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Emission and performance characteristics of an

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Article in Energy January 2011
DOI: 10.1016/j.energy.2010.10.026

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Energy 36 (2011) 397e402

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Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Emission and performance characteristics of an indirect ignition diesel engine

fuelled with waste cooking oil
M.A. Kalam*, H.H. Masjuki, M.H. Jayed, A.M. Liaquat
Centre for Energy Sciences, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 22 December 2009
Received in revised form
11 October 2010
Accepted 14 October 2010
Available online 3 December 2010

Biofuel has so far been backed by government policies in the quest for low carbon fuel in the near future
and promises to ensure energy security through partially replacing fossil fuels. At present biodiesel is
mostly produced by transesterication reaction from oil-seed feedstock and has to conform to ASTM
D6751 specications. Biodiesel sustainability has sparked debate on the pros and cons of biodiesel and
the question of food security. The use of waste cooking oil such as palm and coconut oil in diesel engines
is more sustainable if they can perform similarly to ordinary diesel fuel (B0). This paper presents the
experimental study carried out to evaluate emission and performance characteristics of a multi-cylinder
diesel engine operating on waste cooking oil such as 5% palm oil with 95% ordinary diesel fuel (P5) and
5% coconut oil with 95% ordinary diesel fuel (C5). B0 was used for comparison purposes. The results show
that there are reductions in brake power of 1.2% and 0.7% for P5 and C5 respectively compared with B0. In
addition, reduction of exhaust emissions such as unburned hydrocarbon (HC), smoke, carbon
mono-oxide (CO), and nitrogen oxides (NOx) is offered by the blended fuels.
2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Palm oil
Coconut oil
Waste edible oil (WEO)
Engine performance
Emission

1. Introduction
Demand for transport fuels is growing rapidly all over the world.
Of all automotive vehicles, diesel-operated vehicles are becoming
more popular nowadays owing to superiority in fuel efciency [1]
and low emission of CO2, CO (carbon mono-oxide), HC (hydrocarbon) [2]. Diesel engines are used in transportation, power plants,
construction and industrial activities. This wide usage has led to
increased demand for petroleum fuel. The world is now facing
a decrease in petroleum fuel and environmental degradation issues.
The present energy scenario has stimulated an active research
interest in non-petroleum, renewable, and non-polluting fuels. The
world reserves of primary energy and raw materials are obviously
limited. According to one estimate, the coal reserves will last for
218 years, oil for 41 years, and natural gas for 63 years, as
mentioned in a business-as-usual scenario [3]. This necessitates the
development and commercialisation of renewable fuel from
natural sources. This may well be the main reason behind the
growing international interest in unconventional bio-energy sources and fuels, especially in developing countries which are striving
hard to offset the oil monopoly.

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 603 79676863; fax: 603 79674448.

E-mail address: kalam@um.edu.my (M.A. Kalam).
0360-5442/$ e see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.energy.2010.10.026

The diesel engine was invented by Dr Rudolph Diesel and it was

run on peanut oil, as shown at the Paris Exposition in 1900. From
the very begining therefore the diesel engine has been able to run
on a variety of vegetable oils at high temperatures [4]. The hype
about biodiesel derives from the issue of energy security and
environmental sustainability which boosts rural development
through shifting power from petro- to agro-industry simultaneously [5]. The transesterication process is costly, however, and
followed by a time-consuming process separating the fuel from
glycerine so the end-products price exceeds that of diesel fuel. So
far, biodiesel projects have been heavily subsidised in all countries.
In addition, the high subsidy is driving farmers and businesses to
replace forests with vegetables whose oil can be used for vehicles.
Waste edible oil (WEO) is an oil-based substance consisting of
vegetable matter that has been used in cooking or preparation of
foods and is no longer suitable for human consumption. WEO was
once used as an ingredient in animal feed but was banned by the EU
because of animal health hazards [6]. Disposal of large amounts of
WEO has become a problematic issue in most countries. WEO
cannot be discharged into drains or sewers because this will lead to
blockages and odour or vermin problems and may also pollute
watercourses, causing problems for wildlife. It is also a prohibited
substance and will cause problems if it is dumped in municipal
solid waste landll and municipal sewage treatment plants [6e8].
Using WEO as an alternative fuel in diesel engines is therefore

398

M.A. Kalam et al. / Energy 36 (2011) 397e402

Table 1
Worldwide waste edible oil (WEO) production.

Table 2
Specication of used diesel engine.

Country

Quantity (million tons/year)

China [9]
Malaysia [10]
United States [11]
Taiwan [12]
Europe [13]
Canada [13]
Japan [14]

4.5
0.5
10.0
0.07
0.7e1.0
0.12
0.45e0.57

a more sustainable solution not only for disposal but also for
abatement of the fuel crisis. Annually, a total of more than 15
million tons of WEO is generated from selected countries in the
world, as shown in Table 1.
Thus a more sustainable fuel is provided by waste cooking oil.
The production cost of palm oil is RM1.00 per litre cheaper than its
methyl ester counterparts and the price of coconut oil is slightly
higher than conventional petroleum fuel. It would be the least-cost
alternative in terms of global emissions management cost because
coconut oil-based fuel produces lower exhaust emissions [15].
Moreover, WEO is cheaper than that. The only cost is collection and
the ltering process through hydrogenation to remove water and
gum and deacidication, etc. Being cheap and easily available,
waste cooking oil seems like a good substitute for diesel, but its
high viscosity is a major drawback. To overcome this problem,
a small percentage, like 5%, can be blended and tested for engine
compatibility. Rehman and co-workers [16] reported similarities in
physical and fuel properties of vegetable oil and No. 2 diesel.
Vegetable oil, however, has high viscosity which creates engine
problems like carbon deposition, lter plugging, poor atomisation
of fuel, injector coking and excessive engine wear [3,17e19]. For
this reason, only a small amount (i.e. 5%) of waste cooking oil is
blended with diesel in the following experiment. Transesterication reduces viscosity to a certain extent but transesterication of waste cooking oil requires postprocessing and an
extra stage from raw material to fuel [20]. Tan and co-workers [21]
used non-catalytic supercritical methanol technology to produce
biodiesel from waste palm cooking oil and reported an 80% yield.
Straight vegetable oils of different types (edible and non-edible)
have been tested as extended fuels of compressed ignition engines
by many researchers under various test conditions; e.g. preheating
fuel [19,22], modifying the engine [23] and without modifying
anything [24].

Engine
Model
Type
Combustion
Number of cylinder
Bore  stroke
Displacement
Compression ratio
Combustion chamber
Nozzle type
Cooling system
Continuous power output
Torque

Diesel engine
2L
Four strokes, water-cooled
IDI, naturally aspirated
4
92  92 mm
2.4 L (2446 cc)
22.3:1
Swirl chamber
Throttle
Pressurized circulation
53.6 kW at 4000 rpm
155.9 Nm at 2200 rpm

This study investigates the viability of using waste cooking oils

from palm and coconut oils as alternative fuels in existing internal
combustion engines without any modication. The objective of this
study is to investigate the diesel engine performance and its
exhaust emission characteristics fuelled by rened (free from
water, gum and acidication) waste cooking oil from palm and
coconut oil blended with ordinary diesel fuel.
2. Experimental set-up
The engine was not optimised or modied for waste cooking oil
as fuel. The schematic diagram of the engine test bed is shown in
Fig. 1. A multi-cylinder diesel engine has been used in this investigation. The engine specications are shown in Table 2. For every
new fuel, the engine was operated for about half an hour to ensure
the full exhaustion of the previous sample from the fuel line. The
engine was operated from 1500 rpm to 3500 rpm at a constant 85%
throttle position. The engine operation showed good stability at 85%
rather than 100% throttle position. Hence, for safety reasons, the
85% throttle was chosen. The probe and sensors of the measurement equipment were inspected and cleaned of any carbon
deposits, etc. The test was repeated several times to ensure the
stabilisation of all the instrumentations performance such as stable
coolant water and lubricating oil temperatures, sensors, exhaust gas
analyser readings and engine output such as torque stabilisation.
After stable operation had been ensured, the engine was operated
three (3) times for each fuel sample and then the average of the
three test results was used for analysis and discussion. The test
sequence was: test1 (B0, C5 and P5); test2 (B0, C5 and P5); and test3

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of engine test bed.

M.A. Kalam et al. / Energy 36 (2011) 397e402

Viscosity: An automatic Houlion viscometer (resolution 0.02%)

was used for determining the kinematic viscosity of fuels. It
provides a measure of the time required for a volume of fuels to
ow under gravity through a calibrated glass capillary tube.
Specic gravity: A specic gravity (resolution 0.02%) concentration meter (Model DMA 4500/5000) was used to obtain the
specic density value of all of the tested fuels. The fuel density was
measured at 15  C in g/cm3.
Flash point: An HFP 380 Pensky Martens ash point tester
(resolution 0.03%) was used to measure the ash point value of
each tested fuel. The ash point was determined by heating the fuel
in a small enclosed chamber until the vapours ignited and a small
ame was passed over the surface of the fuel. The temperature of
the fuel at this point was the ash point.
The test fuel physicochemical properties are presented in Table 4.

Table 3
List of equipments and the range, accuracy and percentage uncertainties.
Equipments

Range

Accuracy

Percentage
uncertainties

Horiba gas
analyser

CO 0e10%
CO2 0e18%
NOx 0e2000 ppm
Up to 1090  C

0.02% to 0.02%
0.03% to 0.03%
10 ppm to 10 ppm
1  C to 1  C

0.2 to 0.2
0.16 to 0.16
0.5 to 0.5
0.1 to 0.1

Exhaust gas
temperature
indicator

399

(B0, C5 and P5). The results presented in the graph average of

obtained results.
2.1. Exhaust gas analyser
A Horiba exhaust MEXA-7100FX gas analyser was used to
measure HC, O2, CO, CO2 and NOx emissions in the exhaust. The
analyser was interfaced with the engine and data acquisition
system software so that all data from the emission analyser and
engine could be logged concurrently. A Hartridge smoke meter was
used to measure smoke emission. The range of accuracy and
uncertainty of these equipment items are listed in Table 3.

3. Results and discussion

The experiment included a comparison of properties, engine
power and emission characteristics as well.
3.1. Fuel properties
From the physicochemical test results we found that C5 has
better heating value than P5. The higher heating value contributed to
more power output after the fuel was burned in the engine cylinder.
The heating values of both P5 and C5 are slightly lower compared
with B0. From the viscosity test result, we found that C5 has lower
viscosity than P5. Lower fuel viscosity contributes to better atomisation. The viscosity of both P5 and C5 is, however, slightly higher
than for B0. The results of all other properties and also the biodiesel
properties from other countries are presented in Table 3.

2.2. Test fuel

The preparation and analysis of test fuels were carried out at the
Engine Tribology Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malaya. A total of three test fuels were
selected for this investigation. The test fuels chosen were (1) 100%
ordinary diesel fuel (B0) obtained from a Malaysian petroleum
company, (2) 5% palm oil and 95% diesel fuel (P5) and (3) 5%
coconut oil and 95% diesel fuel (C5). All blended proportions were
volume based. All test fuels were mixed for 20 min at 4000 rpm by
a mechanical homogeniser machine. The blended fuels did not
contain any water molecules and did not show any phase
separation.

3.2. Engine power

Engine brake power versus engine speed at constant 85%
throttle position is shown in Fig. 2. It was found that at constant fuel
injection, the brake power increases with increasing engine speed
until 3000 rpm when the power drops owing to increasing pistoncylinder frictional force. The maximum brake power at 3000 rpm
obtained by B0, C5 and P5 is 36.7 kW, 36.10 kW and 36.20 kW
respectively, as shown in Fig. 2(a). The low brake power(s) obtained
by C5 and P5 in comparison with B0 is mainly owed to their
respective lower heating values. The average brake power across
the engine operating speed range is calculated as 28.28 kW,
28.08 kW and 27.94 kW for B0, C5 and P5 respectively, as shown in
Fig. 2(b). C5 and P5 reduce brake power by 0.7% and 1.2% respectively compared with B0.

2.3. Equipment for fuel properties test

The main properties of fuel such as caloric value, viscosity,
specic density and ash point were tested following standard
methods. The diesel fuel properties were compared with those of
blended fuels.
Caloric value: An oxygen bomb calorimeter (resolution 0.03%)
was used to obtain the heating value of each fuel. The sample was
ignited and burned in the combustion chamber in the presence of
20 bar of oxygen, and the energy released was transferred to the
surrounding water. The energy contained in the fuel was calculated
according to the principle of energy conservation by measuring the
temperature rise of the water.
Mass of uid  Caloric value (Mass of water water equivalent of bomb)  Corrected temperature rise  specic heat
capacity of water.

3.3. Exhaust emission

The variation in exhaust gas temperature for all of the tested
fuels is shown in Fig. 3. The lowest level of exhaust gas temperature
is found in coconut oil blended fuel (C5) followed by B0 and P5
fuels. Both the coconut oil and palm oil contain fuel-inbound

Table 4
Physicochemical properties of fuels.
Country

Germany

USA

Malaysia

Properties/fuels

Raped seed methyl ester

Soy bean methyl ester

Palm oil methyl ester

P5

C5

B0

0.875e0.90
3.5e5.0
e
>100
e

0.80e0.90
1.9e6.0
360
>130
e

0.8783
4.415
e
182
39.21

0.827
4.15
e
>140
42.5

0.827
3.90

0.82
3.55

>140
42.6

98
43

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Density 15  C
Viscosity 40  C
Distillation 95%
Flash point
High caloric value

g cm3
mm2 s1

C

C
MJ/kg

400

M.A. Kalam et al. / Energy 36 (2011) 397e402

Fig. 4. CO emissions vs. engine speed at 85% throttle.

Fig. 2. (a) Engine brake power vs. speed at 85% throttle, (b) Average brake power all
over the speed range.

oxygen molecules but the fatty acid in coconut oil is highly saturated (as 92%) compared with palm oil (which is 50%). The highly
saturated fatty acid (in coconut oil) does not increase combustion
products compared with palm oil. The saturated fatty acid is
sufcient to produce complete combustion and it could represent
a good additive to diesel fuel to reduce exhaust emissions. The
maximum temperature was seen in palm oil blended fuel (P5) at
733  C at 3000 rpm followed by 730  C (B0) and 723  C (C5). The
average temperature across the speed range is calculated as 631  C,
640  C and 621  C for B0, P5 and C5 respectively. Compared with B0
fuel, P5 increases exhaust gas temperature by 1.42% and C5
decreases it by 1.58%.
The CO emission versus engine speed at constant 85% throttle is
shown in Fig. 4. CO is a toxic gas resulting from incomplete
combustion. The emission of CO is greatly dependent on the airefuel ratio relative to the stoichiometric proportion as well as the
fuel combustion performance in the engine cylinder. Most of the
modern diesel engines run on exclusively lean mixtures such as 1.8
time of stoichiometric air-fuel ratio. Hence the CO emission is
normally lower than that of gasoline engines. The maximum value
of CO emission at 3000 rpm was found to be 1.54%, 1.44% and 1.21%

for B0, C5 and P5 respectively. P5 has the lowest CO emission, followed by C5 and B0. On average, across the speed range, C5 and P5
reduce CO emission by 7.3% and 21% respectively.
The CO2 emission versus engine speed at constant 85% throttle is
shown in Fig. 5. The CO2 is the key parameter that indicates the
combustion performance of a particular fuel. Increasing CO2
emission means better combustion. The maximum CO2 emission is
found in the engine speed range between 2500 and 3000 rpm,
resulting from better combustion at the current throttle-speed
engine operating condition. The maximum CO2 emission for all the
fuels is found at 3000 rpm: 10.12%, 10.23% and 10.25% for B0, C5 and
P5 respectively. It can be noted that P5 produces higher CO2 than C5
and B0 fuels. This is mainly the effect of high unsaturated fatty acid
in palm oil. On average, across the operating speed range, B0, C5
and P5 produce CO2 in the amounts of 7.94%, 8.05% and 7.89%,
respectively.
The unburned HC versus engine speed are shown in Fig. 6. The
HC is the result of incomplete fuel combustion owing to ame
quenching in crevice regions in the cylinder wall. It may also
increase because of excessively rich fuel air mixtures with

Fig. 3. Exhaust temperature vs. speed at 85% throttle.

Fig. 5. (a) CO2 emissions vs. engine speed at 85% throttle, (b) Average value all over the
speed range.

M.A. Kalam et al. / Energy 36 (2011) 397e402

401

Fig. 6. HC emission vs. engine speed at 85% throttle.

insufcient oxygen as well as incomplete combustion of lube oil

that derives from the oil lm around the cylinder wall absorbing
hydrocarbons. In addition, fuel misre also admits hydrocarbons
into the exhaust system. It can be seen that the lowest level of HC is
produced from C5 fuel followed by P5 and B0. The coconut oil
contains 92% fatty acid and produces complete combustion
compared with P5 and B0 fuels. On average, across the speed range,
C5, P5 and B0 produce 7.6 ppm, 8.18 ppm and 9.9 ppm respectively.
Compared with B0 fuel, C5 and P5 reduce 23% and 17% HC emissions respectively.
The NOx emission versus engine speed at constant 85% throttle
is shown in Fig. 7. The maximum of NOx is produced in post-ame
gases rather than in ame-front gases. The fuel mixture that burns
early in the combustion process is especially important since it is
compressed to a higher temperature, increasing the NOx formation
rate, as combustion processed and cylinder pressure increases [25].
Reduction of the premixed combustion, inferred from the advance
in the combustion timing of the fuel injected during the preinjection, can reduce the NOx emission [26]. On the other hand,
with a higher proportion of blends viscosity of fuel will rise, leading
to bigger droplet size and shorter ignition delay as a consequence of
the rise in NOx emission [27]. In addition, the NOx emission is
strongly related to lean fuel with high cylinder temperature or high

Fig. 8. (a) O2 concentration vs. engine speed at 85% throttle, (b) Average value all over
the speed range.

peak combustion temperature. A fuel with high heat release rate at

premix or rapid combustion phase and lower heat release rate at
mixing controlled combustion phase will increase NOx [28].
Maximum NOx is produced at 3500 rpm, such as 466 ppm,
472 ppm and 462 ppm by B0, P5 and C5, respectively. On average,
across the speed range, B0, C5 and P5 produce 237 ppm, 235 ppm
and 242 ppm, respectively (Fig. 7(b)). C5 reduces 1% and P5
increases 2% of NOx emission as compared to No. 2 diesel. The fuel
P5 containing palm oil with 49% unsaturated fatty acid bonds
(double bond) quickly reacts with N2 and produces NOx through
a number of reactions.
The O2 emission of different fuels from the engine is shown in
Fig. 8. The increase of engine speed decreases O2 concentration
owing to better combustion. At 3000 rpm, the O2 concentration
recorded is 0.7%, 0.68% and 0.71% for B0, C5 and P5, respectively. At
3000 rpm, the O2 concentration is 0.68% and 0.71% lower for C5 and
P5 than for B0. Both C5 and P5 show higher O2 concentration
because pure coconut oil and palm oil contain higher amounts of O2
than does B0. On average, across the speed range, C5 and P5
produce 1.30% and 2.90% more O2 compared with B0. The average

Fig. 7. (a) NOx emission vs. engine speed at 85% throttle, (b) Average value all over the
speed range.

Fig. 9. Smoke emission vs. engine speed at 85% throttle.

402

M.A. Kalam et al. / Energy 36 (2011) 397e402

O2 concentration found in the exhaust gases is 5.75%, 5.92% and

5.73% for B0, P5 and C5 respectively (Fig. 8(b)).
The smoke emission versus engine speed at constant 85%
throttle position is shown in Fig. 9. The smoke is strongly related to
fuel cooling effect as well as the airefuel mixing problem that
increases combustion delay. C5 shows the lowest smoke emission
level compared with P5 and B0 fuels. This is the effect of the
coconut in the blend. The ignition delay of coconut oil is shorter
than that for palm oil, which affects smoke reduction. The relative
smoke emissions of the tested fuels are plotted in Fig. 9. The lowest
smoke emission is found in C5 followed by P5 and B0. This implies
that C5 produces more complete combustion than P5 and B0. On
average, across the speed range, the C5 and P5 fuels show 3.30% and
1.75% less smoke opacity than B0 fuel.
4. Conclusion
Performance and emission characteristics were measured in
short-term engine testing, and palm oil was found to be the best
waste cooking oil to replace diesel. The following conclusions may
be drawn from the present investigation:
(1) Waste cooking oils such as, C5 and P5 reduce brake power by
0.7% and 1.2% respectively compared with B0.
(2) C5 and P5 reduce CO by 7.3% and 21% respectively compared
with B0.
(3) C5 and P5 reduce HC by 23% and 17% respectively compared
with B0.
(4) C5 reduces by 1% and the P5 increases by 2% NOx emission
compared with B0.
Therefore, palm and coconut oil do not have a negative effect on
engine performance and emission unlike sunower oil [22]. Poon
oil, however, shows higher HC and CO emissions and lower NOx
emission in performance tests [29]. Different feedstock and fuel
processing techniques could be the reason for this.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Mr. Sulaiman Bin Arifn for
providing technical assistance, the Ministry of Science, Technology
and Innovation (MOSTI) for funding the project: 03-01-03-SF0433
and University fund through (Grant UMRG 040-09AET) and
University of Malaya for its excellent research environment.
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