Edc

RAGHU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Dakamarri (v), Bheemunipatnam (M)

Visakhapatnam Dist, Andhra Pradesh, PIN-531162
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, and Affiliated to Jawaharalal Nehru Technological University: Kakinada (AP)
2014-2015
II B.Tech ECE
LABORATORY MANUAL
For
ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS

[Student manual]
Prepared by
VVSSS CHAKRAVARTHY, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAGHU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Affiliated to JNTU-KAKINADA)
Visakhapatnam-531162
CERTIFICATE
Name of the Laboratory
: ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS
Name of the Faculty
: VVSSS CHAKRAVARTHY
Department
: ECE
Program
: B.Tech
Year
: II
Semester
: Ist
IQAC Members:
Name(s)
Signatures
HOD
CONTENTS
S.NO
DESCRIPTION
P.No
COURSE DESCRIPTION
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
vi
ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONS
viii
UNIVERSITY SYLLABUS
ix
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
SCHEDULE/CYCLE CHART
xii
PART-A
STUDY EXPERIMENT1: Identification, Specifications, Testing of R, L, C Components (Color
Codes),Potentiometers, Switches (SPDT, DPDT, and DIP), Coils, Gang Condensers, Relays, Bread
Boards
6
STUDY EXPERIMENT2: Identification, Specifications and Testing of Active Devices, Diodes,
16
BJTs, Low power JFETs, MOSFETs, Power Transistors, LEDs, LCDs, Optoelectronic Devices,
SCR, UJT, DIACs, TRIACs, Linear and Digital ICs
7
STUDY EXPERIMENT3 :Soldering practice Simple Circuits using active and passive
29
components
8
STUDY EXPERIMENT4: Single layer and Multi layer PCBs (Identification and Utility).
34
STUDY EXPERIMENT5: Study and operation of Multi meters ,Function Generator, Regulated
37
Power Supplies
10
STUDY EXPERIMENT6: Study and operation of CRO
42
PART-B
11
EXPERIMENT1 PN Junction diode characteristics
A. Forward bias B. Reverse bias.( cut-in
49
voltage & Resistance calculations)

12
13
14
EXPERIMENT2 Zener diode characteristics and Zener as a regulator

EXPERIMENT3 Rectifier without filters (Full wave & Half wave)
EXPERIMENT4 Rectifier with filters (Full wave & Half wave)
59
66
73
15
16
17
18
19
20
EXPERIMENT5 Transistor CE characteristics (Input and Output) & h Parameter calculations

EXPERIMENT6 FET characteristics
EXPERIMENT7 UJT Characteristics
EXPERIMENT8 CE Amplifier
EXPERIMENT9 CC Amplifier (Emitter Follower).
EXPERIMENT10 Common source amplifier
80
91
101
106
113
119
21
ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS
EXPERIMENT11 Transistor CB characteristics (Input and Output) & h Parameter calculations
127
Department of Electronics & Communications Engineering
EDC LAB
COURSE DESCRIPTION
Course Context and Overview:
The course consists of laboratory tasks dealing with electronic devicess characteristics and also some
of their applications. This is a rigorous introductory laboratory course to understand the behavior of
various electronic devices under bias condition and usefulness of these in various small circuits like
amplifiers ,oscillators. It is a credit based laboratory course designed as a supplement to the Electronic
devices and circuits theory course. Primary emphasis is placed on practical knowledge of various
active, passive devices and understanding of various measuring devices. Practical information relating
to electronic device characteristics is provided. Laboratory experiments are conducted to reinforce
theory and to provide practical experience with electronic devices and circuits. The course covers
practical experiment on diodes, transistors(BJT,JFET,UJT)
Course Prerequisites:
1.Electronic devices and circuits 2.network analysis
Literature
Student Manual
Books Recommended:
Text Books:
1.A text book of electronic devices and circuits-I by Prof.V.A.HAMBIRE Shree vision publications,
Aurangabad, first edition 1997
2. Electronic Devices and Circuits J.Millman, C.C.Halkias, and Satyabratha Jit Tata McGraw Hill,
2ndEd., 2007.
Reference Books:
1. Electronic Devices and Circuits R.L. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky, Pearson/Prentice Hall,9th
Edition,2006
2. Electronic Devices and Circuits T.F. Bogart Jr., J.S.Beasley and G.Rico, Pearson Education, 6th
edition, 2004.
3. Electronic Devices and Circuits Dr. K. Lal Kishore, B.S. Publications, 2nd
Edition, 2005.
Raghu Institute of Technology, Dakamarri, Visakhapatnam
EDC LAB
Additional Resources:
1.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/active elements
3. http://www.engineersgarage.com/tutorials/activeelements testing
Programme Educational Objectives
PEO No.
PEO 1
PEO 2
PEO 3
Programme Educational Objectives

To have the knowledge and technical skills required to be and to remain
productive.
To apply technical knowledge and skills as electronics and communication
engineers to provide effective solutions in industrial and governmental
organizations.
To achieve success with awareness of entrepreneurship skills and have the ability
for lifelong learning by pursuing professional development to meet the emerging
and evolving demands to have a successful career
Programme Outcomes
PO No.
Programme Outcomes
An ability to apply knowledge of mathematics, science, and engineering
An ability to design and conduct experiments, as well as to analyze and interpret data
An ability to design a engineering system, component, or process to meet desired needs
An ability to function on an inter-disciplinary team
An ability to identify, formulate, and solve engineering problems
An understanding of professional and ethical responsibility
An ability to communicate effectively

The broad education necessary to understand the impact of engineering solutions in a
global societal context
An ability to engage in life-long learning
Knowledge of contemporary issues

An ability to use the techniques, skills, and modern engineering tools necessary for
engineering practice
an ability to implement MATLAB, Embedded systems design for electronics and
communications engineering applications
ii
EDC LAB
Course Objectives:
To expose the students to basic principle of operation of various electronic devices and measuring
devices with experimental experience so that they can be able to service small electronic circuits like
amplifiers etc..
Course Outcomes:
S.No
Course Outcomes
1
An ability to service the small electronic circuits.
2
An ability to understand the usage of electronic components practically.
3
An ability to use the electronic measuring instruments.
4
An ability to analyze the electronic circuits practically
Mapping of Course Outcomes to Programme Outcomes and Programme Educational Objectives
S.No
Course Outcomes
An ability to service the small electronic circuits.
An ability to understand the usage of electronic
components practically.
An ability to use the electronic measuring instruments.
An ability to analyze the electronic circuits practically
1
2
3
4
Programme
Programme
Educational
Outcomes
Objectives
C
PEO I
B
PEO I
B
A
PEO I
PEO I
Assessment Strategy
A variety of learning strategies are used throughout the course.
S.No
1
Teaching Learning and Assessment Strategy

Classroom Demonstration by Faculty In charge through
different Teaching
Methodologies
Extra Laboratory Session
Student- Faculty In charge Discussion
Collaborative and Co-operative learn
Independent student study and Practice
iii
EDC LAB
Evaluation of Marks for the Laboratory Exam

Internal Marks - 25
For Laboratory courses there should be continuous evaluation during the semester for 25 Internal
Marks. The distribution of Internal Marks is given below.
Serial No
Criteria
Marks
Day to Day Work
10
2
3
Record
Internal Examination
Total Marks
5
10
25
External Lab Exam - 50

Each semester end lab Examination shall be evaluated by an External Examiner along with an Internal
Examiner.
Serial No
Criteria
Marks
Pre practical
30
Practical
10
Post practical
10
Viva
10
Total Marks
50
Total Lab Exam Marks - 75

Each semester Total Final lab Examination marks is the sum of marks obtained in both internal and
external Exams.
Serial No
Criteria
Marks
Internal
25
External
50
Total Marks
75
iv
EDC LAB
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
SAFETY:
1. You are doing experiments with the help of electrical power. You have to be very careful. You
must clearly know the supply system to your worktable in particular and the entire laboratory in
general.
2. In case of any wrong observation, you have to immediately switch off supply to the worktable.
3. You have to tuck in your shirts and not to play with instruments laid on the bench
4. Wearing loose garments inside the lab is strictly prohibited.
5. You have to wear shoes compulsorily.
ATTENDANCE:
1. Every time you come to the laboratory class, you have to come with your record note book,
observation notebook, calculators etc.
2. You have to give your attendance, you have to submit your records, you have to show the day's
experiment's circuit diagram and get it signed. You have to occupy the respective worktable of the
bench. Collect required components and meters etc as per indent slip.
MAKING CONNECTIONS:
1. Start giving connections as per the circuit diagram from one side of the circuit.
2. Know thoroughly the bread board connections
3. Terminals of the meters should not be used as junction points. There should not be any loose
connection. Thoroughly check the connections. Also keep all meters in such a way to read the
readings conveniently. Call staff to check the connections.
DOING EXPERIMENTS:
1. Start the experiment as per the procedure. First make connections according to circuit diagram and
give connection to RPS,FG,CRO s as when required
2. If any of the things are wrong, then switch off and modify the connections. Inform to the staff and
then START.
EDC LAB
OBSERVATION:
*Enter all readings in the tabulation. Note down the multiplication factor of any meter immediately.
CALCULATION:
Calculate all required quantities and enter in the tabulation. Units are very, very important. Draw
the necessary graphs. Write the result. Show it to the staff for getting Signature.
RECORD:
1. As the name Implies, it is a record: permanent record for reference. Write neatly; Draw circuit
diagrams neatly and label correctly.
2. Enter readings in the tabulation.
3. UNITS are to be written for various quantities.
4. Draw Graph. Complete the record before you come for next lab class.
5. Bring the record for submission during next lab class
vi
EDC LAB
ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONS
1. Before entering into the laboratory class, you must be well prepared for the experiment that you are
going to do on that day.
2. You must bring the related textbook, which may deal with the relevant experiment.
3. Get the circuit diagram approved .
4. Get the reading verified.
5. You must get the observation note corrected within two days from the date of completion
of experiment.
6. Write the answer for all the discussion questions in the observation note. If not, marks for
concerned observation will be proportionately reduced.
7. If you miss any practical class due to unavoidable reasons, intimate the staff in charge and do the
missed experiment in the repetition class.
8. Such of those students who fail to put in a minimum of 75% attendance in the laboratory class will
run the risk of not being allowed for the University Practical Examination. They will have to repeat
the lab course in subsequent semester after paying prescribed fee.
9. Acquire a good knowledge of the surrounding of your worktable. Know where the various live
points are situated in your table.
10. In case of any unwanted things happening, immediately switch off the mains in the worktable. The
same must be done when there is a power break during the experiment being carried out.
11. Avoid carrying too many instruments at the same time.
12. Avoid using water hydrant for electrical fires.
13. Avoid wearing any loose metallic rings, straps or bangles, as they are likely to prove
dangerous
at times.
vii
EDC LAB
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY KAKINADA

II Year B.Tech. Electrical and Electronics and communication Engineering I Semester
ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS LAB
PART A : (Only for viva voce Examination)
ELECTRONIC WORKSHOP PRACTICE ( in 6 lab sessions) :
1. Identification, Specifications, Testing of R, L, C Components (Color Codes), Potentiometers,
Switches (SPDT, DPDT, and DIP), Coils, Gang Condensers, Relays, Bread Boards.
2. Identification, Specifications and Testing of Active Devices, Diodes, BJTs, Low power JFETs,
MOSFETs, Power Transistors, LEDs, LCDs, Optoelectronic Devices, SCR, UJT, DIACs, TRIACs,
Linear and Digital ICs.
3. Soldering practice Simple Circuits using active and passive components.
4. Single layer and Multi layer PCBs (Identification and Utility).
5. Study and operation of
Multi meters (Analog and Digital)
Function Generator
Regulated Power Supplies
6.Study and operation of CRO.
PART B : (For Laboratory examination Minimum of 10 experiments)
1. Frequency measurement using Lissajous Figures
2. PN Junction diode characteristics A. Forward bias B. Reverse bias.( cut-in voltage & Resistance
calculations)
3. Zener diode characteristics and Zener as a regulator
4. Transistor CB characteristics (Input and Output) & h Parameter calculations
5. Transistor CE characteristics (Input and Output) & h Parameter calculations
6. Rectifier without filters (Full wave & Half wave)
7. Rectifier with filters (Full wave & Half wave)
8. FET characteristics
9. SCR Characteristics
10. UJT Characteristics
11. CE Amplifier
12. CC Amplifier (Emitter Follower).
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EDC LAB
LIST OF SELECTED EXPERIMENTS FROM JNTUK RECOMMENDED
PART-A: ELECTRONIC WORKSHOP PRACTICE

S.No.
STUDY
EXPERIMENT
No.
STUDY
EXPERIMANT 1
NAME OF THE STUDY EXPERIMENT
Identification, Specifications, Testing of R, L, C Components (Color Codes),

Potentiometers, Switches (SPDT, DPDT, and DIP), Coils, Gang Condensers,
Relays, Bread Boards
STUDY
EXPERIMENT 2
Identification, Specifications and Testing of Active Devices, Diodes, BJTs,

Low
power
JFETs,
MOSFETs,
Power
Transistors,
LEDs,
LCDs,
Optoelectronic Devices, SCR, UJT, DIACs, TRIACs, Linear and Digital ICs
3
STUDY
EXPERIMANT 3
Soldering practice Simple Circuits using active and passive components
STUDY
EXPERIMANT 4
Single layer and Multi layer PCBs (Identification and Utility).
STUDY
EXPERIMANT 5
STUDY
EXPERIMENT 6
Study and operation of Multi meters ,Function Generator, Regulated Power

Supplies
Study and operation of CRO
ix
EDC LAB
PART-B
S.No.
EXPERIMENT
No.
NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT
EXPERIMENT 1
EXPERIMENT 2
Zener diode characteristics and Zener as a regulator
EXPERIMENT 3
Rectifier without filters (Full wave & Half wave)
PN Junction diode characteristics A. Forward bias B. Reverse bias
EXPERIMENT 4
EXPERIMENT 5
Transistor CE characteristics (Input and Output) & h Parameter calculations
EXPERIMENT 6
FET characteristics
EXPERIMENT 7
UJT characteristics
EXPERIMENT 8
CE Amplifier
EXPERIMENT 9
10
EXPERIMENT 10
Common source amplifier
11
EXPERIMENT 11
Transistor CB characteristics (Input and Output) & h Parameter calculations- Additional
Rectifier with filters (Full wave & Half wave)
CC Amplifier (Emitter Follower).
Experiment
EDC LAB
ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS LABORATORY

CYCLE-WISE LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
I CYCLE (PART-A)
1. Identification, Specifications, Testing of R, L, C Components (Colour Codes), Potentiometers,
Switches (SPDT, DPDT, and DIP), Coils, Gang Condensers, Relays, Bread Boards.
2. Identification, Specifications and Testing of Active Devices, Diodes, BJTs, Low power JFETs,
MOSFETs, Power Transistors, LEDs, LCDs, Optoelectronic Devices, SCR, UJT, DIACs, TRIACs,
Linear and Digital ICs.
3. Soldering practice Simple Circuits using active and passive components.
4. Single layer and Multi layer PCBs (Identification and Utility).
5. Study and operation of Multi meters ,Function Generator, Regulated Power Supplies
6.Study and operation of CRO
II CYCLE (PART-B)
1. PN Junction diode characteristics A. Forward bias B. Reverse bias.
2. Zener diode characteristics and Zener as a regulator.
3. Transistor CB characteristics (Input and Output) & h Parameter calculations.
4. Transistor CE characteristics (Input and Output) & h Parameter calculations.
5. Rectifier without filters (Full wave & Half wave).
6. Rectifier with filters (Full wave & Half wave).
7. FET characteristics
8. UJT Characteristics
9. CE Amplifier
10. CC Amplifier (Emitter Follower).
xi
EDC LAB
STUDY EXPERIMANT No. 1

IDENTIFICATION ,SPECIFICATIONS,TESTING OF R,L,C COMPONENTS
(COLOR CODES), POTENTIOMETERS,SWITCHES(SPDT,DPDT &DIP),
COILS,GANG CONDENSERS, RELAYS,BREAD BOARD
AIM: To identify the different components and their symbols.
APPARATUS:
Resistors
Capacitors
Transformers
Switches and relays
Bread boards
THEORY:
RESISTORS:
Opposition to flow of currents is called resistance. The elements having resistance are
called resistors. They are of two types
1. Fixed resistor
2. Variable resistor
CAPACITORS:
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used
to store energy electro statically in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely,
but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e., insulator). The
conductors can be thin films of metal, aluminum foil or disks, etc. The 'non conducting' dielectric
acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. A dielectric can be glass, ceramic, plastic film, air,
paper, mica, etc. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical
devices. Unlike a resistor, a capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy in
the form of an electrostatic field between its plates.
When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a capacitor is attached across a
battery), an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge (+Q) to collect on
one plate and negative charge (-Q) to collect on the other plate. If a battery has been attached to a
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EDC LAB
capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current can flow through the capacitor. However, if an
accelerating or alternating voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor, a displacement
current can flow.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value for its capacitance. Capacitance is
expressed as the ratio of the electric charge (Q) on each conductor to the potential difference (V)
between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad(F), which is equal to one coulomb per volt (1
C/V). Typical capacitance values range from about 1 pF (1012 F) to about 1 mF (103 F).
The capacitance is greater when there is a narrower separation between conductors and when the
conductors have a larger surface area. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small
amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, known as the breakdown
voltage. The conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating
current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power supplies. In resonant
circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power transmission systems they stabilize
voltage and power flow
Capacitors are used to store large amount of static current.
When they are included in circuit it acts open circuit. They are three types
1. Disk capacitor
2. Fixed capacitor
3. Variable capacitor
COILS :
An electromagnetic
coil is
an
electrical conductor such
as
wire in
the
shape
of
a coil, spiral or helix. Electromagnetic coils are used in electrical engineering, in applications where
electric
currents interact
with magnetic
fields,
in
devices
such
as
inductors, electromagnets, transformers, and sensor coils. Either an electric current is passed through
the wire of the coil to generate a magnetic field, or conversely an external time-varying magnetic field
through the interior of the coil generates an EMF(voltage) in the conductor.
A current through any conductor creates a circular magnetic field around the conductor due
to Ampere's law. The advantage of using a coil shape is that it increases the strength of magnetic field
produced by a given current. The magnetic fields generated by the separate turns of wire all pass
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EDC LAB
through the center of the coil and add (superpose) to produce a strong field there. The more turns of
wire, the stronger the field produced. Conversely, a changing external magnetic flux induces a voltage
in a conductor such as a wire, due to Faraday's law of induction. The induced voltage can be increased
by winding the wire into a coil, because the field lines intersect the circuit multiple times.
The direction of the magnetic field produced by a coil can be determined by the right hand grip rule. If
the fingers of the right hand are wrapped around the magnetic core of a coil in the direction
of conventional current through the wire, the thumb will point in the direction the magnetic field
lines pass through the coil.
There are many different types of coils used in electric and electronic equipment.
Types of Coils
coils can be classified by the frequency of the current they are designed to operate with:
Direct current or DC coils or electromagnets operate with a steady direct current in their
windings
Audio-frequency or AF coils, inductors or transformers operate with alternating currents in

the audio frequency range, less than 20 kHz
Radio-frequency or RF coils, inductors or transformers operate with alternating currents in

the radio frequency range, above 20 kHz
Coils can be classified by their function:
Electromagnet
Electromagnets are coils that generate a magnetic field for some external use, often to exert a
mechanical force on something.[15] A few specific types:
Solenoid - an electromagnet in the form of a straight hollow helix of wire
Motor and generator windings - iron core electromagnets on the rotor or stator of electric
motors and generators which act on each other to either turn the shaft (motor) or generate
an electric current (generator)
Field winding - an iron-core coil which generates a steady magnetic field to act on the
armature winding.
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EDC LAB
Armature winding - an iron-core coil which is acted on by the magnetic field of the
field winding to either create torque (motor) or induce a voltage to produce power
(generator)
Helmholtz coil, Maxwell coil - air-core coils which serve to cancel an external magnetic
field
Degaussing coil - a coil used to demagnetize parts
Voice coil - a coil used in a moving-coil loudspeaker, suspended between the poles of a
magnet. When the audio signal is passed through the coil, it vibrates, moving the attached
speaker cone to create sound waves.
Inductors:
Inductors or reactors are coils which generate a magnetic field which interacts with the coil
itself, to induce a back EMF which opposes changes in current through the coil. Inductors are
used as circuit elements in electrical circuits, to temporarily store energy or resist changes in
current. A few types:
Tank coil - an inductor used in a tuned circuit
Choke - an inductor used to block high frequency AC while allowing through low
frequency AC.
Loading coil - an inductor used to add inductance to an antenna, to make it resonant, or to a

cable to prevent distortion of signals.
Vireo meter - an adjustable inductor consisting of two coils in series, an outer stationary
coil and a second one inside it which can be rotated so their magnetic axes are in the same
direction or opposed.
Fly back transformer - Although called a transformer, this is actually an inductor which
serves to store energy in switching power supplies and horizontal deflection circuits for
CRT televisions and monitors
Saturable reactor - an iron-core inductor used to control AC power by varying the

saturation of the core using a DC control voltage in an auxiliary winding.
Inductive ballast - an inductor used in gas-discharge lamp circuits, such as fluorescent

lamps, to limit the current through the lamp.
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EDC LAB
Transformers:
A transformer is a device with two or more magnetically coupled windings (or sections of
a single winding). A time varying current in one coil (called the primary winding)
generates a magnetic field which induces a voltage in the other coil (called the secondary
winding). A few types:
Autotransformer - a transformer with only one winding. Different portions of the winding,
accessed with taps, act as primary and secondary windings of the transformer.
Toroidal transformer - the core is in the shape of a toroid. This is a commonly used shape
as it decreases the leakage flux, resulting in less electromagnetic interference.
Induction coil or trembler coil - an early transformer which uses a vibrating interrupter
mechanism to break the primary current so it can operate off of DC current.
Ignition coil - an induction coil used in internal combustion engines to create a pulse of
high voltage to fire the spark plug which initiates the fuel burning.
Balun - a transformer which matches a balanced transmission line to an unbalanced one.
Bifilar coil - a coil wound with two parallel, closely spaced strands. If AC currents are
passed through it in the same direction, the magnetic fluxes will add, but if equal currents
in opposite directions pass through the windings the opposite fluxes will cancel, resulting
in zero flux in the core. So no voltage will be induced in a third winding on the core. These
are used in instruments and in devices like Ground Fault Interrupters. They are also used in
low inductance wire wound resistors for use at RF frequencies.
Audio transformer - A transformer used with audio signals. They are used for impedance
matching.
Hybrid coil - a specialized audio transformer with 3 windings used in tele phony
circuits to convert between two-wire and four-wire circuits
Transducer coils
These are coils used to translate time-varying magnetic fields to electric signals, and
vice versa. A few types:
Sensor or pickup coils - these are used to detect external time-varying magnetic fields
Inductive sensor - a coil which senses when a magnet or iron object passes near it
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EDC LAB
Recording head - a coil which is used to create a magnetic field to write data to a magnetic
storage medium, such as magnetic tape, or a hard disk. Conversely it is also used to read
the data in the form of changing magnetic fields in the medium.
Induction heating coil - an AC coil used to heat an object by inducing eddy currents in it, a
process called induction heating.
Loop antenna - a coil which serves as a radio antenna, to convert radio waves to electric
currents.
Rogowski coil - a toroidal coil used as an AC measuring device
Musical instrument pickup - a coil used to produce the output audio signal in an electric
guitar or electric bass.
Flux gate - a sensor coil used in a magnetometer
Magnetic phonograph cartridge - a sensor in a record player that uses a coil to translate
vibration of a needle to an audio signal in playing vinyl phonograph records
TRANSFORMERS:
Transformers are used to transfer the current.
They are of two types
1. Step up Transformer
2. Step down Transformer
INDUCTOR SPECIFICATIONS :
1. Inductance Value
2. Resistance
3. Capacitance
4. Frequency Value
5. Quality Factor
6. Power Losses
7. Current Ratings
8. Electro Magnetic Radiations
9. Temperature Coefficient
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EDC LAB
SWITCHES:
SPST: Single pole single through

SPDT: Single pole double through
DPST: Double pole single through
DPDT: Double pole double through
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
RESISTORS:
-fixed resistor
-variable resistor
CAPACITORS:
-fixed capacitor
-variable capacitor
INDUCTORS:
-Fixed inductor
Variable inductor
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EDC LAB
TRANSFORMERS:
Primary
secondary
SWITCHES:
SPST
SPDT
DPST
DPDT
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BREAD BOARD
An experimental version of a circuit generally lay out on a flat board and assembled with temporary
connections so that circuit elements may be easily substituted or changed. The name originates from
the fact that early electrical circuits were actually wired on wood bread boards. It is used to connect
an electronic circuit temporarily for testing and experimentation.
A typical bread board is shown in fig.
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RESISTOR COLOR CODE

The resistance value and tolerance of carbon resistor is usually indicated by color coding. Color
bands are printed on insulating body. They consist of four color bands or 5 color bands & they are
read from left to right.
A typical resistor with color bands is shown in figure
The above resistor has 4 color bands.

The first band represents first digit
The second band represent second digit
The third band represent multiplier (this gives the no. of zeros after the 2 digits )
The 4th band represents tolerance in %
The color codes are presented in below table
COLOR
First digit for
Second digit
the 1st band
for
the
2nd
Multiplier
Resistance
digit for the
tolerance
band
3rd band
Black
10^0
Brown
10^1
1%
Red
10^2
2%
Orange
10^3
3%
Yellow
10^4
Green
10^5
Blue
10^6
Violet
10^7
Gray
10^8
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EDC LAB
White
10^9
Gold
10^-1
5%
Silver
10^-2
10%
No color
20%
If third band is gold the first two digit are multiplied by 10^-1
If the third band is silver the first two digits are multiplied by 10^-2
If the 4th band is gold the tolerance is 5%
If the 4th band is silver is the tolerance is 10%
If the 4th band is no color the tolerance is 20%
The numerical value associated with each color
black
brown
red
orange
Yellow
green
blue
violet
gray
White
EXAMPLES:
The resistor has a color band sequence green, blue, brown and silver identify the resistance value.
1ST Band
2nd band
3rd band
4th band
1st digit
2nd digit
multiplier
tolerance
10^1
10%
page 12
EDC LAB
The resistance value=56x10^110%

=56010%
Therefore the resistance should be with in the range of 555 to 565
SECIFICATIONS FOR RLC COMPONENTS
RESISTOR:
1. Resistance value:
This is the value of the resistance expressed in ohms.
Ex: 10, 1M
2. Tolerance:
This is the variation in the value of the resistance i.e. expected from exact indicated value usually
tolerance is represented in %
ex: 1%,2%,20%...
2. Power rating:
The power rating is very important in the sense that it determines the maximum correct that a
resistor can withstand without being destroyed.
The power rating of resistor is specified as so many watts at a specific temperature such as one or
two watts at 70 degree.
CAPACITOR:
1. Value of capacitance
2. Tolerance
3. Voltage rating
4. Temperature coefficient
5. Leakage resistance
6. Frequency range
7. Dielectric constant
8. dielectric strength
9. power factor
10. Stability
page 13
EDC LAB
INDUCTOR;
Inductor value:
The inductance is defined as the ability of an inductor which opposes the change in current. It
is denoted by the letter L and its unit is Henry(H).Ex:1H.2H
Mutual inductance:
It is the ability of a varying current in one inductor L1 induced voltage in another inductor
L2 near by .
It is represented by Lm and is measured in Henry.
M=K (L1XL2) H
Coefficient if coupling:
It is defined as the ratio of flux linkages between L1 and L2. To total flux produced by L1.
It is represented by K and its typical value is 1.
K=Lm/ (L1XL2)
Permeability:
It is denoted by micros and it is return as =B/H.
Where B=flux density
H=Flux intensity
PROCEDURE:
Different components can be identified by using their different symbols.
RESULT:
Components are identified using their symbols.
VIVA VOCE QUESITIONS WITH ANSWERS:
1 ) what are the various types of resistors?
A)Mainly two types:1.fixed resistors 2.variable resistors
2) what are various types of capacitors?
A)There are 3 types
1. Fixed capacitors 2.variable capacitors 3.disc capacitors
3)write the current and voltage relations in transformers?
A) V1/V2 =I2/I1 =N1/N2
page 14
EDC LAB
4)what are the specifications of inductors?

A)
1.
Inductance Value
2. Resistance
3. Capacitance
4. Frequency Value
5. Quality Factor
6. Power Losses
7. Current Ratings
8. Electro Magnetic Radiations
9. Temperature Coefficient
10.
5)what are the types of switches?
A)
SPST: Single pole single through
SPDT: Single pole double through
DPST: Double pole single through
DPDT: Double pole double through
6)explain how connections can be made on bread board?
A) It is used to connect an electronic circuit temporarily for testing and experimentation.
Connections can be made Series and parallel
7)what are the values of resistances when the color codes are i)brown, black, red ii)brown, black,
orange
A)
1K and 10K
8) The resistor has a color band sequence green, blue, brown and silver identify the resistance value?
A) 56010%
. Therefore the resistance should be with in the range of 555 to 565
page 15
EDC LAB
STUDY EXPERIMENT NO.2

Identification, Specifications and Testing of Active Devices, Diodes, BJTs, Low
power JFETs, MOSFETs, Power Transistors, LEDs, LCDs, Optoelectronic
Devices, SCR, UJT, DIACs, TRIACs, Linear and Digital ICs
AIM: To identify and test the different semiconductor active devices
APPARATOUS REQUIRED:
1.diode
2.voltage and power transistors
3.voltage and power JFETS,MOSFETS
4.light emitting diodes, Zener diodes
5.lyquid crystal display
6.photo diode
7.linear IC IC 741
8.digital IC-ex 7400,7432
THEORY:
SEMICONDUCTORS:
Semiconductors are partial conductors which conducts electricity partially through them. They
play major role in electronics. Semiconductor is a material for which the width of the forbidden gap
between the valence band conduction is very small. As gap is every small valence electron acquire
required energy to go in to the conduction band. These free electrons constitute of current under the
influence of applied electric field. The energy band is time for semiconductor. They are a class of
material whose electrical conductivity lies between that of a conductor and an insulator. The
conductivity of a semiconductor lies in a range of10^5 and 10^-4siemens/meter.
Semiconductor devices are electronic components that exploit the electronic properties of semi
conductor materials, principally silicon, germanium, and gallium arsenide, as well as organic
semiconductors. Semiconductor devices have replaced thermionic devices (vacuum tubes) in most
applications.
They
use electronic conduction in
the solid
state as
opposed
to
the gaseous
state or thermionic emission in a high vacuum.
page 16
EDC LAB
Semiconductor devices are manufactured both as single discrete devices and as integrated
circuits (ICs), which consist of a numberfrom a few (as low as two) to billionsof devices
manufactured and interconnected on a single semiconductor substrate, or wafer.
Semiconductor materials are so useful because their behavior can be easily manipulated by the
addition of impurities, known as doping. Semiconductor conductivity can be controlled by
introduction of an electric or magnetic field, by exposure to light or heat, or by mechanical
deformation of a doped mono crystalline grid; thus, semiconductors can make excellent sensors.
Current conduction in a semiconductor occurs via mobile or "free" electrons and holes, collectively
known as charge carriers. Doping a semiconductor such as silicon with a small amount of impurity
atoms, such as phosphorus or boron, greatly increases the number of free electrons or holes within the
semiconductor. When a doped semiconductor contains excess holes it is called "p-type", and when it
contains excess free electrons it is known as "n-type", where p (positive for holes) or n (negative
for electrons) is the sign of the charge of the majority mobile charge carriers. The semiconductor
material used in devices is doped under highly controlled conditions in a fabrication facility, or fab, to
precisely control the location and concentration of p- and n-type do pants. The junctions which form
where
n-type
and
p-type
semiconductors
join
together
are
called pn
junctions.
Power semiconductor devices are discrete devices or integrated circuits intended for high current or
high voltage applications. Power integrated circuits combine IC technology with power semiconductor
technology, these are sometimes referred to as "smart" power devices. Several companies specialize in
manufacturing power semiconductors.
DIODES:
The diode is a device made from a single pn junction. At the junction of a p-type and an n-type
semiconductor there forms a region called the depletion region which blocks current conduction from
the n-type region to the p-type region, but allows current to conduct from the p-type region to the ntype region. Thus, when the device is forward biased, with the p-side at higher electric potential, the
diode conducts current easily; but the current is very small when the diode is reverse biased.
Exposing a semiconductor to light can generate electronhole pairs, which increases the number of
free carriers and its conductivity. Diodes optimized to take advantage of this phenomenon are known
as photodiodes. Compound semiconductor diodes can also be used to generate light, as in lightemitting diodes and laser diodes.
page 17
EDC LAB
Types of diodes
1.
P-N Junction diode
2.
Zener diode
3.
Light emitting diodes
4.
Photo diode etc
TRANSISTORS:
Bipolar junction transistors are formed from two pn junctions, in either npn or pnp
configuration. The middle, or base, region between the junctions is typically very narrow. The other
regions, and their associated terminals, are known as the emitter and the collector. A small current
injected through the junction between the base and the emitter changes the properties of the basecollector junction so that it can conduct current even though it is reverse biased. This creates a much
larger current between the collector and emitter, controlled by the base-emitter current.
Another type of transistor, the field-effect transistor, operates on the principle that semiconductor
conductivity can be increased or decreased by the presence of an electric field. An electric field can
increase the number of free electrons and holes in a semiconductor, thereby changing its conductivity.
The field may be applied by a reverse-biased pn junction, forming a junction field-effect
transistor (JFET) or by an electrode isolated from the bulk material by an oxide layer, forming
a metaloxidesemiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET).
The MOSFET, a solid-state device, is the most used semiconductor device today. The gate electrode is
charged to produce an electric field that controls the conductivity of a "channel" between two
terminals, called the source and drain. Depending on the type of carrier in the channel, the device may
be an n-channel (for electrons) or a p-channel (for holes) MOSFET. Although the MOSFET is named
in part for its "metal" gate, in modern devices poly silicon is typically used instead.
They are of 4 types
1. BJT: Bi polar junction transistor again 2 types
NPN-BJT
PNP-BJT
Here B-base
C-collector
E-Emitter
2. JFET: Field effect transistors again 2 types
page 18
EDC LAB
P-Channel FET
N-Cannel FET
Here G-Gate terminal
D-Drain terminal
S-Source terminal
3. JFET: Junction field effect transistors they similar to FET.
4. MOSFET: Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor
These are of two types
a. Depletion MOSFET:
These are again classified into two types
N-Channel MOSFET
P-Channel MOSFET
Here ss is substrate
b. Enhancement MOSFET:
These are again classified into two types
N-Channel MOSFET
P-Channel MOSFET
Here G-Gate terminal

D-Drain terminal
S-Source terminal
ss-subsstrate
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS :
An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as an IC, a chip, or a
microchip) is a set of electronic circuits on one small plate ("chip") of semiconductor material,
normally silicon. This can be made much smaller than a discrete circuit made from independent
components. ICs can be made very compact, having up to several billion transistors and
other electronic components in an area the size of a fingernail. The width of each conducting line in a
circuit can be made smaller and smaller as the technology advances; in 2008 it dropped below
100 nanometers and in 2013 it was expected to be in the tens of nanometers
page 19
EDC LAB
Integrated circuits can be classified into analog, digital and mixed signal (both analog and digital on
the same chip).
Digital integrated circuits can contain anywhere from one to millions of logic gates, flipflops, multiplexers, and other circuits in a few square millimeters. The small size of these circuits
allows high speed, low power dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost compared with board-level
integration. These digital ICs, typically microprocessors, DSPs, and microcontrollers, work using
binary mathematics to process "one" and "zero" signals.
Analog ICs, such as sensors, power management circuits, and operational amplifiers, work by
processing
continuous
signals.
They perform
functions
like amplification, active
filtering,
demodulation, and mixing. Analog ICs ease the burden on circuit designers by having expertly
designed analog circuits available instead of designing a difficult analog circuit from scratch.
ICs can also combine analog and digital circuits on a single chip to create functions such asA/D
converters and D/A converters. Such mixed-signal circuits offer smaller size and lower cost, but must
carefully account for signal interference.
page 20
EDC LAB
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
SEMICONDUCTORS AND THEIR CIRCUIT SYMBOLS:
S.N.o SEMI CONDUCTOR DEVICE

1
diode
2
SYMBOL
Zener diode
NPN-BJT
PNP-BJT
P-Channel JFET
N-Cannel FET
N-Channel depletion type MOSFET
page 21

8
P-Channel depletion type MOSFET
N-Channel Enhancement type MOSFET
10
P-Channel Enhancement type MOSFET
11
Uni junction transistor
12
Silicon controlled rectifier
13
Light emitting diode
13
Photo diode
EDC LAB
page 22
EDC LAB
PROCEDURE:
1.TESTING OF DIODE USING DIGITAL MULTIMETER:
Diode has two terminals Anode (+) and Cathode (-). Terminals can be identified by the shaded portion at the
end of the diode. Terminal near the shaded portion is Cathode (-) and other one is anode (+).
Diode can be tested with the help of Diode function of the multimeter
Power ON the multimeter
Turn the knob towards the Diode Function
The Digital Meter will show no reading as there are no terminals connected
Connect the leads in forward biasing i.e. Positive to the Anode and Negative to the Cathode.
Connections should be tight and neat
After connecting note down the reading.
The multimeter will show the forward voltage drop between the two testing leads
2.TESTING OF BJT USING MULTIMETER:
METHOD 1: UNDERSTANDING TRAANSISTORS

A transistor is a semiconductor that allows current to flow through it under certain conditions, and
cuts current off when other conditions are present. Transistors are commonly used as either a switch or
a current amplifier. You can test a transistor with a multimeter that has a diode test function
A transistor is basically 2 diodes that share one end. The shared end is called the base and the other
2 ends are called the emitter and collector.
*The collector accepts an input current from the circuit, but it can't send the current through the
transistor until allowed to by the base.
*The emitter sends a current out into the circuit, but only if the base allows the collector to pass the
current through the transistor to the emitter.
*The base acts like a gate. When a small current is applied to the base, the gate opens and a large
current can flow from the collector to the emitter.
page 23
EDC LAB
Transistors may operate by junctions or field effects, but both come in two basic types.
*An NPN transistor uses a positive semiconductor material (P-type) for the base and negative
semiconductor material (N-type) for the collector and emitter. On a circuit diagram, an NPN transistor
shows an emitter with the arrow pointing out ("Never Points iN" aids remembering).
*A PNP transistor uses an N-type material for the base and P-type material for the emitter and
collector. The PNP transistor show an emitter with the arrow pointing in ("Points iN Permanently" is
the memorizer).
METHOD2: SETTING UP THE MULTIMETER

*Insert the probes into the multimeter. The black probe goes into the common terminal and the red
probe goes into the terminal marked for testing diodes.
*Turn the selector knob to the diode test function
*Replace the probe tips with alligator clamps
METHOD 3 : TESTING WHEN WE KNOW THE TERMINALS
*Determine which leads are the base, emitter and collector. The leads are round or flat wires
extending from the bottom of the transistor. They may be labeled on some transistors or you may be
able to determine which lead is the base by studying the circuit diagram.
*Clamp the black probe to the base of the transistor
*Touch the red probe to the emitter. Read the display on the multimeter and note whether the
resistance is high or low
*Move the red probe to the collector. The display should give the same reading as when you
touched the probe to the emitter
*Remove the black probe and clamp the red probe to the base.
*Touch the black probe to the emitter and collector. Compare the reading on the multimeter's
display to the readings you got previously.
page 24
EDC LAB
*If the previous readings were both high and the current readings are both low, the transistor is good.
*If the previous readings were both low and the current readings are both high, the transistor is good.
*If both readings you receive with the red probe are not the same, both readings with the black probe
are not the same, or the readings don't change when switching probes, the transistor is bad.
METHOD 4: TESTING WHEN WE DONOT KNOW THE TERMINALS
**Clamp the black probe to 1 of the leads of the transistor
**Touch the red probe to each of the other 2 leads.
*If the display shows high resistance when each of the leads are touched, you have found the base (and
you have a good NPN transistor).
*If the display shows 2 different readings for the other 2 leads, clamp the black probe to another lead
and repeat the test.
*After clamping the black probe to each of the 3 leads, if you don't get the same high resistance
reading when touching the other 2 leads with the red probe, you either have a bad transistor or a PNP
transistor.
**Remove the black probe and clamp the red probe to 1 of the leads
**Touch the black probe to each of the other 2 leads.
*If the display shows high resistance when each of the leads are touched, you have found the base (and
you have a good PNP transistor).
*If the display shows 2 different readings for the other 2 leads, clamp the red probe to another lead and
repeat the test.
*After clamping the red probe to each of the 3 leads, if you don't get the same high resistance reading
when touching the other 2 leads with the black probe, you have a bad PNP transistor.
3.Identification of IC pins :
IC pins are numbered anti clockwise around the IC starting near the notch or dot .
IC s can be tested whether they are bad or good using DIGITAL IC TESTER
RESULT: Hence studied and tested the various active devices
page 25
EDC LAB
VIVA VOCE QUESITIONS AND ANSWERS:

1)what are the various types of semiconductor devices? draw their symbols?
A)
S.N.o SEMI CONDUCTOR DEVICE

1
diode
2
SYMBOL
Zener diode
NPN-BJT
PNP-BJT
P-Channel JFET
N-Cannel FET
page 26

7
N-Channel depletion type MOSFET
P-Channel depletion type MOSFET
N-Channel Enhancement type MOSFET
10
P-Channel Enhancement type MOSFET
11
Uni junction transistor
12
Silicon controlled rectifier
EDC LAB
page 27
EDC LAB
2.How many leads that the diode have and what are they?
A)Diodes have two leads, they are ANODE and CATHODE
3)How many terminals that the BJT have and what are they?
A)BJT have 3 terminals such as emitter ,base ,collector
4.What is an IC?how the pins can be identified?
A)IC means it is an integrated circuit where the discrete circuits components are integrated.
The pins can be identified as
IC pins are numbered anti clockwise around the IC starting near the notch or dot .
IC s can be tested whether they are bad or good using DIGITAL IC TESTER
page 28
EDC LAB
STUDY EXPERIMENT No.3

SOLDERING PRACTICE- SIMPLE CIRCUITS USING ACTIVE AND
PASSIVE COMPONENTS
AIM: To study and practice soldering
Components required: 1.soldering gun

2.soldring lead
3.soldering flux
Soldering is a process for joining metal parts with the aid of molten metal, where the melting
temperature is situated below that of material joined and where by the surface of part are coated
without turn in becoming molten.
A soldering connection ensures metal continuity on the other hand, when two metals are joined ,
behave like a single solid metal by joining disconnected. (or) physically attaching to each other.
Soldering filler materials are available in many different alloys for differing applications. In
electronics assembly, the eutectic alloy of 63% tin and 37% lead (or 60/40, which is almost identical
in melting point) has been the alloy of choice. Other alloys are used for plumbing, mechanical
assembly, and other applications. Some examples of soft-solder are tin-lead for general purposes, tinzinc for joining aluminium , lead-silver for strength at higher than room temperature, cadmium-silver
for strength at high temperatures, zinc-aluminium for aluminium and corrosion resistance, and tinsilver and tin-bismuth for electronics. A eutectic formulation has advantages when applied to
soldering: the liquids and solidus temperatures are the same, so there is no plastic phase, and it has
the lowest possible melting point. Having the lowest possible melting point minimizes heat stress on
electronic components during soldering. And, having no plastic phase allows for quicker wetting as
the solder heats up, and quicker setup as the solder cools. A non-eutectic formulation must remain
still as the temperature drops through the liquids and solidus temperatures. Any movement during the
plastic phase may result in cracks, resulting in an unreliable joint.
Common solder formulations based on tin and lead are listed below. The fraction represent percentage
of tin first, then lead, totaling 100%:
page 29
EDC LAB
63/37: melts at 183 C (361 F) (eutectic: the only mixture that melts at a point, instead of over a
range)
60/40: melts between 183190 C (361374 F)
50/50: melts between 185215 C (365419 F)
For environmental reasons (and the introduction of regulations such as the European RoHS
(Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive)), lead-free solders are becoming more widely used.
They are also suggested anywhere young children may come into contact with (since young children
are likely to place things into their mouths), or for outdoor use where rain and other precipitation may
wash the lead into the groundwater. Unfortunately, most lead-free solders are not eutectic
formulations, melting at around 250 C (482 F), making it more difficult to create reliable joints with
them.
Other common solders include low-temperature formulations (often containing bismuth), which are
often used to join previously-soldered assemblies without un-soldering earlier connections, and hightemperature formulations (usually containing silver) which are used for high-temperature operation or
for first assembly of items which must not become unsoldered during subsequent operations. Alloying
silver with other metals changes the melting point, adhesion and wetting characteristics, and tensile
strength. Of all the brazing alloys, silver solders have the greatest strength and the broadest
applications. Specialty alloys are available with properties such as higher strength, the ability to solder
aluminum, better electrical conductivity, and higher corrosion resistance.
Types of soldering:
1. Iron soldering
2. Mass soldering
3. Dip soldering
4. Wave soldering
Solder alloys:
Tin lead, Tin antimony, Tin lead antimony, Tn silver, Tin Zinc.
Soldering is an alloying process between two metals with which it divides some of the metal, with
which it comes into contact. A flux is used to remove this oxide from the area to be soldered.
page 30
EDC LAB
Soldering of solder alloy:

Even though the alloy Sb 60/pb 60 is cheaper and still finds a good market, it is advisable to prefer
Sn63/pb 37 for high quality inter connection because
It has higher melting point which means soldering range is 5c higher.
The tensile strength as well as sheal strength of Sn60/pb 37
Is higher in comparison to Sn60/pb 40.
Only tin trans the inter molecular bond with copper of CU3Sn andCU6SN.
The specific gravity of Sn63/ pb 37 is also lesser than that of Sn60/ pb 40.
Higher composition of tin increases the electrical as well as thermal conductivity. It also gives
brightness to the joint flux.
FLUX: To aid the soldering process, a substance called flux is used. Flux has below three purposes.
The purpose of flux is to facilitate the soldering process. One of the obstacles to a successful solder
joint is an impurity at the site of the joint, for example, dirt, oil or oxidation. The impurities can be
removed by mechanical cleaning or by chemical means, but the elevated temperatures required to melt
the filler metal (the solder) encourages the work piece (and the solder) to re-oxidize. This effect is
accelerated as the soldering temperatures increase and can completely prevent the solder from joining
to the work piece. One of the earliest forms of flux was charcoal, which acts as a reducing agent and
helps prevent oxidation during the soldering process. Some fluxes go beyond the simple prevention of
oxidation and also provide some form of chemical cleaning (corrosion).
For many years, the most common type of flux used in electronics (soft soldering) was rosin-based,
using the rosin from selected pine trees. It was ideal in that it was non-corrosive and non-conductive at
normal temperatures but became mildly reactive (corrosive) at the elevated soldering temperatures.
Plumbing and automotive applications, among others, typically use an acid-based (muriatic acid) flux
which provides cleaning of the joint. These fluxes cannot be used in electronics because they are
conductive and because they will eventually dissolve the small diameter wires. Many fluxes also act as
a wetting agent in the soldering process, reducing the surface tension of the molten solder and causing
it to flow and wet the work pieces more easily.
Fluxes for soft solder are currently available in three basic formulations:
1. Water-soluble fluxes - higher activity fluxes designed to be removed with water after soldering
(no VOCs required for removal).
page 31
EDC LAB
2. No-clean fluxes - mild enough to not "require" removal due to their non-conductive and noncorrosive residue. These fluxes are called "no-clean" because the residue left after the solder
operation is non-conductive and won't cause electrical shorts; nevertheless they leave a plainly
visible white residue that resembles diluted bird-droppings. No-clean flux residue is acceptable
on all 3 classes of PCBs as defined by IPC-610 provided it does not inhibit visual inspection,
access to test points, or have a wet, tacky or excessive residue that may spread onto other
areas. Connector mating surfaces must also be free of flux residue. Finger prints in no clean
residue is a class 3 defect
3. Traditional rosin fluxes - available in non-activated (R), mildly activated (RMA) and activated
(RA) formulations. RA and RMA fluxes contain rosin combined with an activating agent,
typically an acid, which increases the wettability of metals to which it is applied by removing
existing oxides. The residue resulting from the use of RA flux is corrosive and must be
cleaned. RMA flux is formulated to result in a residue which is not significantly corrosive,
with cleaning being preferred but optional.
Flux performance needs to be carefully evaluated; a very mild 'no-clean' flux might be perfectly
acceptable for production equipment, but not give adequate performance for a poorly controlled handsoldering operation.
Remove the film of tarnish from the metal surface to be soldered.
To prevent the base metals from being re exposed to oxygen in the air to be avoid oxidation during
heating, which means rotation of welding by preventing from oxidation.
Assist in the transfer of heat to metal being soldered.
The soldering process involves
1. Melting of the solder which makes the higher flux and brings the impurities suspended in it to the
surface.
2. Partial dissolution of some metals in the connection by solder.
3. Cooling and fusing solder with the metal quest often for locating a problem in the functioning of
the circuit.
It is necessary to remove a component from the printed circuit board and carryout the requisite tests
on it.
The process of repair usually involves
Disassembly of a particular component.
Testing of component
page 32
EDC LAB
Replacing of the component found defective.

4.In this process of removal and replacement of electronic devices, the
process of soldering is
employed. specific gravity of Sn63/ pb 37 is also lesser than that of Sn60/p 40 that makes the
equipment lighter.
RESULT: studied and practiced soldering
Viva voce questions with answers :
1)define soldering process?

A) Soldering is a process for joining metal parts with the aid of molten metal, where the melting
temperature is
situated below that of material joined and where by the surface of part are coated
without turn in becoming molten

2)mention the advantages of soldering?
A) A soldering connection ensures metal continuity on the other hand, when two metals are joined ,
behave like a single solid metal by joining disconnected. (or) physically attaching to each other
3)what the types of soldering?
A)
1. Iron soldering
2. Mass soldering
3. Dip soldering
4. Wave soldering
4)what are the alloys used for soldering?
A) Tin lead, Tin antimony, Tin lead antimony, Tn silver, Tin Zinc.
page 33
EDC LAB

SINGLE LAYER AND MULTI LAYER PCBs
(Identification and Utility)
AIM: To study the single layer and multi layer PCBs.
APPARATUS: PCB
The design of PCB is considered as the last step in electronic design as well as the major step in the
production of PCB. It is a board consisting of printed circuit of electronic equipment on it and is used
for the designing of circuit.
THE STEPS FOR DESIGNING PCB are

1. Layout planning
2. Art work
3. Film master production
4. Pattern transfer (photo/screen printing)
5. Plating
6. Etching
7. Mechanical matching operations
The layout is the work done before the art work in the PCB. It provides all the information about the
circuit, which has to drawn on PCB. Protection of copper tracks is very much essential Plasting is
such a process which forms a thin layer over copper tracks and protect them. Generally, it is done
with gold.
Types of copper plating: Copper plating

Nickel plating
Gold plating
Tin plating
Tin lead plating
page 34
EDC LAB
Etching means to draw on board by the action of acid, especially by coating the surface with wax and
letting the acid cast into the lines or area laid bar with needle.
Spray etching
Laminate etching
Splash etching (Configured force by rotating in centre).
The double sided PCBs are made with or without plated through holes.
Fabrication of plated through holes type boards is very expensive.
Two types: Plated through holes

No plated through holes.
In plated through holes, the total no. of holes is kept minimum for economy and reliability.
In no plated through holes, contacts are made by soldering the component lead on both sides of board
when required and jumper wires are added. There should be minimum solder joints on the
component sides. Replacing of such components is different.
Result: Single Layer and Multilayer PCBs are studied

VIVA VOCE QUESITONS AND ANSWERS:
1)what is PCB?
A) The design of PCB is considered as the last step in electronic design as well as the major step in the production of PCB.
It is a board consisting of printed circuit of electronic equipment on it and is used for the designing of circuit .
2)what are the various steps in designing PCB?

A) THE STEPS FOR DESIGNING PCB are
1. Layout planning
2. Art work
3. Film master production
4. Pattern transfer (photo/screen printing)
5. Plating
6. Etching
7. Mechanical matching operations
page 35
EDC LAB
3)what are the types of copper platting?

A) Copper plating, Nickel plating, Gold plating, Tin plating, Tin lead plating
4)what is etching? mention its types?
Etching means to draw on board by the action of acid, especially by coating the surface with wax and letting the acid cast
into the lines or area laid bar with needle.
Spray etching
Laminate etching
page 36
EDC LAB

STUDY AND OPERATION OF MULTIMETERS, FUNCTION GENERATOR,
REGULATED POWER SUPPLIES
AIM: To study and operation of multimeters, function generator, and regulated power supply.
APPARATUS:
Multimeter
Function generator
Regulated power supply.
THEORY:
REGULATED POWER SUPPLY
Power supplies provided by a regulated DC voltage facilities fine and coarse adjustments
and monitoring facilities for voltage and current. They will work in constant voltage and current
mode depending on current limit and output load.
The current limit has good stability, load and line regulations. Outputs are protected
against overload and short circuit damages. They are available in single and dual channel models
with different voltage and current capacities. Overload protection circuit of constant self restoring
type is provided to prevent the unit as well as the circuit under use.
The power supplies are specially designed and developed for well regulated DC output.
These are useful for high regulation laboratory power supplies, particularly suitable for experimental
setup and circuit development in R&D.
page 37
EDC LAB
FUNCTION GENERATOR
page 38

Designation
EDC LAB
Specifications
Wave form
: Sine, squares, triangles, TTL square waves
Amplitude
: 0-20V for all the functions.
Sine distortion
: Less than 1% from 0.1 HZ to 100 HZ harmonics

Modulation showed down fundamental for 100K
HZ to 1MHG.
Offset
: Continuously variable 10V
Frequency range
: 0.1 HZ to 1hz in ranges.
Output impedance
: 600 ohms, 5%.
Square wave duty cycle
: 49% to 51%.
Differential linearity
: 0.5%
Range selectors: Decode frequency by multiplying the range selected with the frequency indicated
by dial gives the output frequency, which applies for all functions.
Function selectors: Selected desired output wave form which appears at 600 output.
VCO input: An external input will vary the output frequency. The change in frequency is directly
proportional to input voltage.
TTL output: A TTL square wave is available at this jack. The frequency is determined by the range
selected and the setting of frequency dial. This output is independent of amplitude and D.C OFFSET
controls.
Amplitude control: Control he amplitude of the output signal, which appears at 600ohms.
OFFSET control: Control the DC offset of the output. It is continuously variable for 5V, 100V.
Fine frequency dial: Multiplying the setting of this dial to the frequency range selected gives the
output frequency of the wave forms at the 600ohms.
page 39
EDC LAB
MULTIMETER:
DIGITAL MULTIMETER
A multi meter is a versatile instrument and is also called Volt-Ohm-Milli ammeter (VOM).
It is used to measure the d.c and a.c voltages and resistance values.
A digital multi meters essentially consists of an analog to digital converters. It converters
analog values in the input to an equivalent binary forms. These values are processed by digital
circuits to be shown on the visual display with decimal values. The liquid crystal display system is
generally employed. Actually all the functions in DMM depend ion the voltage measurements by the
converter and comparator circuits
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EDC LAB
Result: The operation of multi meters, function generator, and Regulated Power Supply are studied.
VIVA VOCE QUESITIONS AND ANSWERS :

1)what is RPS? mention its main purpose?
A)RPS is regulated power supply. the main purpose is to provide regulated D.C voltages, dual track
supply for biasing all the electronic circuits in the laboratory or for electronic projects.
2)what is function generator and mention its purpose?
A)The function generator is an electronic device ,used to generate various electric signals such as sine
waves, saw tooth waves, triangular waves ,rectangular and square waves
3)what is multi meter? Mention types and its purpose?
A)The multi meter is a measuring instrument used to measure voltages, currents, resistances,
frequencies, etc .they are mainly of two types
1.analog multi meter
2.digital multi meter
4)what are the various controls on the front panel of FG?
A)The main controls on the front panel of FG are amplitude control, frequency control
page 41
EDC LAB

STUDY & OPERATION OF CRO
AIM: To observe front panel control knobs and to find amplitude, time period and frequency for
given waveforms and also find phase by using the Lissajous figures.
APPARATUS: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope, function generator, connecting wires.
THEORY: C.R.O is a versatile instrument used for display of wave forms and is a fast x-y plotter.
The heart of C.R.O is and the rest is the circuitry to operate C.R.O
The main parts are
1. Electron gun: - it is used to produce sharply focused beam of electron accelerated to very high
velocity.
2. Deflection system: - it deflects the electron both in horizontal and vertical plan.
3. Florescent screen:- the screen which produces, spot of visible light . when beam of electrons are
incident on it the other side of tube is coated with phosphorus material.
FRONT PANNEL:
ON-POWER: toggle switch for switching on power.
INTENCITY: controls trace intensity from zero to maximum.
FOCUS: It controls sharpness of trace a slight adjustment of focus is done after changing intensity
of trace.
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EDC LAB
AC-DC: GROUND:
It selects coupling of AC-DC ground signal to vertical amplifier.
X-MAG: It expands length of time base from 1-5 times continuously and to maximum time base to
40 ns/cm.
SQUARE:
This provides square wave 2v (p-P) amplitude and enables to check y calibration of scope.
SAWTOOTH WAVE FORM:
This provides saw tooth wave form output coincident to sweep speed with an output of saw tooth
wave (p-p)
VERTICAL SECTION: y position:
This enables movement of display along y-axis.
Y-INPUT: It connects input signal to vertical amplifier through AC-DC ground coupling switch
CALIBRATION: 15mv 150mv dc signal depending on position selection is applied to vertical
amplifier.
DC BALANCE: It is control on panel electrostatic ally in accordance with waveforms to be
displayed.
VOLTS/CM: Switch adjusts sensitivity.
HORIZANTAL SECTION:
X-POSITION: This control enables movement of display along x-axis.
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EDC LAB
TRIGGERING LEVEL: It selects mode of triggering.TIMEBASE: This controls or selects sweep

speeds.
VERNUIS: This control the fine adjustments associated with time base sweep.
SIGN SELECTOR: It selects different options of INT/EXT, NORM/TO.
STAB: Present on panel
EXITCAD: It allows time base range to be extended.
HORIZANTAL INPUT: It connects external signal to horizontal amplifier.
Ext SYN: it connects external signal to trigger circuit for synchronization.
OBSERVATIONS:Amplitude = no. of vertical divisions * Volts/div.
Time period = no. of horizontal divisions * Time/div.
Frequency=1/T
Amlitude taken on vertical section (y).
Time period taken on horizontal section(x)
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EDC LAB
MODEL WAVE FORMS
MESURMENT OF PHASE :
Y2
Y1
Y1
Y2
x1
X2
= sin -1 Y1 =
Y2
sin -1
X2
X1
= 180- sin -1 Y1
Y2
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EDC LAB
APPLICATIONS OF CRO:
1. Measurement of current
2. Measurement of voltage
3. Measurement of power
4. Measurement of frequency
5. Measurement of phase angle
6. To see transistor curves
7. To trace and measuring signals of RF, IF and AF in radio and TV.
8. To trace visual display of sine waves.
RESULT: To for the given wave form calculated the , frequency, amplitude and phase.
VIVA
VOCE QUESITIONS AND ANSWERS :

1)what is C.R.O? Mention its purpose?
A) C.R.O(cathode ray oscilloscope) is a versatile instrument used for display of wave forms and is a
fast x-y plotter
2)what are main parts in the C.R.O?

A) 1. Electron gun: - it is used to produce sharply focused beam of electron accelerated to very high
velocity.
2. Deflection system: - it deflects the electron both in horizontal and vertical plan
3. Florescent screen:- the screen which produces, spot of visible light . when beam of
electrons
are incident on it the other side of tube is coated with phosphorus material
3)what are the various controls on C.R.O front panel?
A) ON-POWER: toggle switch for switching on power.
INTENCITY: controls trace intensity from zero to maximum.
page 46
EDC LAB
FOCUS: It controls sharpness of trace a slight adjustment of focus is done after
changing
intensity of trace.
AC-DC: GROUND:
It selects coupling of AC-DC ground signal to vertical amplifier.
X-MAG: It expands length of time base from 1-5 times continuously and to maximum time base to
40 ns/cm.
SQUARE:
This provides square wave 2v (p-P) amplitude and enables to check y calibration of scope.
SAWTOOTH WAVE FORM:
This provides saw tooth wave form output coincident to sweep speed with an output of saw tooth
wave (p-p)
VERTICAL SECTION: y position:
This enables movement of display along y-axis.
Y-INPUT: It connects input signal to vertical amplifier through AC-DC ground coupling switch
CALIBRATION: 15mv 150mv dc signal depending on position selection is applied to vertical
amplifier.
DC BALANCE: It is control on panel electrostatic ally in accordance with waveforms to be
displayed.
VOLTS/CM: Switch adjusts sensitivity.
HORIZANTAL SECTION:
X-POSITION: This control enables movement of display along x-axis.
page 47
EDC LAB
TRIGGERING LEVEL: It selects mode of triggering. TIMEBASE: This controls or selects sweep
speeds.
VERNUIS: This control the fine adjustments associated with time base sweep.
SIGN SELECTOR: It selects different options of INT/EXT, NORM/TO.
STAB: Present on panel
EXITCAD: It allows time base range to be extended.
HORIZANTAL INPUT: It connects external signal to horizontal amplifier.
Ext SYN: it connects external signal to trigger circuit for synchronization.
4)how do you measure phase difference in C.R.O?
A) MESURMENT OF PHASE :
Y2
Y1
Y1
Y2
x1
X2
= sin -1 Y1 =
Y2
sin -1
X1
= 180- sin -1 Y1
X2
Y2
page 48
EDC LAB
Experiment No.1
P-N JUNCTIONDIODE CHARACTERISTICS
Aim: - To experimentally obtain V-I characteristics of Silicon diode (IN4007) and determine, from
the observations, various device parameters namely: Static Resistance, Dynamic Resistance, Cut-in
Voltage.
Equipment Required :
S.No
Description Of Item
Range
Quantity
Regulated Power Supply
0-30V
Voltmeter
0-1V
0-10V
Ammeter
0-20mA
0-50A
Bread Board
----------
Components Required :
S.No.
Description Of Item
Range
Quantity
p-n junction diode
IN4007
470
Resistors
1K
page 49
EDC LAB
Circuit diagram: -
FORWORD BIAS
R1
1k
V1
D1
1N4007
0-30v
0-1V
_
+
0-20mA A
-
REVERSE BIAS
R1
470
1k
D1
1N4007
V1
0-30v
+
0-50 A
AA
0-10V
_
THEORY:
A p-n junction diode conducts only in one direction .the v-I characteristics of the diode are curve
between voltage across the diode and current through the diode. When the external voltage is zero,
circuit is open and the potential barrier does not allow the current to flow. Therefore the circuit current
is zero. When p-type is connected to +ve terminal and n-type is connected to-ve terminal of the supply
voltage is called as forward bias. The potential barrier is reduced when diode is in forward biased
condition. At some forward voltage the potential barrier altogether eliminated and current starts
page 50
EDC LAB
flowing through the diode and also in the circuit. The diode is said to be in ON state. The current
increases with increasing forward voltage.
When n-type is connected to +ve terminal and p-type is connected ve terminal of the supply voltage
is known as reverse bias and the potential barrier across the junction increases. Therefore the junction
resistance becomes very high and a very small current flows in the circuit. The diode is said to be in
OFF state. The reverse bias current due to minority charge carriers.
Procedure :
Forward Characteristics :
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig (1).

2. Note down the values of VF and IF by varying RPS in steps .
3. Tabulate the results VF and IF .
4. Plot the graph between VF and IF by taking VF on X-axis and IF on Y-axis.
Reverse Characteristics :
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig(2).

2. Note down the values of VR and IR by Varying RPS in steps of 1.0Vto 10V.
3. Tabulate the results VR and IR.
4. Plot the graph between VR and IR by taking VR on X-axis and IR on Y-axis.
OBSERVATIONS: FORWARD BIAS:
S.No.
Forward voltage(VF)-V
Forward current(IF)-mA
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
page 51
EDC LAB
7
8
9
10
11
REVERSE BIAS:
S.No.
REVERSE VOLTAGE(VR)-V
REVERSE CURRENT (IR)-A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Expected graph:
IF
mA
1% of IFM
V
-VR
(V)
VF
(V)
IR (A)
page 52
Cutin voltage Vr (at 1% of IF, max) =
EDC LAB
-- V
Calculations: i)
Forward Dynamic resistance = VF/IF =
ii)
Forward Static resistance = VF/IF
iii)reverse static resistance= VR/IR

=
iv)Reverse dynamic resistance=VR/IR
Forward characteristics
Static resistance = VF/IF
Reverse characteristics
Dynamic resistance = VF/IF =
Static resistance =VR/IR=

Dynamic resistance = V/I =
Note: Calculate resistances in linear portion of the characteristics.
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EDC LAB
Precautions :
1. Check the circuit for loose connections.
2. Readings should be taken without parallax error.
Result :The V-I characteristics are studied. The knee voltage is ---The static and dynamic resistances for both in forward bias and reverse bias are
Specifications:
For Silicon Diode IN 4007: -
Max. Forward Current = 1A

Max. Reverse Current = 30A
Max. Forward Voltage = 0.8V
Max. Reverse Voltage = 1000V

Max. Power dissipation = 30mw
Temperature = - 65 to 2000C
Selection of components and equipment ranges:
Note relevant manufacturer specifications of the device from data sheet. Relevant
specifications are Maximum forward current, Cutin voltage, Maximum reverse voltage. Identify the
terminals of the diode from the diagram given in data sheet.
Select range of variation of Vs. i.e. Vsmin, Vsmax
Criteria to select R should be to limit the forward current in the circuit to be less than their
maximum ratings. Find the value & wattage of the resistance.

One may use the relation:
R > (Vsmax V)/IF, max
Where IF, max is less than maximum forward current allowed by the manufacturer.
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EDC LAB
Resistor R is connected in the reverse biased circuit to limit the current and protect the diode in
case the power supply terminals are connected in a way which forward biases the diode. If care is
taken in connecting the supply terminals correctly then R can be avoided.
Select the appropriate range of ammeters and voltmeters
Choose the component values close to the nearest standard values available in the laboratory.
Test the device and components.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1.what do you understand by a pn junction diode

A)when a p-type crystal is brought in contact with n-type crystal, so that the crystal structure remains
continuous at the boundary, a pn junction is formed.
2.if we simply place a p-type crystal in contact with n-type crystal ,would a pn junction be formed?
why?
A)no, in this way a pn junction will not be obtained because the crystal structure wouldnt be
continuous at the boundary. special fabrication techniques are needed to form a pn junction
3.what do you understand by biasing a diode?

A)when a D.C voltage is applied across a diode ,it is known as biasing a diode.
4)In reference to a p-n junction ,what do you understand by depletion region?
A)we know that a p- type semi conductor material consists of holes as majority mobile carriers. further
,an n-type semiconductor material consists of electronics as majority mobile carriers. on the formation
of a pn junction ,some holes from the p-region diffuse in to n-region and combine with the free
electrons in the n-region. also, some electrons from n-region diffuse in to p-region and combine with
the holes in the p-region. This diffusion takes place due to thermal energy. This process is true for only
a small number of holes and electrons. This process results in uncompensated negative acceptor ions
in the p-region and positive donor ions in the n-region; of course ,in the immediate neighborhood of
page 55
EDC LAB
the junction. Due to this reason no more diffusion of holes and electrons takes place .this region
containing these uncompensated acceptor and donor ions is called depletion region. this term is
suitable because in this region, there is a depletion of mobile charges.
5)what happens to the width of the depletion region for a forward biased p-n junction?
A)the width of the depletion region decreases for a forward biased p-n junction diode. this is because
Holes from p-region and some electrons from n-region penetrate the depletion region.
6)what happens to the width of the depletion region for a reverse biased p-n junction?
A)The width of the depletion region increases in a reverse biased p-n junction .there are two reasons
for it. The holes in the p-region are attracted towards the negative terminal of the battery .Also the
electrons in the n-region are attracted towards the positive terminal of the battery. In this way the
majority carriers are drawn away from the junction.
7)what is the purpose of providing resistance in the circuit for determining the V-I characteristics of a
forward biased p-n junction?
A)a resistance is included in the circuit to limit the current through diode .flow of excess current
through diode may damage it. the maximum current rating of a diode BY126 is 1A.
8)how will you test a diode with the help of a digital multi meter(DMM)?
A)we that a diode shows a very low resistance in the forward biased condition and shows very very
high resistance in the reverse biased condition. A digital multi meter can be approximately used for
determining whether a diode is defective or not. A healthy diode should show the resistance as
mentioned above .but defective diode will show some thing else. the common defect is open diode,
however, another defect is a shorted diode. a shorted diode can be identified if it shows low resistances
in both the direction. on the other hand if a diode shows very-very resistance in both the direction, it is
open diode.
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EDC LAB
9)what are the various types of diodes?

A)The various types of diodes are ,rectifying diodes, zener diodes, varacter diodes, optical diodes,
current regulator diodes, schottky diodes, pin diodes, step recovery diodes, tunnel diodes and laser
diodes.
10)what is an LED?
A)LED stands for light emitting diode, these diodes emit light when forward biased. the material used
for are gallium arsenide and gallium phosphide. silicon and germanium are not used because they have
poor light emitting property.
page 57
EDC LAB
Experiment No.2
ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS AND AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR
Aim: -.To experimentally obtain V-I characteristics of Zener diode (1N4730) and to find cutin voltage
and breakdown voltage of the diode.
S.No
Description Of Item
Range
Quantity
0-30V
Voltmeter
0-1V
0-10V
Ammeter
0-20mA
Bread Board
______
S.No
Description Of Item
Range
Quantity
Zener Diode
1N4730
470
Resistor
1K
page 58
EDC LAB
Circuit diagram: -
FORWARD BIAS
REVERSE BIAS
R1
R1
1k
470
1k
V1
D1
0-30v
1N4730
0-20mA A
+
V
_
0-10V
V1
0-1V
D1
0-30v
1N4730
0-20mA A
-
THEORY:
A zener diode is heavily doped p-n junction diode, specially made to operate in the break down region.
A p-n junction diode normally does not conduct when reverse biased. But if the reverse bias is
increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting heavily. This voltage is called break down
voltage. High current through the diode can permanently damage the device.
To avoid high current, we connect a resistor in series with zener diode. Once the diode starts
conducting it maintains almost constant voltage across the terminals what ever may be the current
through it.i.e.it has very low dynamic resistance. It is used in voltage regulators
Procedure :
Forward Bias :
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. By varying the RPS in steps . Note down the Voltmeter and Ammeter readings (VF and IF).
3. Plot the graph between VF and IF. Indicate the knee voltage (VTH) and calculate static and
dynamic resistances.
Static Resistance (DC Resistance) (R) = VF/IF.
page 59
+
V
EDC LAB
Dynamic Resistance (AC Resistance) (r) = Vf/If.

Where Vf is the change in forward bias voltage.
If is the corresponding change in forward bias current.
Reverse Bias :
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. By varying the RPS in steps, note down the Voltmeter and Ammeter readings (VR and IR).
3. Plot the graph between VR and IR. Indicate the Zener break down voltage (VZ) and
calculate the dynamic resistance (r).
Dynamic Resistance (AC Resistance) (r) = VZ/IZ.
Where VZ is the change in Zener voltage.
IZ is the corresponding change in Zener current.
Note relevant manufacturer specifications of the device like Zener breakdown voltage VZ, Cutin
voltage V, Maximum forward current IF,
max,
Maximum reverse current IZ,
max,
Knee current and
voltage IZK, VZK, Threshold current and voltage IZT,VZT and power dissipation from data sheet.
Identify terminals of the diode form diagram given in data sheet.
Select range of variation of VS. i.e. VSmin, VSmax
Criteria to select R should be to limit the current in the circuit to be less than IF, max when diode is
forward biased and less than IZ, max when reverse biased. Find the value & wattage of the resistance.
One may use the relation:
R1 > (Vsmax V)/IF, R2 > (Vsmax VZ)/IZ
Select the range of ammeters and voltmeters.
Test the device and components before soldering.
page 60
EDC LAB
OBSERVATIONS:
FORWARD BIAS:
S.No.
Forward voltage(VF)-V
Forward current(IF)-mA
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
REVERSE BIAS:
S.No.
REVERSE VOLTAGE(VR)-V
REVERSE CURRENT (IR)-mA
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
page 61
EDC LAB
Expected graph:
IF
(mA)
VZ
1% of IFM
VZK
IZK
-VR
(V)
Vr
VF (V)
Calculations: iii)
Dynamic resistance = VR/IR =

=
=
ii)breakdown voltage=
iii)cut in voltage=--v
Note: - Find resistances in linear portion of the characteristics.
Precautions: 1. Do not short-circuit the load terminals. Always start with some minimum load resistance
2. Readings should be taken without parallax error.
Results :
1.The V-I characteristics are studied
2.The forward characteristics of Zener diode are similar to that of pn junction diode
3.The cut-in voltage V0=---Break down voltage of given Zener diode =--V
The dynamic resistance = ---
page 62
EDC LAB
Viva Questions: 1)Identify the region of operation of a Zener diode on the V-I characteristic?
A) a Zener diode is normally operated in the reverse breakdown region.
2)In case of a Zener diode how do you specify the Zener voltage/
A)in case of a Zener diode ,we specify the Zener voltage at a reverse current suitable for its operation
this is known as Zener current
3)How the voltage across the terminals of a Zener diode affected by the Zener impedance?
A)The Zener diode impedance under suitable operating conditions remains almost constant .therefore
the voltage across the terminals of a Zener diode varies linearly with current. But ,as the Zener
impedance has a very high value, the variation of voltage across the terminals of the device is quite
small with variation in current.
4)for a Zener diode VZ=12V at IZT=40 mA .If ZZ=8,What is the terminal voltage at IZ=60 Ma?
A) we have VZ=12V and IZT=40 mA
There fore ,new VZ=12+8(60-40)10-3=12.08V
5)What do you understand by power de rating of a Zener diode?
A) at higher temperatures the power handling capacity of a zener diode reduces. this is known as zener
power de rating.
page 63
EDC LAB
Experiment No. 3
PART A
RECTIFIERS WITH OUT FILTERS
Aim: -To construct half wave rectifier, full wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer, and
calculate the ripple factor, regulation and efficiency of the rectified outputs.
S.No
Description Of Item
Range
Quantity
Cathode ray oscilloscope
20MHz
Transformer
(6-0-6)V
Bread Board
S.No
Description Of Item
Range
Quantity
Diode
1N4007
Resistor
1K
Circuit diagram: Half Wave Rectifier: -
1N4007
230V, 50Hz
AC mains supply
RL
1K
T 6-0-6V
page 64
EDC LAB
THEORY:
During positive half cycle of the input voltage ,the diode D1 is in forward bias and conducts through
the load resistor R1 .hence the current produces an output voltage across the load resistor R1,which
has the same shape as the +ve half cycle of the input voltage.
During the negative half cycle of the input voltage, the diode is reversing biased and there is no current
through the circuit.i.e the voltage across R1 is zero. The net result is that only the +ve half cycle of the
input voltage appears across the load. The average value of the half wave rectified output voltage is
the value measured on dc voltmeter.
For practical circuits, transformer coupling is usually provided for two reasons.
1. The voltage can be stepped-up or stepped down as needed
2. The ac source is electrically isolated from the rectifier .thus preventing shock hazards in the
secondary circuit.
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown above.
2. Measure and note down the peak voltage and frequency of input signal using CRO
3. Observe the output waveform and note down the peak voltage and frequency from CRO.
4. Calculate ripple factor, regulation and efficiency.
5. Plot the output waveform.
Check the rating of the transformer available in the laboratory. And measure the voltage at
secondary winding of the transformer.
Peak Inverse Voltage of the diode should be greater than or equal to Vm, where Vm is the max
voltage at secondary winding of the transformer.
Criteria to select RL is, current in the circuit I is limited to be less than IFmax of the diode,
voltage across RL is (Vm-VD)/I. Calculate RL value and wattage. Usually RL is taken in K
page 65
EDC LAB
Expected graphs: V
Vm
Rectified output waveform (across RL)
Vdc
Input waveform (Input at transformer secondary)

t
Observations: 1. Measure input waveform peak voltage at transformer secondary using C.R.O.
Vm = No.of div * volt/div =
Time period T= No. of divisions * time/div =
2.
Measure output waveform across load resistor.
Using CRO
Vm =
**Vdc = No. of divisions *volts/div
** The amount of shift in the waveform when C.R.O. changed from ac coupling mode to dc coupling
mode will give Vdc =Vm/.=
Calculations: From C.R.O. observations:
Vrms = Vm/2 =
Vdc =Vm/.=
Vac = (Vrms2-Vdc2) =
r = Vac/Vdc=
Vdc(NL)=
Percentage Regulation= (Vdc(NL) - Vdc(FL))100/ Vdc(FL)=
Efficiency = =( Pdc / Prms) 100 = (Vdc/Vrms)2100
page 66
S.No.
Vdc
Load
Vm
(V) =Vm/
. (V)
10
No
Vrms
Vm/2
=(Vrms2-
(V)
Vdc2)
EDC LAB
Ripple
%rregulation
Idc
factor
V ( NL) V ( FL )
V ( FL )
mA
V ' (ac)
V (dc)
load
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER (with Center tap transformer): THEORY:

The circuit of a center tapped full wave rectifier uses two diodes D1&D2.During positive half cycle of
secondary voltage, the diode D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased
The diode D1 conducts and current flows through load resistor RL.during negative half cycle, diode.
D2 becomes forward biased and D1 reverse biased. Now D2 conducts and current flows through the
load resistor RL, during both the half cycles and will get unidirectional current as shown in the model
graph. The difference between full wave and half wave rectification is that a full wave rectifier allows
unidirectional current to the load during the entire 360 degrees of the input signal and half wave
rectifier allows this only during one half cycle (180 degrees).
page 67
EDC LAB
Circuit diagram: 1N4007
230V, 50Hz
AC mains supply
RL
1K
T 6-0-6V
1N4007
FWR with center tapped transformer - Peak inverse voltage of the diodes should be greater
than or equal to 2Vm. Where Vm is the max voltage at secondary winding of the transformer.
Bridge Rectifier PIV of the diodes must be greater than or equal to Vm.
Expected Graphs: Input waveform (at transformer secondary)

Vm
t
Rectified output waveform (across RL)
Vm
Vdc
t
page 68
EDC LAB
Calculations: From C.R.O. observations:

Vrms = Vm/2 =
Vdc =2Vm/=
Vac = (Vrms2-Vdc2) =
r = Vac/Vdc=
Vdc(NL)=
Percentage Regulation= (Vdc(NL) - Vdc(FL))100/ Vdc(FL)=
Efficiency = =( Pdc / Prms) 100 = (Vdc/Vrms)2100
S.No.
Vdc
Load
Vm
(V) =2Vm/
. (V)
10
No
Vrms
Vm/2
=(Vrms2-
(V)
Vdc2)
Ripple
%rregulation
Idc
factor
V ( NL) V ( FL )
V ( FL )
mA
V ' (ac)
V (dc)
load
RESULTS:
HWR:
a)ripple factor=
b)efficiency =--%
c)percentage regulation=
FWR:
a)ripple factor=
b)efficiency=---%
c)percentage regulation=
page 69
EDC LAB
VIVA QUESITIONS:
1)In case of HWR ,at what time does the PIV occur?
A) PIV occurs at the peak of the negative half of the input voltage
2)for how much time of a full cycle of the input voltage does the current flow through the load
resistance in case of a HWR?
A) For half of the time of a full cycle of the input voltage ,the current flows through the load resistance
in the case HWR
3)for how much time of a full cycle of the input voltage does the current flow through the load
resistance in case of a FWR?
A)For all the time of a full cycle of the input voltage ,the current flows through the load resistance in
the case FWR
4)What is the frequency of the output voltage of a HWR if the frequency of the input voltage is 50Hz?
A)it is 50Hz
5)what is the frequency of the output voltage if the frequency of the input voltage is 50Hz?
A) It is 100Hz
page 70
EDC LAB
PART-B
RECTIFIERS WITH FILTERS

Aim: - To construct half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier with Capacitor filter in order to have
rectified, filtered output dc voltage .
S.No
Description Of Item
Range
Quantity
Cathode ray oscilloscope
20MHz
Transformer
(6-0-6)V
Bread Board
S.No
Description Of Item
Range
Quantity
Diode
1N4007
Resistor
1K
Capacitor
100F
Calculate the rms voltage required at transformer secondary in order to have rectified output dc
voltage of 9v
For a full wave rectifier with two diodes, reverse breakdown voltage of the diodes should be
greater than or equal to 2Vm
RL is taken in K
page 71
EDC LAB
Circuit diagram: - Half wave rectifier with shunt capacitor filter
1) Full wave rectifier with shunt capacitor filter: 1N4007
230v, 50Hz
AC mains supply
Transformer
6-0-6V
RL
1N4007
PROCEDURE:
1. Make connections as per the Circuit Diagram.
2. Note down the AC and DC Voltages by using DMM and also using CRO.
3. And again observe the AC and DC Voltages and Currents with Filter and with load.
4. Observe the Voltage across the secondary of the Transformer (i.e Vrms).
5.By taking the above values calculate the ripple factor.
Usually RL is taken in K to limit the current in the diode to be less than IFmax
In the above circuit Capacitor values are designed to get ripple less than 0.01
using the
relations given below.
page 72

Shunt capacitor filter in HWR
r = 1/(23fRLC)
Shunt capacitor filter in FWR
r = 1/(43fRLC)
EDC LAB
Test the device and components.
Expected output waveforms without and with filters: HWR

Vm
t
Vm
Vrp-p
t
Output without filtering FWR

Vm
t
Rectified output with shunt capacitor filter
Vdc
Vrp-p
t
i)HWR WITH FILTER
page 73
EDC LAB
Observations: Vm=10 V ,f=50Hz,C=100F
Using C.R.O.
Vrp-p = No. of div * volts/div = Vdc =
Calculations: From CRO observations
Vr,rms = Vrp-p/23
*(C filter)
=---V
Ripple factor, r = Vr,rms/Vdc
=----V
S.N
Loa
Vdc=Vm-
Vrms=Vrpp/23
Ripple factor
o.
(V)
Idc/2fC
(V)
. (V)
Vrms
Vdc
%rregulation
Idc
V ( NL) V ( FL ) mA
V ( FL )
Theor
etical
value
=
1/23
fcRL
10
No
load
page 74
EDC LAB
PRECAUTIONS: 1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the diode. This may lead to
damage the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections asper the
circuit diagram
4.Before
giving power supply to the circuit, make sure that the transformer terminals are properly
connected.
ii)FWR WITH FILTER;
OBSERVATIONS :
Vm=10.4 V ,f=50Hz,C=100F
S.N
Loa
Vdc=Vm-
Vrms=Vrpp/23
Ripple factor
o.
(V)
Idc/4fC
(V)
. (V)
Vrms
Vdc
%rregulation
Idc
V ( NL) V ( FL ) mA
V ( FL )
Theor
etical
value
=
1/43
fcRL
10
No
load
page 75
EDC LAB
PRECAUTIONS: 1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the diode. This may lead to
damage the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections asper the
circuit diagram
4.Before
giving power supply to the circuit, make sure that the transformer terminals are properly
connected.
RESULTS:
HWR WITH FILTER:
a)ripple factor=
b)% regulation =----- for 10K
FWR WITH FILTER:
a)ripple factor=
b)% regulation =----- for 10K
VIVA QUESITIONS:
1)What is the reason of ripples in the output voltage of a capacitor filter?
A)Slight charging and discharging of the capacitor through load resistance is the reason for ripples in
the output voltage of a capacitor filter.
2)In order to find the ripple factor ,how do you determine the rms value of ac ripple voltage?
A)CRO is used to measure Vr(p-p).from this rms value is calculated assuming that the ripple voltage
waveform is a sinusoid. but this approximation is not valid for a capacitor filter. in this case the rms
value of the ripple voltage is calculated as explained under theory.
page 76
EDC LAB
3)In a rectifier with the filter circuit if the peak-peak ripple voltage is 100V and the average value of
the out put voltage is 100V.find the ripple factor?
A) Peak peak value of the ripple voltage =10v
Maximum value of ripple voltage =
10/2=5v
rms value of the ripple voltage =5/2=3.54

ripple factor=
=3.54/100 =0.0354
4) justify that a capacitor filter is suitable for light loads?

A)The charging and discharging of the capacitor in a capacitor filter can be explained as fallows. the
capacitor charges up to the peak value of the input voltage and tries to maintain this value, as the input
voltage drops to zero .the capacitor will discharge through load resistances until the input voltage gain
increases to a value just greater than the capacitor voltage. at this point the diode will again be forward
biased and there will be a pulse of current through the diode, which recharges the capacitor. for light
loads the output voltage will remain near peak value of voltage. however, as the load increases the
discharge of capacitor will be greater. this causes more ripple ,and a lower dc output voltage.
5) what is the objective of using filter circuits in dc power supplies?

A)the purpose of using filter circuits in dc power supplies is to eliminate or prevent the AC
components in the rectified voltage from reaching the output points.
page 77
EDC LAB
Experiment-4
COMMON EMITTER CHARACTERISTICS
AIM: To study the input and output characteristics of a transistor in common emitter configuration.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
S.No
Description of item
Range
Qty
Regulated Power
Supply
0-30V
Voltmeter
0-1V
0-30V
0-50V
0-100A
-------
Ammeter
Bread board
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
S.No
Description of item
Range
Qty
Transistor
BC 107
Resistor
1K
100K
page 78
EDC LAB
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
0-50mA
1k
Rc
IC
0-50mA
100K
RB
IB
VBB
030V
+
0-1V V
VBE
V 0-30V
-V
CB
VCC
030V
Pin assignment of transistor
Selection of components and equipment ranges: Note relevant manufacturer specifications of the device from data sheet. Some of the relevant
specifications are ICmax, IBmax, VBEmax, VBEtypical VCEmax, and hfe.
Select the range of variation of VBB & VCC.
Choose available standard values for Rb, Rc values (with appropriate wattage), so that they
limit IB and IC in the circuit to be less than their allowable maximum ratings. One may use the
relations
Rb=(VBB-VBEactive)/IB,
Rc=(VCC-VCEsat)/IC.
Select the suitable ranges for ammeter(s) and voltmeter(s).
page 79
EDC LAB
Identify the terminals of BJT by noting down its base diagram from manufacturers data sheet.
Also test the condition of the device (good or blown off) and component values
THEORY:
A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals are emitter, base, collector. in common emitter
configuration, input voltage is applied between base and emitter terminals and output is taken across
the collector and emitter terminals.
Therefore the emitter terminal is common to both input and output.
The input characteristics resemble that of a forward biased diode curve. This is expected since the
base-emitter junction of the transistor is forward biased. As compared to CB arrangement IB increases
less rapidly with VBE.therefore input resistance of CE circuit is higher than that of CB circuit.
The output characteristics are drawn between Ic and VCE at constant IB.The collector current varies with
VCE unto few volts only. After this the collector current becomes almost constant, and independent of
VCE.the value of VCE up to which the collector current changes with VCE is known as knee voltage.
The transistor always operated in the region above knee voltage, Ic is always constant and is
approximately equal to IB
The current amplification factor of CE configuration is given by
= IC/IB
PROCEDURE:
Input Characteristics
1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram figure.
2. Keep output voltage VCE = 0V by varying VCC.
3. Varying VBB gradually, note down both base current IB and base - emitter voltage (VBE).
4. Step Size is not fixed because of non linear curve and vary the X-axis variable (i.e if output
variation is more, decrease input step size and vice versa).
5. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for VCE =5V.
page 80
EDC LAB
Output Characteristics
1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram fig (2).
2. By varying VBB keep the base current IB = 20A.
3. Varying VCC gradually, note down the readings of collector-current (IC) and collector-emitter
voltage (VCE).
4. Step Size is not fixed because of non linear curve and vary the X-axis variable (i.e if output
variation is more, decrease input step size and vice versa).
5.Repeat above procedure (step 3) for IB=40A.
page 81
OBSERVATIONS:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
VCE(V)=0
EDC LAB
OUT PUT CHARACTERISTICS
VCE(V)=10
IB(A)=20
IB(A)=50
VBE(V) IB(A) VBE(V) IB(A)

VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) IC(mA)
Calculations: Input impedance
hie = VBE/IB at VCE = const. =
Output admittance
hoe = IC/VCE at IB = const.=
Forward current gain
hfe = IC/IB at VCE = const. =
page 82

Reverse voltage gain
EDC LAB
hre = VBE/VCE at IB = cont.=
Calculate in linear portion of the characteristics.

Compare the results with data sheets values.
PRECAUTIONS:
1.While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the transistor. This may lead to damage the
transistor.
2.Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3.Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the
circuit diagram.
4.Make sure while selecting the emitter, base and collector terminals of the transistor.
MODEL GRAPHS:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
IB
VCE1=
0
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
VCE2=5v
IC
IB3=40A
IB2=20
IB1=0
A
VBE
VCE
page 83
RESULT:
Input impedance
Output admittance
Forward current gain
Reverse voltage gain
EDC LAB
hib =
hob =
hfb =
hrb =
VIVA QUESITIONS
1)Why transistor is called current controlled device?

A)Because the transistor operation is carried out by two types of charge carriers (majority and
minority),an ordinary transistor is called bipolar.
2)what is the significance of arrow head in the transistor symbol?

A) arrow head is always marked on the emitter.the direction indicates the conventional direction of
current flow(from emitter to-base in case of p-n-p transistor and frombase to emitter in case of n-p-n
transistor).generally ,no arrow head is marked for collector since its reverse leakage current is always
opposite to the direction off emitter current.
3)what are emitter injection efficiency ,and base transport factor and how they influence the
transistor operation?
A)The ration of current of injected carriers at emitter junction to the total emitter current is called the
emitter injection efficiency. the ratio of collector current to the base current is known as transport
factor.
=
the larger the value of emitter injection at emitter junction and this increases the collector current. the
larger the value larger the injected carriers across collector junction and hence collector current
increases
4)what are three region of operation of a transistor?
A)the three regions of operation of a transistor are:
i)cutoff region
ii)active region
page 84
EDC LAB
iii)saturation region
5)can a transistor be obtained by connecting two semiconductor diodes back to back?
A)No, because in case of two discrete back to back connected diodes there are four doped regions
instead of three and there is nothing that resembles a thin base region between an emitter and a
collector
6)how and are related to each other?
A) and are related as :
=
7)indicate whether the -value of a BJT increases or decreases with the increase in the values of
following parameters:
i)base width ii)minority carrier life time in the base region
iii)temperature
iv)collector current
v)collector voltage
A)The -value of a BJT
i)decreases with the increase in the base width
ii)increases with the increase in minority carrier life time in the base region
iii)increases with the increase in the temperature
iv)increases with the increase in the collector current
v)increases with the increase in collector voltage
8)why there is a maximum limit of collector supply voltage for a transistor?
A)Although collector current is practically independent of collector supply voltage over the transistor
operating range ,but if VCB is increased beyond a certain value collector current IC
Eventually increases rapidly and possibly destroys the device
9)Explain why ICEO>> ICBO ?
A)the collector cutoff current denoted by ICEO is much larger than ICBO.
ICEO is given as
page 85

ICEO =
EDC LAB
ICBO
Because is nearly equal to unity (slightly less than unity),

There fore ICEO>> ICBO
10)give reasons why common emitter (CE) configuration is widely used in amplifier circuits?
A)CE configuration is mainly used because its current ,voltage and power gains are quite high and the
ratio of output impedance and input impedance are quite moderate.
11)why CE configuration preferred for cascaded amplifiers?

A) CE configuration ,because of its moderate output to input impedance ratio , is preferred for
cascaded amplifiers.
12)why CC configuration is called a voltage buffer? what is the other name?

A) Because of its high input impedance and low output impedance ,the common collector circuit finds
wide application as a buffer amplifier between a high impedance source and low impedance load, that
is why it is called a voltage buffer. its other name is emitter follower
page 86
EDC LAB
Experiment-5
FET CHARACTERISTICS
AIM : To study Drain Characteristics and Transfer Characteristics of a Junction Field Effect
Transistor.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED :
S.No
Description Of Item
Range
Quantity
0-30V
Voltmeter
0-20V
Ammeter
0-50mA
Bread Board
-------
COMPONENTS REQUIRED :
S.No
Description Of Item
Range
Quantity
Resistor
1K
FET
BFW11
page 87
EDC LAB
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
0-50mA
R2
1k
0-30V
BFW11
S
+
V
0-20V
0-20V
0-30V
Specifications:
For JFET BFW11: Gate Source Voltage VGS = - 30V
Forward Gain Current IGF = 10 mA
Maximum Power Dissipation PD = 300 mW.
Pin assignment of JFET
source
Drain
Gate
Substrate
page 88
EDC LAB
THEORY:
A FET is a three terminal device, having the characteristics of high input impedance and less noise, the
gate to source junction of the FET always reverse biased. In response to small applied voltage from
drain to source, the n-type bar acts as sample resistor, and the drain current increases linearly with
vds.with increase in Id the ohmic voltage drop between the and the channel region reverse biases the
junction and the conducting position of the channel begins to remain constant. The Vds at this instant
is called pinch of voltage.
If the gate to source voltage (Vgs)is applied in the direction to provide additional reverse bias, the
pinch off voltage is decreased.
In amplifier applications, the FET is always used in the region beyond the pinch off.
FDS = IDSS (1-Vgs/ VP)^2
PROCEDURE:
DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS
1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram.
2. Keep VGS = 0V by varying VGG.
3. Varying VDD gradually, note down both drain current ID and drain to source voltage (VDS).
4. Step Size is not fixed because of non linear curve and vary the X-axis variable (i.e. if
output variation is more, decrease input step size and vice versa).
5. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for VGS = -1V.
TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Keep VDS = 2V by varying VDD.
2. Varying VGG gradually from 0 5V, note down both drain current (ID) and gate to source
voltage (VGS).
page 89
EDC LAB
4. Repeat above procedure (step 2) for VDS = 4V.
OBSERVATIONS:
DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS:
VGS(V)=0
VDS(V)
VGS(V)= -1
ID (mA)
VDS(V)
ID(mA)
page 90
EDC LAB
Transfer characteristics:
VDS(V)=1
VGS(V)
VDS(V)= 3V
ID (mA)
VGS(V)
ID(mA)
page 91
EDC LAB
MODEL GRAPH:
Transfer Characteristics
Drain Characteristics
Breakdown
Region
ID
Ohmic
Region
Active
Region
IDS
VGS=0
VGS= 1
V =VGSGS
=1
1
VG
VD
S
CALCULATIONS:
i)
Drain resistance rd =VDS/ID=

=
Trans conductance gm = ID/ VGS=
ii)
Amplification factor = rd gm=
PRECAUTIONS:
1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the
FET. This may lead to damage the FET.
2. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the
circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the
page 92
EDC LAB
circuit connections as per the circuit diagram.

4. Make sure while selecting the Source, Drain and Gate terminals
of the FET.
RESULT:
1. Drain Resistance (rd) = .
2. Trans conductance (gm) =
i)
3. Amplification factor () =
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. what do you understand by FET?
Ans: FET is a three terminal unipolar semi conductor device
2. Why the conventional transistors are known as bipolar devices?

Ans: the conduction of current in conventional transistors takes place through both minority and
majority carriers. That is why these are known as bipolar devices.
3. Why FET is known to be unipolar device?

Ans: the conduction of current in FETS takes place through majority carriers only.so,these are known
as unipolar devices
4. What do you mean by BJT?

Ans: BJT means bijunction transistors. The conventional transistors fall under this category.
5. What do you mean by UJT?
page 93
EDC LAB
ANS: It means uni junction transistors

6. What are the three terminal of JFET corresponding to the three terminals of BJT?
Ans: three terminals of BJT are emitter, base and collector. The corresponding three terminals of JFET
are source, gate and sink
7. Compare the input impedances of BJT and JFET.

ANS: the input impedance of BJT is low whereas for JFET it is high
8. Why the operation of JFET is noiseless?

The conduction of current in BJTS takes place through junctions, therefore their operation if noisy.
On the other hand the conduction of current in JFET takes place not through junctions therefore their
operation is noiseless.
9. What are the various types of JFET S?

Ans: there are two types of JFETS .they are N-channel JFET and P-channel JFET
10. Name one special difference between BJTS and JFET
ANS: In case of BJTS the emitter and collector are not interchangeable, where as in case of JFETS
the source and drain are interchangeable.
page 94
EDC LAB
Experiment-6
UJT CHARACTERISTICS
Aim: To study and plot the emitter characteristics (VE vs IE) of a
UJT.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
S.No
Description of item
Range
Qty
Regulated Power
Supply
0-30V
Voltmeter
0-1V
0-30V
0-50V
0-100A
-------
Range
Qty
1K
Ammeter
Bread board
S.No
Description of item
Resistor
Specifications:
For UJT 2N 2646:
Peak Emitter Current (IP) = 2A
Continuous Emitter Current (IE) = 50mA
Inter Base Voltage (VBB) = 35V
page 95
EDC LAB
Emitter Base Reverse Voltage (VEB2) = 30V

Power Dissipation at 250C = 300mW
THEORY:
A uni junction transistor is an electronic semi conductor device that has only one junction. The UJT
has three terminals an emitter and two bases. The base is formed by lightly doped n-type bar of silicon.
Two ohmic contacts B1 and B2 are attached at its ends. The emitter is of p-type and it is heavily
doped. The resistance between B1 and B2 , when the emitter is open circuit is called interbase
resistance. The original unijunction transistor or UJT is a simple device that is essentially a bar of N
type semiconductor material into which p-type material has been diffused somewhere along its length.
The 2N2646 is the most commonly used version of the UJT.
The UJT is based with a positive voltage between the two bases. This causes a potential drop along the
length of the device. When the emitter voltage is driven approximately one diode voltage above the
voltage at the point where the P diffusion is , current will begin to flow from the emitter into the base
region. Because the base region is very lightly doped, the additional current causes which reduces the
resistance of the portion of the base between the emitter junction and the B2 terminal. This reduction
in resistance means that the emitter junction is more forward biased and so even more current is
injected. Overall the effect is a negative resistance at the emitter terminal. This is what makes the UJT
useful, especially in simple oscillator circuits . When the emitter voltage reaches Vp the current starts
to increase and the emitter voltage starts to decrease. This is re[presented by negative slope of the
characteristics which is refers to as the negative resistance region, beyond the valleypoint, R B1 reaches
minimum value and this region ,VEB proportional to IE
PROCEDURE:
1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram.
2. Keep output voltage VBB1 = 5V by varying VBB.
3. Varying VEE gradually, note down both emitter current IE and emitter voltage (VE).
5. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for VBB2 =10V.
page 96
EDC LAB
OBSERVATIONS:
VBB(V)=10
VE(V)
VBB(V)=15
IE(mA)
VE(V)
IE(mA)
page 97
MODEL GRAPH:
EDC LAB
VE
Negative
resistanc
e region
Cut-off
region
Saturatio
n region
Peak Point
Valley point
VBB1>VB
B2
VBB1
VBB2
IE
Leakage
current
Precautions:
1.While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the
UJT. This may lead to damage the UJT.
2. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the
circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the
circuit connections as per the circuit diagram.
4. Make sure while selecting the emitter, base -1 and base 2 terminals
of the UJT.
Result: The emitter characteristics of UJT have been determined.
page 98
EDC LAB
VIVA Questions
1. Give various applications of UJT.
A: UJT can be used to trigger device for SCRs and triacs.Another application of UJT is in relaxation
oscillators.
2. Name the terminals of UJT
A: UJT has three terminals namely emitter, base1 and base 2.
3. What portion of static emitter characteristic of the UJT is unstable?
A: the negative resistance region i.e from peak point to valley point is unstable.
4. What are the typical values of intrinsic stand off ratio?

A: the value of intrinsic stand off ration lies between 0.51 and 0.82
page 99
EDC LAB
Experiment-7
SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER(SCR) CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: To draw the V-I Characteristics of SCR
APPARATUS: SCR (TYN616)
Regulated Power Supply (0-30V)
Resistors 10k, 1k
Ammeter (0-50) A
Voltmeter (0-10V)
Breadboard
Connecting Wires
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
page 100
EDC LAB
THEORY:
It is a four layer semiconductor device being alternate of P-type and N-type silicon. It
consists os 3 junctions J1, J2, J3 the J1 and J3 operate in forward direction and J2 operates in
reverse direction and three terminals called anode A , cathode K , and a gate G. The
operation of SCR can be studied when the gate is open and when the gate is positive with
respect to cathode.
When gate is open, no voltage is applied at the gate due to reverse bias of the
junction J2 no current flows through R2 and hence SCR is at cutt off. When anode voltage is
increased J2 tends to breakdown.
When the gate positive,with respect to cathode J3 junction is forward biased and
J2 is reverse biased .Electrons from N-type material move across junction J3 towards gate
while holes from P-type material moves across junction J3 towards cathode. So gate current
starts flowing ,anode current increaase is in extremely small current junction J2 break down
and SCR conducts heavily.
When gate is open thee breakover voltage is determined on the minimum forward
voltage at which SCR conducts heavily.Now most of the supply voltage appears across the
load resistance.The holfing current is the maximum anode current gate being open , when
break over occurs.
page 101
EDC LAB
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.
2. Keep the gate supply voltage at some constant value
3. Vary the anode to cathode supply voltage and note down the readings of voltmeter and
ammeter.Keep the gate voltage at standard value.
4. A graph is drawn between VAK and IAK .
OBSERVATION
VAK(V)
IAK ( A)
MODEL WAVEFORM:
page 102

RESULT:
EDC LAB
SCR Characteristics are observed.
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What the symbol of SCR?
2. IN which state SCR turns of conducting state to blocking state?
3. What are the applications of SCR?
4. What is holding current?
5. What are the important types thyristors?
6. How many numbers of junctions are involved in SCR?
7. What is the function of gate in SCR?
8. When gate is open, what happens when anode voltage is increased?
9. What is the value of forward resistance offered by SCR?
10. What is the condition for making from conducting state to non conducting state?
page 103
EDC LAB
Experiment-8
COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER
AIM: - To Study the common emitter amplifier and to find

1. Cut off frequencies.
2. Bandwidth
3. Mid band Voltage & Current Gain.
4. Input & Output Resistances.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
S.No
Description Of Item
Range
Quantity
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
30MHz
Function Generator
1MHz
0-30V
Bread Board
-------
COMPONETS REQUIRED:
S.No
Description Of Item
Range
Quantity
Transistor
BC107
R1(33K)
R2(8.2K)
RC( 4.7K)
RE( 1K)
Cb , CC( 10F)
Ce 47F
Resistor
Capacitor
page 104
EDC LAB
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
VCC
R1
Rc
Cc
Rs
Cb
BC107B
Vs
C
R2
RL
Re
Ce
THEORY:
The CE amplifier provides high gain &wide frequency response. The emitter lead is common to both
input and output circuits and is grounded. The emitter base circuit is forward biased. The collector
current is controlled by the emitter base circuit is forward biased. The collector current is controlled by
the base current rather than emitter current. The input signal is applied to base terminal of the
transistor and amplifier output is taken across collector terminal very small change in base current
produces a much larger change in collector current. When +ve half cycle is fed to the input circuit,it
opposes the forward bias of the circuit which causes the collector current to decrease, it decreases the
voltage more ve.thus when input cycle varies through a ve half cycle, increases the forward bias of
the circuit , which causes the collector current to increases thus the output signal is common emitter
amplifier is in out of phase with the input signal.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.
2. Set the input voltage( Vi) to 20mV.
3. By varying the input frequency from 50Hz to 1MHz insteps, note down the corresponding
output voltages.
4. For each frequency calculate the gain V0/Vi and the gain in decibels- 20log(V0/Vi) .
page 105
EDC LAB
5. Draw the frequency response by taking the gain in dB on Y-axis and frequency on X-axis.
6. Calculate the bandwidth = f2-f1.
OBSERVATIONS:
FOR Vi=0.1V
S.No.
Frequency
V0 (Volts)
Gain =V0/Vs
Log f
Gain (in dB)

= 20log10
10Hz
20 Hz
50 Hz
70 Hz
100 Hz
300 Hz
10
1000 Hz
11
5k Hz
10k Hz
13
20k Hz
14
40k Hz
15
60k Hz
16
80k Hz
page 106

17
100k Hz
18
200k Hz
19
300k Hz
20
700k Hz
21
1M Hz
EDC LAB
Model graph:
dBMax
3dB
Bandwidth
f2 - f1
f1
f2
Calculations:
Band width= f2-f1=
=
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Check and avoid the circuit loose connections.
2. Readings should be taken with out parallax error.
page 107
EDC LAB
RESULT:
The frequency response of a common emitter amplifier is --------Bandwidth=
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1)what do you mean by operating point?

A)Quiescent point is a point on the DC load line which represent VCE and IC in the absence of ac
signal and variations in VCE and IC take place around this point when ac signal is applied.
2)what do you understand by transistor biasing? why is it necessary to bias a transistor?
A)for normal operation, base emitter junction should be forward biased and the collector base
junction should be reverse biased. the proper flow of zero signal collector current and the
maintenance of proper collector emitter voltage during the passage during the passage of signal is
called transistor biasing. the amount of bias required is significant for establishment of the operating
point or Q-point which is dictated by the mode of operation desired.
3)what is meant by small signal amplifier?

A) when the input signal is quite weak and produces small fluctuations in the output current in
comparison to its quiescent value ,the amplifier is called small signal or voltage amplifier
4)Explain how phase reversal of the signal takes place when it is amplified by a single stage CE
amplifier?
A)In a CE configuration ,the out put voltage increases in the negative direction when the input signal
voltage increases in the positive direction and vice versa .this is called the phase reversal and a phase
difference of 1800 between the input voltage and output voltage .
5)Why is coupling capacitor is used to connect a signal source to an amplifier?

A)An electrolytic capacitor ,called the input capacitor ,Cin of capacity af about 10uF is used to couple
page 108
EDC LAB
the signal source to the transistor base .In the absence of this capacitor ,the signal source resistance
will come across resistor R2 of the biasing network and thus change the bias. This capacitor allows
only ac signal to pass but isolates the signal source from R2
6)what is the function of bypass capacitor?
A) the capacitor CE ,called the emitter bypass capacitor ,is connected in parallel with the emitter
resistance RE in order to provide a low resistance path to the amplified ac signal .in the absence of this
capacitor ,amplified ac signal will cause a voltage drop across it which in turn will feedback the input
side and reduce the out put voltage
7)state what will happen to the voltage gain of an amplifier if the bypass capacitor is open circuited?
A)removal of bypass capacitor in CE amplifier circuit causes excessive degeneration in the amplifier
circuit and therefore reduction on voltage gain.
8)write the characteristics of ideal voltage amplifier?

A)Main characteristics of an ideal voltage amplifier is to present a high impedance to the input source
so as to minimize the loading effects and to provide large enough voltage signal to the output device
like loud speaker.
page 109
EDC LAB
Experiment-9
COMMON COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER
AIM: - To Study the common collector amplifier and to find cut off frequencies and voltage gain.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
S.No
Description Of Item
Range
Quantity
30MHz
Function Generator
1MHz
0-30V
Bread Board
-------
S.No
Description Of Item
Range
Quantity
Transistor
BC107
33K
8.2K
1K
470
10F
100F
Resistor
Capacitor
page 110
EDC LAB
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
VCC
47k
100K
10u
10uF
R1
Q1
BC107
10uF
1
1k
Vp-p
8.2k10K
CRO
10k
2.2K
THEORY:
In common collector amplifier the input is given at the base and the output is taken at the emitter . In
this amplifier, there is no phase inversion between input and output. The input impedance of the CC
amplifier is very high and output impedance is low. the voltage gain is less than unity. Here the
collector is at ac ground and the capacitors used must have a negligible reactance at the frequency of
operation.
This amplifier is used for impedance matching and as a buffer amplifier .this circuit is also known as
emitter follower
PROCEDURE:
page 111
EDC LAB
output voltages.
OBSERVATIONS:
For Vi=1V
S.No.
Frequency
10Hz
20 Hz
40 Hz
80 Hz
100 Hz
500 Hz
1k Hz
5kHz
10k Hz
10
40k Hz
11
60k Hz
V0 (Volts)
Gain =V0/Vs
page 112

12
100k Hz
13
200k Hz
14
400k Hz
15
600k Hz
16
800kHz
17
1000k Hz
EDC LAB
Model graph:
Gain
(indB)
dB
page 113
EDC LAB
PRECAUTIONS:
1.Check and avoid the circuit loose connections.
2.Readings should be taken with out parallax error.
RESULT: The frequency response of a common collector amplifier is ----------.

Bandwidth=
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1)Why common collector amplifier is called an emitter follower?
A)The CC circuit amplifier is called an emitter follower because in this circuit the out put voltage
at the emitter terminal follows the input signal applied at the base terminal.
2) why CC configuration is called a voltage buffer? what is the other name?

A) Because of its high input impedance and low output impedance ,the common collector circuit finds
wide application as a buffer amplifier between a high impedance source and low impedance load, that
is why it is called a voltage buffer. its other name is emitter follower
3)what are the main purposes for which a common collector amplifier may be used?
A)for a common collector amplifier ,current gain is as high as for CE amplifier ,voltage gain is less
than unity ,input resistance is the highest and the output resistance is lowest of all three configurations.
this circuit finds wide applications as a buffer amplifier between a high impedance source and a low
impedance load.
page 114
EDC LAB
Experiment-10
COMMON SOURSE FET AMPLIFIER
AIM: - To Study the CS- FET amplifier and to find cut off frequencies and voltage gain.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
S.No
Description Of Item
Range
Quantity
30MHz
Function Generator
1MHz
0-30V
Bread Board
-------
S.No
Description Of Item
Range
Quantity
FET
BFW10
Resistor
1K
4.7k
Capacitor
10F
47F
page 115
EDC LAB
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
12V
10uF
3
BFW 10
1K
K
10uF
4.7K
KKK
KK
CRO
V1
AFO
1M
1K
KK
K
4.7uF
THEORY:
A field effect transistor is a type of transistor commonly used for weak signal amplification .the device
can amplify analog or digital signals. It can also switch DC or function as an oscillator. In the FET
current flows along a semiconductor path called the channel. At one end of the channel there is an
electrode called source. At the other end of the channel there is an electrode called drain. The physical
diameter of the channel is fixed, but its effective electrical diameter can be varied by the application of
a voltage to a control electrode called gate.FET exists in two major classifications. These are known as
the junction FET and metal oxide semiconductor FET. The junction FET has a channel consisting of
N- type semiconductor or P-type semiconductor material; the gate is made of the opposite
semiconductor type. In p-type material electric charges are carried mainly in the form of electron
deficiencies called holes. In n-type material the charge carriers are primarily electrons. In a JFET the
junction is reverse biased so that no current flows between the channel and the gate. However under
some conditions there is a small current through the junction during part of the input signal cycle. The
FET has some advantages and some disadvantages relative to the bipolar transisitor.FETs are
preferred for weak signal work, for example in wireless communications and broadcast receivers.
They are also preferred in circuits and systems requiring high impedance .the FET is not in general
page 116
EDC LAB
used for high power amplification such as is required in large wireless communications and broad cast
transmitters.
FETs are fabricated onto silicon integrated circuit chips. A single IC can contain many thousands of
FETs along with other components such as resistors, capacitors, and diodes.
PROCEDURE:
output voltages.
OBSERVATIONS:
S.No.
For Vi=0.1V
Frequency
V0 (Volts)
Gain =V0/Vs
Gain (in dB)

= 20log10
10Hz
20 Hz
30 Hz
40Hz
50Hz
100Hz
950Hz
page 117

8
5kHz
10kHz
10
50kHz
11
100k Hz
12
120kHz
13
150kHz
14
180k Hz
15
200k Hz
16
205k Hz
17
405K Hz
18
530kHz
19
770kHz
20
910kHz
21
1M Hz
EDC LAB
page 118
EDC LAB
MODEL GRAPH:
Gain
(in dB)
dBMa
x
3dB
Bandwidth
f2 - f1
f1
f2
PRECAUTIONS:
1.Check and avoid the circuit loose connections.
2.Readings should be taken with out parallax error.
Result: The frequency response of a common collector amplifier is ---------.

Bandwidth=
VIVA QUESITIONS
1)explain why BJTs are called bipolar devices while FETs are called uni polar devices?
A)in a bipolar device current conduction is by both majority carriers and minority carriers (both holes
as well as electrons).there fore these are called bipolar transistors .In field effect transistors current
page 119
EDC LAB
conduction is by only one type majority carriers (either by electrons or by holes)and therefore these
are called uni polar transistors .
2)define current controlled device and voltage controlled device?

A) a current controlled device is one in which a current defines the operating conditions of the device,
where as a voltage controlled device is one in which a particular voltage defines the operating
conditions.
3)why FET is called voltage controlled device?

A)In a FET, drain current is controlled by the effect of the extension of the field associated with the
depletion region developed by the reverse bias on the gate,so it is called a voltage controlled device.
4)how does the FET behaves i)for small values of
and ii)for large values of
A) i)FET behaves as ordinary resistor for small values of
i.e ohmic region.
ii)FET behaves as constant current source for large values of
till break down occurs.
5)how does the trans conductance vary with drain currnet?

A)the trans conductance gm of a FET varies with the drain current ID as given by the following
equation
gm =
6)define pinch off voltage for JFET?

A)The value of drain source voltage at which channel is pinched off(i.e all the free charges from the
channel get removed ) is called pinch off voltage.
7)what is Shockley equation?

A) drain current in the pinch off region of JFET is given by the equation ,known as Shockley equation,
ID =IDSS
8)What is meant by gate-source cut off voltage?
page 120
EDC LAB
A)the gate-source bias voltage required to reduce the drain current to zero is designated the gatesource cutoff voltage VGS(off).it is equal to the pinch off voltage VP
9)Name the factors which make JFET superior to BJT?
A)the high input impedance ,low output impedance and low noise level make JFET far superior to BJT
10)what is source follower?
A) the CD amplifier is called source follower, since the out put at the source terminal follows the
input signal in a CD amplifier.
11)what is dynamic resistance of JFET?
A)the ratio of change in drain-source voltage to the change in drain current at a given gate-source
voltage is known as dynamic resistance rd
page 121
EDC LAB
Experiment-11
RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR
AIM: To study the RC phase shift oscillator.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
S.No
Description Of Item
Range
Quantity
30MHz
0-30V
Bread Board
-------
S.No
Description Of Item
Range
Quantity
Transistor
BC107
10K
47K
470
Resistor
Capacitor
10K
1 POT
1K
0.1F
0.001F
page 122
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
EDC LAB
Vcc
470
47k
R22
10K
1k
0.1uF
0.1uF
0.1u
F
10k
10k
10k
10k
1k
0.1
F
THEORY:
R-c phase shift oscillator has a CE amplifier followed by three sections oof RC phase shift feed back
networks the out[put of the last stage is return to the input of the amplifier.the values of R and C are
chosen such that the phase shift of each RC section is 600.thus the RC ladder network produces a total
phase shift of 1800 between its input and output voltage for the given frequencies . since CE amplifier
produces 1800 phases shift the total phse shift from the base of the transistor around the circuit and
back to the base will be exactly 3600 or 00 .this satisfies the barkhausen condition for sustaining
oscillations and total loop gain of this circuit is greater than or equal to 1,this condition used to
generate the sinusoidal oscillations
page 123
EDC LAB
Procedure:
1.Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
2. Switch on the power supply and observe the output on the CRO (sine wave).Note down the output
amplitude and frequency practically.
3. Note down the theoretical output frequency using the formula f0= 1/ (2 RC
and compare it
with its practical frequency.

4.Plot the graph for the output waveform.
CALCULATIONS:
Theoretical frequency= f0=1/(2 RC6)

=
PRACTICAL VALUES:
TIME PERIOD((T)=
FREQUENCY=1/T=
Result:
The theoretical and practical output frequencies are ----------.
Theoretical frequency=
Practical frequency=
page 124
EDC LAB
REASONING QUESTIONS
1.What type of feedback is preferred in oscillators?
A.
Positive feed back
2. condition for oscillation to start in oscillators?

A)Barkhausen ,total loop gain =1,total phase shift must be 0
3. List out the applications of oscillators
A. As LF,HF frequency generators, in radio receivers and radio transmitters etc
4. Which oscillator is very suitable for audio range applications?
A. RC-phase shift oscillator
5. Which oscillator is suitable for RF range applications?
A.collipits and hartley
6. Amplifier circuit is necessary in an oscillator, why?
A. For regenerative action
7. Three RC sections are used in RC Phase Shift oscillators why?
A.to provide 1800 phase shift
8. positive feedback is employed in oscillators, why?
A.To get sustained oscillations in same phase
page 125
EDC LAB
Experiment-12
HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
AIM: To calculate the output frequency of hartley oscillator for different sets of Inductors, both
theoretically and practically.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
S.No
Description Of Item
Range
Quantity
20MHz
0-30V
Bread Board
-------
S.No
Description Of Item
Range
Quantity
Transistor
BC107
100
100K
10K
10F
0.01F
10mH
1mH
Resistor
Capacitor
Inductor
page 126
EDC LAB
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
VCC
100ohm
100K
100K
10uF
2
Q1
BC107
10uF
10K
10uF
470ohm
L1
L2
0.01uF
L1
L2
1
L1
L2
THEORY:
Hartley oscillator is very popular and is commonly used as a local oscillator in radio receivers. It has
two main advantages
1) Adaptability to wide range of frequencies and easy to tune. The tank circuit is made up of L1,
L2, C1.the coil L1 is inductively coupled to coil L2, the combination functions as auto
transformer. The resistances R2 and R3 provide the necessary biasing. the capacitance C2
blocks the d.c.component.The frequency of oscillations is determined by the values of
L1,L2,C1 and is given by,
page 127
EDC LAB
The energy supplied to the circuit is of correct phase. The auto transformer provides 1800 out
of phase. Also another 1800 is produced by the transistor. In this way energy feedback to the
tank circuit is in phase with the generated oscillations.
PROCEDURE:
2.Connect the first set of inductors L1 and L2 and observe the output waveform on C.R.O and measure
the output voltage and frequency.
3.Repeat the above steps for the second set of inductors also.
4.Calculate the theoretical output frequency for the given set of nductors using the formula.
F0= 1/(2sqrt LT C)
Where LT = L1L2 .
5.Plot the graph for the output waveform.
OBSERVATIONS:
S.NO
L1
L2
1.
10mH
10mH
0.01F
Ftheoretical
Fpractical
page 128
1mH
1mH
EDC LAB
0.01F
Result:
The theoretical and practical output frequencies are --------------.
Theoretical frequency( for 1st set of inductors)=
Practical frequency( for 1st set of inductors)=
Theoretical frequency( for 2nd set of inductors)=
Practical frequency( for 2nd set of inductors)=
REASONING QUESTIONS
1.What is an electronic oscillator?
Ans: any electronic circuit that generates an alternating voltage is known as oscillator.
2. Give applications of electronic oscillator

Ans: oscillators find applications at places where an alternating voltage of desired frequency is needed.
For testing the audio amplifiers we need alternating voltages of frequencies in the audio range i.e from
20 HZ to 20khz.the electronic oscillators suitable for this type of applications are known as audio
signal generators.
3. What is an alternator?
page 129
EDC LAB
Ans: man alternator is an electronic mechanical machine which converts the mechanical energy into
an electrical energy with alternating voltage.
4. Give various classifications of oscillators?
Ans: 1.sinusoidal oscillators
2. Non sinusoidal oscillators
3. Feedback oscillators
4. Negative feedback oscillators
5. Audio frequency oscillators
5. What do you understand by the term frequency stability of an oscillator?
Ans: it is a measure of ability of an oscillator to maintain a constant frequency over a long interval of
time.
6. How does the frequency stability of an oscillator depend upon the Q factor of the circuit?
Ans: the frequency stability of an oscillator is higher for a higher value of Q factor of the circuit.
7. What are the common features of LC oscillators?

Ans: 1.there should be an active device to work as an amplifier
2. The amplifier circuit should incorporate a positive feedback.
8. What is starting voltage for an oscillator circuit?

Ans: noise voltage is the starting voltage for an oscillator circuit.
9. What is the limitation of Hartley oscillator?

Ans: This limitation applies to all LC and RC oscillators. These oscillators cannot give very accurate
frequency.
Experiment-13
COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
page 130
EDC LAB
AIM: To calculate the output frequency of colpitts oscillator for different sets of Capacitors, both
theoretically and practically.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
S.No
Description Of Item
Range
Quantity
30MHz
0-30V
Bread Board
-------
S.No
Description Of Item
Range
Quantity
Transistor
BC107
100
100K
10K
10F
0.1F
0.47F
Resistor
Capacitor
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
page 131
EDC LAB
THEORY:
page 132
EDC LAB
The tank circuit is made up of L1, C4 and C5 . The resistance R2 and R3 provides the necessary biasing.
The capacitance C2 blocks the D.C component. The frequency of oscillations is determined by the
values of L1, C4 and C5 and is given by
F=1/(2(Ct L1)1/2 ) where Ct=C1C2/(C1+C2)
The energy supplied to the tank circuit is of correct phase. The tank circuit provides 180 0 .in this way
energy feedback to the tank circuit is in phase with the generated oscillations
PROCEDURE:
2. Connect the first set of capacitors C1 and C2 and observe the output waveform on the CRO (sine
wave). Note down the output amplitude and frequency practically.
3. Note down the theoretical output frequency for the given set of capacitors C1 and C2 using the
formula
F0= 1/(2sqrtLCT)
Where CT = C1C2 /(C1+C2) .
4. Repeat the above steps (2) and (3) for the second set of capacitors C1 and C2 also.
5. Plot the graph for the output waveform.
OBSERVATIONS:
page 133

S.NO
C1
C2
1.
0.01F
0.47F
20mH
Ftheoretical
EDC LAB
Fpractical
Result:
The theoretical and practical output frequencies are calculated.
Theoretical frequency( for 1st set of capacitors)=
Practical frequency( for 1st set of capacitors)=
Theoretical frequency( for 2nd set of capacitors)=
Practical frequency( for 2nd set of capacitors)=
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1.What type of feedback is preferred in oscillators?
A.
Positive feed back
2. condition for oscillation to start in oscillators?

A.Barkhausen ,total loop gain =1,total phase shift must be 0
3. List out the applications of oscillators
A. As LF,HF frequency generators, in radio receivers and radio transmitters etc
4. Which oscillator is very suitable for audio range applications?
A. RC-phase shift oscillator
5. Which oscillator is suitable for RF range applications?
A.collipits and hartley
6. Amplifier circuit is necessary in an oscillator, why?
A. For regenerative action
7. Three RC sections are used in RC Phase Shift oscillators why?
page 134
EDC LAB
A.to provide 1800 phase shift

8. positive feedback is employed in oscillators, why?
A.To get sustained oscillations in same phase
page 135
EDC LAB
REFERENCES :
1.A text book of electronic devices and circuits-I by Prof.V.A.HAMBIRE Shree vision publications,
Aurangabad, first edition 1997
2. Electronic Devices and Circuits J.Millman, C.C.Halkias, and Satyabratha Jit Tata McGraw Hill,
2ndEd., 2007.
3. Electronic Devices and Circuits R.L. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky, Pearson/Prentice Hall,9th
Edition,2006
4. Electronic Devices and Circuits T.F. Bogart Jr., J.S.Beasley and G.Rico, Pearson Education, 6th
edition, 2004.
5. Principles of Electronic Circuits S.G.Burns and P.R.Bond, Galgotia Publications, 2nd Edn.., 1998.
6. Electronic Devices and Circuits Dr. K. Lal Kishore, B.S. Publications, 2nd
Edition, 2005.
7. Electronic Devices and Circuits- Prof GS N Raju I K International Publishing House Pvt .Ltd 2006
WEB REFERENCES :
1.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/active elements
3. http://www.engineersgarage.com/tutorials/activeelements testing
page 136

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RAGHU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Dakamarri (v), Bheemunipatnam (M)

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

RAGHU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Name of the Laboratory

: ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS

Name of the Faculty

STUDY EXPERIMENT1: Identification, Specifications, Testing of R, L, C Components (Color

STUDY EXPERIMENT2: Identification, Specifications and Testing of Active Devices, Diodes,

STUDY EXPERIMENT6: Study and operation of CRO

EXPERIMENT1 PN Junction diode characteristics

A. Forward bias B. Reverse bias.( cut-in

voltage & Resistance calculations)

EXPERIMENT2 Zener diode characteristics and Zener as a regulator

EXPERIMENT5 Transistor CE characteristics (Input and Output) & h Parameter calculations

Department of Electronics & Communications Engineering

Raghu Institute of Technology, Dakamarri, Visakhapatnam

Department of Electronics & Communications Engineering

Programme Educational Objectives

An ability to apply knowledge of mathematics, science, and engineering

An ability to design a engineering system, component, or process to meet desired needs

An ability to function on an inter-disciplinary team

An ability to identify, formulate, and solve engineering problems

An understanding of professional and ethical responsibility

An ability to communicate effectively

global societal context

An ability to engage in life-long learning

Knowledge of contemporary issues

communications engineering applications

Raghu Institute of Technology, Dakamarri, Visakhapatnam

Department of Electronics & Communications Engineering

Mapping of Course Outcomes to Programme Outcomes and Programme Educational Objectives

Teaching Learning and Assessment Strategy

Extra Laboratory Session

Student- Faculty In charge Discussion

Collaborative and Co-operative learn

Independent student study and Practice

Raghu Institute of Technology, Dakamarri, Visakhapatnam

Department of Electronics & Communications Engineering

Evaluation of Marks for the Laboratory Exam

Day to Day Work

External Lab Exam - 50

Total Lab Exam Marks - 75

Raghu Institute of Technology, Dakamarri, Visakhapatnam

Department of Electronics & Communications Engineering

Raghu Institute of Technology, Dakamarri, Visakhapatnam

Department of Electronics & Communications Engineering

Raghu Institute of Technology, Dakamarri, Visakhapatnam

Department of Electronics & Communications Engineering

Raghu Institute of Technology, Dakamarri, Visakhapatnam

Department of Electronics & Communications Engineering

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY KAKINADA

Raghu Institute of Technology, Dakamarri, Visakhapatnam

Department of Electronics & Communications Engineering

LIST OF SELECTED EXPERIMENTS FROM JNTUK RECOMMENDED

PART-A: ELECTRONIC WORKSHOP PRACTICE

NAME OF THE STUDY EXPERIMENT

Identification, Specifications, Testing of R, L, C Components (Color Codes),

Identification, Specifications and Testing of Active Devices, Diodes, BJTs,

Soldering practice Simple Circuits using active and passive components

Single layer and Multi layer PCBs (Identification and Utility).

Study and operation of Multi meters ,Function Generator, Regulated Power