Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
September 6, 2015
Contents
1 Introduction
2.5
Energy Release . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Energy consumption for crack growth
Energy Release Rate . . . . . . . . . .
Application of Energy Concepts . . . .
2.4.1 Pulling o tape . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2 Spalling crack . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.3 Double cantilever beam . . . .
2.4.4 Panel with a central crack . .
Compliance method . . . . . . . . . .
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crack
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6
8
10
12
12
13
15
16
18
20
20
21
23
26
26
29
33
34
35
35
36
39
6 The J-integral
42
49
6.1
7.1
7.2
43
49
53
CONTENTS
8 Crack deection
56
63
76
84
86
Nomenclature
0
pl
Kolosov constant
Shear modulus
Poison's ration
yy
stress component
Crack length
compliance
force
Gc
KI
Kt
KIc
force
local coordinate
strain energy
displacement
Work
3
Chapter 1
Introduction
When a specimen containing a crack is considered, the most important question
from a strength point of view is of course what the load carrying capacity is
before the crack starts growing. A direct application of linear elasticity will
reveal that the stresses in the vicinity of the crack tip will approach innity no
matter how small the load is made, and conventional strength approaches will
therefor tell that a partially cracked specimen g. 1.1 cannot be loaded at all.
Intuition as well as experiments will of course give a dierent result.
P
P-?
P
Figure 1.1: Load carrying capability of cracked structure
The object of Fracture Mechanics is to describe under which loading conditions an already existing crack will start to grow. A central element in this
description is to consider crack growth as an energy balance. [2] introduced
the energy balance concept as early as 1920. As is turns out, energy can be
added to the fracture process by letting the outer forces perform work or by
releasing elastic energy. When the energy put into the fracture process exceeds
the necessary energy for forming new crack faces, the crack will grow.
It has turned out that linear elastic solutions for cracked specimens are
indeed very useful solutions despite the fact that stresses become innite. As it
will appear later, it is not the magnitude of the stresses that is important but the
speed with which the stresses goes to innity, that determines whether a crack
is stable or not. This is conceptually dicult to accept and in the beginning
4
CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION
it will feel somewhat counter intuitive. When coming past this point, fracture
mechanics contain some of the most beautiful solutions that linear elasticity has
to oer.
Fracture mechanics gives the theoretical foundation for predicting at which
load a cracked structure will break. Most metallic structures will not break due
to small cracks that may be present from manufacture, but may fracture as a
result of fatigue where the structure sustain a number repeated loads before it
nally breaks. During fatigue small cracks may grow and the speed with which
these cracks grow can be predicted with fracture mechanics. The crack length
at which nal fracture will happen can be predicted as well. This combination
makes fracture mechanics an indispensable tool in many practical problems
involving fatigue and as a theoretical framework for understanding the theory
of fatigue generally.
Chapter 2
CHAPTER 2.
a)
A) F
P
a
P
b)
U1
u
B) F
P
P+dP
a
P+dP
c)
dW
u+du
C) F
a+da
u u+du
P+dP
d)
U2
a+da
D) F
P
P+dP
u u+du
dL
u u+du
Figure 2.1: Crack growth process for a beam
CHAPTER 2.
from b) to c). Both the start conguration b) and the end conguration c)
are equilibrium congurations. To allow for this, the external force P changes
slightly to P+P .The area marked with gray in B) corresponds to the work W
done by the external forces during the crack extension proces. In a bit more
detail the work done can be written as W = P u + P u/2 P u when a
and therefore u are arbitrarily small. The work done on the specimen during
this process is the work done by the external forces during the crack growth
process W .
- Finally the specimen is gradually unloaded, as sketched in c) to d). After
the crack growth the stiness of the specimen is slightly decreased. During
unloading the energy corresponding to U2 is recovered, as sketched in C). If the
specimen is elastic the recovered energy is strain energy. With the notation from
before the recovered strain energy can be viewed as a function of crack length
U (a + a) and U2 = U (a + a) corresponding to the equilibrium conguration
where further crack growth is imminent. \newline
The change in elastic strain energy U is thus the recovered strain energy in
C) minus the stored strain energy in A)
U = U2 U1 = U (a + a) U (a) = U (a)
(2.1)
and U (a) corresponds to the release of strain energy during crack growth
through a distance a, ie recovered strain energy minus stored strain energy.
The work done by the outer forces during the crack growth process in B) is
W = P u
(2.2)
The net work performed on the specimen L during the crack growth process
from a) to d) where the only change is the change in crack length from a to
a + a is thus
L = W U
(2.3)
T = 2t0 a
(2.4)
CHAPTER 2.
where t is the specimen thickness, a is the crack growth distance, and the factor
2 signies that two new free surfaces are formed by crack growth.
With the energy released (2.3) and the consumed energy (2.4) Grith condition for stable crack growth (Grith 1920) becomes
(2.5)
L = T
corresponding to a state where quasi static crack growth is possible. ForL > T
more energy is added to the crack growth process than is needed, and unstable
crack growth will occur. For L < T the energy needed exceed the energy available and crack growth is not energetically favorable and the crack is therefore
stable.
y
Plastic zone
Crack
x
Plastic wake
T = t(20 + pl )a
(2.6)
where pl is the energy dissipation induces by plastic deformation per unit area
of newly formed crack.
Even though proper plasticity is a phenomenon associated with metals it
can be generalized to all materials having other energy dissipating processes
associated with crack growth than formation of free surfaces, thus all materials
except ideally glassy materials will in this setting show some sign of plastic (or
inelastic) energy dissipation.
Introducing the energy consumption per unit newly formed crack face (2.4)
gives
CHAPTER 2.
Gc =
1 T
= 20
t a
10
(2.7)
or using (2.6)
Gc = 20 + pl
if plasticity eects are included.
Gc is the called critical energy release rate which is a material constant
corresponding to the necessary energy for the formation of crack face per unit
crack face area.
=U +V
(2.8)
where U is the strain energy and V is the potential of the outer forces
V = F u
(2.9)
P
a)
a
P+dP
b)
a+da
Figure 2.3: Crack growth process for a beam
The dierence in the total elastic potential between two equilibrium
congurations sketched in g. 2.3 a) and b) can be written as
CHAPTER 2.
11
(2.10)
U (u + u, a)
a U (u, a)
= U (u + u, a) +
a
V (u + u, a)
a V (u, a)
+ V (u + u, a) +
a
(2.11)
as U (u + u, a) and U (u, a) now refers to the same geometry (or crack length)
then U (u + u, a) U (u, a) = U and V (u + u, a) V (u, a) = V . As this
refers to an equilibrium state then U + V = 0, and (2.11) reduces to
[U (u + u, a) + V (u + u, a)] a
a
which further can be rewritten to
=
(2.12)
[U (u, a) + U + (V (u, a) + V )] a
(2.13)
a
as U and V refer to an equilibrium conguration this nally reduces to
=
(u, a)
a =
[U (u, a) + V (u, a)] a
(2.14)
a
a
which describes the change in equilibrium or stationary value of the total elastic
potential () with respect to a chance in crack length (a).
If (2.10) is compared with (2.3), the following is obtained
=
a
(2.15)
a
where U i (2.3) is the change in elastic strain energy when the crack length is
increased quasi-statically.
L =
U
a
a
and W i (2.3) is the work done by the outer forces
U =
(2.16)
W = V
(2.17)
If the change in energy per unit area of crack face is introduced, the following
is obtained
G=
L
1
=
ta
t a
(2.18)
CHAPTER 2.
12
G is denoted energy release rate which is the energy released per unit crack face,
when the crack grows.
Grith crack growth condition (2.5) now becomes
(2.19)
G = Gc
and crack growth is possible when the energy release rate G is equal to the
critical energy release rate Gc .
When the energy release rate G is greater than the critical energy release rate
Gc crack growth will be unstable and progress dynamically. When the energy
release rate is lower than the critical energy release rate the crack is stable and
crack growth will not occur.
du
Figure 2.4: Pulling o tape
In gure 2.4the pulling o of tape from a surface is considered. At a certain
force P the tape will start to loosen from the surface. The tape will be pulled
o at a steady rate as long as the force P is maintained. Assuming that the
tape is sti enough for elastic strains to be neglected, the energy put into the
system is the work done by the force P only. As a small piece of tape of length
u is pulled o, the energy
W = P u
is done on the system.
The energy per unit area entering the crack proces is therefore
G=
W
1
= P
ta
t
CHAPTER 2.
13
t is the width of the tape. The length u of tape being pulled o is interpretated
as the increase in crack length a. The pulling o of tape is an example of a
crack process dominated by the work done by an external force.
Of course the example can be made to include elastic eects. Just before
the tape starts to loosen, the elastic strain in the free tape can be written as
U1 =
V 2
2E
where the volume of the tape is V = thL when L is the lengh of the free tape
between the surface and the tape roll and h is the thickness of the tape. The
stress in the tape is = P/th, so the elastic strain becomes
U1 =
thL
2E
P
th
2
=
L
P2
2Eth
After a small distance u is of tape is detached, the strain energy in the tape
changes to
U2 =
(L + u) 2
P
2Eth
U = U2 U1 =
u 2
P
2Eth
Furthermore the work done by the external force should include the elongation of the detached piece of tape u. The extra work done by this elongation
is P u = P u/E . The work done by the external force between the two
congurations in g. 2.4 is now
P
W = P u 1 +
Eth
when elastic deformation of the tape is included.
The energy release rate
W
P
P
G=
=
1+
ta
t
2Eth
The second term in paranthis will generally be much smaller than one and
therefore the elastic deformation is of secondary importance in this example.
CHAPTER 2.
14
exx=e0
exx=e0
exx=0
a
L
U=
1 2
E(L a)ht
2 0
1 2
1 2
Eh =
h
(2.20)
2 0
2E 0
This result shows that the energy release rate for a spalling crack increases
linearly with coating thickness and squared with eigen stress. If spalling is a
problem it may be remedied by lowering the thickness or by lowering the eigen
stress. Even though the latter is very ecient due to the square dependence it
is also often quite dicult to predict accurately.
An alternative derivation of the energy release rate for a spalling crack can
be obtained from the so called upstrem-downstream consideration illustrated in
g. 2.6. Increasing the crack length from a to a + a is the same as taking
out a small coating segment of lengh a from the region with eigen stresses to
the unstressed region. The strain energy change between the stress free region
(nal state) and the state with eigen stresses (the initial state) is
G=
1
U = 20 Ehta
2
the minus sign is in agreement with the fact that crack growth decreases the
strain energy in the coating. The energy release rate is calculated from (2.18)
and the result in (2.20) is retained.
CHAPTER 2.
exx=e0
exx=0
exx=e0
da
exx=0
15
da
y
x
a
P
Figure 2.7: Double cantilever beam
The two bend beams with the crack between them can be analyzed using
ordinary beam theory, which makes the analysis very simple.
The deection of the top beam can be determined as
CHAPTER 2.
P
2
(2a + x) (a x)
6EI
if it assumed xed at the crack tip where the two beams join.
The cross sectional moment is
v(x) =
M (x) = P x
16
(2.21)
(2.22)
The strain energy for the top beam can be determined from the expression
Z
1 a M (x)2
P 2 a3
U=
dx =
(2.23)
2 0
EI
6EI
The potential for the outer forces on the top beam is
P 2 a3
(2.24)
3EI
and the total elastic potential for both the top and bottom beam thereby become
V = P u(0) =
P 2 a3
3EI
with (2.18) the energy release rate becomes
=
(2.25)
P 2 a2
(2.26)
tEI
When this solution turns out to be very close to the analytical solution it
relies in part on the fact that the main part of the deformation is very well
described by beam theory, and in part on the point that the energy release
rate is the dierential of the total elastic potential. This dierential is not
aected seriously by the approximations made at the very crack tip, where beam
theory is quite a bit o the analytical solution. This error is an almost constant
contribution to the total elastic potential, which therefore has no bearing after
the dierentiation.
G=
V = 2a2 t
The strain energy per unit volume w is
(2.27)
CHAPTER 2.
17
ab
2a
2a
s
1 2
(2.28)
2E
If the panel is very large compared to the crack length, a small extension
of the crack will not induce a displacement of the loaded edges of the panel, so
the potential of the outer forces can be assumed to be constant VP . The total
elastic potential for the panel can then be written as
w=
= (V0 V )w + VP
(2.29)
where V0 is the panels total volume. Introducing the expression for the the
strain energy and the volume of the unloaded area in this gives
1 2
+ VP
2E
and with (2.18) the energy release rate becomes
= (V0 2a2 t)
2
E
A more precise analysis will reveal that = /2, such that
G = 2a
(2.30)
(2.31)
2
(2.32)
E
this equation reveals a fundamental result of fracture mechanics with respect
to the inuence of stress level and crack length. Doubling the stresses (far from
the crack) quadruples the energy release rate. Doubling the crack length doubles
the energy release rate. Thus both increasing the crack length or increasing the
stress increases the energy release rate, and (2.32) reveals the specic relation
for short cracks in large structures.
G = a
CHAPTER 2.
18
u = CP
(2.33)
1
CP 2 P u
(2.34)
2
where the rst term is the strain energy and the second term is the potential of
the outer forces.
The specimen in g. 2.9 is assumed deformed such that the deection is u,
which is kept constant. The potential of the outer forces is constant, and (2.34)
is rewritten to
=
1 u2
Pu
2C
and with (2.18) the energy release rate G can be determined
=
(2.35)
1 u2 C
1
C
= P2
(2.36)
2t C 2 a
2t
a
When the specimen in g. 1.1 is deformed with a constant force P rather
than constant deformation the total elastic potential can be written as
G=
1
1
CP 2 CP 2 = CP 2
2
2
and with (2.18) the energy release rate G becomes
=
G=
1 2 C
P
2t
a
(2.37)
(2.38)
CHAPTER 2.
19
The energy release rate is therefore the same whether constant deformation
or constant force boundary conditions are prescribed. Furthermore (2.38) constitutes a very useful relation for the energy release rate when the compliance
of a structure can be determined as a function of crack length.
Chapter 3
(3.1)
b
y
2b
2a
s
Figure 3.1: Elliptical hole
20
(3.2)
CHAPTER 3.
21
r
q
2a
r
q
2p
+ ir = (z) + (z) + (
z 0 (z) + (z)) e2i
(3.3)
(z)
Az
(z)
Bz
(3.4)
CHAPTER 3.
0
0
i
Aei + Aei + ei Aei(1) + Bei e2i r
h
i
= Aei + Aei + ei Aei(1) + Bei e2i r
=
22
(3.5)
if these equations are to bo satised for any r the terms in square brackets have
to be zero. Solving for B in the square bracketted term in the rst equation
gives
h
i
B = A (1 + ) e2i + Ae2i(+1)
(3.6)
rewriting the square bracketed term in the secon eqution 3.5 ans setting to zero
gives
0 = A (1 + ) e2i + Ae2i + B ei(+2)
and with (3.6) this reduces to the condition
(3.7)
the physically relevant solutions for this equation are shown in g. 3.3. For the
wedge shaped notch the paramter has a solution with is between 0 and -0.5
depending on the wedge angle . The negative value of means the stresses are
singular as the notch root is approached (r 0).
As the notch becomes a crack with , the singularity parameter
becomes
equal to - 1/2. Thus the stresses becomes innity at a rate proportional
to 1/ r. Furthermore the equation (3.7) reduces to
0 = sin (2 (1 + ))
The physically relevant solutions are = 1/2 and = 0, 1/2, 1, 3/2... and
in accordance with this, a series expansion for stresses close to the crack tip may
be written as
CHAPTER 3.
23
2p
2a
90
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
l
120
180 a
150
C
r1/2
+ D0 +
Dn rn/2
(3.8)
n=1
KI
yy =
2r
(3.9)
where r is the distance ahead of the crack and, the 2 -term under the squareroot
is included for historical reasons. The factor KI tells how fast the stress tends
to innity and is denoted the stress intensity factor . The stress intensity factor
plays a central role in fracture mechanics, and as it will be demonstrated later
it can be made to take the same role as the energy release rate, albeit stress
intensity factors refer to stresses and energy release rate to energy. Forthe
present geometry the
stress intensity factor can be determined by KI = a
with the unit MPa m. In accordance with Irwin (1957) this can be compared
CHAPTER 3.
24
crack front
y
x
z
crack plane
Figure 3.4: Crack front and crack surface
Mode I
Mode II
x
Mode III
x
Mode I
u+ = u
v + = v
w+ = w
Mode II
u+ = u
v+ = v
w+ = w
Mode III u = u
v =v
w = w
(3.10)
CHAPTER 3.
25
KI
yy =
2x
KII
Mode II xy =
2x
KIII
Mode III yz =
2x
Mode I
(3.11)
these are the dominating stresses near the crack front or the crack tip. Apart
from the singular terms in the stresses nite terms can of course be superposed.
The determination of the stress intensity factors for each crack mode can be
determined by the limiting values denoted
Mode I
KI = lim yy 2x
x0
KI = Y a
Chapter 4
W (z) =
a2
z2
(4.1)
where z is the complex variable z = x + iy and i is the complex unit, such that
i2 = 1. The solution applies to plane problems.
Stresses are given by
(4.2)
xx,x + xy,y = 0
xy,x + yy,y = 0
26
(4.3)
CHAPTER 4.
2a
s
Figure 4.1: Panel with a central crack
substituting (4.2) into the rst equilibrium equation gives
0=
with
W (z) dz
W (z)
=
= W 0 (z)
x
z dx
and
W (z) dz
W (z)
=
= iW 0 (z)
y
z dy
the following is obtained
0=
[yRe {W 0 (z)}] +
[Re {W (z)} + yIm {W 0 (z)}]
x
y
27
CHAPTER 4.
28
(4.4)
2 (xx + yy ) = 0
(4.5)
0 = 2 [2Re {W (z)}]
= 2 [Re {W 00 (z)} + Re {W 00 (z)}]
(4.6)
which like the equilibrium equations is identically satised when W (z) is twice
dierentiable in z . This is satised in the entire plane except along the real
axis for x [a, a], where the solution is supposed to have a jump in the
displacements. Before this is investigated further the boundary conditions are
examined.
lim W (z)z
(4.7)
xx |z =
yy |z =
(4.8)
xx |z = 0
The constant stress in the x-direction can be subtracted without complications, as a constant stress in this direction is not aected by the presence of the
crack.
Along the crack where y = 0 and x [a, a], which reduces W (z) to
CHAPTER 4.
29
syy/s
1.9
1.7
1.5
1.3
1.1
0.9
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.1
Figure 4.2: yy for panel with central crack
W (z)|y0 =
x
x
= i
x2 a2
a2 x2
(4.9)
as |x| < a then W (z)|y0 is purely imaginary and by introducing this in (4.2)
the boundary conditions is seen to be satised, as yy = 0 and xy = 0 along
the crack.
The stress yy is shown in g. 4.2.
CHAPTER 4.
30
s
=
+
s
Z a
1
p(t) a2 t2
WI (z) =
dt
(4.10)
tz
z 2 a2 a
where stresses are determined from
xx
yy
xy
(4.11)
In section 4.1 it was shown that the equilibrium equations and the compatibility condition are identically satised. That this indeed also satises the
boundary conditions can be shown using the properties of Cauchy integrals (integrals containing the term 1/(z t)), but in the present it suces to illustrate
this point by example.
The displacements due to (4.10) and (4.11) can be determined from
ux
uy
1
[(1 )Re {wI (z)} + 2yIm {WI (z)}]
4
1
[(1 + )Im {wI (z)} 2yRe {WI (z)}]
4
(4.12)
CHAPTER 4.
31
p(t)
x,t
2a
Figure 4.4: Mode I crack
2a
s
Figure 4.5: Panel crack
where wI0 (z) = WI (z), is the shear modulus and is the Kolosov constant;
= 3 4 for plane strain and = (3 )/(1 + ) for en plane stress, when
is Poisson's ratio. A verication of the equations in (4.12) can be established
through the use of the normal Cauchy strain and Hooke's law to relate (4.12)
to (4.11). This is "straight forward" and left to self-study.
With the results presented above it is now possible to determine the analytical solution to the panel crack problem shown in g. 4.5.
Using the superposition principle shown in g. 4.3 the traction becomes
p(t) = and (4.10) can be integrated to
z
WI (z) =
1
(4.13)
z 2 a2
The stress yy can now be determined from (4.11), and it must be remembered that the constant stress corresponding to the un-cracked panel has to be
added in accordance with the superposition sketched in i g. 4.3. In front of
CHAPTER 4.
32
yy =
a2
(4.14)
x2
yy = p
t+a
(t +
a)2
a2
t+a
2ta + t2
(4.15)
a
a
KI
=
=
(4.16)
2ta
2t
2t
KI = a
(4.17)
A general expression for the stress intensity factor can be given by the limit
value
KI + =
lim
y=0,xa+
yy 2x
(4.18)
when the crack tip to the right is considered. yy is determined form (4.11) and
(4.10) such that the general expression becomes
Z a
1
p(t) a2 t2
KI + =
dt
(4.19)
ta
a a
The crack face displacement for the panel crack in g. 4.5 can be determined
from (4.12) and (4.13) as
u+
y
=
=
n p
o
1+
lim+ Im
z 2 a2 z
4 y0
1+ p 2
a x2
4
(4.20)
1+ p 2
a x2
2
(4.21)
CHAPTER 4.
33
q(t)
x,t
2a
Figure 4.6: Mode II crack
COD ({\it crack opening displacement}) denotes the largest crack opening,
and for a panel crack this is
COD =
1+
a
2
(4.22)
1+ p 2
1+
1+
=
a (a r)2 '
2ar =
KI
2
2
r
2
(4.23)
where r = a x denotes the distance from the crack tip, and r << a.
Z a
1
q(t) a2 t2
WII (z) =
dt
(4.24)
tz
z 2 a2 a
where q(t) correspond to the shear traction along the crack faces as illustrated
in g. 4.6. Superposition corresponding to g. 4.3 can be utilized.
Stresses are determined from
0
xx = 2Im {WII (z)} + yRe {WII
(z)}
0
yy = yRe {WII
(z)}
0
xy = Re {WII (z)} yIm {WII
(z)}
(4.25)
CHAPTER 4.
ux
uy
1
[(1 + )Im {wII (z)} + 2yRe {WII (z)}]
4
1
[(1 )Re {wII (z)} 2yIm {WII (z)}]
4
34
(4.26)
As for mode I cracks a general expression for the stress intensity factor can
be obtained from the limit
KII + =
lim
y=0,xa+
xy 2x
(4.27)
where the crack tip to the right is considered. xy is determined from (4.25)
and (4.24), such that the general expression becomes
Z a
1
q(t) a2 t2
KII + =
dt
(4.28)
ta
a a
Z a
1
T (t) a2 t2
W (z) =
dt
(4.29)
tz
z 2 a2 a
Z a
q(t) a2 t2
1
WII (z) =
dt
(4.30)
tz
z 2 a2 a
xx
0
0 (z))/2
(WI (z) + WI (z) + iy(WI0 (z) WI0 (z)) i2(WII (z) WII (z)) + y(WII
(z) + WII
yy
xy
(4.31)
(4.32)
CHAPTER 4.
35
s(t)
x,t
2a
Figure 4.7: Mode III crack
Z a
1
s(t) a2 t2
dt
WIII (z) =
tz
z 2 a2 a
(4.33)
yz = Re {WIII (z)}
xz = Im {WIII (z)}
(4.34)
1
Im {wIII (z)}
(4.35)
uz =
A general expression for the stress intensity factor is obtained as the limit
KIII + =
lim
y=0,xa+
yz 2x
(4.36)
where the crack tip to the right is considered.. yz is determined from (4.34)
and (4.33), and the general expression becomes
Z a
1
s(t) a2 t2
KIII + =
dt
(4.37)
ta
a a
CHAPTER 4.
WI (z)
=
=
1
p
p(t0 )
a2 (t0 + a)2
dt
t0 z 0
(z 0 + a)2 a2 2a
Z 0
p(t0 ) 2t0 a t02
1
dt
t0 z 0
2z 0 a + z 02 2a
36
(4.38)
now the right hand crack tip lies at z 0 = 0 and t0 = 0. Letting a go to innity
and dropping the primes gives the following result for a semi-innite crack
Z 0
1
p(t) t
WI (z) =
dt
(4.39)
z t z
correspondingly for mode II and III cracks (4.24) and (4.33), and collecting the
results in a slightly compact form gives
Z 0 p(t)
WI (z)
1
t
WII (z)
q(t)
=
dt
(4.40)
z
tz
WIII (z)
s(t)
It should be mentioned that Westergaard's stress functions does not always
transform as easy as above. Generally the expressions for stresses (4.11), (4.25),
and (4.34), allows reformulation by coordinate transformation. As it turns out
transformations along the real axis gives consistant stress functions but transformations along the imaginary axis are much more complicated and not within
the capabilities of Westergaards stress functions.
The stress intensity factors for semi-innite cracks can be obtained from(4.19),
(4.28), and (4.37) as
KI r 2 Z 0 p(t) dt
KII
q(t)
=
(4.41)
t
K
s(t)
III
WI (z)
=
=
=
z
1
z
1
1
z
p(t) +
dt
t (t z) t
Z 0
Z 0
p(t)
z
p(t)
dt +
dt
(t z) t
t
Z 0
Z 0
p(t)
z
p(t)
dt +
dt
(t z) t
t
(4.42)
CHAPTER 4.
37
Rewriting the rst term by using (4.41) the result for all three modes of
crack openings give
KI Z 0 p(t)
WI (z)
z
1
dt
KII
WII (z)
q(t)
+
(4.43)
=
(t z) t
2z
KIII
WIII (z)
s(t)
Near the crack tip the rst term with the singularity
1/ z dominates whereas
the second term goes to zero with the factor z . So close to the crack tip the
stress functions are dominated by the rst term and for the near-eld this reduces to
KI
WI (z)
1
KII
WII (z)
=
(4.44)
2z K
W (z)
III
III
The result in (4.44) viewed as the dominating terms in the stress functions
near the crack tip irrespective of the specic geometry of the crack surface in
accordance with the original denition of crack modes in (3.11).
The stresses in the vicinity of a crack tip can be determined from Westergaards stress function for a semi-innite crack (4.44) and (4.11). For mode I
this gives
xx
yy
xy
3
K
I cos
1 sin sin
2
2
2
2r
K
3
I cos
1 + sin sin
2
2
2
2r
KI
(4.45)
For a mode II crack the stresses in the vicinity of the crack tip are given by
xx
yy
xy
3
K
II sin
2 + cos cos
2
2
2
2r
KII
cos
1 sin sin
2
2
2
2r
(4.46)
For a mode III crack the stresses in the vicinity of the crack tip are given by
xz
yz
KIII
=
sin
2
2r
KIII
=
cos
2
2r
(4.47)
CHAPTER 4.
ux =
1 + 2 cos2
cos
2 2
2
2
r
r
KI
+ 1 2 sin2
sin
uy =
2 2
2
2
The displacement eld for a mode II crack is
r
KII
r
ux =
1 + + 2 cos2
sin
2
2
2
2
r
r
KII
1 + 2 sin2
cos
uy =
2
2
2
2
38
Chapter 5
1
2
Z
p(t)(u+
y (t) uy (t))dt
0
a
(5.1)
p(t)u+
y (t)dt
p(t)
y
t
x
da
x
da
CHAPTER 5.
p(t) = p
KI (a)
2(a t)
40
(5.2)
(5.3)
1+
U = KI (0)KI (a)
4
1+
t
dt = KI (0)KI (a)
a
a t
8
(5.4)
as KI (a) can be written as KI (a) = KI (0) + (KI (0)/a)a, and a is arbitrarily small, this nally becomes
U = KI2
1+
a
8
(5.5)
The work done in (5.5), must equal the energy released during crack growth
through the distance a, such that
Ga = U = KI2
1+
a
8
(5.6)
the relation between the energy release rate G and the stress intensity factor
KI is then
G = KI2
1+
8
(5.7)
(1 2 )KI2
(5.8)
E
and for plane stress, where = (3 )/(1 + ) the energy release rate is
G=
KI2
(5.9)
E
In the same manner as the mode I crack was analyzed, mode II and mode
III energy release rates can be determined from their respective stress intensity
factors. For a mode II crack the following is obtained
G=
G=
2
(1 2 )KII
E
(5.10)
2
KII
E
(5.11)
G=
CHAPTER 5.
41
G=
G=
1
2
2
(1 + )(KI2 + KII
) + 4KIII
8
(5.12)
(5.13)
It should be emphasized that this result is valid for crack growth in the
original plane of the crack. As it will be shown later, a crack in mixed mode in
a homogeneous material will not grow in its original plane but bend or kink out
of the plane into the direction where the energy release rate is largest.
Chapter 6
The J-integral
The J-integral is a path independent integral given by
Z
ui
ds
J=
wdy ij nj
x
(6.1)
where w is the strain energy density and nj is the outward unit normal for the
contour . The contour in (6.1) is taken as shown in g. 6.1 such that the
contour starts on the lower crack face and runs counter clock wise to the upper
crack face
If the J-integral is determined for a linear elastic material it turns out that
the J-integral equals the energy release rate G; J = G, as it will be shown in
the following.
In the linear elastic case the J-integral is yet another possibility for determining whether a crack is stable or not,. Thus J can be compared to a material
constant JC which is equivalent to the stress intensity factor KI comparered to
the critical stress intensity factor KIc or the energy release rate G compared
to the critical energy release rate Gc . In certain cases the J-integral is relatively easy to determine compared to the other methods, but perhaps more
importantly, the path independence of the J-integral makes is especially well
CHAPTER 6.
43
THE J-INTEGRAL
suited for use in the FE-method. When the J-integral is used in FE-analyses
the contour it chosen such that if passes through areas where the solution is
of good quality. That is not too close to the crack tip and usually not too close
to the boundaries. Many FEM-packages include routines for determining the
J-integral, where the contour is user dened.
The J-integral can be generalized beyond linear elasticity and can be used
as an alternative to the energy release rate. A more thorough description of this
is beyond the scope of these notes.
dAo
(6.3)
x
y
o
Ao
with M = w and L = 0 the rst integral in (6.2) can be written as
I
Z Z
w
dAo
wdy =
o
Ao x
where Ao is the area enclosed by the closed contour o .
The divergence theorem states that
I
Z Z
Fj
Fj nj ds =
dAo
o
Ao xj
Go
CHAPTER 6.
44
THE J-INTEGRAL
if Fi is identied as
Fj = ij
ui
x
ij nj
ds =
ij
dAo
x
x
o
Ao xj
and the Jo -integral (6.2) can be written as
Z Z
ui
w
ij
dAo
Jo =
x
xj
x
Ao
(6.4)
(6.5)
To prove that this is zero for any contour o the integrand has to be zero.
To prove that this is the case, the strain energy derivative is rewritten using the
chain rule as
w
w ij
=
x
ij x
(6.6)
The derivative of the strain energy with respect to the strain is stress
w
= ij
ij
(6.7)
1
ui
uj
w
= ij
+
x
2
x xj
xi
The last sum can further be simplied by
1
ui
uj
ij
+
2
x xj
xi
=
=
1
ui
1
uj
ij
+ ij
2
x xj
2
x xi
1
ui
1
ui
ui
ij
+ ji
= ij
2
x xj
2
x xj
xj x
where the symmetry in the stress tensor ij = ji has been exploited. Finally
w
ui
ui
= ij
=
(6.9)
ij
x
xj x
xj
x
CHAPTER 6.
45
THE J-INTEGRAL
G1
G2
G4
G3
I
ui
ui
ds =
ds = 0
J=
wdy ij nj
wdy ij nj
x
x
1 2 3 4
(6.10)
For the integral along the crack faces, contours 2 and 4 , the y -coordinate
is constant,dy = 0, and the traction is zero, Ti = ij nj = 0 when the crack faces
are free from loads. From (6.2) it is seen, that this means that J(2 ) = 0 and
J(3 ) = 0 whereby (6.10) becomes
Z
Z
ui
ui
J=
wdy ij nj
ds +
wdy ij nj
ds = 0
x
x
1
3
I
the contours 1 and 3 are no longer closed contours. The two integrals have
to have equal size and opposite signs for the net result to be zero. Rewriting
this into
wdy ij nj
J=
1
Z
ui
ui
ds =
wdy ij nj
ds
x
x
3
(6.11)
CHAPTER 6.
46
THE J-INTEGRAL
Gives the originally introduced J -integral (6.1) except for the renaming of
the contour. As the contour 1 (and 3 ) have arbitrary shape, the value of the
J-integral is path independent.
To determine the relation between the J -integral and the energy release rate
G, J(3 ) have to be determined. Letting 3 be a small circle enclosing the
crack tip, such that dy = r cos d and ds = rd, the J -integral rewrites to
ui
ds
wdy ij nj
x
Z 3
ui
r w cos ij nj
d
x
=
=
(6.12)
where the change of sign is caused by reversing the integral limits from their
original denition caused by 3 being dened as a clock-wise contour.
If the circle 3 (or r) is made arbitrarily small only the singular terms in the
integrand will contribute to its value. Expanding the summation and the strain
energy density gives
Z
J
1
[xx xx + yy yy + 2xy xy ] cos
2
replacing the strains with the corresponding displacement derivatives and the
directional cosines with nx = cos and ny = sin gives
r
2
(6.14)
With Westergaard's stress function and the the formulas for stresses (4.11)
and displacements (4.12) for a mode I crack gives after a few simple algebraic
steps
(1 + )r
4
(6.15)
""
#
1
1
1
1
={ 3 }<{ } + <{ 3 }={ } y cos
J
z
z
z
z
"
#
#
1
1
1
1
1
1
(<{ 3 }<{ } ={ 3 }={ })y + 2={ }<{ } sin d (6.16)
z
z
z
z
z
z
(1 + )KI2 r
=
16
CHAPTER 6.
47
THE J-INTEGRAL
P
5
4
3
y
x
1
2
a
P
Figure 6.4: Contour for determining the J-integral for a double cantilever beam
3
3
with y = r sin , 1/ z = exp(i/2)/ r and 1/ z = exp(i3/2)/ r this
reduces to
Z
(1 + )KI2
(1 + )KI2
J=
sin2 d =
(6.17)
8
8
for a mode I crack the J-integral is now given by (6.17). By comparison with
the energy release rate (5.7) this is seen to be identical as it was to be shown.
The J-integral and the energy release rate for a mode II crack in a linear
elastic material can in the same manner as for a mode I crack be shown to be
identical, so the J-integral in terms of stress intensity factors is given by
J =G=
(1 + ) 2
2
KI + KII
8
(6.18)
CHAPTER 6.
48
THE J-INTEGRAL
as nx = 1 and ny = 0 and xx is the only stress component giving a contribution to the strain energy density in accordance with ordinary Bernoulli-Euler
beam theory.
As ux,x = xx = xx /E and uy = v(x) is given by (2.21), the following is
obtained
v(x)
P 2
=
(a x2 )
x
2EI
uy,x =
(6.21)
J(5 ) =
0
2
P
xx
xy
(a2 x2 ) dy
2E
2EI
(6.22)
With
h
xy dy =
0
P
t
(6.23)
and
xx =
M (h/2 y)
P x(h/2 y)
=
I
I
(6.24)
it follows that
Z
J(5 ) =
0
P 2 x2 (h/2 y)2
P2
dy
+
(a2 x2 )
2EI 2
2tEI
(6.25)
as
(y h/2)2 dy =
I
t
(6.26)
P 2 a2
(6.27)
2tEI
It can be shown that the J-integral for edge 1 is the same as for edge 5;
J(1 ) = J(5 ), so the collected J-integral for the contour shown in g. 6.3 is
J(5 ) =
P 2 a2
tEI
which is the same as the energy release rate G determined in (2.26).
J=
(6.28)
Chapter 7
KI
yy =
2x
(7.1)
as obtained in (4.19).
At the distance rp in front of the crack tip the stress reaches the yield stress
and the size of the plastic zone size rp can be estimated as
syy
Sy
rp
49
CHAPTER 7.
50
syy
Sy
rp
1
rp =
2
KI
Sy
2
(7.2)
The estimate for the the plastic zone size in (7.2) does not take the stresses
above the yield stress into account. A more consistent estimate for the plastic
zone size can be obtained by including a redistribution of stresses as illustrated
in g. 7.2. The elastic solution corresponding to the broken curve in g. 7.2
can be integrated to describe the load P carried from the crack tip x = 0 to R
far ahead of the crack tip with the expression
R
K
I
(7.3)
2x
0
The stresses in front of the crack tip may be assumed redistributed in a
manner as sketched in g. 7.2 with the full curve. The stresses are described by
P =
yy = Sy
yy = p
x < rp
(7.4)
KI
x > rp
2(x + )
where the stresses are limited by the yield stress and the stresses outside the
yielded area are the original elastic stresses, ie the broken curve, shifted along
the x-axis by into the full curve.
The load carried ahead of the crack tip from 0 to R can now be obtained
from (7.4) as
P = rp Sy +
rp
KI
p
2(x + )
(7.5)
If the load carried is to be the same for the two cases (7.3) and (7.5) the
following must be satised
Z
0
K
I = rp Sy +
2x
rp
KI
p
2(x )
(7.6)
CHAPTER 7.
51
(7.7)
"r
0 = rp Sy KI
2(rp + )
#
(7.8)
= rp
rp
2
Sy
K1
2
(7.9)
KI
yy = v
u
u
t2 (x + rp
rp
2
y
K1
2
!!
(7.10)
Sy = v
u
u
t2 (rp + rp
KI2
!! = r S
p y
KI
rp
2
Sy
K1
2
(7.11)
rp =
KI
Sy
2
(7.12)
Comparing the result in (7.12) for the redistributed stresses with the rst
estimate in (7.2) without redistribution it is noted that there is a factor to 2
between the two models, so the specic distribution if stresses have a rather
large inuence on how big the plastic zone is expected to be.
In the analyses so far the shape of the plastic zone size can of course not be
determined, but only the extend of the plastic zone ahead of the crack tip.
For a rst estimate the plastic zone shape may be assumed circular as
sketched in g. 7.3. Redistribution of stresses of course leads to a change
in crack opening, but this is not easily determined. In accordance with Irwin
it is assumed that the stress distribution can be described from a purely elastic
crack with an apparent length rp /2 longer that the original physical crack.
In g. 7.3 the original crack without plasticity is sketched with a dotted
curve. The assumed elastic crack is shown with the crack tip at the center of
the plastic zone at x = rp /2. The physical crack is shown with bold curve with
CHAPTER 7.
52
syy
Sy
rp
CTOD
Figure 7.3: Crack tip opening and a circular shaped plastic zone
the characteristic blunting of the tip appearing due to plasticity. The crack
opening of the assumed crack or the equivalent elastic crack is obtained from
(4.21) as
q
q
1+
4
=
(a + rp /2)2 x2 = (a + rp /2)2 x2
(7.13)
2
E
if the crack is assumed a panel crack in plane stress. Assuming further that the
physical crack opens corresponding to the equivalent elastic crack at x = a gives
4 q
= arp + rp2 /4
(7.14)
E
for crack
lengths much larger that the plastic zone size a >> rp and with
KI = a the following is obtained
q
4KI
=
rp /
(7.15)
E
denoting this opening the crack tip opening displacement =CTOD and inserting the formula for the plastic zone size (7.12) gives
CTOD =
4KI2
ESy
(7.16)
as the expression for the opening of the crack at the crack tip for a crack blunted
by plastic deformation.
This somewhat simplied model for the inuence of the plastic zone cannot
be expected to very accurate. However, the structure in the expression(7.16)
can be expected to be fairly correct for plastic zone sizes much smaller that the
crack length. CTOD in (7.16) is proportional with KI2 or G, and can be used
as an alternative measure of these.
CHAPTER 7.
53
r
ref =
1
2
[(xx yy )2 + (yy zz )2 + (zz xx )2 ] + 3xy
2
(7.17)
CHAPTER 7.
54
y
Plane stress
Crack
x
Plane strain
Crack
plane stress
x
plane strain
CHAPTER 7.
55
Kc
KIc
t
Figure 7.6: The thickness dependence of the critical stress intensity factor
The main part of the energy that goes into the crack growth process is used
in the plastic zone in the form of plastic work, especially so for tough materials as
metals. As the size of the plastic zone is not constant through the thickness, the
critical stress intensity factor may be expected to show a thickness dependence,
where thin specimens with an accompanying large plastic zone will require more
work per unit crack growth area compared to thick specimens where most of
the plastic zone is in plane strain resulting in a smaller plastic zone.
Qualitatively the thickness dependence may be illustrated as in g. 7.6. Thin
specimens will require a large amount of energy per unit crack extension, and
will appear tough with corresponding large values of the critical stress intensity
factor Kc . If thicker and thicker specimens are tested the critical stress intensity
factor will drop corresponding to a larger and larger fraction of the plastic zone
being in plane strain with restricted possibility of plasticity. For appropriately
thick specimens the critical stress intensity factor will approach an asymptotic
value, and this value is what is usually referred to as the materials toughness
either in the form of KIc or Gc .
For a practical test specimen it is required that all relevant dimensions, that
is thickness t, crack length a and the length of the unbroken part ahead of
the crack is large compared to the plastic zone. A practical lower limit on the
geometric parameters is
a, t, L > 2.5
2
KIc
Sy2
(7.22)
Chapter 8
Crack deection
A crack loaded in mixed mode I and II will deect or kink out of its original
crack plane and continue crack growth in a plane at a certain angle to the
original crack plane. For a brittle material the angle will in the direction where
the energy release rate is largest as illustrated in g. 8.1.
56
CHAPTER 8.
CRACK DEFLECTION
57
1+ 2
2
kI + kII
(8.1)
8
this requires that the stress intensity factors kI og kII for the kinked part of the
crack can be determined. It turns out that the stress intensity factors kI and
kII for the kinked crack can be obtained through the stress intensity factors KI
and KII that the crack was exposed to before kinking as indicated in g. 8.6.
G=
Figure 8.2: Stress intensity factors before and after crack kinking
When the length of the kinked part of the crack is small compared to the
original crack the stress intensity factors after crack kinking can be obtained as
a linear combination of the stress intensity factors for the original crack as
kI
kII
(8.2)
C11
C12
C21
C22
3
3 cos + cos
2
2
3
sin + sin
4
2
2
3
1
sin + sin
4
2
2
1
3
cos + 3 cos
4
2
2
1
4
(8.3)
CHAPTER 8.
58
CRACK DEFLECTION
1.0
C11
0.5
C21
0.0
20
40
60
C22
-0.5
-1.0
80 q
C12
G =
=
1+
(C11 KI + C12 KII )2 + (C21 KI + C22 KII )2
8
1+
2
2
2
2
KI cos
4KI KII cos sin + KII (4 3 cos ) cos2(8.4)
8
2
2
2
2
2
= arctan
KII
KI
(8.5)
1+ 2
KI cos2 4 tan cos sin + tan2 (4 3 cos2 ) cos2
8
2
2
2
2
2
(8.6)
Assuming that the direction in which the crack is kinking is in the direction
of maximum energy release rate the following must be fullled
G=
G
1+ 2
2
0=
=
KI tan + tan 2 tan tan
1 tan tan
cos4
4
2
2
2
2
(8.7)
where the term in the rst paranthesis gives the solution needed for = when
CHAPTER 8.
59
CRACK DEFLECTION
f
60
40
20
20 40 60 80 y
= 2 arctan
!
p
1 + 8 tan2
4 tan
(8.8)
In mixed mode loading the crack is expected to kink in and angle given by
(8.8). The angle is shown in g. 8.4. For a pure mode I crack the deection
angle is 0, as expected. For a pure mode II crack the deection angle is 70.5o .
With the kink angel determined the crack growth criterion G = Gc using
(8.4) may be put to use. Grith crack growth criterion for crack growth in an
angle is then
Gc =
1+ 2
2
kI + kII
8
(8.9)
or with (5.13)
(8.10)
2
2
KIc
= kI2 + kII
For crack growth in the original crack plane ( = 0) the crack growth criterion becomes
1=
KI
KIc
2
+
KII
KIc
2
(8.11)
corresponding to the circular curve in g. 8.5. From the geometrical form of
the curve the crack growth criterion is called circular.
Introducing a parameter KIIc an elliptical crack growth criterion may be
written as
1=
KI
KIc
2
+
KII
KIIc
2
(8.12)
CHAPTER 8.
60
CRACK DEFLECTION
KII /KIc
1.0
0.8
Circular
Exact
0.6 Parabolic
0.4
Elliptical
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0 KI/KIc
1=
KI
KIc
+
3
2
KII
KIc
2
(8.13)
(8.14)
CHAPTER 8.
CRACK DEFLECTION
61
for determining the kink angle . With C21 and C22 given by (8.3) this gives
exactly the same deection angle as the maximum energy release rate (8.8).
1
=
4 2r
3 cos
+ cos
2
2
3
KI 3 sin + sin
KII
2
2
(8.15)
max{ }
(8.16)
The solution to this is again exactly the same as (8.8). That the same result
is obtained again is a result of the functionsC11 og C12 which is exactly the
same as those in (8.15), and that kII = 0 corresponds to max{kI }.
CHAPTER 8.
CRACK DEFLECTION
62
63
CHAPTER 9.
Chapter 9
64
CHAPTER 9.
65
KI
KII
a
=
KIII
a 2
a 4 r
a
FI (a/b) = FII (a/b) = 1 0.025
+ 0.06
sec
b
b
2b
r
FIII (a/b) =
2b
a
tan
a
2b
accuracy of FI (a/b) and FII (a/b) is better than 0.1\% and FIII (a/b) is exact.
CHAPTER 9.
6M
3P L
=
KI = F (a/b) a
2
2
b
2b
66
CHAPTER 9.
67
KI =
P
F (a/b) a
tb
CT-test specimen (Compact Tension Specimen) after ASTM E 399. The following measures are recommended: h = 0.6b, h1 = 0.275b, D = 0.25b, c = 0.25b
and thickness t = 0.25b, and crack length a 0.5b.
CHAPTER 9.
KI, KII
x
r
w(z) = (KI iKII )
2z
68
CHAPTER 9.
69
z0
x
w(z) = 2 ln ( z +
KI + iKII =
z z0 z 0
z0 )( z + z 0 ) A + 1
A
z0 z z0
r
z0
1
z0
2
1
A+ 1+
A
2
z0
z0
z0
where
A=
B
i(1 + )
and B = bx + iby where bx and by are the real and imaginary part of Burgers
vector.
CHAPTER 9.
70
Px
x
p
z z0 z 0
w(z) = 2( ln( (z) + z 0 ) ln( z z0 ))Q 1
Q
z0 z z0
KI + iKII
r
z0
2
z0 z 0
Q
Q
2z0
z0
z0
where
Q=
P
2(1 + )
and P = Px + iPy where Px and Py are the real and imaginary part of the force
vector respectively, as illustrated in the gure.
CHAPTER 9.
71
z
1
1
z0
w(z) = iM
2
(z z 0 )
1
iM
K= p
2 z0 2z0
2a
s
Figure 9.5: Central crack under constant far-eld loading
\begin{gure}[bht] \begin{center} \includegraphics[scale=0.6]{./grith.eps} \end{center}
\label{grith} \end{gure}
CHAPTER 9.
w(z) = ( i )
p
z 2 a2 z
KI + iKII = ( + i ) a
72
CHAPTER 9.
73
y
Py
z0
2a
Px
x
q
p
p
z 2 a2 (z0 z 0 )Q
1 p 2
ln z + z 2 a2 (1 ) + ln zz0 a2 + z02 a2 z 2 a2 ln
z z0
z0 a2
"
KI +iKII =
#r
r
r
z0 + a
z0 + a
(z0 z 0 )a
p
1+
Q+Q
2
2
z0 a
z0 a
a
(a z0 ) z0 a
CHAPTER 9.
w(z) = iM
z 2 a2
1 p 2
z 0 a2
2(z z 0 )
iM a
p
KI + iKII
2(z0 a) (z02 a2 )
74
CHAPTER 9.
75
z0
x
2a
#
"
#!
p
p
z0 z a2 + z02 a2 z 2 a2
z 0 z a2 + z 20 a2 z 2 a2
+ ln
A
= ln
z + z 2 a2
z + z 2 a2
!
z 2 a2 z0 z 0
1 p 2
A
z 0 a2 z z 0
"
w(z)
"
KI + iKII =
r
2
z0 + a
z0 a
z0 + a
z0 a
(z0 z 0 )a
p
A
A
(z0 a) z02 a2
#r
Chapter 10
xx,x + xy,y
xy,y + yy,y
(10.1)
F,y
= xx
F,x
= xy
G,x
= yy
G,y
= xy
(10.2)
(10.3)
actually, the form of the equilibrium equations are sucient to ensure the
existance of the functions F (x, y) and G(x, y), see eg. [5]. Along the same lines
the equation
F,x G,x = 0
(10.4)
can be formed from the second in equation in (10.2) and (10.3). This equation ensures the existance of of a function U (x, y) that satises
76
CHAPTER 10.
77
U,y
= F
U,x
= G
(10.5)
= U,yy
yy
= U,xx
xy
= U,xy
(10.6)
Using the Airy's potential stress function U (x, y) ensures that the equilibrium equations (10.1) are identically satised. Airy's stress function has no
physical interpretation in itself, but its derivatives have vis a vis (10.6).
In plane stress the nonzero components of strain are
xx
yy
xy
zz
1
(xx yy )
E
1
(yy xx )
E
xy
2
(xx + yy )
(10.7)
xx
yy
xy
zz
1+
((1 ) xx yy )
E
1+
((1 ) yy xx )
E
xy
2
(xx + yy )
(10.8)
xx
ux,x
yy
xy
uy,y
1
(ux,y + uy,x )
2
(10.9)
CHAPTER 10.
78
(10.10)
1
xy,xy
1
(xx,yy yy,yy ) + (yy,xx xx,xx ) 2 (1 + )
=0
E
E
E
and using Airy's stress function (10.5) gives
+
2 =
x2
y 2
this can be written in compact form as
4 U = 0
(10.11)
Rewriting the compatibility equation (10.10) with the equation for plane
strain (10.8) and Airy's stress function (10.5) gives exactly the same equation,
so the biharmonic equation (10.11) applies to both plane strain and plane stress.
For plane stress the rst two equations of (10.7) can be rewritten using the
strain displacement relations (10.9) and Airy's stress functin (10.5) as
ux,x
uy,y
1
(U,yy U,xx )
E
1
(U,xx U,yy )
E
2 U = P
this can be rewritten as
or
ux,x
uy,y
1
(P (1 + ) U,xx )
E
1
(P (1 + ) U,yy )
E
(10.12)
CHAPTER 10.
79
2ux,x
2uy,y
1
P
1+
1
U,yy +
P
1+
U,xx +
(10.13)
For plane strain a similar derivation from the rst two equations of (10.8)
can be rewritten using the strain displacement relations (10.9) and Airy's stress
functin (10.5) as
ux,x
uy,y
1+
((1 ) U,yy U,xx )
E
1+
((1 ) U,xx U,yy )
E
ux,x
uy,y
1+
((1 ) P U,xx )
E
1+
((1 ) P U,yy )
E
or
2ux,x
U,xx + (1 ) P
2uy,y
U,yy + (1 ) P
(10.14)
=
=
(10.15)
2ux,x
2uy,y
1
( + 1) P
4
1
= U,yy + ( + 1) P
4
= U,xx +
to get these equation into integrable form, notice that P (x, y) is a harmonic
function. The harmonic conjugate to Q(x, y), that satisfy the Cauchy Riemann
conditions (12.1) such that
CHAPTER 10.
80
Qy
= P,x
Qx
= P,y
1
(P (x, y) + iQ(x, y))
(10.16)
4
furthermore the integrated function (z) such that 0 (z) = (z) and vis a vis
(10.16) the real and imaginary parts can be written as
(z) =
1
(p(x, y) + iq(x, y))
(10.17)
4
from (10.16), (10.17) and (12.1) which applies to p(x, y) and q(x, y) gives
(z) =
P = p,x = q,y
(10.18)
1
( + 1) p,x
4
1
= U,yy + ( + 1) q,y
4
= U,xx +
2ux,x
2uy,y
which integrates to
2ux
2uy
1
( + 1) p + g(y)
4
1
U,y + ( + 1) q + f (x)
4
U,x +
1
2 U (xp + yq)
=
4
=
=
1 2
2
+
(xp + yq)
4 x2
y 2
1
2 U (xp,xx +2p,x + xp,yy + yq,xx +2q,y + yq,xx )
4
1
2
U
x2 p + y2 q + 2p,x + 2q,y
4
2 U +
CHAPTER 10.
81
1
2 U (xp + yq)
=
4
2 U
1
(2p,x + 2q,y )
4
1
U (xp + yq)
4
= 2 U P
and nally using (10.12) gives equations (10.19). The solution to this equation
is
U=
1
(xp + qy) + r(x, y)
4
U = Re {
z (z) + (z)}
2 (ux + iuy )
2 (ux + iuy )
2 (ux + iuy )
= U,x iU,y +
2 (ux + iuy )
where
1
( + 1) (p + iq)
4
1
(xp,x + p + q,x y) + r,x + i
4
1
(xP yP ) + r,x + i
4
(10.20)
1
(xp,y + q + q,y y) + r,y
4
1
(xQ + yQ) + r,y
4
+ (z)
(10.21)
(10.22)
+ ( + 1) (z)
CHAPTER 10.
82
xx + yy = U,yy + U,xx
writing this in terms of a dierential operator and the using the expression for
Airy's stress function in (10.20) gives
2
2
+
Re {
z (z) + (z)}
xx + yy =
x2
y 2
Interchanging the real-value and the dierential operators and performing
the rst dierentiation gives
xx + yy = Re
[(z) + z(z) + (z)] +
[i(z) + i
z (z) + i(z)]
x
y
where the relation (10.22) has been applied. Expanding the last dierentiation
gives
xx + yy
2
2
yy xx + 2ixy =
2 2i
Re {
z (z) + (z)}
x2
y
xy
interchanging the dierential operator and the real-value operator gives
2
yy xx +2ixy = Re
+
(
z (z) + (z)) 2iRe
(
z (z) + (z))
x y x y
xy
performing the dierentiation and simplifying gives
yy xx + 2ixy
+
((z) + z(z) + (z) i((z) + z(z) + (z)))
x y
2iRe
((z) + z(z) + (z))
y
= Re{(z) + (z) + z0 (z) + (z) i ((z) + (z) + z0 (z) + (z))
=
Re
2Re {
z 0 (z) + (z)} 2iRe {i (
z 0 (z) + (z))}
2 (
z 0 (z) + (z))
CHAPTER 10.
83
xx + yy
n
o
2 (z) + (z)
yy xx + 2ixy
2 {
z 0 (z) + (z)}
(10.23)
Rotation of stresses
rr
rr +
xx + yy
rr + 2ir
are formed. Combining these with (10.23) gives the equations for the rotated
stress components in terms of the complex potantials as
+ rr
o
n
2 (z) + (z)
rr + 2ir
2 {
z 0 (z) + (z)} e2i
ur
ux cos uy sin
ux sin + uy cos
which combines to
2 (ur + iu ) = (z) z(z) (z) ei
(10.24)
Chapter 11
u = zy
v
w
= zx
= (x, y)
strains
xx = yy = zz = xy = 0
and
yz
zx
(,y + x)
2
(,x y)
2
stress
xx = yy = zz = xy = 0
yz
= (,y + x)
zx
= (,x y)
CHAPTER 11.
becomes
2 = 0
85
Chapter 12
(12.1)
(12.2)
the rst equation is easily obtained by dierentiating the rst equation in (12.1)
with respect to x and adding the second equation in (12.1) after dierentiation
with respect to y . The second equation is similarly obtained by dierentiating the rst equation in (12.1) with respect to y and subtracting the second
equation in (12.1) after dierentiation with respect to x. - this attribute for
complex functions is a part of the reason why complex functions are so useful in
86
CHAPTER 12.
87
y
W(z+Dz)
Dy
W(z)
Dx
S
x
Figure 12.1: The funktion W (z) in the vicinity of z
analyzing plane elasticity problems, but the formal derivation of how to apply
these methods are outside the scope of this presentation.
Whether a complex function is analytical or not is established by applying
Cauchy-Riemann's conditions (12.1). An alternative possibility is to investigate
whether the function can be expanded into a Laurent-series as
W (z) =
An (z z0 )n
(12.3)
W (z)
(12.4)
z0
z
If W (z) is described along the curve S , as shown in g. 12.1 the following
is obtained
lim
lim
z0
W (z)
1
= lim
[(W1,x + iW2,x )x + (W1,y + iW2,y )y]
z0 z
z
(12.5)
assuming Cauchy Riemann's conditions (12.1) are satised, this can be rewritten
into
lim
z0
W (z)
z
lim
z0
1
[W1,x (x + iy) + W2,x (ix y)]
z
CHAPTER 12.
lim
z0
88
1
[W1,x z + iW2,x z] = W1,x + iW2,x (12.6)
z
from this follows, that if the partial derivatives W1,x , W2,x ,W1,y , and W2,x exist
and Cauchy-Riemann's conditions are satised, then the limiting value exist. As
the limiting value is independent of z and thereby independent of the specic
choice of curve S in g. 12.1, the limiting value is the same irrespective of
direction in which z is taken.
With the normal notation we have
W 0 (z) =
W (z)
dW(z)
= lim
z0
dz
z
(12.7)
(12.8)
(12.9)
Bibliography
[1] B. Cotterell and J. R. Rice. Slightly curved or kinked cracks. Int. J. Fracture,
16:155169, 1980.
[2] A. A. Grith. The phenomena of rupture and ow in solids.
R. Soc. A, 221:163198, 1920.
Phil. Trans.
[3] C. E. Inglis. Stresses in a plate due to the presence of cracks and sharp
corners. Proc. Inst Naval Architects, 54:219230, 1913.
[4] G. R. Irwin. Analysis of stresses and strains near the end of a crack traversing
a plate. J. Appl. Mech, 24:362364, 1957.
[5] E. Kreyszig.
89
Index
complience, 18
critical energy release rate, 10
critical stress intensity factor, 24
energy consumption, 8
energy release rate, 10, 12
far eld stress, 20
free surfaces, 8
inelastic energy dissipation, 9
Kolosov constant, 31, 79
mode I stress intensity factor, 23
plastic energy dissipation, 9
Poison's ratio, 31
potential of outer forces, 10
shear modulus, 31
stress concentration factor, 20
stress intensity factor, 23
total elastic potantial, 10
90