbines operating with a gas entry temperature in excess
of 1450C require cooling of at least 600C to bring the aerofoil temperature down to a level in
which the blade can survive 30,000 hours. 70% of this cooling is obtained by passing cold
compressor air through complex passages in the aerofoil section. The ceramic cores used to
produce these passages must be compatible with the casting process:
- They must be supported during the wax injection process so as to maintain the wall section in
the wax pattern and not to be displaced during the dewax operation.
- They must not react with the alloy,
- They must be chemically removed with a caustic solution
- They must be dimensionally compatible with the shell mould
- They must not distort during the casting process
The location of a core in the wax impression die has also evolved over many years, originally the
core was printed at both ends and located in the die and held firmly by the prints. In recent years
the established practice is to use six point nesting where the core is allowed to fairly align within
the die using location points which also serve as inspection points. Pins are placed in the die to
locate the core on the nesting points, alternatively plastic chaplets placed on the surface of the
core can be used for location.
For single crystal casting the core chemistry is designed to prevent sintering at the casting
Temperature (e.g. 1500C). A core which sinters will have too much strength at the solidification
temperature and cause excessive stress to be retained by the casting with the result that the
casting will recrystallize when solution heat treated.
An added issue with single crystal cores is that the cores are fired during manufacture at a
lower temperature (e.g. 11000C) than the mould temperature at which metal is cast. The core
therefore has a relatively low strength during the phase of the process where the mould
temperature is raised to the casting temperature. To prevent unacceptable core movement during
this phase, cores are supported in the mould with platinum pins. These pins instantly dissolve in
the alloy when the metal is poured.
Future aerofoil designs will involve the concept of wall cooling in which cooling air is
passed through the aerofoil wall. These designs are confidential but will require innovative core
technology to create the necessary casting configuration to achieve over 800 degrees of cooling
[1].

33

Fig. 9 Turbine rotor blade core [3]

Fig. 10 Nozzle Guide Vane Core [3]

5.3. Costs
Production costs are continually under review, in particular the automotive industry is constantly
improving its cost base. Turbochargers represent the largest market for the investment casting
industry and alloy costs and conservation are at the forefront of cost reduction. The Trucast
process is widely used by the industry, whereby the centre sprue of the tree is directly reused
for the alloy melting stock. Opportunities for the re-use of shell material is frequently under
consideration by research Organization, unfortunately, efforts to secure E.U. funding to carry out
extensive investigations have not been successful to date. Low cost refractories are possible for
commercial products but high value components such as those for aerospace and medical use are
unlikely to change from the established refractories.
Automation is well established for shell moulding and many finishing operations. Robotic
handling significantly improves the process consistency and reduces labour costs. Recent
developments by Mueller Phipps Inc. have included the concept of automated wax assembly
which is ideally suited for high volume commercial parts [3].

34

Fig. 11 Automated wax assembly and robotic handling [9]

Fig. 12 Fully Automated Investment Casting [5]

35

5.4. Process Development

5.4.1 Furnace
Most process development is related to furnace design. This is led by the requirements for large
Industrial gas turbine aero foils cast as DS or single crystals and cost reduction through improved
cast quality and volume of parts per furnace cycle.
Single crystal castings owe their high strength to their ability to be fully heat treated and the
absence of grain boundaries. On the debit side, single crystals suffer from all the defects
associated with equiax castings plus those associated with DS plus those specific to single
crystals. These include, secondary grains, slivers, recrystallised grains, freckles etc.
Table 3 DS and Single Crystal Defects [3]

Many of these defects can be reduced with good furnace technology. A high thermal gradient is
most beneficial since it will reduce the incidence of secondary grains and refine the
microstructure by reducing the dendrite arm spacing and thus assisting the solution heat
treatment. In recent times liquid metal cooling has been developed for very high gradient
solidification. These furnaces include a bath of liquid aluminium or tin in which the casting is
slowly immersed immediately after casting. Other furnace developments for DSX include the
use of donut chills in which blades are placed on a chill ring with a centre chill to increase the
temperature gradient and combination furnaces which can be used for either directional
solidification or equiax casting [3].

36

(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 13 Furnace Developments for DSX solidification (a) Conventional DSX; (b) Donut Chil
DSX; (c) Liquid Metal Cooling DSX [3]

Fig. 14 Combination Furnace [3]

37

Fig. 15 University of Birmingham- CRIMSON Method Layout [4]

Table 4 Thermal Efficiency of CRIMSON Method [4]

38

Fig. 16 Schematics of CLA and CLV Processes [1]

Fig. 17 Different Pouring Processes [5]

39

Fig. 18 Molten Metal Filtration Using Cores [5]

5.4.2 Direct Patterns (Rapid Prototyping)
Over 100,000 patterns were produced in the USA by rapid prototyping in 2007 of which 50%
were for production standard castings. This represents $250M worth of cast products. The
technology has matured over the last 10 years and there are a number of established processes
e.g. Stereolithography, Selective Laser Sintering(SLS), Thermojet, Solidscape etc. Of these the
most popular in Europe is a wax impregnated SLS marketed as Castform. Rapid Prototyping
has also been used for direct core manufacture and proprietary trials are underway to produce
integrated shells direct from rapid prototyping [3].
The manufacturing requirement that prompted this research is the fabrication of a complex swing
frame structure. The structure had unique but complex geometry with varying radii and angles,
hollowness, sockets of constant wall thickness where tubular structural members are designed to
mate, as well as sizes exceeding work envelope. Complexity of the objects made it impossible to
use milling in its fabrication. IC was selected as the method of fabrication, however cost and
time constraints in addition to the accuracy, repeatability, and the limited number of units
required deviation from conventional techniques used in IC. Keeping this in mind, it was decided
to prototype these parts using a stereolithography apparatus (SLA-250). The SLA parts could
then be used to create the wax patterns for investment casting. The advantage of this approach is
the rapid pace at which the parts could be created using the CAD/CAM technology and its
support to the freeform designs. The process used here is an innovative approach because the SL
patterns are used to create wax patterns instead of being used as a substitute for wax and
40

subsequently burnt out, which is the current trend in the technology. This process ensures the
reusability of the SL pattern for future requirements, and working off the same master pattern
improves the repeatability apart from the overall accuracy the process provides [6].
Table 5 Rapid Prototyping for Investment Casting Application [8]

5.4.3 Non Destructive Testing/Evaluation

It is likely that the industry can look forward to many significant advances in NDT and
dimensional inspection. Regarding NDT, micro focus x-ray is well established and used to detect
core position and micro cracks in both cores and castings. Digital x-ray is becoming increasingly
established although concerns regarding standards have yet to be totally resolved. A possible
future development is the concept of eyes off technology to detect and sentence defects using
advanced vision technology. Trials are underway to use this technology to detect FPI indications
and automatically sentence the part as either reject, salvageable or acceptable. Dimensional
inspection using laser technology to measure geometries has been used extensively for reverse
engineering and is now becoming increasingly used for conventional measurements [3].
5.4.4 Process simulation
Process modeling to simulate mould fill and solidification has become an established aid for
Manufacture. Fully integrated systems which use process modeling to assist with wax impression
and core tooling design, gating system design and the definition of casting parameters have yet to
be fully implemented but remain a distinct possibility for the future. Digital technology and
computing power are forever increasing and the future for the industry will be totally influenced
by the development of these technologies [3].
Considerable development efforts have been made to provide many solidification simulation
models of value in investment casting production. Currently, alternative computer simulation
software systems are available applying heat transfer models, based either on finite element or
finite difference methods. These are being utilized on the shop floor in many larger foundries,
especially in the design of gating and feeding systems, to determine effect of solidification
41

conditions on alloy microstructure, and for accurate predictions of tooling dimensions. The use
of simulation models plays a major role in the development of investment casting process for gas
turbine blades, specified with equiaxed grains, DS (directionally solidified) columnar grains, or
with single crystal, in many super alloys. Additionally, rapid advancements in the solidification
software show continual improvement in the ability to predict accurately many grain defects that
can occur in the production of directionally solidified, DS, or single crystal components [1].
5.5. Future Influences on the Investment Casting Industry
In the financial investment industry it is said about those who predict the future, that there are
those who dont know and those who dont know they dont know. The same could be said about
the investment casting industry but it may be possible to be a little more certain than the financial
Industry. Here, therefore, are a few possible predictions:

Raw materials will become increasingly expensive and in some cases the earths
limited resources will restrict their use without effective recycling. This will be
increasingly true of metallic elements such as rhenium.
Shortages of non metallic raw materials will cause the industry to investigate
alternative materials
Health and safety regulations will place increasing demands on manufacturing and
may restrict the use of materials currently in common use.
Engineering demands will place greater emphasis on dimensional control and
geometric complexity.
Cost consciousness will increase demands for less human involvement and greater
automation.
Increasing computing power and knowledge base systems such as neural networks will
beincreasingly important to the industry. It is possible to envisage a future foundry
where the process is defined by knowledge systems and controlled by expert systems
cognisant with defect detection and correction. The factory would be self learning and
self correcting with limited human interaction.
In the meantime the investment casting industry will continue to grow and remain one
of the essential strategic industries for the world [3].

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6. References:
[1].A Text book of Science and Technology of Casting Processes (Chapter 2 Progress in
Investment
Castings)
by
Ram
Prasad
published
by
INTECH.
(http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs-wm/39309.pdf)
[2].Williams R.B. Review of world Investment Casting Markets, 12th World Conference on
Investment Casting, Oct. 2008. (http://www.blayson.com/documents/waxmatters/Wax
%20Matters%20Issue%2012.pdf)
[3].Future Trends in Investment Casting Drivers for Development. David A Ford
(http://www.investmentcastingwax.com/downloads/ml29.pdf)
[4].Reduction of Energy Consumption in Investment Casting Process by application of a
New Casting Facility Mark Jolly, Xiaojun Dai, Binxu Zeng University of Birmingham
presented at Sustainable Thermal Energy Management in the Process Industries meet
(SusTEM2011), Newcastle, 25th-26th October 2011. (http://research.ncl.ac.uk/protem/components/pdfs/SusTEM2011/T3S1_02_Birmingham_XDai_SusTEM2011.pdf)
[5].Latest Trends in Investment Casting by Dr.Ing.Milan Horek Brno University of
Technology (http://www.investmentcastingwax.com/downloads/tl6.pdf)
[6].Investment Casting Using Stereolithography: Case of Complex Objects by Yasser A.
Hosni, Jamal Nayfeh, Ravindran Sundaram University of Central Florida, Orlando,
Florida,
USA
published
in
Engineers
edge.
(http://www.engineersedge.com/investment_casting_article.htm)
[7].Investment Casting - History, Materials and The Future, The A to Z of Materials
(http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=2104)
[8].Rapid Prototyping in Investment Casting by Clinton L. Atwood, Sandia National
Laboratories.
(http://www.wtec.org/loyola/rp/10_01.htm;
http://www.wtec.org/loyola/rp/10_02.htm; http://www.wtec.org/loyola/rp/10_03.htm)
[9].RLM Industries Inc. new Investment Casting Video (http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=CjKMd-0Dgl8)
[10].
Investment casting Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investment_casting)
[11].
Lost-wax casting Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lost-wax_casting)

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