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PREFACE
Dear Aspirants,
JagranJosh is pleased to announce the launch of its Second eBook. The content of this PDF is
related to the Indian Economy and Basic Economics. The eBook has been designed keeping in
mind the latest trends and requirements of the IAS Preliminary Exam and other competitive
Exam.
The main features of the book are
We hope that our effort to provide quality study material will make your preparation
Interesting.
Regards,
JagranJosh Team
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Basics in Economics .............................................................................................. 17
Growth and Development .................................................................................................... 17
Human Development Index (HDI) ......................................................................................... 18
Gender Inequality Index ....................................................................................................... 18
Multidimensional Poverty Index ........................................................................................... 19
Technological Achievement Index ........................................................................................ 20
Sustainable Development and Growth ................................................................................. 20
Terms and Terminology ........................................................................................................ 21
Organisation of Production ........................................................................................... 29
People as Resource ....................................................................................................... 30
Quality of Population .................................................................................................... 30
Chapter 2: Indian Economy - Over the Years .......................................................................... 32
Nature of Indian Economy .................................................................................................... 32
Current Analysis ............................................................................................................ 32
Planning over the Years: ....................................................................................................... 33
First Five-Year Plan (19511956) .................................................................................. 33
Second Five-Year Plan (19561961) ............................................................................. 33
Third Five-Year Plan (19611966) ................................................................................. 34
Fourth Five-Year Plan (19691974) .............................................................................. 34
Fifth Five-Year Plan (19741979) .................................................................................. 34
Sixth Five-Year Plan (19801985) ................................................................................. 35
Seventh Five-Year Plan (19851990) ............................................................................ 35
Eighth Five-Year Plan (19921997) ............................................................................... 35
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RBI: Private Sector of India registered a Net Profit of 4.3 percent in First Half of 2012-13200
RBI set up Working Group to review Banking Ombudsman Scheme ................................. 200
Rollout of Direct Benefits Transfers started on 1 January 2013 ......................................... 201
FII Investment in the Indian stock market surpassed more than 24000 crore Rupees in
December 2012 ................................................................................................................... 201
Union Government Announced More Incentives to Exporters Hit By Global Meltdown .. 202
The Minimum Support Price of Wheat was Increased to 1350 Rupees per Quintal ......... 203
Indirect Tax Collection Increased at 16.8 Percent to 2.92 Lakh Crore Rupees in AprilNovember 2012 .................................................................................................................. 203
UN Slashed World Growth Forecast to 2.4 Percent for year 2013..................................... 204
Foreign Investments through P-Notes Increased to 8-Month Highest .............................. 204
Union Government of India lowered the Growth Projection for Current Fiscal to 5.7
Percent ................................................................................................................................ 205
Bombay Stock Exchange launched SME Platform Index aimed at Tracking Primary Market
Condition ............................................................................................................................. 205
Retail Inflation Increased to 9.90 Percent in November 2012 ........................................... 206
Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs approved the Setting up of CCI ......................... 206
Indian Economy Would Dominate the Economy of the World by 2030: US Intelligence
Community Report.............................................................................................................. 207
Security and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) allowed 12 more Alternative Investment Funds
............................................................................................................................................. 208
Reserve Bank of India (RBI) signed Currency Swap Agreement with Bank of Japan .......... 209
Union Coal Ministry decided to deallocate Four Coal Blocks allotted to 15 Firms ............ 209
India signed 70 million US Dollar loan agreement with World Bank ................................. 210
Reserve Bank of India asked Banks not to Provide Loans for Purchase of Gold ................ 210
Oman Banned Import of Eggs and Chicken from India ...................................................... 211
Income Ceiling for LIG raised by Union Government of India ............................................ 211
Union Cabinet of India cleared Proposal for Spectrum Sharing ......................................... 212
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Civil Aviation Ministry approved New Traffic Rights to Indian Carriers ............................. 212
Government decided to digitize Cable TV Network in Thirty Eight Cities .......................... 213
RBI Expanded the Lending Norms on Priority Sectors ........................................................ 213
12th five-year plan focused on improvement of health, education and sanitation ........... 214
Union Government Cleared Increase of FDI in Insurance .................................................. 214
CVC instructed CBI to expand the scope of investigation on Coalgate .............................. 215
Foreign Investment cap hiked to 74 percent for Broadcasting Services ............................ 215
GAAR Report submitted by the Shome Committee to the Finance Ministry ..................... 216
Proposal for 51 percent FDI in multi-brand retail and 49 percent in Aviation passed....... 217
Report: Indian external debts are within manageable limits ............................................. 218
Cabinet gave a nod to two subsidiaries of Air India: AIESL and AITSL ................................ 219
Union Government approved 14000 Crore Rupees Fund to spur Production of Hybrid and
Electrical Vehicle ................................................................................................................. 220
SEBI allowed Partial Flexibility in IDRs for Investors ........................................................... 220
Public Accounts Committee (PAC) called for Deterrent Penal Provisions against Units in
SEZs ..................................................................................................................................... 220
India eased External Overseas Borrowing Rules to enable Easier Access to Cheap Dollar
Funds ................................................................................................................................... 221
Union Finance Ministry approved 49 Percent FDI in Insurance and Pension Sector ......... 222
RBI stipulated the Norms for Securitisation of Loans by NBFCs ......................................... 223
Regulator SEBI permitted seven Alternative Investment Funds (AIFs) to start Operation in
India .................................................................................................................................... 224
Inter-ministerial group recommended Linking Patented Drug Prices to Per-capita Income
............................................................................................................................................. 224
Indias NSE became the Worlds Largest Bourse in Equity Segment as per WFEs Global
Ranking................................................................................................................................ 225
Union Cabinet sets Base Price for Auction of 2G Spectrum at 14000 Crore Rupees ......... 226
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RBI directed NBFCs to maintain Net-owned Funds (NOF) at Rs 3 crore by 31 March 2013
............................................................................................................................................. 226
RBI signed MoU with Financial Regulators of 9 Countries to promote Sharing of
Information ......................................................................................................................... 227
Annexure A: Objective Questions ........................................................................................ 229
Answers .............................................................................................................................. 238
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Among 187 countries ranked in the HDR, India comes in at a dismal 134 in the main
composite index.
HDR 2011 makes the important point that environmental degradation and climate
change will exacerbate inequalities, a trend already in evidence.
The report said India's Human Development Index (HDI) value for 2011 was 0.547
positioning the country in the medium human development category'
Neighbouring Pakistan was ranked at 145 (0.504) and Bangladesh at 146 (0.500).
It said between 1980 and 2011, India's HDI value increased from 0.344 to 0.547, an
increase of 59 per cent or an average annual increase of about 1.5 per cent.
Mean years of schooling: Years that a 25-year-old person or older has spent in schools
Expected years of schooling: Years that a 5-year-old child will spend with his education in his
whole life
Inequality-adjusted HDI:
The 2010 Human Development Report was the first to calculate an Inequality-adjusted Human
Development Index (IHDI). The HDI represents a national average of human development
achievements in the three basic dimensions making up the HDI: health, education and income.
Like all averages, it conceals disparities in human development across the population within the
same country. Two countries with different distributions of achievements can have the same
average HDI value. The HDI takes into account not only the average achievements of a country
on health, education and income, but also how those achievements are distributed among its
citizens by discounting each dimensions average value according to its level of inequality.
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The Gender Inequality Index (GII) is a new index for measurement of gender disparity that was
introduced in the 2010 Human Development Report 20th anniversary edition by the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP). According to the UNDP, this index is a composite
measure which captures the loss of achievement, within a country, due to gender inequality,
and uses three dimensions to do so: reproductive health, empowerment, and labour market
participation. The new index was introduced as an experimental measure to remedy the
shortcomings of the previous, and no longer used, indicators, the Gender Development Index
(GDI) and the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM), both of which were introduced in the
1995 Human Development Report.
The GII's dimension of reproductive health has two indicators: the Maternal Mortality
Ratio (MMR) and the Adolescent Fertility Rate (AFR).
The empowerment dimension is measured by two indicators: the share of parliamentary
seats held by each sex and higher education attainment levels
The labour market dimension is measured by women's participation in the workforce.
This dimension accounts for paid work, unpaid work, and actively looking for work.
According to the Human Development Report 2011, India ranks 129 out of 146
countries on the Gender Inequality Index, below Bangladesh and Pakistan, which are
ranked at 112 and 115, respectively.
Among BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) nations, India has the highest
inequalities in human development
Indicators
Child Mortality
Nutrition
Years of school
Children enrolled
Cooking fuel
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Toilet
Water
Electricity
Floor
Assets
Diffusion of recent innovations measured by the number of Internet hosts per capita
and the share of high-technology and medium-technology exports in total goods
exports.
Diffusion of old innovations, measured by telephones (mainline and cellular) per capita
and electricity consumption per capita.
Human skills, measured by the mean years of schooling in the population aged 15 and
older, and the gross tertiary science enrolment ratio.
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The concept of sustainable development has in the past most often been broken out into three
constituent parts: environmental sustainability, economic sustainability and sociopolitical
sustainability.
The United Nations 2005 World Summit Outcome Document refers to the "interdependent
and mutually reinforcing pillars" of sustainable development as economic development, social
development, and environmental protection.[8]? Based on the triple bottom line, numerous
sustainability standards and certification systems have been established in recent years.
Green development is generally differentiated from sustainable development in that Green
development prioritizes what its proponents consider to be environmental sustainability over
economic and cultural considerations. Proponents of Sustainable Development argue that it
provides a context in which to improve overall sustainability where cutting edge Green
Development is unattainable.
Inclusive green growth is the pathway to sustainable development. It is the only way to
reconcile the rapid growth required to bring developing countries to the level of prosperity to
which they aspire, meet the needs of the more than 1 billion people still living in poverty, and
fulfil the global imperative of a better environment.
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Commercialisation of Agriculture: It implies production of crops for the market rather than for
self-consumption i.e. family consumption. During the British rule, the commercialisation of
agriculture acquired a different meaningit became basically commercialisation of crops. The
British started offering higher price to farmers for producing cash crops rather than for food
crops. They used these cash crops as raw materials for industries in Britain.
Communes: Known as peoples communes, or renmin gongshe in China, were formerly the
highest of three administrative levels in rural areas in the period from 1958 to 1982-85, when
they were replaced by townships. Communes, the largest collective units, were divided in turn
into production brigades and production teams. The communes had governmental, political,
and economic functions.
Consumption Basket: Group of goods and services consumed by a household. In order to
estimate the consumption pattern of people, statistical agencies identify such items. For
instance NSSO has indentified 19 groups of items in the consumption basket. Some of them are
(i) cereals (ii) pulses (iii) milk and milk products (iv) edible oil (v) vegetables (vi) fuel and light
and (vii) clothing.
Default: Failure to make repayment of the principal and interest on a debt e.g. sovereign debt
(loan obtained by the government) to the lenders, say, international financial institutions, on
the scheduled date, causing loss of credibility as a debtor.
Deficit Financing: A situation where the expenditure of the government exceeds its revenue.
Demographic Transition: It is a concept developed by demographer Frank Note stein in 1945 to
describe the typical pattern of falling death and birth rates in response to better living
conditions associated with economic development. Note stein identified three phases of
demographic transition, pre-industrial, developing and modern industrialised societies. Later
another phase, post-industrial was also included.
Dereservation: Allowing an individual or group of enterprises to produce goods and services
which were hitherto produced by a particular individual or group of enterprises. In India, it
refers to allowing large-scale industries to produce goods and services which were produced
only by the small-scale industries.
Devaluation: A fall in the exchange rate which reduces the value of a currency in terms of other
currencies.
Disinvestment: A deliberate sale of a part of the capital stock of a company to raise resources
and change the equity and/or management structure of a company.
Employers: Those self-employed workers who by and large, run their enterprises by hiring
labourers.
Enterprise: An undertaking owned and operated by an individual or by group of individuals to
produce and/or distribute goods and/or services mainly for the purpose of sale, whether fully
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or partly. Equities: Shares in the paid up capital or stock of a company whose holders are
considered as owners of the company with voting rights and dividends in the profit.
Establishment: An enterprise which has got at least one hired worker for major part of the
period of operation in a year.
European Union: It is a union of twenty-five independent states founded to enhance political,
economic and social cooperation within the European continent. The member countries of
European Union are Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland,
France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands,
Portugal, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia.
Export Duties: Taxes imposed on goods exported from a country.
Export Promotion: A set of measures (including fiscal and commercial support measures and
steps aimed at removal of trade barriers) taken by a government to promote the export of
goods with a view to achieve higher economic growth and accumulation of foreign exchange
earnings.
Export-Import Policy: The economic policies of the government relating to its exports and
imports.
Family labour/Worker: A member who works without receiving wages in cash or in kind in a
farm, an industry, business or trade conducted by the members of the family.
Financial Institutions: Institutions that engage in mobilisation and allocation of savings. They
include commercial banks, cooperative banks, developmental banks and investment
institutions.
Fiscal Management: The use of taxation and government expenditure to regulate the economic
activities.
Fiscal Policy: All the planned actions of a government in mobilising financial resources for
meeting its expenditure and regulating the economic activities in a country.
Foreign Direct Investment: Investment of foreign assets into domestic structures, equipment
and organisations. It does not include foreign investment into the stock markets. Foreign direct
investment is thought to be more useful to a country than investments in the equity of its
companies because equity investments are potentially hot money which can leave at the first
sign of trouble, whereas FDI is durable and generally useful whether things go well or badly.
Foreign Exchange: Currency or bonds of another country.
Foreign Exchange Markets: A market in which currencies are bought and sold at rates of
exchange fixed now, for delivery at specified dates in the future.
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Foreign Institutional Investment: Foreign investments which come in the form of stocks,
bonds, or other financial assets. This form of investment does not entail active management or
control over the firms or investors. Foreign Institutional Investors (FIIs): Banking and nonbanking financial institutions of foreign origin e.g. commercial banks, investment banks, mutual
funds, pension funds or other such institutional investors (as distinct from the domestic
financial institutions investing) whose investment in stocks and bonds in the country through
stock markets have significant influence.
Formal Sector Establishments: All the public sector establishments and those private sector
establishments which employ 10 or more hired workers.
G-20: Group of developing countries established to focus on issues relating to trade and
agriculture in the World Trade Organisation. The group includes Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile,
China, Cuba, Egypt, Guatemala, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Paraguay,
Philippines, South Africa, Thailand, Tanzania, Venezuela, and Zimbabwe.
G-8: The Group of Eight (G-8) consists of Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the United States of America, and Russian
Federation. The hallmark of the G-8 is an annual economic and political summit meeting of the
heads of government with international officials, though there are numerous subsidiary
meetings and policy research. The Presidency of the group rotates every year. For the year
2006 it was held by Russia.
Gratuity: An amount of money given by the employer to the employee at the time of
retirement for services rendered by the employee.
Gross Domestic Product: The total value of final goods and services produced within a
countrys borders in a year, regardless of ownership. It is used as one of many indicators of the
standard of living in a country, but there are limitations with this view.
Household: A group of persons normally living together and taking food from a common
kitchen. The word normally means that temporary visitors are excluded and those who
temporarily staying away are included.
Import Licensing: Permission required from the government to import goods into a country.
Import Substitution: A policy of the state for development of economy in which import of
goods is generally substituted by domestic production (through import controls, tariffs and
other restrictions) with a view to encourage domestic industry on grounds of self-sufficiency
and domestic employment.
Infant Mortality Rate: It is the number of deaths of infants before reaching the age of one, in a
particular year, per 1,000 live births during that year.
Inflation: A sustained rise in the general price level.
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Informal Sector Enterprises: Those private sector enterprises, which employ less than 10
workers on a regular basis.
Integration of Domestic Economy: A situation where the policies of government facilitate free
trade and investment with other countries making the domestic economy work together with
other economies in an efficient and mutually interdependent way.
Invisibles: Various items enter in the current account of the balance of payments, some of
which are not visible goods. Invisibles are mainly services, like tourism, transport by shipping or
by airways, and financial services such as insurance and banking. They also include gifts sent
abroad or received from abroad and private transfer of funds, government grants and interests,
profits and dividends.
Labour Laws: All the rules and regulations framed by the government to protect the interests of
the workers.
Land/Revenue Settlement: With the British acquiring territorial rights in different parts of
India, administration of territories was formulated on the basis of survey of land. It was decided
in the interests of government in terms of revenues to be collected from each parcel of land in
possession of either a ryot (means peasant) or a mahal (revenue village) or a zamindar (a
proprietary land holder). Decision in each of these cases was meant for the rights of the latter
over land for the purposes of either ownership of land or rights to cultivation. This system is
known as land/revenue settlement. There were different land settlements formulated in India.
They are (i) system of permanent settlement, which is also known as the zamindari system (ii)
ryotwari system (a system of revenue settlement entered into by the government with
individual tenants) (iii) mahalwari system (a system of revenue settlement entered into by the
government with a mahal).
Life Expectancy at Birth (years): The number of years a newborn infant would live if prevailing
patterns of age-specific mortality rates at the time of birth were to stay the same throughout
the childs life.
Maternal Mortality Rate: It is the relationship between the number of maternal deaths due to
childbearing by the number of live births or by the sum of live births and foetal deaths in a
given year.
Merchant Bankers: Banks or financial institutions, also known as investment bankers, that
specialise in advising the companies and managing their equity and debt requirement (often
referred to as portfolio management) through floatation and sale/purchase of stocks and
bonds. Morbidity: It is the propensity to fall ill. It affects a persons work by making him or her
temporarily disabled. Prolonged morbidity may lead to mortality. In our country, acute
respiratory infections and diarrhoea are two major causes of morbidity.
Mortality Rate: The word mortality comes from mortal which originates from the Latin word
mors (meaning death). It is the annual number of deaths (from a disease or in general) per
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1,000 people. It is distinct from morbidity rate, which refers to the number of people who have
a disease compared to the total number of people in a population.
MRTP Act: An Act (Monopolies Restrictive Trade Practices Act) framed to prevent monopolistic
practices and regulate the conductor business practices of firms that are not in public interest.
Multilateral Trade Agreements: Trade agreements made by a country with more than two
nations to exchange goods and services.
National Product/Income: Total value of goods and services produced in a country plus income
from abroad.
Nationalisation: Transfer of ownership from private sector to public sector. This involves
takeover of companies owned by individuals or group of individuals by either state or central
government. In some contexts, it also involves transfer of ownership from state government to
central government.
New Economic Policy: A term used to describe the policies adopted in India since 1991.
Non-renewable Resources: Resources that cannot be renewed. They have a finite, even if large,
stock. Some examples are fossils fuels such as oil and coal and mineral resourcesiron, lead,
aluminium, uranium.
Non-tariff Barriers: All the restrictions on imports by a government in the form other than
taxes. They mainly include restrictions on quantity and quality of goods imported.
Opportunity Cost: It is defined with respect to a particular value or action and is equal to the
value of the foregone alternative choice or action. Pension: A monthly payment to a worker
who has retired from work. Per Capita Income: Total national income of a country divided by its
population in a specific period.
Permit License Raj: A term used to denote the rules and regulations framed by the government
to start, run and operate an enterprise for production of goods and services in India.
Planning Commission: An organisation set up by the Government of India. It is responsible for
making assessment of all resources of the country, augmenting deficient resources, formulating
plans for the most effective and balanced utilisation of resources and determining priorities.
Poverty Line: The per capita expenditure on certain minimum needs of a person including food
intake of a daily average of 2,400 calories in rural areas and 2,100 calories in urban areas.
Private Sector Establishments: All those establishments, which are owned and operated by
individuals or group of individuals. Productivity: Output per unit of input employed. Increase in
the efficiency on the part of capital or labour leads to increase in productivity. This term is
generally used to refer to productivity increase in labour inputs.
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Provident Fund: A savings fund in which both employer and employee contribute regularly in
the interest of the employee. It is maintained by the government and given to the employee
when he or she resigns or retires from work.
Public Sector Establishments: All those establishments which are owned and operated by the
government. They may be run either by local government, state government or by central
government independently or jointly.
Quantitative Restrictions: Restrictions in the form of total quantities or quotas imposed on
imports to reduce balance of payments (BOP) deficit and protect domestic industry.
Regular Salaried/Wage Employee: Persons, who work in others farm or non-farm enterprises
and, in return, receive salary or wages on a regular basis (i.e. not on the basis of daily or
periodic renewal of work contract). They include not only persons getting time wage but also
persons receiving piece wage or salary and paid apprentices, both full time and part-time.
Renewable Resources: Resources that can be renewed through natural processes if they are
used wisely. Forests, animals and fishes, if not overexploited, get easily renewed. Water is also
in that category.
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC): It is an association of eight
countries of South Asia Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and
Afghanistan. SAARC provides a platform for the peoples of South Asia to work together in a
spirit of friendship, trust and understanding. It aims to accelerate the process of economic and
social development in member countries.
Self-Employed: Those who operate their own farm or non-farm enterprises or are engaged
independently in a profession or trade with one or a few partners. They have freedom to decide
how, where and when to produce and sell or carry out their operation. Their earning is
determined wholly or mainly by sales or profits from their enterprises.
Social Security: A government or privately established system of measures, which ensures
material security for the elderly, disabled, destitute, widows and children. It includes pension,
gratuity, provident fund, maternal benefits, health care etc.
Special Economic Zone (SEZ): It is a geographical region that has economic laws different from
a countrys typical economic laws. Usually the goal is to increase foreign investment. Special
Economic Zones have been established in several countries, including the Peoples Republic of
China, India, Jordan, Poland, Kazakhstan, the Philippines and Russia.
Stabilisation Measures: Fiscal and monetary measures adopted to control fluctuations in the
balance of payments and high rate of inflation.
State Electricity Boards (SEBs): These are part of the state administration that generate,
transmit and distribute electricity in different states.
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Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR): A minimum proportion of the total deposits and reserves to be
maintained by the banks in liquid form as per the regulations of the central bank (RBI).
Maintenance of SLR, in addition to the Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR), is an obligation of the banks.
Stock Exchange: A market in which the securities of governments and public companies are
traded. It provides the facilities for stock brokers to trade company stocks and other securities.
Stock Market: An institution where stocks and shares are traded.
Structural Reform Policies: Long-term measures like liberalisation deregulation and
privatisation aimed to improve the efficiency and competitiveness of the economy.
Tariff: A tax on imports, which can be levied either on physical units, e.g. per tonne (specific) or
on value. Tariffs may be imposed for a variety of reasons including: to raise government
revenue, to protect domestic industry from subsidised or low-wage imports, to boost domestic
employment, or to ease a deficit on the balance of payments. Apart from the revenue that they
raise tariffs achieve little goodthey reduce the volume of trade and increase the price of the
imported commodity to consumers.
Tariff Barriers: All the restrictions on imports by a government in the form of taxes.
Trade Union: An organisation of workers formed for the purpose of addressing its members
interests in respect of wages, benefits, and working conditions.
Unemployment: A situation in which all those who, owing to lack of work, are not working but
either seek work through employment exchanges, intermediaries, friends or relatives or by
making applications to prospective employers or express their willingness or availability for
work under the prevailing condition of work and remunerations.
Urbanisation: Expansion of a metropolitan area, namely the proportion of total population or
area in urban localities or areas (cities and towns), or the increase of this proportion over time.
It can thus represent a level of urban population relative to total population of the area, or the
rate at which the urban proportion is increasing. Both can be expressed in percentage terms,
the rate of change expressed as a percentage per year, decade or period between censuses.
Worker-Population RATIO: Total number of workers divided by the population. It is expressed
in percentage.
ORGANISATION OF PRODUCTION
The aim of production is to produce the goods and services that we want. There are four
requirements for production of goods and services.
The first requirement is land, and other natural resources such as water, forests, and minerals.
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The second requirement is labour, i.e. people who will do the work. Some production activities
require highly educated workers to perform the necessary tasks. Other activities require
workers who can do manual work.
The third requirement is physical capital, i.e. the variety of inputs required at every stage
during production. It includes
Tools, machines, buildings: Tools and machines range from very simple tools such as a farmers
plough to sophisticated machines such as generators, turbines, computers, etc. Tools,
machines, buildings can be used in production over many years, and are called fixed capital.
Raw materials and money in hand: Production requires a variety of raw materials such as the
yarn used by the weaver and the clay used by the potter. Also, some money is always required
during production to make payments and buy other necessary items. Raw materials and money
in hand are called working capital. Unlike tools, machines and buildings, these are used up in
production.
There is a fourth requirement too. You will need knowledge and enterprise to be able to put
together land, labour and physical capital and produce an output either to use yourself or to
sell in the market. This these days is called human capital.
PEOPLE AS RESOURCE
People as Resource is a way of referring to a countrys working people in terms of their
existing productive skills and abilities. Looking at the population from this productive aspect
emphasises its ability to contribute to the creation of the Gross National Product. Like other
resources population also is a resource a human resource. This is the positive side of a large
population that is often overlooked when we look only at the negative side, considering only
the problems of providing the population with food, education and access to health facilities.
When the existing human resource is further developed by becoming more educated and
healthy, we call it human capital formation that adds to the productive power of the country
just like physical capital formation. Investment in human capital (through education, training,
medical care) yields a return just like investment in physical capital. This can be seen directly in
the form of higher incomes earned because of higher productivity of the more educated or the
better trained persons, as well as the higher productivity of healthier people. Population need
not be a liability. It can be turned into a productive asset by investment in human capital (for
example, by spending resources on education and health for all, training of industrial and
agricultural workers in the use of modern technology, useful scientific researches and so on).
QUALITY OF POPULATION
The quality of population depends upon the literacy rate, health of a person indicated by life
expectancy and skill formation acquired by the people of the country. The quality of the
population ultimately decides the growth rate of the country. Illiterate and unhealthy
population are a liability for the economy. Literate and healthy population are an asset.
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Since independence India has been a 'mixed economy'. India's large public sectors were
responsible for rendering the country a 'mixed economy' feature.
Indian economy overview was highly inspired by Soviet Union's practices postindependence. It had been recording growth rate not greater than five jumped till
1980s. This stagnant growth was termed by many economists as 'Hindu Growth Rate'.
In 1992, the country ushered into liberalization regime. Thereafter, the economy started
scaling upward. This new trend in growth was called 'New Hindu Growth Rate'.
Services are the major source of economic growth, accounting for more than half of
India's output with less than one third of its labour force.
CURRENT ANALYSIS
The economy of India boasts of being the fourth largest economy in the world after the
United States, China and Japan.
The country's per capita GDP (PPP) was $3,500 in 2010 and ranked at 161, making it a
lower-middle income economy.
The country recorded the highest growth rates and touched to as high as 9% GDP in
the mid-2000s. It was then considered by many financial institutions as one of the
fastest-growing economies in the world.
Notably, the robust growth rate reduced poverty by about 10 percentage points by mid2000s.
But the overview of Indian economy was hit by global slowdown in 2008. Its speed of
growth received a jerk and the country's GDP slowed down to a large extent thereafter.
Government of India has projected growth rate for 2011-12 at 8.2% of GDP compared
to 8.5% registered last year.
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As regards inflation, it has been a major concern for the government to reign in. The
inflation for over five years has crippled the economy. In 2005, the country witnessed
inflation as low as 4 %. Thereafter, the graph has been constantly rising. At many times,
inflation has reached to double digit. Several monetary measures are being taken by the
government and the Central Bank to control the menace, but in vain. However,
government expects that there will be some relief starting from November and declined
to 6.5% in March 2012.
India is the 20th largest merchandise trading nation. The country's exports were worth
$19870 million by October in 2011-12, amounting to 22% of country's GDP. Gems and
jewellery constitute the single largest export item, that is, 16 percent of total export.
However, it is feared that global economic crisis and appreciation of Rupee may hit
domestic export adversely in future.
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The second five-year plan focused on industry, especially heavy industry. Unlike the First plan,
which focused mainly on agriculture, domestic production of industrial products was
encouraged in the Second plan, particularly in the development of the public sector. The plan
followed the Mahalanobis model, an economic development model developed by the Indian
statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis in 1953. The plan attempted to determine the
optimal allocation of investment between productive sectors in order to maximise long-run
economic growth. It used the prevalent state of art techniques of operations research and
optimization as well as the novel applications of statistical models developed at the Indian
Statistical Institute. The plan assumed a closed economy in which the main trading activity
would be centered on importing capital goods.
Hydroelectric power projects and five steel mills at Bhilai, Durgapur, and Rourkela were
established. Coal production was increased. More railway lines were added in the north east.
The Atomic Energy Commission was formed in 1958 with Homi J. Bhabha as the first chairman.
The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research was established as a research institute. In 1957 a
talent search and scholarship program was begun to find talented young students to train for
work in nuclear power. Target Growth-4.5% Growth achieved:4.0%.
THIRD FIVE-YEAR PLAN (19611966)
two wars The third plan stressed on agriculture and improvement in the production of wheat, but the
brief Sino-Indian War of 1962 exposed weaknesses in the economy and shifted the focus
towards the Defence industry or Indian army. In 19651966, India fought a [Indo-Pak] War with
Pakistan. Due to this there was a severe drought in 1965. The war led to inflation and the
priority was shifted to price stabilisation. The construction of dams continued. Many cement
and fertilizer plants were also built. Punjab began producing an abundance of wheat. Target
Growth: 5.6% Actual Growth: 2.4%.
FOURTH FIVE-YEAR PLAN (19691974)
At this time Indira Gandhi was the Prime Minister. The Indira Gandhi government nationalised
14 major Indian banks and the Green Revolution in India advanced agriculture. In addition, the
situation in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) was becoming dire as the Indo-Pakistani War of
1971 and Bangladesh Liberation War took Funds earmarked for the industrial development had
to be diverted for the war effort. India also performed the Smiling Buddha underground nuclear
test in 1974, partially in response to the United States deployment of the Seventh Fleet in the
Bay of Bengal. The fleet had been deployed to warn India against attacking West Pakistan and
extending the war. Target Growth: 5.7% Actual Growth: 3.3%
FIFTH FIVE-YEAR PLAN (19741979)
Stress was by laid on employment, poverty alleviation, and justice. The plan also focused on
self-reliance in agricultural production and defence. In 1978 the newly elected Morarji Desai
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government rejected the plan. Electricity Supply Act was enacted in 1975, which enabled the
Central Government to enter into power generation and transmission.
Target Growth: 4.4% Actual Growth: 5.0
SIXTH FIVE-YEAR PLAN (19801985)
The sixth plan also marked the beginning of economic liberalisation. Prize controls were
eliminated and ration shops were closed. This led to an increase in food prices and an increase
in the cost of living. This was the end of Nehruvian Socialism and Indira Gandhi was prime
minister during this period.
Family planning was also expanded in order to prevent overpopulation.
Target Growth: 5.2% Actual Growth: 5.4%
SEVENTH FIVE-YEAR PLAN (19851990)
The Seventh Plan marked the comeback of the Congress Party to power. The plan laid stress on
improving the productivity level of industries by upgrading of technology.
The main objectives of the 7th five-year plans were to establish growth in areas of increasing
economic productivity, production of food grains, and generating employment.
As an outcome of the sixth five-year plan, there had been steady growth in agriculture, control
on rate of Inflation, and favourable balance of payments which had provided a strong base for
the seventh five Year plan to build on the need for further economic growth. The 7th Plan had
strived towards socialism and energy production at large.
Target Growth: 5.0% Actual Growth: 5.7%
EIGHTH FIVE-YEAR PLAN (19921997)
198991 was a period of economic instability in India and hence no five-year plan was
implemented. Between 1990 and 1992, there were only Annual Plans. In 1991, India faced a
crisis in Foreign Exchange (Forex) reserves, left with reserves of only about US$1 billion. Thus,
under pressure, the country took the risk of reforming the socialist economy. P.V. Narasimha
Rao was the twelfth Prime Minister of the Republic of India and head of Congress Party, and led
one of the most important administrations in India's modern history overseeing a major
economic transformation and several incidents affecting national security. At that time Dr.
Manmohan Singh (currently, Prime Minister of India) launched India's free market reforms that
brought the nearly bankrupt nation back from the edge. It was the beginning of privatisation
and liberalisation in India.
Modernization of industries was a major highlight of the Eighth Plan. Under this plan, the
gradual opening of the Indian economy was undertaken to correct the burgeoning deficit and
foreign debt. Meanwhile India became a member of the World Trade Organization on 1 January
1995.This plan can be termed as Rao and Manmohan model of Economic development.
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An average annual growth rate of 6.78% against the target 5.6% was achieved.
NINTH FIVE-YEAR PLAN (19972002)
Ninth Five Year Plan India runs through the period from 1997 to 2002 with the main aim of
attaining objectives like speedy industrialization, human development, full-scale employment,
poverty reduction, and self-reliance on domestic resources.
During the Ninth Plan period, the growth rate was 5.35 per cent, a percentage point lower than
the target GDP growth of 6.5 per cent.
TENTH FIVE-YEAR PLAN (20022007)
Accelerate GDP growth from 8% to 10% and then maintain at 10% in the 12th Plan
in order to double per capita income by 201617
Increase agricultural GDP growth rate to 4% per year to ensure a broader spread of
benefits
Create 70 million new work opportunities.
Reduce educated unemployment to below 5%.
Raise real wage rate of unskilled workers by 20 percent.
Reduce the headcount ratio of consumption poverty by 10 percentage points.
Education
Reduce dropout rates of children from elementary school from 52.2% in 200304 to
20% by 201112
Develop minimum standards of educational attainment in elementary school, and by
regular testing monitor effectiveness of education to ensure quality
Increase literacy rate for persons of age 7 years or above to 85%
Lower gender gap in literacy to 10 percentage point
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Increase the percentage of each cohort going to higher education from the present
10% to 15% by the end of the plan
Health
Reduce infant mortality rate to 28 and maternal mortality ratio to 1 per 1000 live
births
Reduce Total Fertility Rate to 2.1
Provide clean drinking water for all by 2009 and ensure that there are no slip-backs
Reduce malnutrition among children of age group 03 to half its present level
Reduce anaemia among women and girls by 50% by the end of the plan
Raise the sex ratio for age group 06 to 935 by 201112 and to 950 by 201617
Ensure that at least 33 percent of the direct and indirect beneficiaries of all
government schemes are women and girl children
Ensure that all children enjoy a safe childhood, without any compulsion to work
Infrastructure
Ensure electricity connection to all villages and BPL households by 2009 and roundthe-clock power.
Ensure all-weather road connection to all habitation with population 1000 and
above (500 in hilly and tribal areas) by 2009, and ensure coverage of all significant
habitation by 2015
Connect every village by telephone by November 2007 and provide broadband
connectivity to all villages by 2012
Provide homestead sites to all by 2012 and step up the pace of house construction
for rural poor to cover all the poor by 201617
Environment
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following Indian economy, which registered a growth rate of meagre 5.5 percent in the first
quarter of the financial year 2012-13.
The plan aims towards the betterment of the infrastructural projects of the nation avoiding all
types of bottlenecks. The document presented by the planning commission is aimed to attract
private investments of up to US$1 trillion in the infrastructural growth in the 12th five-year
plan, which will also ensure a reduction in subsidy burden of the government to 1.5 percent
from 2 percent of the GDP (gross domestic product). The UID (Unique Identification Number)
will act as a platform for cash transfer of the subsidies in the plan.
The plan aims towards achieving a growth of 4 percent in agriculture and to reduce poverty by
10 percentage points, by 2017.
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Out of the 328.7 million hectare (m ha) of geographical area, 142 m h is the net cultivated area
in India. Of this, about 57 m ha (40 per cent) is irrigated and the remaining 85 m ha (60 per
cent) is rain fed. Approximately, 20.00 m ha of degraded land was likely to be treated during
the Tenth Plan period and therefore, about 68.50 m ha of degraded lands will require
development after the Tenth Five Year Plan.
Soil health enhancement holds the key to raising small farm productivity. The Second or
Evergreen Revolution is not possible without overcoming the widespread macro- and micronutrient deficiencies the hidden hunger. Every farm family should be issued with a Soil
Health Passbook, which contains integrated information on the physics, chemistry and
microbiology of the soils on their farm. More laboratories to detect specific micronutrient
deficiencies in soils are urgently needed. Soil organic matter content will have to be increased
by incorporating crop residues in the soil. Proper technical advice on the reclamation of
wastelands and on improving their biological potential should be available. Pricing policies
should promote a balanced and efficient use of fertilizers.
The land use should be compatible to the land capability otherwise it will induce degradation
process that may be detrimental to the watershed development programme. The land use
policy needs to be developed as per land capability that is to be derived out of soil survey data.
In this context, it is necessary to revive the State 8
Land Use Boards (SLUBs) which should be the nodal agencies to implement land use policy as
per the capability to strengthen the mechanism to adopt optimal land use planning in the
states.
WATER
IRRIGATION POTENTIAL
Irrigation expansion has been one of the three input-related driving factors (the other two
being seeds of modern HYVs and fertilizer) in the Green Revolution process. Gross irrigated
area went up by over 300 per cent, from 22.6 m ha in 1950-1951 to 57 m ha (gross irrigated
area over 75.1 m ha) in 2000-2001, rendering India as the country having the largest irrigated
area in the world. The ultimate irrigation potential for the country has been estimated at
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about 140 m ha (59 m ha through major and medium irrigation projects, 17 m ha through
minor irrigation schemes and 64 m ha through groundwater development). So far, the irrigation
potential of nearly 100 m ha has already been created, but only about 86 m ha is being utilized,
thus leaving a gap of 14 m ha between created and utilized potential.
Serious gaps also exist between the stipulated and realized productivity and income gains in
the irrigated areas. The irrigation intensity is also around 135 per cent which should be raised
to 175 per cent or more. The intended productivity increases were, however, not realized and
clearly the past policies have been inadequate and had low pay off, let alone the irrigation
associated environmental and natural resource related degradations and low water use
efficiency and inequity.
Irrigation expansion rate in recent years has been about 1.4 m ha per annum. Should the
trend scenario be maintained, by the end of the XI Plan, additional 7 m ha of irrigated land
should be available. Further, under Bharat Nirman, creation of 10 m ha additional assured
irrigation is planned during 2005-2009 through major, medium and minor irrigation projects
complemented by groundwater development
Constraints in the spread of Drip Irrigation
The main constraints encountered include (i) poor quality of the system supplied to the
farmers, (ii) unreliable and spurious spares and non-availability of standard parts, (iii) ignorance
of the users regarding the maintenance and operation of the system, and (iv)non-availability
and uncertainty of power/energy supply.
2000
541
42
8
2
41
634
2025
910
73
22
15
72
1049
2050
1072
102
63
130
80
1447
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the blocks in Punjab and 40 percent of the blocks in Haryana have turned dark and over
exploited - the heartland of the green revolution.
While the North Zone has already developed 87 per cent of its groundwater, the East Zone
has over 70 per cent of its groundwater unexploited for irrigation purposes. Thus, larger
investments in irrigation should be made in the East Zone. In doing so, the past mistakes and
shortcomings of irrigation development should be avoided. Such a move will be a move
towards inclusive growth, as the East Zone has higher concentration of the poor people.
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This implies that they can keep their own seeds and also enter into limited exchange in their
vicinity. Farmers as breeders have the same rights as professional breeders and they can enter
their varieties for registration and protection.
FORESTS
Forests form the basic resource for maintaining the soil/water regimes and ecological
services, hence optimizing productivity of forest means augmenting resilience of soil, water
and agriculture, which are the pillars of rural livelihood security. Green cover is indicator of
resilience of the natural resources and a primary requirement for sustainable agriculture
production. Thus forest cover needs to be recognized as the Natural Resource Infrastructure
for agriculture / primary production / rural economic growth. Good density forest will thus
provide required ecosystem services, but also material products in plenty for communities.
Thus investment in forest estate is an investment for growth.
India is one of the 17 mega diversity countries in the world having vast variety of flora and
fauna, supporting 16 major forest types, comprising from Himalayan Alpine pasture and
temperate forest, sub-tropical forest, tropical evergreen to mangroves in the coastal areas.
India also has two biodiversity hot spots in the northeastern states and the Western Ghats.
Per capita forest area is only 0.064 ha - one-tenth of the world average. Under the heavy
pressures of human and animal populations, about 41 per cent of forest cover of the country is
degraded. Dense forests are losing their crown density and productivity continuously, the
current productivity being one-third of that of the world average. The use of forests beyond
their carrying capacity, compounded with the loss of nearly 4.5 m ha to agriculture and other
uses since 1950 and nearly 10 m ha of forest area being subjected to shifting cultivation, is the
main cause of continuous degradation of forests.
(N.B.: For More Information on Forest refer to the State of Forest Report-2011 provided in the
Annexure-A of Environment PDF)
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As regards fuel wood, these constitute an important basic need of about 40 per cent of the
population of India. The fact remains that India may have sufficient food to eat but not
sufficient fuel wood to cook it. Demand of fuel, which basically comes from rural areas,
depends on various factors such as availability of other fuels, climate, living standards, size of
the family, food habits, etc. It has been estimated that average annual per capita fuel wood
consumption in the country works out to about 0.35 tones. The domestic supply through
normal means generally meets hardly 50% of the demand, mostly through over exploitation of
forests beyond their productive capacities leading to degradation of growing stock.
Regarding fodder, forests meet about one-third of the requirement in India. The forests form
a major source of fodder supply and it increases during drought years when the crops fail and
therefore natural forests remain the only source of fodder. Grasslands are biomass wise among
the most productive ecosystems of the world. In an agrarian nation so dependent upon range
grazing of its moving stock, they are the most important component of countrys animal
husbandry.
LIVESTOCK
Livestock sub-sector, with its annual outputs (milk, meat, egg and wool) valued at nearly Rs.
170,000 crore - about 27 per cent of the agricultural GDP and engaging over 90 million
people, is a highly strategic and vital sub-sector for agrarian economy of the country. Unlike
the ownership of land, the ownership of livestock is positively egalitarian, especially in the
arid, semi-arid and other non-congenial rain fed settings, and is a critical component of
livelihood security.
Possessing the worlds largest livestock population, India ranks first in milk production, fifth in
egg production and seventh in meat production. Total livestock output has been growing at a
much faster rate of 3.6 percent per annum against only 1.1 percent registered for the crops
sub-sector during the past decade.
Productivity of our animals is almost one-third of that of the worlds average and far lesser
when compared with that in the developed countries. On the other hand, India has about 20
percent of the worlds animal population, but good grazing lands are practically non-existent,
thus exerting enormous pressure on the limited and shrinking land and water resources. The
major constraints relate to fodder, feed, healthcare, genetic improvement and conservation
(degeneration of the famous Tharparker cattle breed in Western Rajasthan is a sad story),
processing and value addition, remunerative pricing and marketing.
FISHERIES
Fisheries, including aquaculture, contribute significantly to food, nutrition, economic and
employment securities, and fortunately are one of the fastest growing agricultural sub-sectors
during the last three decades. Currently, fisheries contribute 4.6 percent of the agricultural
GDP, provide employment security to about 11 million people and annually earn foreign
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exchange worth Rs. 7,300 crore - about one-fifth of the value of the national agricultural
export. Of the current total production of 6.4 million tonnes (mt) of fish, marine fish
production contributed about 3.0 m t and inland fisheries contributed 3.4 m t 53 percent of
the total production. While the marine fish production has been growing at 2.2 percent per
annum, the inland production has annually been growing at 6.6 percent, resulting in an overall
annual growth rate of 4.12 percent during the nineties.
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CHAPTER 4: AGRICULTURE
OVERVIEW OF INDIAS AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY
In the early 1950s, half of Indias GDP came from the agricultural sector. By 1995, that
contribution was halved again to about 25 per cent. As would be expected of virtually all
countries in the process of development, Indias agricultural sectors share has declined
consistently over time as seen in the table below.
Year
Percentage share of GDP
1951
52.2
1965
43.6
1976
37.4
1985
32.8
1991
28.3
1999
24.4
2011
14.6
In the last five decades, the Governments objectives in agricultural policy and the instruments
used to realize the objectives have changed from time to time, depending on both internal and
external factors. Agricultural policies can be divided into supply side and demand side
policies. The former include those relating to land reform and land use, development and
diffusion of new technologies, public investment in irrigation and rural infrastructure and
agricultural price supports. The demand side policies on the other hand, include state
interventions in agricultural markets as well as operation of public distribution systems. Such
policies also have macro effects in terms of their impact on government budgets.
Macro level policies include policies to strengthen agricultural and non-agricultural sector
linkages and industrial policies that affect input supplies to agriculture and the supply of
agricultural materials. During the pre-green revolution period, from independence to 19641965, the agricultural sector grew at annual average of 2.7 per cent. This period saw a major
policy thrust towards land reform and the development of irrigation. With the green revolution
period from the mid-1960s to 1991, the agricultural sector grew at 3.2 per cent during 19651966 to 1975-1976, and at 3.1 per cent during 1976-1977 to 1991-1992. The policy package for
this period was substantial and consisted of:
a) introduction of high-yielding varieties of wheat and rice by strengthening agricultural
research and extension services,
b) measures to increase the supply of agricultural inputs such as chemical fertilizers and
pesticides,
c) expansion of major and minor irrigation facilities,
d) announcement of minimum support prices for major crops, government procurement
of cereals for building buffer stocks and to meet public distribution needs, and
e) Provision of agricultural credit on a priority basis.
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f) This period also witnessed a number of market intervention measures by the central
and state Governments. The promotional measures relate to the development and
regulation of primary markets in the nature of physical and institutional infrastructure at
the first contact point for farmers to sell their surplus products. Crops, Production,
Productivity, Inputs and Surpluses
CROP-SPECIFIC GROWTH
As per 2nd advance estimates for 2011-12, total food grains production is estimated at a
record level of 250.42 million tonnes which is 5.64 million tonnes higher than that of the last
year production. Production of rice is estimated at 102.75 million tonnes, Wheat is 88.31
million tonnes, coarse cereals 42.08 million tonnes and pulses 17.28 million tonnes. Oilseeds
production during 2011-12 is estimated at 30.53 million tonnes, sugarcane production is
estimated at 347.87 million tonnes and cotton production is estimated at 34.09 million bales
(of 170 kg. each). Jute production has been estimated at 10.95 million bales (of 180 kg each).
Despite inconsistent climatic factors in some parts of the country, there has been a record
production, surpassing the targeted production of 245 million tonnes of food grains by more
than 5 million tonnes during 2011-12. Growth in the production of agricultural crops depends
upon acreage and yield. Given the limitations in the expansion of acreage, the main source of
long-term output growth is improvement in yields. In the case of wheat, the growth in area and
yield have been marginal during 2000-01 to 2010-11 suggesting that the yield levels have
plateaued for this crop. This suggests the need for renewed research to boost production and
productivity. All the major coarse cereals display a negative growth in area during both the
periods except for maize, which recorded an annual growth rate of 2.68 per cent in the 2000-01
to 2010-11 period. The production of maize has also increased by 7.12 percent in the latter
Period. The biggest increase in the growth rates of yields in the two periods, however, is in
groundnut and cotton. Cotton has experienced significant changes with the introduction of Bt
cotton in 2002. By 2011-12, almost 90 percent of cotton area is covered under Bt. cotton,
production has more than doubled (compared to 2002-03), yields have gone up by almost 70
percent, and export potential for more than Rs 10,000 crore worth of raw cotton per year has
been created.
LAND REFORMS
Under the 1949 Indian constitution, states were granted the powers to enact (and
implement) land reforms. This autonomy ensures that there has been significant variation
across states and time in terms of the number and types of land reforms that have been
enacted. We classify land reform acts into four main categories according to their main
purpose.
1. The first category is acts related to tenancy reform. These include attempts to regulate
tenancy contracts both via registration and stipulation of contractual terms, such as
shares in share tenancy contracts, as well as attempts to abolish tenancy and transfer
ownership to tenants.
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2. The second category of land reform acts are attempts to abolish intermediaries. These
intermediaries who worked under feudal lords (Zamandari) to collect rent for the British
were reputed to allow a larger share of the surplus from the land to be extracted from
tenants. Most states had passed legislation to abolish intermediaries prior to 1958.
3. The third category of land reform acts concerned efforts to implement ceilings on land
holdings, with a view to redistributing surplus land to the landless.
4. Finally, we have acts which attempted to allow consolidation of disparate landholdings.' Though these reforms and in particular the latter were justified partly in
terms of achieving efficiency gains in agriculture it is clear from the acts themselves and
from the political manifestos supporting the acts that the main impetus driving the first
three reforms was poverty reduction.
Existing assessments of the effectiveness of these different reforms are highly mixed. Though
promoted by the centre in various Five Year Plans, the fact that land reforms were a state
subject under the 1949 Constitution meant that enactment and implementation was
dependent on the political will of state governments. The perceived oppressive character of the
Zamandari and their close alliance with the British galvanized broad political support for the
abolition intermediaries and led to widespread implementation of these reforms most of
which were complete by the early 1960s. Centre-state alignment on the issue of tenancy
reforms was much less pronounced. With many state legislatures controlled by the landlord
class, reforms which harmed this class tended to be blocked, though where tenants had
substantial political representation notable successes in implementation were recorded.
Despite the considerable publicity attached to their enactment, political failure to implement
was most complete in the case of land ceiling legislation. Here ambivalence in the formulation
of policy and numerous loopholes allowed the bulk of landowners to avoid expropriation by
distributing surplus land to relations, friends and dependents. As a result of these problems,
implementation of both tenancy reform and land ceiling legislation tended to lag well behind
the targets set in the Five Year Plans. Land consolidation legislation was enacted less than the
other reforms and, owing partly to the sparseness of land records, implementation has been
considered to be both sporadic and patchy only affecting a few states in any significant way.
Village level studies also offer a very mixed assessment of the poverty impact of different land
reforms. Similar reforms seemed to have produced different effects in different areas leaving
overall impact indeterminate. There is some consensus that the abolition of intermediaries
achieved a limited and variable success both in redistributing land towards the poor and
increasing the security of smallholders.
For tenancy reform, however, whereas successes have been recorded, in particular, where
tenants are well organized there has also been a range of documented cases of imminent
legislation prompting landlords to engage in mass evictions of tenants and of the de jure
banning of landlord-tenant relationships pushing tenancy under- ground and therefore,
paradoxically, reducing tenurial security. Land ceiling legislation, in a variety of village studies, is
also perceived to have had neutral or negative effects on poverty by inducing landowners from
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joint families to evict their tenants and to separate their holdings into smaller proprietary units
among family members as a means of avoiding expropriation. Land consolidation is also on the
whole judged not to have been progressive in its redistributive impact given that richer farmers
tend to use their power to obtain improved holdings. There is a considerable variation in
overall land reform activity across states with states such as Uttar Pradesh, Kerala and Tamil
Nadu having a lot of activity while Punjab and Rajasthan have very little.
Land reforms: Land reform measures to abolish intermediary interests in land. Measures
taken under this head included: (i) Abolition of intermediaries; (ii) Tenancy reforms to (a)
regulate rents paid by tenants to landlords, (b) provide security of tenure to tenants, and (c)
confer ownership rights on tenants; and (iii) Imposition of ceilings on holdings in a bid to
procure land for distribution among landless labourers and marginal farmers.
Institutional credit: A National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) was
also set up. As a result of the expansion of institutional credit facilities to farmers, the
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importance of moneylenders has declined steeply and so has the exploitation of farmers at
the hands of moneylenders.
Input subsidies to agriculture: The government has provided massive subsidies to farmers
on agricultural inputs like irrigation, fertilisers and power.
Food security system: In a bid to provide food grains and other essential goods to
consumers at cheap and subsidised rates, the Government of India has built up an elaborate
food security system in the form of Public Distribution System (PDS) during the planning
period.
Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY): The RKVY was launched in 2007-08 with an outlay of
Rs. 25,000 crore in the Eleventh Plan for incentivising States to enhance public investment
to achieve 4 per cent growth rate in agriculture and allied sectors during the Eleventh Five
Year Plan period. The RKVY format permits taking up national priorities as sub-schemes,
allowing the States flexibility in project selection and implementation. The sub- schemes
include: Bringing Green Revolution to Eastern India (BGREI); Integrated Development of
60,000 pulses villages in Rain fed Areas; Promotion of Oil Palm; Initiative on Vegetable
Clusters; Nutri-cereals; National Mission for Protein Supplements; Accelerated Fodder
Development Programme; and Saffron Mission.
National Food Security Mission (NFSM). The NFSM is a crop development scheme of the
Government of India that aims at restoring soil health and achieving additional production
of 10, 8 and 2 million tonnes of rice wheat and pulses, respectively by the end of 2011-12.
It was launched in August 2007 with an approved outlay of Rs. 4,883 crore for the period
2007-08 to 2011-12. The Mission has focused on the Districts with productivity of
wheat/rice below the State average.
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In an effort to extend green revolution to the Eastern Region of the country and develop
dry land areas, the Seventh Five Year Plan introduced two specific programmes:
Special Rice Production Programme, and
National Watershed Development Programme for Rain fed Agriculture.
To increase the production of oil seeds to reduce imports and achieve self-sufficiency in
edible oils, the Technology Mission on oilseeds was launched by the Central government in
1986. Subsequently, pulses, oil palm and maize were brought within purview of the Mission
in 1990- 91, 1992 and 1995-96, respectively.
An Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) was launched during 1996-97 to give
loan assistance to the States to help them complete some of the incomplete projects. Rs.
50,381 crore had been released under AIBP as Central Loan Assistance/grant during 199697 to November 31, 2011.
To meet the demand for bringing in more crops into the purview of crop insurance,
extending its scope to cover all farmers (both loanee and non-loanee) and lowering the unit
area of insurance, the government introduced 'National Agriculture Insurance Scheme
(NAIS), in the country from Rabi 1999-2000. The scheme envisages coverage of all the food
crops (cereals and pulses), oilseeds and annual horticultural/commercial crops, in respect of
which yield data are available for adequate number of years. With the aim of further
improving crop insurance schemes, the modified NAIS (MNAIS) is under implementation
on pilot basis in 50 districts in the country from Rabi 2010-11 seasons. Some of the major
improvements made in the MNAIS are - actuarial premium with subsidy in premium at
different rates; all claims liability to be on the insurer; unit area of insurance reduced to
village panchayat level for major crops; indemnity for prevented/sowing/ planting risk and
for post harvest losses due to cyclone; on account payment of up to 25 per cent advance of
likely claims as immediate relief; more proficient basis for calculation of threshold yield; and
allowing private sector insurers with adequate infrastructure.
To facilitate access to short-term credit by farmers, a Kisan Credit Card (KCC) scheme was
introduced in 1998-99. The scheme has gained popularity and its implementation has been
taken up by 27 commercial banks, 378 District Central Cooperative Banks/State Cooperative
Banks and 196 Regional Rural Banks throughout the country.
The access to credit for the poor from conventional banking is often constrained by lack of
collaterals, information asymmetry and high transaction costs associated with small
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borrowal accounts. To bring these people within the purview of the organised financial
sector, microfinance schemes are assuming increasing importance. Based on the model of
the Grameena Bank developed originally in Bangladesh, National Bank for Agriculture and
Rural Development (NABARD) in India has been engaged in the task of linking up of selfhelp groups (SHGs) with the formal credit agencies since 1991-92
In view of the critical importance of rural infrastructure and the lacklustre growth in
agricultural investment in the past, concerns were raised about the country's ability to
increase production. Consequently, an initiative for setting up of an independent fund
called the Rural Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF) within National Bank for
Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) was taken in the Union Budget of 1995-96.
The corpus of RIDF-I was kept at Rs. 2,000 crore. The successive Budgets have continued
with the RIDF scheme.
In addition to RIDF, another important initiative for building up rural infrastructure was the
announcement of the Bharat Nirman Programme in 2005. This programme covers six
components of infrastructure: irrigation, rural roads, rural housing, rural water supply,
rural electrification and rural telephony. The targets are as under: (a) irrigation - to create
10 million hectares of additional irrigation capacity; (b) rural roads - to connect all
'habitations (66,802) with population above 1,000 (500 in hilly/tribal areas) with all weather
roads; (c) rural housing - to construct 60 lakh houses for rural poor; (d) rural water supply to provide potable water to all uncovered habitations (55,067) and also address slipped
back and water quality affected habitations; (e) rural electrification - to provide electricity
to all un-electrified villages (1,25,000) and to connect 23 million households below the
poverty line; and (f) rural telephones - to connect all remaining villages (66,822) with a
public telephone.
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2. As far as public sector investment in agriculture is concerned, it was Rs. 4,395 crore in
1990-91 and Rs. 4,221 crore in 1999-2000 (at 1993-94 prices). In percentage terms, this
meant a fall in the share of public investment in total investment in agriculture from
about 30 per cent to less than 25 per cent.
3. Gross Capital Formation in Agriculture (GCFA) was 9.9 per cent of total GCF in 1990-91
and this fell drastically to only 3.5 per cent in 1999-2000 in terms of 1993-94 prices.
This poor investment in agriculture is one of the main causes of slow growth in
agriculture in recent years.
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facilities is highly inadequate in India. For example, in 1950-51, gross irrigated area as
percentage of gross cropped area was only 17 per cent. Despite massive investments on
irrigation projects over the period of planning, gross irrigated area as percentage of gross
cropped area was only 45.3 per cent in 2009-10 (88.42 million hectares out of 195.10 million
hectares). Thus, even now almost 55 per cent of gross cropped area depends on rains. That is
why Indian agriculture is called 'a gamble in the monsoons'.
Reasons for the importance of Irrigation in the Indian context
Bringing more land under cultivation: The total reporting area for land utilisation
statistics was 305.69 million hectares in 2008-09. Of this, 17.02 million hectares was
barren and unculturable land, 10.32 million hectares fallow land other than current
fallows, while 14.54 million hectares was current fallow lands. Cultivation on all such
lands is impossible in some cases while in others it requires substantial capital
investment to make land fit for cultivation.
Reduces instability in output levels: Irrigation helps in stabilising the output and yield
levels. A study carried out for 11 major States over the period 1971-84 revealed that the
degree of instability in agricultural output in irrigated areas was less than half of that in
unirrigated areas.
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Approximately 26.3 per cent of the irrigated areas in India are watered by canals. This
includes large areas of land in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and parts of southern
States. Taken together, canals and wells watered 87.3 per cent of net irrigated area in
2008-09. Tank irrigation is resorted to mostly in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and parts of
West Bengal and Bihar.
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FERTILISERS
Indian farmers use only one tenth the amount of manure that is necessary to maintain the
productivity of soil. Indian soil is deficient in nitrogen and phosphorus and this deficiency can
be made good by an increased use of fertilizers. Since possibilities of extensive cultivation are
extremely limited because most of the cultivable area is already being cultivated, there is no
option but to extend intensive cultivation in more and more areas by using larger quantities of
fertilizers.
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Production of improved seeds and especially high- yielding varieties of seeds was encouraged
on the farms of the Centre and the State governments and by registered seed growers. Side by
side, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Punjab Agricultural University at Ludhiana, G.B.
Pant Agricultural University at Pantnagar and several other research institutes were engaged
in the task of developing new hybrid varieties suitable to Indian conditions and in adopting
imported varieties to Indian requirements. While in selected regions of the country Mexican
varieties of wheat like Lerma Rojo-64-A and Sonara 64 were directly introduced in the initial
period, considerable attention was later given to hybridisation of Mexican material with Indian
varieties. Introduction of such high-yielding varieties of wheat depends crucially on the
availability of fertilisers, adequate water supply, pesticides and insecticides. Therefore they
have to be launched in the form of a 'Package Programme'. Because of their dependence on
irrigation, they could be adopted only in areas having proper irrigation facilities. Indian seed
programme includes the participation of Central and State Governments, ICAR, State
Agriculture Universities, public sector, cooperative sector and private sector institutions.
Seed sector in India consists of two national level corporations, i.e., National Seeds Corporation
(NSC) and State Farms Corporation of India (SFCI), 13 State Seed Corporations (SSCs) and
about 100 major private sector seed companies. For quality control and certification, there are
22 State Seed Certification Agencies (SSCAs) and 101 State Seed Testing Laboratories (SSTLs).
Though the private sector has started to play a significant role in the production and
distribution of seeds particularly after the introduction of the New Seed Policy of 1988, the
organised seed sector particularly for food crops and cereals continues to be dominated by the
public sector. As far as the distribution of certified/quality seeds is concerned, it increased from
25 lakh quintals in 1980-81 to 277.3 lakh quintals in 2010-11. Unfortunately, the seeds
revolution of 1960s and 1970s appears to have tapered off after encompassing only the cereal
segment. Improved seeds technology continues to elude vital segments of the farm economy
such as pulses, oilseeds, fruits and vegetables. As a result, the country has to import nearly 2
million tonnes of edible oils and about a million tonnes of pulses every year so as to meet the
domestic demand. In the above context, the National Seeds Policy 2001 provides the
framework for growth of the Seed Sector. It seeks to provide the farmers with a wide range of
superior quality seed varieties and planting materials.
PESTICIDES
Pesticide is defined as any substance or 'mixture of substances, intended for preventing,
destroying or controlling any pest including vectors of human or animal diseases, unwanted
species of plants and animals. Pesticides are classified according to their use and kinds of
applications as insecticides, fungicides, herbicides and, other pesticides. Insecticides account
for the major share of pesticides consumption in India that includes both preventive
treatments, which are applied before infestation levels are known, and intervention
treatments, which are based on monitored infestation levels and expected crop damages. The
use of pesticides in Indian agriculture was negligible in early 1950s with only 100 tonnes of
pesticides being consumed at the beginning of the First Five Year Plan. Consumption of
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pesticides (technical grade material) stood at 55.54 thousand tonnes in 2010-11. However,
there are vast inter-State differences in the level of consumption of pesticides.
EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES
In recent times (particularly during the last two decades), increasing attention has been drawn
to the health hazards and environmental problems that are caused by the unabated use of
pesticides. Health hazards are both direct and indirect.
Another problem with the use of pesticides is that the targeted pests develop resistance
towards them. As a result, higher and higher doses of more and more toxic chemicals have to
be applied. Use of fertilisers and pesticides brings about physiological changes in plants leading
to multiplication and proliferation of several pests. It is also important to note that pesticides
application needs a scientific approach and Integrated Pest Management On account of the
above reasons, what is now advocated is not just pest extermination but economical utilisation
of pesticidal chemicals with least ecological damages. The main facets of the plant protection
system currently in use are the following three - pest and disease control through Integrated
Pest Management (IPM) schemes, locust surveillance and control, and plant and seed
quarantine. Integrated Pest Management includes pest monitoring, promotion of biological
control of pests, organising demonstration, training and awareness of IPM technology. The
IPM technology encourages the use of safer pesticides including botanicals (neem based) and
bio-pesticides.
GREEN REVOLUTION
A team of experts sponsored by the Ford Foundation was invited by the Government of India in
the latter half of the Second Five Year Plan to suggest ways and means to increase agricultural
production and productivity. On the basis of the recommendations of this team, the
government introduced an intensive development programme in seven districts selected from
seven States in 1960 and this programme was named Intensive Area Development Programme
(IADP). The period of mid-1960s was very significant from the point of view of agriculture. New
high-yielding varieties of wheat were developed in Mexico by Prof. Norman Borlaug and his
associates and adopted by a number of countries. Because of the promise of increasing
agricultural production and productivity held by the new varieties of seeds, countries of South
and South-East Asia started adopting them on an extensive scale. This new 'agricultural
strategy' was put into practice for the first time in India in the kharif season of 1966 and was
termed High- Yielding Varieties Programme (HYVP). This programme was introduced in the
form of a package programme since it depended crucially on regular and adequate irrigation,
fertilizers, high-yielding varieties of seeds, pesticides and insecticides.
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HYVP was restricted to only five crops - wheat, rice, jowar, bajra and maize. Therefore, nonfoodgrains were excluded from the ambit of the new strategy. That wheat has remained the
mainstay of the Green Revolution over the years.
Deceleration in Agricultural Growth Rates in the Reform Period: After registering impressive
performance during 1980s, the agricultural growth decelerated in the economic reform period
(commencing in 1991). As is clear, the rate of growth of production of foodgrains fell from 2.9
per cent per annum in 1980s to 2.0 per cent per annum in 1990s and stood at 2.1 per cent per
annum in first decade of the present century The period since 1991, therefore, emerges as a
kind of watershed in time when growth in Indian agriculture, resurgent from the middle 1960s,
was arrested. 23
Causes of Deceleration in Agricultural Growth: The main reasons for the deceleration in
agricultural growth in the post-reform period have been:
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In recent years, a significant development in the pattern of rural labour absorption has
been a shift away from crop production and into rural non-farm activities like agroprocessing industries and other rural industries.
3. Undesirable Social Consequences: Some micro level socio-economic studies of green
revolution areas have revealed certain undesirable social consequences of the green
revolution. Many large farmers have evicted tenants as they now find it more profitable
to cultivate land themselves. Wet lands have also attracted outsiders invest capital in
buying farms. Because of these tendencies "the polarisation process that accentuates
the rural class differences has been further intensified by the green revolution."
Health hazards of the new technology can also not be lost sight of. The agricultural work
in green revolution areas has been rendered even more injurious by the increasing use
of poisonous chemical sprays for plant protection on a large scale.
4. Change in Attitudes: A healthy contribution of green revolution is the change in the
attitudes of farmers in areas where the new agricultural strategy was practised. Increase
in productivity in these areas has enhanced the status of agriculture from a low level
subsistence activity to a money-making activity. The Indian farmer has shown his
willingness to accept technical change in the pursuit of profit thus nullifying the agelong criticism against him that he is backward, traditional and unresponsive to the price
and productivity incentives.
AGRICULTURAL FINANCE
Credit needs of the farmers can be examined from two different angles
(i) On the basis of time, and
(ii) On the basis of purpose.
On the basis of time: Agricultural credit needs of the farmers can be classified into three
categories on the basis of time
(i) Short-term,
(ii) Medium-term, and
(iii) Long-term.
Short-term loans are required for the purchase of seeds, fertilisers, pesticides, feeds and
fodder of livestock, marketing of agricultural produce, payment of wages of hired labour,
litigation, and a variety of consumption and unproductive purposes. The period of such loans is
less than 15 months. Main agencies for granting of short-term loans are the moneylenders and
cooperative societies. Medium-term loans are generally obtained for the purchase of cattle,
small agricultural implements, repair and construction of wells, etc. The period of such loans
extends from 15 months to 5 years. These loans are generally provided by moneylenders,
relatives of farmers, cooperative societies and commercial banks. Long-term loans are required
for effecting permanent improvements on land, digging tube wells, purchase of larger
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agricultural implements and machinery like tractors, harvesters, etc., and repayment of old
debts. The period of such loans extends beyond 5 years. Such loans are normally taken from
Primary Cooperative Agricultural and Rural Development Banks (PCARDBs).
On the basis of purpose: Agricultural credit needs of the farmers can be classified on the basis
of purpose into the following categories
(i) Productive,
(ii) Consumption needs, and
(iii) Unproductive.
Under Productive needs- we can include all credit requirements which directly affect
agricultural productivity. Farmers often require loans for consumption as well. Between the
moment of marketing of agricultural produce and harvesting of the next crop there is a long
interval of time and most of the farmers do not have sufficient income to sustain them through
this period. Therefore, they have to take loans for meeting their consumption needs. In the
time of droughts or floods, the crop is considerably damaged and farmers who otherwise avoidtaking loans for consumption, have also to incur such loans. Institutional credit agencies do not
provide loans for consumption purposes. Accordingly, farmers are forced to fall back upon
moneylenders and mahajans to meet such requirements. In addition to consumption, farmers
also require loans for a multiplicity of other Unproductive purposes such as litigation,
performance of marriages, social ceremonies on the birth or death of a family member,
religious functions, festivals, etc.
moneylenders,
relatives,
traders,
commission agents, and
landlords.
cooperatives,
Scheduled Commercial Banks and
Regional Rural Banks (RRBs).
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As far as cooperatives are concerned, the Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACSs) provide
mainly short and medium-term loans and PCARDBs long-term loans to agriculture. The
commercial banks, including RRBs, provide both short and medium-term loans for agriculture
and allied activities. The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) is
the apex institution at the national level for agricultural credit and provides refinance assistance
to the agencies mentioned above. At the time of Independence, the most important source of
agricultural credit was the moneylenders.
As far as institutional sources are concerned, the first institution established and promoted
was the institution of cooperative credit socieities. The Cooperative movement in this country
was started as far back as 1904. However, its development was very slow. Even in 1951,
cooperatives provided only 3.1 per cent of total rural credit. Hence, the dominance of
moneylenders in agricultural credit continued.
Thus, by the end of 1976, there emerged three separate institutions for providing rural credit,
which is often described as the multi-agency approach. In 1982, NABARD was set up.
As a result of the efforts undertaken by the government to develop the institutional sources of
credit, the role of non-institutional sources like moneylenders in agricultural credit declined
considerably.
More significantly, the share of moneylenders fell from 71.6 per cent in 1951 to merely 17.5
per cent in 1991 (though it rose to 26.8 per cent in 2002). The share of institutional sources in
rural credit rose correspondingly from only 7.3 per cent in 1951 to 31.7 per cent in 1971 and
further to 66.3 per cent in 1991 (in 2002, it fell to 61.1 per cent).2
To suggest measures to increase agricultural credit, the Reserve Bank constituted an "Advisory
Committee on Flow of Credit to Agriculture and Related Activities from the Banking System"
under the chairmanship of V.S. Vyas. This Committee submitted its final report in 2004. The
Committee gave 99 recommendations of which 32 were accepted and implemented by the
Reserve Bank. Some of the major recommendations were:
1. A review of mandatory lending to agriculture by commercial banks to enlarge direct
lending programmes;
2. Public and private sector banks to increase their direct agricultural lending to 12 per
cent of net bank credit in the next two years and to 13.5 per cent two years
thereafter, within the overall limit of 18 per cent of total agricultural lending;
3. Banks to increase their disbursements to small and marginal farmers under Special
Agricultural Credit Plan (SACP) by the end of the Tenth Plan Period to 40 per cent;
4. Reduction in cost of agricultural credit by enhanching the cost-effectiveness of
agricultural loans;
5.
Credit flow to small borrowers to be improved through reduction in cost of
borrowing, revolving credit packages, procedural simplification, involvement of
Panchayati Raj institutions and microfinance, etc.
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2. The commercial banks have found sanctioning and monitoring of a large number of
small advances in their rural branches, time-consuming and manpower intensive and
consequently a high cost proposition.
3. Opening of a large number of branches in rural areas which do not have adequate
business potential, rise in establishment expenses, and increase in non-performing
advances affected the profitability of the banks adversely.
4. The recovery position of the commercial banks is bad.
5. The commercial banks have failed to fill the geographical gap in the availability of
credit not covered by the cooperatives. They have also tended to serve those areas
which were already well served by the cooperatives.
6. The credit-deposit ratio is an important indicator of the degree of involvement of banks
in lending. The rural credit-deposit ratio declined from 1.58 per cent in 1991 to 0.73
per cent in 2001 which shows that deposits mobilised from rural India were being
utilised elsewhere.
7. Loan disbursal to small and marginal farmers decelerated sharply in the 1990s. The
option provided to the commercial banks to meet priority sector lending targets by
investing in RIDF (Rural Infrastructure Development Fund) and placing deposits with
SIDBI (Small Industries Development Bank of India) reduced the rate of growth of direct
finance to small and marginal farmers.
8. The problem of coordination not only between one commercial bank and another but
also between commercial banks and the cooperative credit structure, on the one hand,
and between banks and the Government departments, on the other, has assumed
serious dimensions.
PROBLEMS OF RRBS
1. Organisational Problems. Each RRB is sponsored by a commercial bank. The Central
Government and the concerned State government also contribute to its capital. Thus
there is a multi-agency control of RRBs. This has contributed to a lack of uniformity in
their functioning. Besides, it has resulted in lack of support from State governments and
lack of proper monitoring by sponsor banks. Second, inherent in the concept of RRB. is
the constraint of restricted area of operation and restricted clientele, i.e., specific target
groups. Third, there has been a lack of proper systems and procedures within the
institutions of RRBs, which could have avoided or minimised the scope for overdues
right from the start. Fourth, the process of recruitment and training of RRB staff has not
received adequate attention.
2. Problems of Recovery. For a number of years, the recovery position of RRBs was very
bad and their recovery varied between 51 per cent to 61 per cent.
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In addition to the above defects in the agricultural marketing system in India - presence of a
large number of middlemen and widespread prevalence of malpractices in the mandies there were a number of other problems as well.
Transportation facilities were also highly inadequate and only a small number of villages were
joined by railways and pucca roads to mandies. Most of the roads were kutcha roads not fit for
motor vehicles and the produce was carried on slow moving transport vehicles like bullockcarts.
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According to the Eleventh Five Year Plan, the regulated markets lack even basic infrastructure
at many places. When the Agriculture Produce Marketing (Regulation) Acts were first initiated,
there were significant gains in market infrastructure development. However, this infrastructure
is now out of date, especially given the needs of a diversified agriculture. At present, only onefourth of the markets have common drying yards; trader modules, viz., shop, godown and
platforms in front of shop exist in only 63 per cent of the markets. Cold storage units are
needed in the markets where perishable commodities are brought for sale. However, they
exist only in 9 per cent of the markets at present and grading facilities exist in less than onethird of the markets. The basic facilities, viz., internal roads, boundary walls, electric lights,
loading and unloading facilities, and weighing equipment are available in more than 80 per cent
of the markets. Farmers' rest houses exist in more than half of the regulated markets.
Eleventh Five Year Plan proposes to address the following issues related to agricultural
marketing - marketing system improvement and conducive policy environment;
strengthening of marketing infrastructure and investment needs; improving market
information system with the use of Information and Communication Technology (lCT); human
resource development for agricultural marketing; and promoting exports/external trade.
COOPERATIVE MARKETING
The advantages that cooperative marketing can confer on the farmer are multifarious, some of
which are listed below:
1. Increases bargaining strength of the farmers.
2. Direct dealings with final buyers.
3. Provision of credit: The marketing cooperative societies provide credit to the farmers to
save them from the necessity of selling their produce immediately after harvesting. This
ensures better returns to the farmers.
4. Easier and cheaper transport.
5. Storage facilities: The cooperative marketing societies generally have storage facilities.
Thus, the farmers can wait for better prices, also there is no danger to their crop from
rains, rodents and thefts.
6. Grading and standardization: This task can be done more easily for a cooperative
agency than for an individual farmer. For this purpose they can seek assistance from the
government or can even evolve their own grading arrangements.
7. Market intelligence: The cooperatives can arrange to obtain data on market prices,
demand and supply and other related information from the markets on a regular basis
and can plan their activities accordingly.
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8. Influencing market prices: While previously the market prices were determined by the
intermediaries and merchants and the helpless farmers were mere spectators forced to
accept whatever was offered to them, the cooperative societies have changed the
entire complexion of the game.
9. Provision of inputs and consumer goods:The Cooperative marketing societies can easily
arrange for bulk purchase of agricultural inputs like seeds, manures, fertilisers,
pesticides, etc., and consumer goods at relatively lower prices and can then distribute
them to the members.
10. Processing of agricultural produce: The Cooperative societies can undertake processing
activities like crushing oil seeds, ginning and pressing of cotton, etc.
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the forces of demand and supply. Accordingly despite large output market arrivals of foodgrains
were low. Some States imposed a very heavy compulsory levy on the wholesale traders which
discouraged the wholesalers on the one hand and on the other, prompted them to adopt unfair
and corrupt practices.
1. Organisation of food zones. To introduce an element of stability in agricultural prices,
food zones were organised in March 1964. The country was divided into eight wheat
zones. Rice zones were formed in South India. On the failure of this experiment, each
State was made a separate zone. Movement of food grains within a zone was free but
restrictions were imposed on movements from one zone to the other. The government
took upon itself the task of procuring food grains from the surplus States and
distributing them to the deficit-States through the public distribution system.
2. Fixation of minimum support prices and procurement prices by the government.
3. Rationing and sale through fair price shops.
AGRICULTURAL SUBSIDIES
The issue of agricultural subsidies is a highly politically sensitive issue and arouses strong
passions both among the supporters of such subsidies and the opponents of these subsidies.
The supporters have argued that food subsidy in India is essential to maintain and sustain the
food security system and ensure a safety net for the poor. On the other hand, subsidies on
agricultural inputs such as irrigation, power and fertilisers are necessary to enable the poor and
marginal farmers to have access to them. If agricultural inputs are not subsidised, the poor
farmers will not be able to use them and this will lead to a decline in their income and
productivity levels. On the other hand, the opponents have argued that the magnitude of
agricultural subsidies has risen to very high levels in India and is now fiscally unsustainable. Not
only this, it is argued that the benefits of subsidies on agricultural inputs are mostly cornered by
large farmers and the industry while small and marginal farmers fail to derive much gains. As far
as food subsidy is concerned, critics argue that this policy has led to the problem of burgeoning
food stocks and introduced 'imbalances' in crop structure as such subsidy is limited only to a
handful of crops. Moreover, so the critics argue, continuation of agricultural subsidies is against
the spirit of the AoA (Agreement of Agriculture) as adopted by the WTO and, in any case, such
subsidies have to be reduced in accordance with the commitments made by the member
countries to the WTO.
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subsidy on water is divided into two parts -power subsidy and irrigation subsidy. Power subsidy
is granted on power that is used to draw on groundwater. Accordingly, it is a subsidy to
privately owned means of irrigation. Irrigation subsidy, on the other hand, implies subsidy on
canal water (i.e., surface water) usage.
Total subsidy on agricultural inputs was Rs. 33,591 crore in 1999-2000 which rose to Rs
1,60,917 crore in 2008-09.
FERTILISER SUBSIDY
The need for fertiliser subsidy arises from the nature of the fertiliser pricing policy of the
Government of India. This policy has been governed by the following two objectives: (i)
making fertilisers available to the farmers at low and affordable prices to encourage intensive
high yielding cultivation, and (ii) ensuring fair returns on investment to attract more capital to
the fertiliser industry. To fulfill the former objective, the government has been statutorily
keeping the selling prices of fertilisers at a largely static, uniformly low level throughout the
country.
Fertiliser subsidy became necessary due to the twin objectives of fertiliser pricing policy noted
above. Under this pricing policy, the farmer gets fertilisers at a low rate which is
predetermined, called the maximum selling price. The manufacturer was paid an amount,
called the retention price which is high enough to cover his costs and yet leave a 12 per cent
post-tax return on the net worth. The difference between the retention price and the selling
price was the subsidy paid by the government. For imports, the subsidy is equal to the
difference between the cost of imported material and the selling price.
For instance, fertiliser subsidy was Rs. 505 crore in 1980. It rose to Rs. 4,562 crore in 1993-94
and, Rs. 76,603 crore in 2008-09. It fell to Rs. 52,980 crore in 2009-10.
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hand, the consumers get food grains from the central pool at uniform prices fixed by the
Government of India.
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With a view to reducing the burden of food subsidy and targeting it better to the really needy
people, the Government of India adopted the Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) from
June 1, 1997. TPDS aims at providing food grains to people below the poverty line at highly
subsidised
prices from the PDS and food grains to people above the poverty line at much higher
does it really conserve
the nature
prices. Thus, the TPDS adopted by the Government of India maintains the universal character of
the PDS but adds a special focus on the people below the poverty line (known as BPL).
The key features of TPDS as adopted by the Government of India are as follows:
1. Targeting. The most distinctive feature of the TPDS in relation to the previous policy is
the introduction of targeting by dividing the entire population into below poverty line
(BPL) and above poverty line (APL) categories, based on the poverty line defined by the
Planning Commission. The maximum income level for the population to be covered
under BPL was kept at Rs. 15,000 per annum.
2. Dual (multiple) prices. The second distinguishing feature is that the PDS now has dual
central issue prices: prices for BPL consumers and prices for APL consumers. A third
price, introduced in 2001, is for beneficiaries of the Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY).
3. Centre-State Control. A third important feature of the TPDS is that it has changed
Centre-State responsibilities with respect to entitlements and allocations to the PDS.
PDS was and is designed and managed by State governments, and State governments
differ with respect to entitlements, the commodities offered, the retail price (State issue
price) and so on. In the past, the State governments demanded a certain allocation from
the Central pool, and based on certain factors, most importantly, past utilisation and the
requirements of statutory rationing, the Central government allocated grain and other
commodities to States for their public distribution systems.
Total number of families covered under BPL and AAY is presently 6.52 crore.
REVIEW OF TPDS
TPDS has been criticised on the following grounds:
1. Targeting. The major criticism of TPDS is that it has led to the large-scale exclusion of
genuinely needy persons from the PDS. In this context, Madhura Swarninathan
discusses two types of issues - (i) conceptual issues, and (ii) operational issues." The
first concern 'the definition of the poor' and the second concern 'identification of poor
in practice.' Both these issues are very important and crucial to the working of the TPDS
as its very success hinges on the inclusion of genuinely needy persons under the
programme.
(i) Conceptual issues: (Definition of poor). The main issue here in how appropriate
is the definition of poor applied in the TPDS. The current definition of
eligibility for BPL status is based on the official poverty line as estimated by
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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ICDS
Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) launched in 1975 is a centrally sponsored
scheme implemented by the Ministry of Human Resource Development. The Central
Government is responsible for programme planning and operating costs while State
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the farms of others to supplement their income. To what extent should they (or their family
members) be considered agricultural labourers is not easy to answer.
The first Agricultural Labour Enquiry Committee of 1950-51 regarded those people as
agricultural workers who were engaged in raising crops on payment of wages. Since in India, a
large number of workers do not work against payment of wages all the year round, this
definition was incomplete. Accordingly, the Committee laid down that those people should be
regarded as agricultural workers who worked for 50 per cent or more days on payment of
wages.
The Second Agricultural Labour Enquiry Committee of 1956-57 took a broad view of agricultural
activities to include those workers also who were engaged in allied activities like animal
husbandry, dairy, poultry, piggery, etc. The Second Committee submitted that to know whether
a household is an agricultural labour household we must examine its main source of income. If
50 per cent or more of its income is derived as wages for work rendered in agriculture, only
then it could be classified as agricultural labour household. The changeover from 'work' to
'income' seems more scientific.
In the Census of India 1961, all those workers were included in the category of agricultural
workers who worked on the farms of others and received payment either in money or kind (or
both). The 1971 Census excluded those people from agricultural labourers for whom working
on the farms of others was a secondary occupation.
Accordingly, we must remain content with a working definition. All those persons who derive a
major part of their income as payment for work performed on the farms of others, can be
designated as agricultural workers. For a major part of the year they should work on the land of
others on wages.
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cent of the total rural working population. They were 27.5 million in 1951 and 31.5 million in
1961.1 According to the Census of 1981, the number of agricultural workers was 55.4 million
which 25.1 per cent of the total labour force was. According to the Census of 1991, the number
of agricultural workers was 73.7 million which 26.5 per cent of the total labour force is. This
shows that every fourth person of the labour force is an agricultural worker in India.
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1980-81 (at 1999-2000 prices) and further to 14.0 per cent in 2011-12 (at 2004-05
prices).
2. Wages and income. Agricultural wages and family incomes of agricultural workers are
very low in India. With the advent of the green revolution, money wage rates started
increasing. However, as prices also increased considerably, the real wage rates did not
increase much.
3. Employment and working conditions. The agricultural labourers have to face the
problems of unemployment and underemployment. For a substantial part of the year,
they have to remain unemployed because there is no work on the farms and alternative
sources of employment do not exist.
4. Indebtedness. Because of the low level of their incomes, agricultural workers have to
seek debts off and on. However, because of their extreme poverty, they are not in a
position to provide any security.
5. Feminisation of agricultural labour with low wages. Female agricultural workers are
generally forced to work harder and are paid less than their male counterparts.
6. High incidence of child labour. Incidence of child labour is high in India and the
estimated number varies from 17.5 million to 44 million. It is estimated that one- third
of the child workers in Asia are in India.
7. Increase in migrant labour. Green revolution significantly increased remunerative wage
employment opportunities in pockets of assured irrigation areas while employment
opportunities nearly stagnated in the vast rain fed semi-arid areas.
8. The landlord-labourer relationship. The relationship between the landlord and the
labourer is not uniform throughout the country. There are substantial differences not
only among different States but even among different villages of the same State as
regards the period of employment, mode and time-period of payment, freedom of
movement, bargaining power vis-a-vis landlords, beggar, etc.
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4. Provision of housing sites. Laws have been passed in several States for providing house
sites in villages to agricultural workers.
5. Special schemes for providing employment. Rural Employment (CSRE), National Rural
Employment Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY). National Food for Work Programme
(NFFWP) MGNREGS.
6. Special agencies for development. The Special agencies - Small Farmers Development
Agency (SFDA) and Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers Development Agency
(MFAL) - were created in 1970-71.
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not
growth
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business services. One of the reasons for the sudden growth in the services sector in India in
the nineties was the liberalization in the regulatory framework that gave rise to innovation
and higher exports from the services sector. In the current economic scenario it looks that the
boom in the services sector is here to stay as India is fast emerging as global services hub.
Indian service industry covers a wide gamut of activities like trading, banking & finance,
infotainment, real estate, transportation, security, management and technical consultancy
among several others.
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7.71% per annum in the period 1990-91 to 1999-2000 (i.e. post- reform period). The tertiary
sector emerged as the major sector of the economy both in terms of growth rates as well as its
share in GDP in 1990s. It is to be noted here that while agriculture and manufacturing sectors
have experienced phases of deceleration, stagnation and growth, the tertiary sector has shown
a uniform growth trend during the period 1950-51 to 1999-2000. The share of this sector in
GDP further increased to 55.1% in 2006-07 .This sector accounted for 68.6% of the overall
average growth in GDP in the last five years between 2002-03 and 2006-07.
EMPLOYMENT SCENARIO
The sectoral distribution of workforce in India during the period 1983 to 2004-05 reveals that
the structural changes in terms of employment have been slow in India as the primary sector
continued to absorb 56.67% of the total workforce even in 2004-05, followed by tertiary and
industrial sectors (24.62% and 18.70%) respectively. There has been disproportionate growth of
tertiary sector, as its share in employment has been far less when compared to its contribution
to GDP.
It is important to point out that, within the services sector employment growth rate is highest
in finance, insurance, and business services, followed by trade, hotels and restaurants and
transport etc. The community social and personal services occupy the last rank in growth rates
of employment.
Further, there was a sharp drop in labour absorptive capacity of growth in the economy
(employment elasticity of growth) from 0.40 to 0.15 during post -reform period (1993-94 to
1999-2000) initially, reflecting the phenomenon of jobless growth. However, during 1999-2000
to 2004-05 period the employment elasticity of growth registered an increase from 0.15 to
0.51.With the exception of one sub-sector of tertiary sector i.e. transport, storage,
communication all other sub-sectors of services sector exhibited an increasing trend in
employment elasticties and thereby overall elasticity of employment increased from 0.15 to
0.51.
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PROBLEMS/CHALLENGES AHEAD
The sustainability of impressive growth of Indian economy has been questioned in the wake
of some challenges in the form of lack of social infrastructure, physical infrastructure; IT
infrastructure, agricultural and industrial sector reforms, rupee appreciation and US subprime crisis, etc. Besides, challenges in the field of IT and ITES like rising labour costs, rapid
growth in demand for talented manpower/quality staff, high attrition rate, outsourcing
backlash etc are some other limiting factors. The growth of IT and ITES is having social,
economic, health, ethical and environmental implications also. Further, delay in the promotion
of conducive business environment and good governance will enable us to catch up with the
global giants in terms of world wide presence and scale. It is also important to point out here
that the measurement of output , productivity , non-availability of data or availability of data
after a time lag are other problems confronted with in case of services . The problem gets
further compounded because of the entry of new species of services (like IT, ITES etc ) and lack
of development of concepts on the one hand and non-inclusion of unpaid households on the
other. Further, quality of each unit of the same service varies from the other. Therefore, it is
too difficult to achieve the same level of output in terms of quality has been pointed out.
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Further, quality improvements stemming from the application of new technologies are
extremely hard to measure.
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CHAPTER 6: INDUSTRIES
INDUSTRIAL GROWTH AND POLICY
THE INDUSTRIAL SCENE AT INDEPENDENCE
The main features of the industrial scene in India on the eve of planning (1950) were as under:
There was the preponderance of consumer goods industries vis-a-vis producer goods
industries resulting in lopsided industrial development. In 1953, the ratio of consumer
goods to producer goods worked out to be 62:38.
The industrial sector was extremely underdeveloped with a very weak infrastructure.
The lack of government intervention in favour of the industrial sector was considered
as an important cause of under-development.
Export orientation had been against the country's interests.
The structure of ownership was highly concentrated.
what does it mean?
Technical and managerial skills were in short supply.
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for cement and aluminum, etc., were some of the major steps taken in the direction of
domestic deregulation.
A major exception to this thrust was the continuation of the policy of reservation of production
for the small-scale sector particularly since it constituted an important hurdle in the way of
developing export capability in sectors such as garments, leather products, sports goods, etc.,
where India has a comparative advantage.
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The thrust of the New Economic Policy has been towards creating a more competitive
environment in the economy as a means to improving the productivity and efficiency of the
system. This was to be achieved by removing the barriers to entry and the restrictions on the
growth of firms. The private sector was to be given a larger space to operate in as much as
some of the areas, reserved exclusively earlier for the public sector were now to be opened to
the private sector. In these areas, the public sector would have to compete with the private
sector, even though the public sector might continue to play the dominant role in the
foreseeable future. What was sought to be achieved was the improvement in the functioning of
the various entities, whether they were in the private or in the public sector.
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Apart from the licensing restrictions, there are some restrictions arising from certain industries
reserved for the public sector and for the small-scale sector. Reservation for the public sector is
now very limited, covering only manufacturing involving certain substances relevant for atomic
energy (as well as production of atomic energy and provision of railway transport). The list of
items reserved for SSIs has been reduced to 114. Larger units are allowed to manufacture items
reserved for the small-scale sector only if they undertake an export obligation of 50 per cent of
their industrial production.
The Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) policy was also successively liberalised during the Tenth
Five Year Plan. Following a comprehensive review in 2006 it was further liberalised, particularly
by allowing FDI under the automatic route for manufacture of industrial explosives and
hazardous chemicals and making it easier for new investments by foreign investors who had
entered into joint ventures with Indian partners earlier.
2008
2009
2010
2011
Mining
14.16
6.4
32.1
9.4
-8.3
Manufacturing
75.53
89.4
46.8
85.6
85.6
Electricity
10.32
4.2
21.2
5.0
22.6
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Basic foods
45.68
16.2
64.8
27.8
65.7
Capitals goods
8.83
52.2
-52.9
30.2
-12.0
Intermediates
15.69
3.7
24.1
13.6
-3.3
Consumer
Goods
29.81
28.0
64.0
28.4
49.4
Durables
8.46
32.7
67.3
23.0
21.3
Non Durables
21.35
-4.8
-3.3
5.5
28.1
Labour Market Rigidity Hypothesis: The reformists believe that India's labour laws are
the most protective of the organised labour, which makes firing of workers almost
impossible, rendering labour a quasi-fixed capital, leading to substitution of capital for
labor, yielding little employment growth. Such a reading of the labour law is perhaps
facile as it overlooks the 'fine print' of exemptions and loopholes that are build into
them.
The Cost of Doing Business: Two other challenges that beset manufacturers in India
illustrate the nature of solutions required to attract more investments into
manufacturing. The 'cost of doing business' is much higher in India than in other
countries due to the plethora of forms and inspections that manufacturers have to
comply with, some of them arising out of legislations long pending review, such as the
Factories Act.
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First, the concentration of economic power that would result from the uncontrolled
operation of the market forces can be reduced through the extension in the public
ownership of means of production.
Secondly, private investors may demand a higher risk premium for investment in
certain industries than would be socially justified. Off- shore drilling of oil is one
example in this connection.
Thirdly, the scales of investment efforts in certain heavy industries may be beyond the
capital-raising capacity of the private sector e.g., steel mills, heavy electrical machinery.
Fourthly, the public sector, through the appropriate price policy for its output will
generate investible surpluses for further investment in the economy.
Fifthly, by production as well as distribution of certain universal intermediate inputs like
coal, steel, electricity etc., the State will be able to control the composition of private
economic activity in a socially desirable direction.
Finally, the public sector would assume the role of a model employer and its
employment and wage policies would have a moderating influence on the
corresponding policies in the private sector.
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Definition of MSMEs
Manufacturing Sector
Micro enterprises
Small enterprises
Medium enterprises
remember
Service Sector
Micro enterprises
Small enterprises
Medium enterprises
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later
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CHAPTER 7: POVERTY
This chapter deals with one of the most difficult challenges faced by independent India-poverty.
Poverty means hunger and lack of shelter. It also is a situation in which parents are not able to
send their children to school or a situation where sick people cannot afford treatment. Poverty
also means lack of clean water and sanitation facilities. It also means lack of a regular job at a
minimum decent level. Above all it means living with a sense of helplessness. Poor people are in
a situation in which they are ill-treated at almost every place, in farms, factories, government
offices, hospitals, railway stations etc.
HOW POVERTY IS DEFINED?
Since poverty has many facets, social scientists look at it through a variety of indicators.
Usually the indicators used relate to the levels of income and consumption. But now poverty is
looked through other social indicators like illiteracy level, lack of general resistance due to
malnutrition, lack of access to healthcare, lack of job opportunities, lack of access to safe
drinking water, sanitation etc. Analysis of poverty based on social exclusion and vulnerability is
now becoming very common.
SOCIAL EXCLUSION
According to this concept, poverty must be seen in terms of the poor having to live only in a
poor surrounding with other poor people, excluded from enjoying social equality of better-off
people in better surroundings. Social exclusion can be both a cause as well as a consequence of
poverty in the usual sense. Broadly, it is a process through which individuals or groups are
excluded from facilities, benefits and opportunities that others (their betters) enjoy. A typical
example is the working of the caste system in India in which people belonging to certain castes
are excluded from equal opportunities. Social exclusion thus may lead to, but can cause more
damage than, having a very low income.
POVERTY LINE
At the centre of the discussion on poverty is usually the concept of the poverty line. A
common method used to measure poverty is based on the income or consumption levels. A
person is considered poor if his or her income or consumption level falls below a given
minimum level necessary to fulfill basic needs. What is necessary to satisfy basic needs is
different at different times and in different countries. Therefore, poverty line may vary with
time and place. The present formula for estimating the poverty line is based on the desired
calorie requirement. Food items such as cereals, pulses, vegetables, milk, oil, sugar etc.
together provide these needed calories. The calorie needs vary depending on age, sex and the
type of work that a person does. The accepted average calorie requirement in India is 2400
calories per person per day in rural areas and 2100 calories per person per day in urban areas.
Since people living in rural areas engage themselves in more physical work, calorie
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requirements in rural areas are considered to be higher than urban areas. The monetary
expenditure per capita needed for buying these calorie requirements in terms of food grains
etc. is revised periodically taking into consideration the rise in prices. On the basis of these
calculations, for the year 2000, the poverty line for a person was fixed at Rs 328 per month for
the rural areas and Rs 454 for the urban areas. In this way in the year 2000, a family of five
members living in rural areas and earning less than about Rs 1,640 per month will be below the
poverty line. A similar family in the urban areas would need a minimum of Rs 2,270 per month
to meet their basic requirements. The poverty line is estimated periodically (normally every
five years) by conducting sample surveys. These surveys are carried out by the National
Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO).
POVERTY LINE ESTIMATES CONTROVERSY.
According to the latest estimates of the Commission, people with the daily consumption of
more than Rs 28.65 in cities and Rs 22.42 in rural areas are not poor. It has been criticiesd by
various Social Activist as a retrograde measure. According to it the number of poor in India
has declined to 34.47 crore in 2009-10 from 40.72 crore in 2004-05 as per the estimates based
on Tendulkar panel methodology which factors in spending on health and education, besides
the calorie intake.
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decline in poverty in Kerala, Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and
West Bengal. States like Punjab and Haryana have traditionally succeeded in reducing poverty
with the help of high agricultural growth rates. Kerala has focused more on human resource
development. In West Bengal, land reform measures have helped in reducing poverty. In
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu public distribution of food grains could have been responsible
for the improvement.
GLOBAL POVERTY SCENARIO
The proportion of people in developing countries living in extreme economic poverty defined
by the World Bank as living on less than $1 per dayhas fallen from 28 per cent in 1990 to 21
per cent in 2001. Although there has been a substantial reduction in global poverty, it is
marked with great regional differences. Poverty declined substantially in China and Southeast
Asian countries as a result of rapid economic growth and massive investments in human
resource development. Number of poors in China has come down from 606 million in 1981 to
212 million in 2001. In the countries of South Asia (India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal,
Bangladesh, Bhutan) the decline has not been as rapid. Despite decline in the percentage of
the poor, the number of poor has declined marginally from 475 million in 1981 to 428 million in
2001. Because of different poverty line definition, poverty in India is also shown higher than the
national estimates. In Sub-Saharan Africa, poverty in fact rose from 41 per cent in 1981 to 46
per cent in 2001. In Latin America, the ratio of poverty remained the same. Poverty has also
resurfaced in some of the former socialist countries like Russia, where officially it was
nonexistent earlier. The Millennium Development Goals of the United Nations calls for
reducing the proportion of people living on less than $1 a day to half the 1990 level by 2015.
CAUSES OF POVERTY
1. One historical reason is the low level of economic development under the British
colonial administration. The policies of the colonial government ruined traditional
handicrafts and discouraged development of industries like textiles.
2. High growth rate of population.
3. Unequal distribution of land and other resources.
4. Major policy initiatives like land reforms which aimed at redistribution of assets in
rural areas have not been implemented properly.
5. Many other socio-cultural and economic factors also are responsible for poverty. In
order to fulfil social obligations and observe religious ceremonies, people in India,
including the very poor, spend a lot of money.
6. High level of indebtedness is both the cause and effect of poverty.
7. Low Productivity in Agriculture
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Development Goals of the United Nations also contain a commitment to halve the proportion
of the worlds population living in extreme poverty by 2015.
Poverty is widespread in India, with the nation estimated to have a third of the world's poor.
The World Bank (2005) estimated that 41.6 percent of the total Indian population lived under
the international poverty line of US $1.25 per day (PPP), reduced from 60 percent in 1981.
Poverty eradication has been one of the major objectives of planned development in India.
According to the criterion of household consumer expenditure used by the Planning
Commission of India, 27.5 percent of the population was living below the poverty line in 2004
2005, down from 51.3 percent in 19771978, and 36% in 1993-1994 (Economic Survey 200910). The overwhelming fact about poverty in the country is its rural nature. Major
determinants of poverty are lack of income and purchasing power attributable to lack of
productive employment and considerable underemployment, inadequacy of infrastructure,
affecting the quality of life and employability, etc.
1. Poverty Alleviation Programmes: Poverty alleviation programmes have assumed
relevance as it is proved globally that the so-called 'trickle-down effect' does not
work in all the societies and India is no exception to this. In recent times, there has
been a significant shift in focus in the poverty literature away from the trickle-down
concept of growth towards the idea of pro-poor growth, which enables the poor to
actively participate in and benefit from economic activities. Hence, the strategy of
targeting the poor was adopted in India and the economic philosophy behind these
special programmes was that special preferential treatment was necessary to enable
the poor to participate in economic development (Raj Krishna, 1977). Inclusive
growth also focuses on productive employment for the excluded groups. Poverty
alleviation programmes have been designed from time to time to enlarge the
income-earning opportunities for the poor. These programmes are broadly classified
into:
2. Self-employment programmes: Creating self-employment opportunities began with
the introduction of the IRDP in 1978-79, TRYSEM (1979), DWCRA (1982-83), supply
of improved toolkits to rural artisans (1992) and the Ganga Kalyan Yoajna (19961997). To remove conceptual and operational problems in the implementation of
these programmes, a holistic programme covering all aspects of self-employment
such as organisation of the poor into SHGs, training, credit, technology,
infrastructure and marketing called Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY),
was started on April 1, 1999. Based on the feedback provided and recommendations
made by various studies, National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM) was launched
during 2009-10 to facilitate effective implementation of the restructured SGSY
scheme in a mission mode. NRLM aims at reducing poverty in rural areas through
promotion of diversified and gainful self-employment and wage employment
opportunities.
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Rural
Urban
Total
199394
200405
199394
20042005
199394
20042005
Andhra Pradesh
159
112
383
28
222
158
Assam
450
223
7.7
3.3
409
191
Bihar
582
430
34.5
28.7
550
11.1
Gujarat
222
19.1
279
13
242
16.8
Haryana
280
13.6
16.4
15.1
251
110
Karnataka
299
20.8
401
32.6
332
250
Kerala
258
13.2
24.6
20.2
254
150
Madhya
Pradesh
406
37.9
48.4
41.9
425
39
Maharashtra
379
29.6
352
322
369
301
Orissa
497
16.8
41.6
11.3
486
161
Punjab
120
9.1
11.4
1.1
118
81
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265
18.1
30.5
32.9
274
221
Tamil Nadu
325
22.8
39.8
222
350
225
Uttar Pradesh
423
33.7
35.4
31
409
331
West Bengal
408
28.6
22.4
11.8
357
211
India
373
28.3
32.4
25.1
360
215
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ST
Andhra Pradesh
4.1
Assam
25.4
Bihar
53.3 64
37.8
26.6
Chhattisgarh
29.2
Delhi
0.0
10.6
Gujarat
4.8
Haryana
0.0
4.2
Himachal Pradesh
6.4
8.8
3.3
Jharkhand
37.1
Karnataka
13.8
Kerala
6.6
Madhya Pradesh
13.4
Maharashtra
18.9
Orissa
23.4
Punjab
2.2
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SC
0.0
OBC OTHERS
0.0
26.8 13.9
5.2
10.0
8.2
Tamil Nadu
19.1
Uttar Pradesh
19.7
Uttarakhand
33.5
West Bengal
27.5
All India
16.1
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Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY): AAY launched in December 2000 provides food grains at a
highly subsidized rate of Rs.2.00 per kg for wheat and Rs.3.00 per kg for rice to the poor families
under the Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS). The scale of issue, which was initially 25
kg per family per month, was increased to 35 kg per family per month from April 1, 2002. The
scheme initially for one crore families was expanded in June 2003 by adding another 50 lakh
BPL Families.
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY): The PMGSY, launched in December 2000 as a
100 per cent centrally Sponsored Scheme, aims at providing rural connectivity to unconnected
habitations with population of 500 persons or more in the rural areas by the end of the Tenth
Plan period. Augmenting and modernising rural roads has been included as an item of the
NCMP. The programme is funded mainly from the accruals of diesel cess in the Central Road
Fund. In addition, support of the multi-lateral funding agencies and the domestic financial
institutions are being obtained to meet the financial requirements of the programme.
Prime Ministers Rozgar Yojana (PMRY): PMRY started in 1993 with the objective of making
available self-employment opportunities to the educated unemployed youth by assisting them
in setting up any economically viable activity. While the REGP is implemented in the rural areas
and small towns (population up to 20,000) for setting up village industries without any cap on
income, educational qualification or age of the beneficiary, PMRY is meant for educated
unemployed youth with family income of up to Rs.40, 000 per annum, in both urban and rural
areas, for engaging in any economically viable activity.
Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY): PMGY launched in 2000-01 envisages allocation
of Additional Central Assistance (ACA) to the States and UTs for selected basic services such as
primary health, primary education, rural shelter, rural drinking water, nutrition and rural
electrification.
Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY): The Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) operationalised from 1999-2000 is
the major scheme for construction of houses for the poor, free of cost. The Ministry of Rural
Development (MORD) provides equity support to the Housing and Urban Development
Corporation (HUDCO) for this purpose.
Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY): SGRY, launched in 2001, aims at providing
additional wage employment in all rural areas and thereby food security and improve
nutritional levels. The SGRY is open to all rural poor who are in need of wage employment and
desire to do manual and unskilled work around the village/habitat. The programme is
implemented through the Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs).
Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY): SGSY, launched in April 1999, aims at bringing
the assisted poor families (Swarozgaris) above the poverty line by organizing them into Self
Help Groups (SHGs) through a mix of Bank credit and Government subsidy.
National Food for Work Programme: In line with the NCMP, National Food for Work
Programme was launched on November 14, 2004 in 150 most backward districts of the country
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with the objective to intensify the generation of supplementary wage employment. The
programme is open to all rural poor who are in need of wage employment and desire to do
manual unskilled work. It is implemented as a 100 per cent centrally sponsored scheme and the
food grains are provided to States free of cost. However, the transportation cost, handling
charges and taxes on food grains are the responsibility of the States.
National Social Assistance Programme: The National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP) was
introduced as a 100 per cent Centrally Sponsored Scheme on 15th August 1995. It has three
components: namely (i) National Old Age Pension Scheme (NOAPS), (ii) National Family Benefit
Scheme (NFBS) and (iii) National Maternity Benefit Scheme (NMBS). The programme represents
a significant step towards fulfillment of the Directive Principles in Articles 41 and 42 of the
Constitution. NSAP supplements efforts of State Governments with the objective of ensuring
minimum national levels of well-being and the Central assistance is not meant to displace the
States own expenditure on Social Protection Schemes.
Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY): JRY was launched as Centrally Sponsored Scheme on 1st April,
1989 by merging National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) and Rural Landless
Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP). Its main objective was generation of additional
gainful employment for the unemployed and under-employed people in rural areas through the
creation of rural economic infrastructure, community and social assets with the aim of
improving the quality of life of the rural poor.
Integrated Rural Development Programme: The Integrated Rural Development Programme
(IRDP) was started in 1980-81 in all blocks of the country and continued as a major selfemployment scheme till April 1, 1999. Then, it was restructured as the Swarnjayanti Gram
Swarozgar Yojana. (SGSY) which aimed at self-employment of the rural poor. The objective will
be achieved through acquisition of productive assets or appropriate skills that would generate
an additional income on a sustained basis to enable them to cross poverty line.
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana: The primary objective of the PMGSY is to provide
Connectivity, by way of an All-weather Road (with necessary culverts and cross-drainage
structures, which is operable throughout the year), to the eligible unconnected Habitations in
the rural areas, in such a way that all Unconnected Habitations with a population of 1000
persons and above are covered in three years (2000-2003) and all Unconnected Habitations
with a population of 500 persons and above by the end of the Tenth Plan Period (2007). In
respect of the Hill States (North-East, Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir,
Uttaranchal) and the Desert Areas (as identified in the Desert Development Programme) as well
as the Tribal (Schedule V) areas, the objective would be to connect Habitations with a
population of 250 persons and above.
The PMGSY will permit the Up gradation (to prescribed standards) of the existing roads in those
Districts where all the eligible Habitations of the designated population size (refer Para 2.1
above) have been provided all-weather road connectivity. However, it must be noted that Up
gradation is not central to the Programme and cannot exceed 20% of the States allocation as
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long as eligible Unconnected Habitations in the State still exist. In Up gradation works, priority
should be given to Through Routes of the Rural Core Network, which carry more traffic
Council for Advancement of Peoples Action & Rural Technology (CAPART): Recognising the
need for an organisation that would coordinate and catalyse the development work of
voluntary agencies in the country, particularly to ensure smooth flow of benefits to the
underprivileged and socio-economically weaker sections of society, Government of India, in
September, 1986 set up the Council for Advancement of Peoples Action and Rural Technology
(CAPART), a registered society under the aegis of the Department of Rural Development, by
merging two autonomous bodies, namely, Peoples Action for Development of India (PADI) and
Council for Advancement of Rural Technology (CAPART).
The main objectives of the CAPART are:To encourage, promote and assist voluntary action for the implementation of projects
intending enhancement of rural prosperity.
To Strengthen and promote voluntary efforts in rural development with focus on injecting ew
technological inputs;
To act as a catalyst for the development of technology appropriate for rural areas.
To promote, plan, undertake, develop, maintain and support projects/schemes aimed at allround development, creation of employment opportunities, promotion of self-reliance,
generation of awareness, organisation and improvement in the quality of life of the people in
rural areas through voluntary action.
PROVISION OF URBAN AMENITIES IN RURAL AREAS (PURA): Holistic and accelerated
development of compact areas around a potential growth centre in a Gram Panchayat (or a
group of Gram Panchayat) through Public Private Partnership (PPP) framework for providing
livelihood opportunities and urban amenities to improve the quality of life in rural areas.
DROUGHT PRONE AREAS PROGRAMME (DPAP): The basic objective of the programme is to
minimise the adverse effects of drought on production of crops and livestock and productivity
of land, water and human resources ultimately leading to drought proofing of the affected
areas. The programme also aims to promote overall economic development and improving the
socio-economic conditions of the resource poor and disadvantaged sections inhabiting the
programme areas.
DESERT DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (DDP): The basic object of the programme is to minimise
the adverse effect of drought and control desertification through rejuvenation of natural
resource base of the identified desert areas. The programme strives to achieve ecological
balance in the long run. The programme also aims at promoting overall economic development
and improving the socio-economic conditions of the resource poor and disadvantaged sections
inhabiting the programme areas.
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and
d) Mitigating the adverse effects of extreme climatic conditions such as drought and
desertification on crops, human and livestock population for the overall improvement of
rural areas.
e) Restoring ecological balance by harnessing, conserving and developing natural resources
i.e. land, water, vegetative cover especially plantations.
f) Encouraging village community towards sustained community action for the operation
and maintenance of assets created and further development of the potential of the
natural resources in the watershed.
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g) Promoting use of simple, easy and affordable technological solutions and institutional
arrangements that make use of, and build upon, local technical knowledge and available
materials.
Computerization of Land Records: The scheme of Computerisation of Land Records (CLR) was
started in 1988-89. This is a 100 per cent grant-in-aid scheme executed by the State
Governments. The main objective of CLR scheme is that landowners should get computerized
copies of Records of Rights (RORs) at a reasonable price. The ultimate objective of the scheme
is on-line management of land records in the country.
Under the scheme, 100% financial assistance is provided to States for completion of data entry
work, setting up computer centers at the tehsil or taluk or block and sub divisional levels and
monitoring cell at the State level. Funds are also provided under the scheme for imparting
training on computer awareness and applications software to revenue officials for regular
updation of records of rights and smooth operation of computer centers.
National Skill Development Mission consists of following three institutions:
Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidutikaran Yojana: Under RGGVY, electricity distribution infrastructure
is envisaged to establish Rural Electricity Distribution Backbone (REDB) with at least a 33/11KV
sub-station in a block, Village Electrification Infrastructure (VEI) with at least a Distribution
Transformer in a village or hamlet, and standalone grids with generation where grid supply is
not feasible.
Subsidy towards capital expenditure to the tune of 90% is being provided, through Rural
Electrification Corporation Limited (REC), which is a nodal agency for implementation of the
scheme. Electrification of un-electrified Below Poverty Line (BPL) households is being financed
with 100% capital subsidy @ Rs.2200/- per connection in all rural habitations.
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Rural Electrification Corporation is the nodal agency for implementation of the scheme. The
services of Central Public Sector Undertakings (CPSU) are available to the States for assisting
them in the execution of Rural Electrification projects. The Management of Rural Distribution is
mandated through franchisees.
Under Phase-I of RGGVY, Ministry of Power has sanctioned 576 projects for 546 districts to
electrify 1, 10,886 villages and to provide free electricity connections to 2.29 Crore BPL rural
households. As on 30th Sept., 2012, works in 1, 05,851 villages have been completed and
201.18 lakh free electricity connections have been released to BPL households. 72 projects
under Phase-II covering electrification of 1909 un-electrified villages, 46606 un-electrified
habitations, 53,505 partially electrified villages, 25,947 partially electrified habitations and
release of free electricity connections to 45,59,141 BPL households have also been sanctioned
with an outlay of Rs. 7964.32 crore
The Bharat Nirman target for RGGVY was to electrify 1 lakh villages and to provide free
electricity connections to 175 lakh BPL households by March 2012 which was achieved by 31st
December, 2011.
National Rural Livelihood Mission (Aajeevika): Aajeevika - National Rural Livelihoods Mission
(NRLM) was launched by the Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD), Government of India in
June 2011. Aided in part through investment support by the World Bank, the Mission aims at
creating efficient and effective institutional platforms of the rural poor enabling them to
increase household income through sustainable livelihood enhancements and improved access
to financial services.
NRLM has set out with an agenda to cover 7 Crore BPL households, across 600 districts, 6000
blocks, 2.5 lakh Gram Panchayat and 6 lakh villages in the country through self-managed Self
Help Groups (SHGs) and federated institutions and support them for livelihoods collectives in a
period of 8-10 years. In addition, the poor would be facilitated to achieve increased access to
their rights, entitlements and public services, diversified risk and better social indicators of
empowerment. NRLM believes in harnessing the innate capabilities of the poor and
complements them with capacities (information, knowledge, skills, tools, finance and
collectivization) to participate in the growing economy of the country.
Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK): The National credit Fund for Women is an innovative mechanism
for reaching credit to poor women. Through access to credit, it aims to raise the capacity of
women by enhancing through productivity and economic self- reliance. It has provided credits
to over 2.32 lakh women since its inception from 1993. It encourages formation of Self Help
Groups (SHGs) for promotion of thrift and credit leading to income generation activities.
JANANI SURAKSHA YOJANA (JSY): Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) is a safe motherhood
intervention under the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) being implemented with the
objective of reducing maternal and neo-natal mortality by promoting institutional delivery
among the poor pregnant women. The Yojana, launched on 12th April 2005, by the Honble
Prime Minister, is being implemented in all states and UTs with special focus on low performing
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states. JSY is a 100 % centrally sponsored scheme and it integrates cash assistance with
delivery and post-delivery care. The success of the scheme would be determined by the
increase in institutional delivery among the poor families The Yojana has identified ASHA, the
accredited social health activist as an effective link between the Government and the poor
pregnant women in 10 low performing states, namely the 8 EAG states and Assam and J&K and
the remaining NE States. In other eligible states and UTs, wherever, AWW and TBAs or ASHA
like activist has been engaged in this purpose, she can be associated with this Yojana for
providing the services.
NATIONAL RURAL HEALTH MISSION
The National Rural Health Mission (2005-12) seeks to provide effective healthcare to
rural population throughout the country with special focus on 18 states, which have
weak public health indicators and/or weak infrastructure.
These 18 States are Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh,
Jharkhand, Jammu & Kashmir, Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Madhya Pradesh,
Nagaland, Orissa, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tripura, Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh.
It seeks to revitalize local health traditions and mainstream AYUSH into the public health
system.
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Commission (KVIC), a statutory organization under the administrative control of the Ministry of
MSME as the single nodal agency at the National level. At the State level, the Scheme will be
implemented through State KVIC Directorates, State Khadi and Village Industries Boards (KVIBs)
and District Industries Centres (DICs) and banks. The Government subsidy under the Scheme
will be routed by KVIC through the identified Banks for eventual distribution to the beneficiaries
/ entrepreneurs in their Bank accounts. The Implementing Agencies, namely KVIC, KVIBs and
DICs will associate reputed Non Government Organization (NGOs)/reputed autonomous
institutions/Self Help Groups (SHGs)/ National Small Industries Corporation (NSIC) / Udyami
Mitras empanelled under Rajiv Gandhi Udyami Mitra Yojana (RGUMY), Panchayati Raj
institutions and other relevant bodies in the implementation of the Scheme, especially in the
area of identification of beneficiaries, of area specific viable projects, and providing training in
entrepreneurship development.
Rajiv Gandhi Gramin LPG Vitaran Yojana (RGGLVY): Rajiv Gandhi Gramin LPG Vitaran Yojana
(RGGLVY) was launched on October 16, 2009. The Scheme aims at setting up small size LPG
distribution agencies in order to increase rural penetration and to cover remote as well as low
potential areas (locations having potential of 600 cylinders (refill sales) per month). The
agencies would penetrate deeper into the rural areas where regular distributorships become
unviable due to the scale of operation and investment. RGGLV distributors may be viable for
around 1,500 customers in the cluster of villages being served.
These agencies will be self operated: The distributorship himself will manage the agency, with
the help of his family member and one or two employees.
There will be no arrangement for home delivery.
Age limit for the distributor is being kept as between 21 and 45 years leading to new
employment opportunities for the rural youth.
Distributor under the scheme will have to be a permanent resident of the village(s) covered by
particular location.
Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) or Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan (NBA) is a Community-led total
sanitation program initiated by Government of India in 1999. It is a demand-driven and peoplecentered sanitation program. It evolved from the limited achievements of the first structured
programme for rural sanitation in India, the Central Rural Sanitation Programme, which had
minimal community participation. The main goal of Total Sanitation Campaign is to eradicate
the practice of open defecation by 2017. Community-led total sanitation is not focused on
building infrastructure, but on preventing open defecation through peer pressure and shame.
In Maharashtra where the program started more than 2000 Gram Panchayats have achieved
"open defecation free" status. Villages that achieve this status receive monetary rewards and
high publicity under a program called Nirmal Gram Puraskar.
Rajiv Awas Yojana envisages a Slum-free India with inclusive and equitable cities in which
every citizen has access to basic civic and social services and decent shelter. It aims to achieve
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this vision by encouraging States/Union Territories to tackle the problem of slums in a definitive
manner, by a multi-pronged approach focusing on:
Bringing all existing slums, notified or non-notified within the formal system and
enabling them to avail of the same level of basic amenities as the rest of the town;
Redressing the failures of the formal system that lie behind the creation of slums; and
Tackling the shortages of urban land and housing that keep shelter out of reach of the
urban poor and force them to resort to extra-legal solutions in a bid to retain their
sources of livelihood and employment.
The duration of Rajiv Awas Yojana will be in two phases: Phase-I, for a period of two years from
the date of approval of the scheme and Phase-II which will cover the remaining period of the
Twelfth Five Year Plan 2013-17 RAY will be run in a Mission Mode.
Rashtriya Swastha Bima Yojana: RSBY has been launched by Ministry of Labour and
Employment, Government of India to provide health insurance coverage for Below Poverty Line
(BPL) families. The objective of RSBY is to provide protection to BPL households from financial
liabilities arising out of health shocks that involve hospitalization. Beneficiaries under RSBY are
entitled to hospitalization coverage up to Rs. 30,000/- for most of the diseases that require
hospitalization. Government has even fixed the package rates for the hospitals for a large
number of interventions. Pre-existing conditions are covered from day one and there is no age
limit. Coverage extends to five members of the family which includes the head of household,
spouse and up to three dependents. Beneficiaries need to pay only Rs. 30/- as registration fee
while Central and State Government pays the premium to the insurer selected by the State
Government on the basis of a competitive bidding.
Swabhimaan is a campaign of the Government of India which aims to bring banking services to
large rural areas without banking services in the country. It was launched on February 10, 2011.
This campaign is to be operated by the Ministry of Finance, Government of India and the Indian
Banks' Association (IBA) to bring banking within the reach of the masses of the Indian
population.
Urban infrastructure Development Scheme for Small & Medium Towns aims at improvement
in urban infrastructure in towns and cities in a planned manner. It shall subsume the existing
schemes of Integrated Development of Small and Medium Towns (IDSMT) and Accelerated
Urban Water Supply Programme (AUWSP).
The objectives of the scheme are to:
Improve infrastructural facilities and help create durable public assets and quality
oriented services in cities & towns
Enhance public-private-partnership in infrastructural development and
Promote planned integrated development of towns and cities.
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employment in the primary sector. The whole family contributes in the field even though not
everybody is really needed. So there is disguised unemployment in the agriculture sector. But
the entire family shares what has been produced. This concept of sharing of work in the field
and the produce raised reduces the hardship of unemployment in the rural sector. But this does
not reduce the poverty of the family; gradually surplus labour from every household tends to
migrate from the village in search of jobs.
EMPLOYMENT
Let us discuss about the employment scenario in the three sectors mentioned earlier.
Agriculture is the most labour absorbing sector of the economy. In recent years, there has
been a decline in the dependence of population on agriculture partly because of disguised
unemployment discussed earlier. Some of the surplus labour in agriculture has moved to either
the secondary or the tertiary sector. In the secondary sector, small scale manufacturing is the
most labour absorbing. In case of the tertiary sector, various new services are now appearing
like biotechnology, information technology and so on.
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has been faster during 1993-94 to 2009-10, from 30 to 15 per cent; while the rate of decline in
employment share has been relatively slow, from 64 per cent to 51per cent.
In the recent past, there has been deceleration in the growth of employment in India in spite of
the accelerated economic growth. This can be explained in terms of steady decline in
employment elasticity in all the major sector of economic activity except in construction.
Overall employment elasticity declined in India from 0.52 during 1983 to 1993-94 to 0.16 during
1993-94 to 1999-2000. The decline was quite fast in agriculture as it declined from 0.70 during
1983 to 1993-94 to 0.01 during 1993-94 to 1999-2000.
Details on employment trends are available from various Rounds of the NSSO Before presenting
an analysis of this information, it is necessary to understand the difference between labour
force and workforce as defind by the NSSO. The Survey The first category consists of those who
are seeking work. This is essentially the category that either finds employment or remains
unemployed. Those who find employment are designated as the 'work force' by the NSSO and
those who are unable to find employment are designated as unemployed. "Since the 'labour
force' is the total of which the 'workforce' is a part, any changes in the former are bound to
have an impact on the latter."! The second category, i.e., 'not in the labour force' consists of
persons who are not seeking work. This withdrawal from the labour force could be on account
of pursuit of education, sickness, domestic work, disability, etc.
1. While labour force increased by 25 million over the period 1993-94 to 1999-2000 and by
63 million over the period 1999-2000 to 2004-05, it declined marginally (by 0.3 million)
over the period 2004-05 to 2009-10.
2. The segment-wise disaggregation of the labour force reveals that in the period 2004-05
to 2009-10, both rural and urban males experienced deceleration in growth rates as
compared to the previous period. Nevertheless there was an addition of22 million men
into the labour force in the five year period as compared to the 36 million in the
previous periods On the other hand, 22 million women withdrew from the labour force
in the period 2004-05 to 2009-10
3. During the period 1993-94 to 1999-2000, 23 million jobs were created' and over the
next five years as many as 61 million jobs were created, only 1 million jobs could be
created over the period 2004-05 to 2009-10. This is a dismal performance on the
employment front particularly in view of the fact that the country registered a robust
economic growth during this period. The CAGR of the work force declined from 2.9 per
cent during the period 1999-2000 to 2004-05 to just 0.05 per cent during the period
2004-05 to 2009-10. Thus, one can say without hesitation that the country has
witnessed the phenomenon of jobless growth in recent times.
4. The segment-wise disaggregation of the workforce shows that in the period 2004-05 to
2009-10, there was an addition of 22 million males to the workforce while 21 million
females opted out of the workforce. While the male addition to the workforce was
evenly distributed between rural and urban areas, the decline in the female workforce
was mainly concentrated in rural areas.
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Why Did People Withdraw from the Labour Force?: The largest share of 44 per cent was that
of people who opted out of the labour force to pursue education, 31 per cent opted out for
attending to domestic duties, 15 per cent were in the 0-4 age group and the remaining
categories (disabled, pensioners, etc.), added up to a 10 per cent share. The fact that a major
part of the withdrawal of people from the labour force is due to education is an encouraging
trend as it shows that 'India is studying'.
The second largest category is of those who opted out of the labour force to attend to domestic
duties including activities like weaving, tailoring and gathering firewood for free for the
households. These withdrawals are almost completely by females - particularly rural females.
1993-94
19992000
2004-05
2009-10
in million
Labour force
381.94
406.84
470.14
469.87
Workforce
374.47
397.88
458.99
460.17
Unemloyed
7.49
8.96
11.15
9.70
Percentage
1993-94
19992000
1
.
Agriculture
63.8
59.9
56.5
55.4
53.1
2
.
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.7
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3
.
Manufacturing
10.7
11.1
12.2
11.9
11.0
4
.
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.2
5
.
Construction
3.2
4.4
5.7
6.5
9.6
6
.
7.6
10.4
10.8
10.8
10.9
7
.
Transport,
Storage
Communications
3.7
4.0
4.4
4.4
8
.
Other services
10.7
9.7
9.8
10.1
10.1
Total Employment
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
& 2.9
The decline in employment share of agriculture was mostly being compensated by an increase
in the share of secondary sector in the pre-reform period, but since the economic reforms the
tertiary sector has been the main gainer of the shift in employment. Yet increase in its
employment share has not been commensurate with the increase in its share of GDP during
1993-4/2009-10. The share of secondary sector in employment has increased at a relatively
faster rate while its share in GDP has remained constant at about one-fourth of the total.
Within the secondary sector construction has sharply increased its share in employment
particularly since 1999-2000, but its share in GDP has stagnated throughout the period underreference, pre- and post-reform. Manufacturing increased its share both in employment and
GDP, but rather slowly. In the tertiary sector, trade experienced a fast increase in its share in
employment, and a significant though somewhat smaller increases in its share in GDP in the
post-reform period but saw only a small increase in its employment share. Financial services
registered a fast increase both in its employment and GDP share, though its share in
employment is small (2.25) about one-seventh of its share in GDP (15.64%). Community social
and personal services which used to be the largest activity in the tertiary sector, both in terms
of employment and GDP, in the pre-reform period, saw a marginal decline in their share both in
employment and GDP and is now the smallest in regard to GDP, though it continues to be the
second largest, after trade, in terms of employment. The asymmetry in the rate of change in
employment and GDP shares of different sectors and divisions, particularly between decline inP
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and employment shares of agriculture and correspondingly between rate of increase in GDP
and employment in non-agricultural part of the economy, has serious implications in terms of
differences in earnings and income between different sectors. Let us first look at the changes in
the shares of agriculture and non-agricultural sectors in GDP and employment. In 1972-73,
agriculture employed 74 per cent workers, but it also produced 41per cent of GDP. Per worker
productivity and income in agriculture was significantly lower than in non-agricultural activities
even then; the ratio being 1:3.6. In 2004-05 the share of agriculture was much lower at 20.2 per
cent, but it was still employing 56.5 per cent of workers. The ratio between agricultural and
non-agricultural productivity in that year works out to 1:5.9. In 2009-10 the ratio has gone up to
1:6. Thus there has been a large decline in the relative earnings of agricultural workers. That is
partly because agricultural growth has been consistently much lower than that in the nonagricultural sectors, but, mainly, because a shift of workers from agricultural to non-agricultural
activities as expected in the process of economic development has not taken place. Agriculture
has grown at an average rate of 2 to 3 per cent per annum as against 5 to 6.5 per cent growth in
the nonagricultural sector during the period under consideration. It is not generally realistic to
expect a much higher growth rate in agriculture. But even if it grew at a rate of about 4 per cent
per annum, as envisaged in the Eleventh Plan, it cannot employ many more persons
productively. In fact, productivity per worker in agriculture is so low that even with a higher
growth rate, it would need to reduce its workforce so as to provide a reasonable level of
income to those engaged in it
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1981
2010
Public Sector
Private Sector
Total
154.84
73.95
228.79
178.62
108.46
287.08
Rate of growth of
employment (% per
annum)
1994 to 2008
-0.65
1.75
0.05
NATURE OF UNEMPLOYMENT
Most of the unemployment in India is definitely structural. During the 1951-2011 periods,
population in this country increased at an alarming rate of around 2.1 per cent per annum and
with it the number of people coming to the labour market in search of jobs also rose rapidly,
whereas employment opportunities did not increase most of the time correspondingly due to
slow economic growth. Hence there has been "an increase in the volume of unemployment
from one plan period to another. This unemployment, on account of its very nature, can be
eliminated only by introducing certain radical reforms in the structure of the economy. Apart
from structural unemployment, there is Keynesian involuntary unemployment which can be
eliminated by increasing effective demand, as is done in developed countries. Though presently
it would be wrong to ignore the Keynesian involuntary unemployment, yet the structural
unemployment remains a greater cause of anxiety.
CONCEPTS OF UNEMPLOYMENT
Keeping in view the recommendations of the Committee of Experts on Unemployment, the
National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) has developed and standardised concepts and
definitions of labour force, employment and unemployment suitable to Indian conditions.
The three concepts of unemployment developed by the NSSO are: (i) Usual Status
Unemployment, (ii) Current Weekly Status Unemployment, and (iii) Current Daily Status
Unemployment.
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i.
The Usual Status concept is meant to determine the Usual Activity Status - employed, or
unemployed or outside the labour force The Usual Status unemployment rate is a
person rate and indicates chronic unemployment because all those who are found
"usually" unemployed in the reference year are counted as unemployed.
ii.
The Current Weekly Status concept A person having worked for an hour or more on
anyone or more days during the reference period gets the employed status. The Current
Weekly Status unemployment rate, like the Usual Status unemployment rate, is also a
person rate.
iii.
The Current Daily Status A person who works for one hour but less than four hours is
considered having worked for half a day. If he works for four hours or more during a
day, he is considered as employed for the whole day. The Current Daily Status
unemployment rate is a time rate.
The daily status flow rate is evidently the most inclusive, covering open as well as partial
unemployment. It is therefore the rate which is most relevant for policy-making.
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3. While non-agricultural employment expanded at a robust annual rate of 4.7 per cent
during the period 1999-2000 to 2004-05, this growth was largely in the unorganized
sector.
4. Despite fairly healthy GDP growth, employment in the organised sector actually
declined, leading to frustration among the educated youth who have rising
expectations.
Estimate
1. UPSS
2. CWS
3. CDS
Rual
2009-2010
1.6
3.3
6.8
Urban
2009-2010
3.4
4.2
5.8
Total
2009-2010
2.0
3.6
6.6
CAUSES OF UNEMPLOYMENT
C.B. Mamoria lists out the causes of unemployment in India in the following way:
(i) The policy of laissez-faire or free trade pursued by the British did not accelerate the
process of industrialization in India. As a result, employment opportunities could not be
generated on a large scale, during the British rule. This situation continued up to the end
of their rule in India.
(ii) The unchecked growth of population from 1921 onwards posed the problems of finding
job opportunities. For example, our population in 1921 was 251.3 million and it
increased to 361.0 millions in 1951. It has reached a record figure of 122.3 crore in 2008.
(iii) The decline of traditional skills and the decay of small scale and cottage industries led
to a great pressure on land and this in turn resulted in the greater exodus of people
from the rural to the urban areas. This added to urban unemployment.
(iv) The low level of investment and the neglect of industrial sector could not help the
process of creating job opportunities.
GR. Madan speaks of two main types of causes of unemployment: (A) individual or personal
factors , and (B) external factors or technological and economic factors .
A. Individual or Personal Factors of Unemployment
(i) Age Factor: Age factor fixes limitations on the range of choice of job opportunities. Too
young and too old people are not eligible for many of the jobs. Some young people due
to their inexperience, and some old people due to their old age, fail to get some jobs.
Young people do not get jobs soon after their studies. They will have to wait. People
who are above 50 or 60 years are less adaptable and more prone to accidents. Their
capacity to contribute to economic production is also relatively less.
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(ii) Vocational Unfitness: Many of our young people do not have a proper understanding of
their own aptitudes, abilities and interests on the one hand, and the tasks or jobs or
career they want to pursue, on the other. If willingness to do some job is not followed
by the required abilities, one cannot find a job of ones selection. Employers are always
looking forward to find persons who have the ability, experience, interest and physical
fitness to work. Sometimes, there may be more men trained in a particular profession
than required. The demand is less than the supply, and hence, unemployment.
(iii) Illness and / or Physical Disabilities or Incapabilities: Due to the inborn or acquired
disabilities or deficiencies some remain as partially employed or totally unemployed
throughout their life. Illness induced by industrial conditions and the fatal accidents that
often take place during the work may render a few other people as unemployed.
B. External Factors or Technological and Economic Factors
(i) Enormous Increase in Population: The population in India is growing at an alarming
rate. Every year India adds to her population 120 to 130 lakh people afresh. More than
this, every year about 5 million people become eligible for securing jobs. All these
people who are eligible to work are not getting the jobs. Hence, population explosion in
India is making the problem of unemployment more and more dangerous.
(ii) Trade Cycle: Business field is subject to ups and downs due to the operation of trade
cycle. Economic depression which we witness in trade cycle may induce some
problematic or sick industries to be closed down compelling their employees to become
unemployed. Fluctuations in international markets, heavy imposition of excise duties,
business strains observed in the trade cycles adversely affect the security of jobs of
some men.
(iii) Technological Advance Mechanisation Automation: Technological advancement
undoubtedly contributes to economic development. But unplanned and uncontrolled
growth of technology may have an adverse effect on job opportunities. Since
industrialists are more interested in maximizing production and profit they prefer to
introduce labour-saving machines. They always search for ways and means of reducing
the cost of production and hence go after computerization, automation, etc. The result
is technological unemployment. This state of affairs is very much in evidence in the
Indian context today.
(iv) Strikes and Lockouts: Strikes and lockouts had been an inseparable aspect of the Indian
industrial field. Due to strikes and lockouts production used to come down and
industries were incurring heavy losses. Workers used to become unemployed for a
temporary period and some were being thrown out of job. This state of affairs
continued almost up to 1990s, that is, till the launching of the [NEP] New Economic
Policy. This, prolonged period of four decades our industries received severe setbacks
due to labour strikes which affected adversely industrial growth and industrial potential
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for fetching jobs. After 1990s, things however, have been changing and labour strikes
are becoming comparatively rarer.
(v) Slow Rate of Economic Growth: Job opportunities depend very much on economic
growth. Since the rate of economic growth was very slow in the first 45 years after
independence, the economy was not able to create enough job opportunities to the
increasing number of job seekers. For example, in 1980s, the rate of growth of the
number of job-seekers increased by 2.2%, while the rate of growth of the number of job
opportunities was only 1.5%. This difference led to an enormous increase in the number of
unemployed persons.
(vi) Backwardness of Indian Agriculture: Age old mode of cultivation, too much
dependence of too many people [more than 75%] on agriculture, widespread disguised
unemployment, sentimental attachment towards land, etc., have adversely affected the
growth of Indian agriculture and its employment potential.
C. Other Causes of Unemployment: In addition to the two main types of the causes of
unemployment as mentioned by G.R. Madan, we may add a few other factors causing the
problem such as the following.
(i) Unpreparedness to Accept Socially Degrading Jobs: Some of our young men and
women are not prepared to undertake jobs which are considered to be socially
degrading or indecent. Example: Auto rickshaw and taxi-driving, working as
salesmen or sales girls in shops, doing waiters work and clerical work in hotels, etc.,
could be mentioned here as examples. Since the spirit of the dignity of labor is not
properly inculcated in them, they become the victims of false prestige and face the
risk of unemployment.
(ii) Defects in our Educational System: Our system of education which appears like a
remnant of the British colonial rule in India has its own irreparable defects and its
contribution to the problem of unemployment can hardly be exaggerated. There is no
co-ordination between our industrial growth, agricultural development and our
educational system. Our education does not prepare the minds of our young men to
become self-employed; on the contrary, it makes them to depend on government to
find for them some jobs.
(iii) Geographic Immobility of the Workers: Occupational mobility and geographic mobility
on the part of the workers lessen the gravity of the problem of unemployment. But in
the Indian context, workers are not adventurous enough to move from one physical
area to another in search of jobs, or to change their jobs to brighten their economic
prospects. They are either clinging on to their traditional profession or occupations
especially in the rural area, or concentrated in one or the other urban centre,
sometimes without any job.
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(iv) Improper Use of Human Resources: Lack of planning for the efficient utilization of
human resources for productive purposes has been one of the causes of unemployment
in India. In fact, there has been no proper co-ordination between the availability of
human resources and its utilization in the productive field. As a result, in some units,
there is the dearth of qualified man power and in some other units; we find its excess.
(v) Lack of Encouragement for Self-Employment: Ever since the time of British, Indians
have developed a tendency to give priority for salaried jobs rather than selfemployment. Our education system has also been a failure in developing the spirit of
self-employment among our youths. As a result, young people tend to wait for getting
some salaried jobs in offices, factories or business firms and private or public firms and
concerns. They often wait for such jobs for years together as unemployed or underemployed youths.
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Insurance sector in India has been traditionally dominated by state owned Life Insurance
Corporation and General Insurance Corporation and its four subsidiaries. Government of India
has now allowed FDI in insurance sector up to 26%. Since then, a number of new joint venture
private companies have entered into life and general insurance sectors and their share in the
insurance market in rising. Insurance Development and Regulatory Authority (IRDA) is the
regulatory authority in the insurance sector under the Insurance Development and Regulatory
Authority Act, 1999.
RBI also regulates foreign exchange under the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA).
India has liberalized its foreign exchange controls. Rupee is freely convertible on current
account. Rupee is also almost fully convertible on capital account for non-residents. Profits
earned, dividends and proceeds out of the sale of investments are fully repatriable for FDI.
There are restrictions on capital account for resident Indians for incomes earned in India.
Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) established under the Securities and Exchange
aboard of India Act, 1992 is the regulatory authority for capital markets in India. India has 23
recognized stock exchanges that operate under government approved rules, bylaws and
regulations. These exchanges constitute an organized market for securities issued by the central
and state governments, public sector companies and public limited companies. The Stock
Exchange, Mumbai and National Stock Exchange are the premier stock exchanges. Under the
process of de-mutualization, these stock exchanges have been converted into companies now,
in which brokers only hold minority share holding. In addition to the SEBI Act, the Securities
Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956 and the Companies Act, 1956 regulates the stock markets.
Indian financial system consists of financial market, financial instruments and financial
intermediation. These are briefly discussed below;
FINANCIAL MARKETS
A Financial Market can be defined as the market in which financial assets are created or
transferred. As against a real transaction that involves exchange of money for real goods or
services, a financial transaction involves creation or transfer of a financial asset. Financial Assets
or Financial Instruments represents a claim to the payment of a sum of money sometime in the
future and /or periodic payment in the form of interest or dividend.
Money Market- The money market ifs a wholesale debt market for low-risk, highly-liquid,
short-term instrument. Funds are available in this market for periods ranging from a single day
up to a year. This market is dominated mostly by government, banks and financial institutions.
Capital Market - The capital market is designed to finance the long-term investments. The
transactions taking place in this market will be for periods over a year.
Forex Market - The Forex market deals with the multicurrency requirements, which are met by
the exchange of currencies. Depending on the exchange rate that is applicable, the transfer of
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funds takes place in this market. This is one of the most developed and integrated market
across the globe.
Credit Market- Credit market is a place where banks, FIs and NBFCs purvey short, medium and
long-term loans to corporate and individuals.
FINANCIAL INTERMEDIATION
Having designed the instrument, the issuer should then ensure that these financial assets reach
the ultimate investor in order to garner the requisite amount. When the borrower of funds
approaches the financial market to raise funds, mere issue of securities will not suffice.
Adequate information of the issue, issuer and the security should be passed on to take place.
There should be a proper channel within the financial system to ensure such transfer. To
serve this purpose, Financial intermediaries came into existence. Financial intermediation in
the organized sector is conducted by a wide range of institutions functioning under the overall
surveillance of the Reserve Bank of India. In the initial stages, the role of the intermediary was
mostly related to ensure transfer of funds from the lender to the borrower. This service was
offered by banks, FIs, brokers, and dealers. However, as the financial system widened along
with the developments taking place in the financial markets, the scope of its operations also
widened. Some of the important intermediaries operating ink the financial markets include;
investment bankers, underwriters, stock exchanges, registrars, depositories, custodians,
portfolio managers, mutual funds, financial advertisers financial consultants, primary dealers,
satellite dealers, self regulatory organizations, etc. Though the markets are different, there
may be a few intermediaries offering their services in move than one market e.g. underwriter.
However, the services offered by them vary from one market to another.
FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS
Money Market Instruments: The money market can be defined as a market for short-term
money and financial assets that are near substitutes for money. The term short-term means
generally a period upto one year and near substitutes to money is used to denote any financial
asset which can be quickly converted into money with minimum transaction cost.
Some of the important money market instruments are briefly discussed below;
Call /Notice-Money Market: Call/Notice money is the money borrowed or lent on demand for
a very short period. When money is borrowed or lent for a day, it is known as Call (Overnight)
Money. Intervening holidays and/or Sunday are excluded for this purpose. Thus money,
borrowed on a day and repaid on the next working day, (irrespective of the number of
intervening holidays) is "Call Money". When money is borrowed or lent for more than a day and
up to 14 days, it is "Notice Money". No collateral security is required to cover these
transactions.
Inter-Bank Term Money: Inter-bank market for deposits of maturity beyond 14 days is referred
to as the term money market. The entry restrictions are the same as those for Call/Notice
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Money except that, as per existing regulations, the specified entities are not allowed to lend
beyond 14 days.
Treasury Bills: Treasury Bills are short term (up to one year) borrowing instruments of the
union government. It is an IOU of the Government. It is a promise by the Government to pay a
stated sum after expiry of the stated period from the date of issue (14/91/182/364 days i.e. less
than one year). They are issued at a discount to the face value, and on maturity the face value is
paid to the holder. The rate of discount and the corresponding issue price are determined at
each auction.
Certificate of Deposits: Certificates of Deposit (CDs) is a negotiable money market instrument
nd issued in dematerialised form or as a Usance Promissory Note, for funds deposited at a bank
or other eligible financial institution for a specified time period. Guidelines for issue of CDs are
presently governed by various directives issued by the Reserve Bank of India, as amended from
time to time. CDs can be issued by (i) scheduled commercial banks excluding Regional Rural
Banks (RRBs) and Local Area Banks (LABs); and (ii) select all-India Financial Institutions that have
been permitted by RBI to raise short-term resources within the umbrella limit fixed by RBI.
Banks have the freedom to issue CDs depending on their requirements. An FI may issue CDs
within the overall umbrella limit fixed by RBI, i.e., issue of CD together with other instruments
viz., term money, term deposits, commercial papers and intercorporate deposits should not
exceed 100 per cent of its net owned funds, as per the latest audited balance sheet.
Commercial Paper: CP is a note in evidence of the debt obligation of the issuer. On issuing
commercial paper the debt obligation is transformed into an instrument. CP is thus an
unsecured promissory note privately placed with investors at a discount rate to face value
determined by market forces. CP is freely negotiable by endorsement and delivery. A company
shall be eligible to issue CP provided - (a) the tangible net worth of the company, as per the
latest audited balance sheet, is not less than Rs. 4 crore; (b) the working capital (fund-based)
limit of the company from the banking system is not less than Rs.4 crore and (c) the borrowal
account of the company is classified as a Standard Asset by the financing bank/s. The minimum
maturity period of CP is 7 days. The minimum credit rating shall be P-2 of CRISIL or such
equivalent rating by other agencies.
Capital Market Instruments: The capital market generally consists of the following long term
period i.e., more than one year period, financial instruments; In the equity segment Equity
shares, preference shares, convertible preference shares, non-convertible preference shares
etc and in the debt segment debentures, zero coupon bonds, deep discount bonds etc.
Hybrid Instruments: Hybrid instruments have both the features of equity and debenture. This
kind of instruments is called as hybrid instruments. Examples are convertible debentures,
warrants etc.
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Fiscal policy deals with the taxation and expenditure decisions of the government. Monetary
policy deals with the supply of money in the economy and the rate of interest. These are the
main policy approaches used by economic managers to steer the broad aspects of the
economy. In most modern economies, the government deals with fiscal policy while the
central bank is responsible for monetary policy. Fiscal policy is composed of several parts.
These include, tax policy, expenditure policy, investment or disinvestment strategies and
debt or surplus management. Fiscal policy is an important constituent of the overall economic
framework of a country and is therefore intimately linked with its general economic policy
strategy.
Fiscal policy also feeds into economic trends and influences monetary policy. When the
government receives more than it spends, it has a surplus. If the government spends more than
it receives it runs a deficit. To meet the additional expenditures, it needs to borrow from
domestic or foreign sources, draw upon its foreign exchange reserves or print an equivalent
amount of money. This tends to influence other economic variables. On a broad generalisation,
excessive printing of money leads to inflation. If the government borrows too much from
abroad it leads to a debt crisis. If it draws down on its foreign exchange reserves, a balance of
payments crisis may arise. Excessive domestic borrowing by the government may lead to
higher real interest rates and the domestic private sector being unable to access funds resulting
in the crowding out of private investment. Sometimes a combination of these can occur. In
any case, the impact of a large deficit on long run growth and economic well-being is negative.
Therefore, there is broad agreement that it is not prudent for a government to run an unduly
large deficit. However, in case of developing countries, where the need for infrastructure and
social investments may be substantial, it sometimes argued that running surpluses at the cost
of long-term growth might also not be wise. sThe challenge then for most developing country
governments is to meet infrastructure and social needs while managing the governments
finances in a way that the deficit or the accumulating debt burden is not too great.
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Private Savings: Through effective fiscal measures such as tax benefits, the
government can raise resources from private sector and households. Resources
can be mobilised through government borrowings by ways of treasury bills, issue
of government bonds, etc., loans from domestic and foreign parties and by
deficit financing.
2. Efficient allocation of Financial Resources: The central and state governments have
tried to make efficient allocation of financial resources. These resources are allocated
for Development Activities which includes expenditure on railways, infrastructure, etc.
While Non-development Activities includes expenditure on defence, interest payments,
subsidies, etc. But generally the fiscal policy should ensure that the resources are
allocated for generation of goods and services which are socially desirable. Therefore,
India's fiscal policy is designed in such a manner so as to encourage production of
desirable goods and discourage those goods which are socially undesirable.
3. Reduction in inequalities of Income and Wealth: Fiscal policy aims at achieving equity
or social justice by reducing income inequalities among different sections of the society.
The direct taxes such as income tax are charged more on the rich people as compared to
lower income groups. Indirect taxes are also more in the case of semi-luxury and luxury
items, which are mostly consumed by the upper middle class and the upper class. The
government invests a significant proportion of its tax revenue in the implementation of
Poverty Alleviation Programmes to improve the conditions of poor people in society.
4. Price Stability and Control of Inflation: One of the main objective of fiscal policy is to
control inflation and stabilize price. Therefore, the government always aims to control
the inflation by Reducing fiscal deficits, introducing tax savings schemes, Productive use
of financial resources, etc.
5. Employment Generation: The government is making every possible effort to increase
employment in the country through effective fiscal measure. Investment in
infrastructure has resulted in direct and indirect employment. Lower taxes and duties
on small-scale industrial (SSI) units encourage more investment and consequently
generates more employment. Various rural employment programmes have been
undertaken by the Government of India to solve problems in rural areas. Similarly, self
employment scheme is taken to provide employment to technically qualified persons in
the urban areas.
6. Balanced Regional Development: Another main objective of the fiscal policy is to bring
about a balanced regional development. There are various incentives from the
government for setting up projects in backward areas such as Cash subsidy, Concession
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in taxes and duties in the form of tax holidays, Finance at concessional interest rates,
etc.
7. Reducing the Deficit in the Balance of Payment: Fiscal policy attempts to encourage
more exports by way of fiscal measures like Exemption of income tax on export
earnings, Exemption of central excise duties and customs, Exemption of sales tax and
octroi, etc. The foreign exchange is also conserved by providing fiscal benefits to import
substitute industries, imposing customs duties on imports, etc. The foreign exchange
earned by way of exports and saved by way of import substitutes helps to solve balance
of payments problem. In this way adverse balance of payment can be corrected either
by imposing duties on imports or by giving subsidies to export.
8. Capital Formation: The objective of fiscal policy in India is also to increase the rate of
capital formation so as to accelerate the rate of economic growth. An underdeveloped
country is trapped in vicious (danger) circle of poverty mainly on account of capital
deficiency. In order to increase the rate of capital formation, the fiscal policy must be
efficiently designed to encourage savings and discourage and reduce spending.
9. Increasing National Income: The fiscal policy aims to increase the national income of a
country. This is because fiscal policy facilitates the capital formation. This results in
economic growth, which in turn increases the GDP, per capita income and national
income of the country.
10. Development of Infrastructure: Government has placed emphasis on the infrastructure
development for the purpose of achieving economic growth. The fiscal policy measure
such as taxation generates revenue to the government. A part of the government's
revenue is invested in the infrastructure development. Due to this, all sectors of the
economy get a boost.
11. Foreign Exchange Earnings: Fiscal policy attempts to encourage more exports by way of
Fiscal Measures like, exemption of income tax on export earnings, exemption of sales
tax and octroi, etc. Foreign exchange provides fiscal benefits to import substitute
industries. The foreign exchange earned by way of exports and saved by way of import
substitutes helps to solve balance of payments problem.
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precious metals, approved securities like bonds etc. The ratio of the liquid assets to time and
demand liabilities is termed as Statutory Liquidity Ratio.There was a reduction from 38.5% to
25% because of the suggestion by Narshimam Committee. The current SLR is 23%.
Bank Rate Policy: Bank rate is the rate of interest charged by the RBI for providing funds or
loans to the banking system. This banking system involves commercial and co-operative banks,
Industrial Development Bank of India, IFC, EXIM Bank, and other approved financial institutes.
Funds are provided either through lending directly or rediscounting or buying money market
instruments like commercial bills and treasury bills. Increase in Bank Rate increases the cost of
borrowing by commercial banks which results into the reduction in credit volume to the banks
and hence declines the supply of money. Increase in the bank rate is the symbol of tightening of
RBI monetary policy. Bank rate is also known as Discount rate. The current Bank rate is 9%.
Credit Ceiling: In this operation RBI issues prior information or direction that loans to the
commercial banks will be given up to a certain limit. In this case commercial bank will be tight in
advancing loans to the public. They will allocate loans to limited sectors. Few example of ceiling
are agriculture sector advances, priority sector lending.
Credit Authorization Scheme: Credit Authorization Scheme was introduced in November, 1965
when P C Bhattacharya was the chairman of RBI. Under this instrument of credit regulation RBI
as per the guideline authorizes the banks to advance loans to desired sectors.[7]
Moral Suasion: Moral Suasion is just as a request by the RBI to the commercial banks to take so
and so action and measures in so and so trend of the economy. RBI may request commercial
banks not to give loans for unproductive purpose which does not add to economic growth but
increases inflation.
Repo Rate and Reverse Repo Rate: Repo rate is the rate at which RBI lends to commercial
banks generally against government securities. Reduction in Repo rate helps the commercial
banks to get money at a cheaper rate and increase in Repo rate discourages the commercial
banks to get money as the rate increases and becomes expensive. Reverse Repo rate is the rate
at which RBI borrows money from the commercial banks. The increase in the Repo rate will
increase the cost of borrowing and lending of the banks which will discourage the public to
borrow money and will encourage them to deposit. As the rates are high the availability of
credit and demand decreases resulting to decrease in inflation. This increase in Repo Rate and
Reverse Repo Rate is a symbol of tightening of the policy.
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deposits, time deposits and the like. Hence it necessary to combine the potential flows of
monetary services by each of these into one or more aggregates in order to define money
The Reserve Bank of India defines the monetary aggregates as:
M0 (Reserve Money): Currency in circulation + Bankers deposits with the RBI + Other
deposits with the RBI = Net RBI credit to the Government + RBI credit to the commercial
sector + RBIs claims on banks + RBIs net foreign assets + Governments currency
liabilities to the public RBIs net non-monetary liabilities.
M1 (Narrow Money): Currency with the public + Deposit money of the public (Demand
deposits with the banking system + Other deposits with the RBI).
M3 (Broad Money): M1+ Time deposits with the banking system = Net bank credit to
the Government + Bank credit to the commercial sector + Net foreign exchange assets
of the banking sector + Governments currency liabilities to the public Net nonmonetary liabilities of the banking sector (Other than Time Deposits).
M4: M3 + All deposits with post office savings banks (excluding National Savings
Certificates)
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to obtain volume estimates. The GDP deflator is then defined implicitly as the ratio of the
estimate at current prices to the one at constant prices. When this process is followed, the
GDP deflator is legitimately recognised as a high quality measure of inflation. Nonetheless,
given the delay in publication of national accounts it is seldom used as a headline indicator
of inflation in a real-time setting.
Consumer Price Index: The overall CPI is meant to represent the cost of a representative
basket of goods and services consumed by an average household. However, in India, the
existing CPIs refer to specific segments of the population.
Types of CPI
TAXATION IN INDIA
TAX BURDEN IN INDIA
The easiest way to know the tax burden is to find out tax-GDP ratio. When the process of
economic planning began in India in 1950-51, the tax-GDP ratio was as low as 6.3 per cent.
Since then it rose steadily up to 1990-91 and thereafter declined. Against 7.9 per cent in 196061, it was 10.4 per cent in 1970-71, 13.8 per cent in 1980-81, 15.4 per cent in 1990-91, 14.5 per
cent in 2000-01 and 16.1 per cent in 2010-11. Until 1970-71, the tax burden in this country was
not higher than that in other developing countries. During the 1990s the tax-GDP ratio had
declined by 1 percentage point, particularly due to reduction in tax rates.
The tax revenue has recorded a considerable increase during the planning period. However,
because of large scale poverty in the country, the base of direct taxes is very small. In
addition, an important source of income is still out of the income tax. The agricultural income
has been exempted from the Union income tax and the States are not inclined to levy it though
they have statutory powers to do so.
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The principal tax revenue sources of the State governments are the share of the States in the
Central taxes and duties, commercial taxes, land revenue, stamp duties and registration fees,
and the State excise duties on alcohol and other narcotics. Of all commercial taxes, sales tax has
been the most important. However, this tax has now been replaced by Value Added Tax (VAT).
Taxes on motor spirit and vehicles, entertainment tax and duties on electricity are other
commercial taxes.
Land revenue by its nature is an inelastic tax and thus over the years revenue proceeds from
this source have not increased much. Thus its contribution to States' tax revenue declined from
9 per cent in 1967-68 to 0.8 per cent in 2006-07. In other words, sales tax and share of States in
Central taxes together accounted for 73.8 per cent (i.e., almost three-fourths) of the total tax
revenue of the States in 2009-10.
CORPORATION TAX
Corporation tax is levied on the incomes of registered companies and corporations. The
rationale for the corporation tax is that a joint stock company has a separate entity, and thus a
separate tax different from personal income tax has to be levied on its income.
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Taxes which have been levied on wealth and capital are mainly three: estate duty, annual tax
on wealth and gift tax.
Estate Duty was first introduced in India in 1953. It was levied on total property passing on the
death of a person. The whole property of the deceased constituted the estate and was
considered liable to pay estate duty. Central government decided to abolish it with effect from
April 1, 1985.
An Annual Tax on Wealth was first introduced in May 1957 on the recommendations of Kaldor.
It is levied on the excess of net wealth over exemption of individuals, joint Hindu families and
companies. Like estate duty, wealth tax has also been a minor source of revenue.
A Gift Tax was first introduced in 1958. It was treated as complementary to the estate duty and
annual tax on wealth. The gift tax was leviable on all donations except the ones given by the
charitable institutions, government companies and private companies. Gift tax has been
abolished on gifts made on or after October 1, 1998.
INDIRECT TAXATION
The principal indirect taxes levied in India are customs duties, excise duties, service tax and
sales tax or VAT. Of these until the beginning of the World War II, customs duties had remained
the most important source of revenue. Now the excise duties have emerged as the biggest
source of revenue. Under the Constitution, the Central government has exclusive power to levy
customs duties and excise duties on commodities other than alcoholic liquors and narcotics.
CUSTOMS DUTIES
While using its constitutional powers the Central government now levies duties on both
imports and exports. From revenue point of view, the importance of export duty is limited.
Import duties in India are generally levied on ad valorem basis which implies that they are
determined as a certain percentage of the price of the commodity. On some commodities
specific import duties, i.e., per unit taxes-on imports have been levied either singly or in
addition to ad valorem duties. Due to their strategic importance in the country's economic
development, imports of machinery and essential raw materials have been taxed lightly. As
compared to import duties, export duties are less important from revenue as well as foreign
trade regulation point of view.
Customs duties perform two major functions. First, like any other tax they raise revenue
needed by the government, and second they regulate foreign trade of the country, more
particularly the imports. In pursuance of these objectives during the pre-tax reform period,
India had become a country with the highest level of customs tariff in the world, with basic
duties supplemented by 'auxiliary' and additional or countervailing duties.
EXCISE DUTIES
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An excise duty IS 10 true sense a commodity tax because it is levied on production and has
absolutely no connection with its actual sale. Thus in its form, it is very much different from a
sales tax. However, from the point of view of tax shifting and the determination of incidence,
there is little difference between an excise duty and a sales tax. Excise duties on commodities
other than alcoholic liquors and narcotics are levied by the Central government.
At present, excise duties are levied by the Central government in a number of forms. This
obviously complicates the tax structure and makes it difficult to assess the final burden. In view
of this problem the government has not only converted many of the specific duties into ad
valorem rates but the number of rate categories for a Central excise duty has also been
reduced.
Taxation of inputs, such as raw materials, components and other intermediates has a number
of limitations. It very often distorts the production structure, results in 'cascading' of taxes and
does not allow correct assessment of the tax incidence. Therefore, the government removed
these defects of the central excise system by progressively relieving inputs from excise and
countervailing duties. Government introduced VAT to take care of this. However, on account of
some formidable practical difficulties in this country, the Government proposed to introduce it
in a phased manner. For instance, it initially levied a modified system of VAT (MODVAT) which
is broadly revenue neutral. The government had no intention to provide substantial reliefs on
excise. However, it is in favour of having a rationalised structure of excise duties. It has,
therefore, restructured Central excise duties in the light of the recommendations made by
the Chelliah Committee.
On theoretical grounds ad valorem rates of duties are to be preferred to specific ones. But on
practical considerations particularly the need to prevent evasion, in a number of cases
specific rates of duties have been introduced. Proliferation of specific rates of duty weakens
the built-in revenue raising capacity of the tax structure. In spite of this limitation, the
government feels that in future due to administrative exigencies it cannot do away with specific
rates of duty completely.
The standard rate of excise duty was raised from 10 per cent to 12 per cent in Union Budget
for 2012-13.
SERVICE TAX
Service tax was introduced in 1994-95 on three services telephone services, general insurance
and share broking. Since then, every year the net has been widened by including more and
more services under the tax net. As a result, the number of assessees has increased
considerably over the years and so has been the revenue from this tax.
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The Finance Minister increased the rate of service tax from 10 per cent in 2011-12 to 12 per
cent in the Union Budget for 2012-13. From July 1, 2012, all services have been brought under
the service tax net expect a negative list of 38 services that are to be kept out of the service
tax net.
INTERNAL LIABILITIES
Information on internal liabilities divided into four parts: (1) Internal debt, (2) Small savings,
Deposits and Provident Funds, (3) Other Accounts, and (4) Reserve Funds and Deposits.
1. Internal Debt. Are market loans, treasury bills, and securities issued to international
financial institutions?
(i) Market Loans. These have a maturity of 12 months or more at the time of issue
and is generally interest bearing. The government issues such loans almost every
year. These loans are raised in the open market by sale of securities or
otherwise. In addition to market loans, the government has also issued bonds
from time to time like gold bonds.
(ii) Treasury Bills. Treasury bills have been a major source of short-term funds for
the government to bridge the gap between revenue and expenditure. They have
a maturity of 91 or 182 or 364 days and are issued every Friday. Treasury bills are
issued to the Reserve Bank of India, State governments, commercial banks and
other parties.
(iii) Securities Issued to International Financial Institutions. The Government of
India contributes towards the capital of international financial institutions such
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EXTERNAL LIABILITIES
Underdeveloped countries need foreign aid in the early stages of economic development to
sustain a high level of investment, purchase capital equipment and machinery from abroad and
to cover the balance of payments gap. The Government of India has raised foreign loans from a
number of countries like USA, UK, France, former USSR, Germany etc. and international
financial institutions like IMF, IBRD, IDA etc. As a result, external liabilities of the Central
government have increased considerably from Rs. 11,298 crore as at end-March 1981 to Rs.
31,525 crore as at end-March 1991 and further to Rs. 1,56,347 crore as at end-March 2011.
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81.1 per cent as at end-March 2004 (it declined in later years and stood at 69.1 per cent as at
end-March 2010). This raises questions regarding 'debt sustainability'. To rein in the public
debt, serious efforts at reducing expenditures and increasing revenues are required to be
made. However, because of economic slowdown, the government was forced to adopt fiscal
stimulus packages in 2008-09. Massive government expenditures continued in 2009-10 and
2010-11 as well. Therefore, debt sustainability will remain a cause for concern.
Year
1990-91
2010-11 BE
Combined Total
Liabilities
of
Centre
and
States
(Rs. Crore)
Centre
3,68.824
55.22
51,12,250
50.09
Debt-GDP Ratio
(Per cent)
States
22.50
23.11
Combined
64.75
64.91
First, public debt carries burden of interest which is to be paid out of the current
revenue.
Second, public debt often does not yield direct or indirect returns and thus its
redemption becomes difficult.
Third, public debt pre-empting financial resources may reduce availability of funds to
the private sectors.
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nationalization was carried out. At the same time 14 major Indian commercial banks of the
country were nationalized. In 1980, another six banks were nationalized, and thus raising the
number of nationalized banks to 20. Seven more banks were nationalized with deposits over
200 Crores. Till the year 1980 approximately 80% of the banking segment in India was under
governments ownership. Later on, in the year 1993, the government merged New Bank of
India with Punjab National Bank. It was the only merger between nationalised banks and
resulted in the reduction of the number of nationalised banks from 20 to 19. On the
suggestions of Narsimhan Committee, the Banking Regulation Act was amended in 1993 and
thus the gates for the new private sector banks were opened.
CLASSIFICATION
Indian Banks are classified into commercial banks and co-operative banks. Commercial banks
comprise: 1) schedule commercial banks (SCBs) and non-scheduled commercial banks. SCBs
are further classified into private, public, foreign banks and regional rural banks (RRBs); and 2)
co-operative banks which include urban and rural co-operative banks. As on Mar 31, 2011 the
Indian banking system comprised 83 SCBs, 82 RRBs, 1,645 urban co-operative banks and 95,765
rural co-operative credit institutions.
Scheduled Banks: Scheduled Banks in India constitute those banks which have been included in
the second schedule of RBI act 1934. RBI in turn includes only those banks in this schedule
which satisfy the criteria laid down vide section 42(6a) of the Act.
Regional Rural Bank: The government of India set up Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) on October 2,
1975. The banks provide credit to the weaker sections of the rural areas, particularly the small
and marginal farmers, agricultural labourers, and small entrepreneurs.
THE MAIN REASONS WHY THE BANKS ARE HEAVILY REGULATED ARE AS
FOLLOWS
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Basel III (or the Third Basel Accord) is a global regulatory standard on bank capital adequacy,
stress testing and market liquidity risk agreed upon by the members of the Basel Committee on
Banking Supervision in 201011, and scheduled to be introduced from 2013 until 2018
WHAT ARE THE MAJOR CHANGES PROPOSED IN BASEL III OVER EARLIER
ACCORDS I.E. BASEL I AND BASEL II?
a. Better Capital Quality: One of the key elements of Basel 3 is the introduction of much
stricter definition of capital. Better quality capital means the higher loss-absorbing
capacity. This in turn will mean that banks will be stronger, allowing them to better
withstand periods of stress.
b. Capital Conservation Buffer: Another key feature of Basel iii is that now banks will be
required to hold a capital conservation buffer of 2.5%. The aim of asking to build
conservation buffer is to ensure that banks maintain a cushion of capital that can be
used to absorb losses during periods of financial and economic stress.
c. Countercyclical Buffer: This is also one of the key elements of Basel III.
The
countercyclical buffer has been introducted with the objective to increase capital
requirements in good times and decrease the same in bad times. The buffer will slow
banking activity when it overheats and will encourage lending when times are tough i.e.
in bad times. The buffer will range from 0% to 2.5%, consisting of common equity or
other fully loss-absorbing capital.
d. Minimum Common Equity and Tier 1 Capital Requirements: The minimum requirement
for common equity, the highest form of loss-absorbing capital, has been raised under
Basel III from 2% to 4.5% of total risk-weighted assets. The overall Tier 1 capital
requirement, consisting of not only common equity but also other qualifying financial
instruments, will also increase from the current minimum of 4% to 6%. Although the
minimum total capital requirement will remain at the current 8% level, yet the required
total capital will increase to 10.5% when combined with the conservation buffer.
e. Leverage Ratio: A review of the financial crisis of 2008 has indicted that the value of
many assets fell quicker than assumed from historical experience. Thus, now Basel III
rules include a leverage ratio to serve as a safety net. A leverage ratio is the relative
amount of capital to total assets (not risk-weighted). This aims to put a cap on swelling
of leverage in the banking sector on a global basis. 3% leverage ratio of Tier 1 will be
tested before a mandatory leverage ratio is introduced in January 2018.
f. Liquidity Ratios: Under Basel III, a framework for liquidity risk management will be
created. A new Liquidity Coverage Ratio (LCR) and Net Stable Funding Ratio (NSFR) are
to be introduced in 2015 and 2018, respectively.
g. Systemically Important Financial Institutions (SIFI): As part of the macro-prudential
framework, systemically important banks will be expected to have loss-absorbing
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capability beyond the Basel III requirements. Options for implementation include capital
surcharges, contingent capital and bail-in-debt.
MIROFINANCE
Microfinance is the provision of financial services to low-income clients or solidarity lending
groups including consumers and the self-employed, who traditionally lack access to banking
and related services.
Microfinance is not just about giving micro credit to the poor rather it is an economic
development tool whose objective is to assist poor to work their way out of poverty. It covers a
wide range of services like credit, savings, insurance, remittance and also non-financial services
like training, counseling etc.
Microfinance sector has grown rapidly over the past few decades. Nobel Laureate Muhammad
Yunus is credited with laying the foundation of the modern MFIs with establishment of
Grameen Bank, Bangladesh in 1976. Today it has evolved into a vibrant industry exhibiting a
variety of business models. Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) in India exist as NGOs (registered as
societies or trusts), Section 25 companies and Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs).
Commercial Banks, Regional Rural Banks (RRBs), cooperative societies and other large lenders
have played an important role in providing refinance facility to MFIs. Banks have also leveraged
the Self-Help Group (SHGs) channel to provide direct credit to group borrowers.
With financial inclusion emerging as a major policy objective in the country, Microfinance has
occupied centre stage as a promising conduit for extending financial services to unbanked
sections of population. At the same time, practices followed by certain lenders have subjected
the sector to greater scrutiny and need for stricter regulation.
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About half of the Indian population still doesnt have a savings bank account and they are
deprived of all banking services. Poor also need financial services to fulfill their needs like
consumption, building of assets and protection against risk. Microfinance institutions serve as a
supplement to banks and in some sense a better one too. These institutions not only offer
micro credit but they also provide other financial services like savings, insurance, remittance
and non-financial services like individual counseling, training and support to start own business
and the most importantly in a convenient way. The borrower receives all these services at
her/his door step and in most cases with a repayment schedule of borrowers convenience. But
all this comes at a cost and the interest rates charged by these institutions are higher than
commercial banks and vary widely from 10 to 30 percent. Some claim that the interest rates
charged by some of these institutions are very high while others feel that considering the cost
of capital and the cost incurred in giving the service, the high interest rates are justified.
High transaction cost generally micro credits fall below the break-even point of
providing loans by banks
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Absence of collaterals the poor usually are not in a state to offer collaterals to secure
the credit
Loans are generally taken for very short duration periods
Higher frequency of repayment of installments and higher rate of Default
CONTROVERSY ON MFI
The Indian microfinance sector witnessed tremendous growth over the last five years, during
which institutions were subject to little regulation. Some microfinance institutions were subject
to prudential requirements; however no regulation addressed lending practices, pricing, or
operations. The combination of minimal regulation and rapid sector growth led to an
environment where customers were increasingly dissatisfied with microfinance services,
culminating in the Andhra Pradesh crisis in the fall of 2010.
Leading up to the Andhra Pradesh crisis, microfinance institutions were experiencing a large
influx of equity and debt investment. Some institutions were doubling their size each year,
aiming to reach more customers and serve more areas. As institutions scaled up quickly, hiring
and training processes were less thorough, resulting in employees who engaged in
inappropriate collection practices and lending models that led to customer over-indebtedness.
In August 2010, SKS Microfinance held the first initial public offering (IPO) for a microfinance
institution in India, raising USD 347 million1 and drawing attention to the potential profits of
the sector. Media reports took different viewpoints on the IPO, some celebrating the sector,
and others characterizing the profits as taking advantage of the poor. Further reports cited links
between Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) lending and suicides in Andhra Pradesh. The incident
culminated when Andhra Pradesh Chief Minister passed the Andhra Pradesh Microfinance
Ordinance 2010, which includes a number of measures that greatly restricts microfinance
institutions operations. As a result of the ordinance, and the general attitude towards
microfinance in Andhra Pradesh, loan repayments dropped dramatically3.
Due to low repayment rates, microfinance institutions, with exposure to Andhra Pradesh,
suffered significant losses. Banks stopped lending to microfinance institutions all over India; for
fear that a similar situation would occur elsewhere, resulting in a liquidity crunch for
microfinance institutions, which are largely dependent on bank lending as a funding source.
With the sector at a standstill, microfinance institutions, microfinance clients, banks, investors,
and local governments were calling for new regulation to address the prominent issues of the
sector. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) responded by appointing an RBI sub-committee know as
the Malegam Committee.
This committee aimed to address the primary customer complaints that led to the crisis,
including coercive collection practices, usurious interest rates, and selling practices that
resulted in over-indebtedness. The existing regulations did not address these issues, thus, who
should respond to these issues, and how they should respond, was uncertain. This prolonged
the general regulatory uncertainty and the resulting repayment and institutional liquidity
issues.
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The Malegam Committee released their recommended regulations in January 2011. These
recommendations were 'broadly accepted' by RBI in May 2011, though specific regulation was
only released regarding which institutions qualify for priority sector lending at this time.
Additionally, an updated version of the Micro Finance Institutions (Development and
Regulations) Bill 2011 is in Parliament, which aims to provide a regulatory structure for
microfinance institutions operating as societies, trusts, and cooperatives. Although this shows
that regulators are taking steps to address the crisis issues and resolve regulatory uncertainty,
banks have not resumed lending to microfinance institutions as of July 2011.
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where overseas investors become concerned about the level of debt their inbound capital is
generating, and decide to pull out their funds. The resulting outbound capital flows are
associated with a rapid drop in the value of the affected nation's currency. This causes issues
for firms of the affected nation who have received the inbound investments and loans, as the
revenue of those firms is typically mostly derived domestically but their debts are often
denominated in a reserve currency. Once the nation's government has exhausted its foreign
reserves trying to support the value of the domestic currency, its policy options are very
limited. It can raise its interest rates to try to prevent further declines in the value of its
currency, but while this can help those with debts denominated in foreign currencies, it
generally further depresses the local economy.
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For convenience, imports of the country have been divided into four broad groups: (i) Food
and live animals chiefly for food, (ii) Raw materials and intermediate manufactures, (iii)
Capital goods and (iv) Other goods.
Important facts regarding the composition of different import items are as follows:
1. There has been a substantial rise in the import expenditure on POL (petroleum, oil and
lubricants) imports.
2. Since 1999-2000, data on imports of gold and silver have become available as their
imports are now channelised through the official routes.
3. Import expenditure on 'non-electrical machinery, apparatus and appliances' rose
considerably from $ 341 million in 1970-71 to $ 26,111 million in 2010-11.
4. Due to the increasing demand of the gems and jewellery industry (which has emerged
as an important export earning industry) the imports of 'pearls, precious and semiprecious stones' have increased significantly.
5. Because of increasing domestic demand, edible oils also have had to be imported on a
considerable scale in certain years.
6. Despite increasing domestic production of iron and steel, substantial quantities continue
to be imported as domestic production has failed to keep pace with the rising demand.
7. Import expenditure on fertilisers and fertiliser materials increased considerably from $
113 million in 1970-71 to $ 1,683 million in 1995-96.
Composition of Exports
Important points that emerge from regarding different export items are as follows:
1. The most important export item in 1960-61 was jute and it contributed 21 per cent (or a
little more than one-fifth) of total export earnings. Since then its share has continuously
declined (to 12.4 per cent in 1970-71 and 0.2 per cent in 2010-11).
2. The second most important export item in 1960-61 was tea and it contributed 19.3 per
cent (i.e., almost one fifth) of total export earnings. Its share has also declined
consistently to 9.6 per cent in 1970-71 and 0.3 per cent in 2010-11.
3. Consequent upon the programmes of industrialisation initiated during the planning
period, the exports of engineering goods rose substantially. Engineering goods occupied
the first place ill India's export earnings in 2010-11.
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4. During recent years, exports of petroleum products have increased significantly. Their
exports were as high as $ 29,030 million in 2007-08 which was 17.8 per cent of total
export earnings.
5. Exports of gems and jewellery have recorded a spectacular increase. From $59 million in
1970-71 (representing 2.9 per cent of total export earnings) the exports of gems and
jewellery rose to $ 36,840 million in 2010-11 which was 14.7 per cent of total export
earnings.
6. The results of industrialisation are also expressed through increases in the exports of
chemicals and allied products.
7. Export of readymade garments has emerged as an important foreign exchange earner in
recent years.
8. Export earnings from cotton yarn, fabrics, made-ups, etc., stood at $ 5,506 million in
2010-11 which was 2.2 per cent of total export earnings.
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Earnings from invisibles were substantial throughout the Sixth Plan period. They touched the
highest level ever in the planning period during 1980-81. In that year they stood at Rs. 4,311
crore. In subsequent years of the plan, earnings from invisibles declined somewhat but in each
year they were Rs. 3,500 crore or more. However, during the Seventh Plan period private
remittances from middle-east countries showed tendencies of flattening out. As a result,
earnings from invisibles declined consistently and fell to Rs. 1,025 crore in 1989-90.
Capital Account: Financing the Deficit
A study of capital account of the balance of payments reveals the methods of financing the
deficit in the current account of the balance of payments. In periods I and II, the entire deficit
was financed through inflows of concessional assistance and this kept the debt servicing burden
low. In contrast, a substantial part of the deficit (indeed almost the entire incremental deficit, in
dollar terms) had to be financed through non-concessional loans obtained on market related
terms during period III.
Expecting prolonged balance of payment difficulties, the Government of India entered into an
arrangement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) under the Extended Fund Facility
(EFF) in early 1980s. The EFF provides for assistance to member countries that need to make
structural adjustments in their economies with a view to achieving balance of payments
viability in the medium term. This facility enabled India to draw up to SDR 5 billion over a period
of four fiscal years from 1980-81 to 1984-85. The availability of EFF helped India considerably in
the financing of the current account deficit during 1980-81 to 1983-84. India terminated the EFF
before fully utilising the amount originally contemplated. Following the Gulf crisis and
deteriorating balance of payments situation, the Government of India resorted to substantial
drawals from the IMF from 1990-91 onwards under one or other facility.
The above discussion shows that the balance of payments situation turned grim in Period III.
With increasing trade deficits, flattening out of private remittances and a fall in concessional aid
to finance the ever increasing deficits, India had to depend on high cost methods of financing
the deficit, viz., external commercial borrowings, NRI deposits, short-term debt and assistance
from IMF. The conditions attached to the IMF loans are generally not known but it is a common
knowledge that such loans are packaged with high conditionality. As far as external commercial
borrowings, NRI deposits and short- term debts are concerned, these three sources are not only
more demanding and expensive in terms of debt-servicing obligations than external aid but are
also more volatile, being more vulnerable to expectations about foreign exchange risks. Also,
they represent a 'substantial future liability.
All these facts show that there was a marked 'turnaround' in the balance of payments situation
in 1993-94. The year 1996-97 witnessed a reduction in current account deficit from $ 5.9 billion
in 1995-96 to $ 4.6 billion. This was 1.2 per cent of GDP. Trade deficit rose to $ 17.8 billion in
1999-2000 but because of high earnings from invisibles, current account deficit was reduced to
about $ 4.7 billion.
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From the point of view of balance of payments, most significant have been the three years
2001-02, 2002-03 and 2003-04. In all these years, there was a surplus on current account. The
surplus on current account was 0.7 per cent of GDP in 2001-02, 1.2 per cent of GDP in 2002-03
and 2.3 per cent of GDP in 2003-04. It is the first time in post- Independence period that there
was a current account surplus for three consecutive years. This surplus was also accompanied
by strong net capital inflows.
After recording a surplus for three years in a row, the current account once again recorded a
deficit in 2004-05. The current account deficit in this year was $ 2,470 million (which was 0.4
per cent of GDP).
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The import policy of the Government of India in the pre-reform period had two important
constituents: (i) import restrictions and (ii) import substitution.
Import Liberalisation in 1980s
The year 1977-78 initiated a new era of import liberalisation in the country. This process was
carried forward ill 1980s. The annual import policies of 1980-81 to 1984-85 followed the liberal
approach of providing necessary imported inputs for the industrial sector.
1. The Import Control Regime
According to lagdish Bhagwati and Padma Desai, import policy had the following adverse
economic effects: (1) delays; (2) administrative and other expenses; (3) inflexibility; (4) lack of
co-ordination among different agencies; (5) absence of competition; (6) bias towards creation
of capacity despite underutilisation; (7) anticipatory and automatic protection afforded to
industries regardless of costs; (8) discrimination against exports; and (9) loss of revenue.
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1. Cash Compensatory Support (CCS). This was introduced in 1966. It was designed to
provide compensation for unrebated indirect taxes paid by exporters on inputs, higher
freight rates, and market development costs.
2. Duty Drawback System. The object of the duty drawback system is to reimburse
exporters for tariff paid on the imported materials and intermediates and central excise
duties paid on domestically produced inputs which enter into export production. This is
a worldwide practice and the rationale is straightforward. Custom duties and excise
duties on inputs raise the cost of production in export industries and thereby affect the
competitiveness of exports. Therefore, exporters need to be compensated for the
escalation in their costs attributable to such customs and excise duties.
3. Replenishment Licences. In order to provide the export sector of the economy with
access to importable inputs that enter into export production, at international prices,
the import policy allowed special import facilities for registered exporters.
4. Advance Licences and Duty Exemption Scheme. Advance licences facilitated imports of
specified raw materials without payment of any customs duty. Such licences were
available only against confirmed export orders and/or letters of credit.
5. EPZs and 100 per cent EOUs. With a view to giving impetus to export drive, the
government set up Export Processing Zones (EPZs) which provide almost free trade
environment for export production so as to make Indian export products competitive in
the world market.
6. Subsidies on Domestic Raw Materials. The most important scheme in this category was
the International Price Reimbursement Scheme (IPRS) for steel, which equalised the
difference between international and domestic prices of steel obtained from domestic
sources.
7. Fiscal Concessions for Exports. Special fiscal treatment granted to exports took two
forms, that which related to the payment of indirect taxes, and that which related to the
payment of direct taxes. The first type of concession was incorporated in the duty
drawback system and the regime of cash compensatory support which sought to
reimburse indirect fares that were not refunded through the former. The second type of
concession was incorporated in income tax provisions where earnings from exports
were either partially exempted from income tax, or taxed at a lower rate.
8. Export Credit and Assistance to EPCs. Assistance was granted in the form of grants-inaid to the Export Promotion Councils and approved organisations, export houses,
consultancy organisations and individual exporters to undertake (a) market research,
commodity research, area survey etc, (b) export publicity and dissemination of
information, (c) trade delegations and teams, (d) participation in trade fairs and
exhibitions, (e) establishment of offices and branches in countries abroad, (j) research
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and development schemes etc., and (g) any other scheme that would promote the
development of market for Indian goods abroad.
9. Blanket Exchange Permit Scheme. A Blanket Exchange Permit Scheme was introduced
by the government in June 1987. The scheme aimed to give a major thrust to the
country's export promotion drive. Under the scheme, exporters were allowed, barring a
few products, to utilise 5-10 per cent of their foreign exchange earnings for undertaking
export promotion activities.
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5. EOUs. Export-oriented Units (EOUs) have been allowed to sell products manufactured
by them in DTA (domestic tariff area) up to a limit of 90 per cent instead of existing 75
per cent. EOUs will also be allowed to procure finished goods for consolidation, subject
to certain safeguards.
6. Thrust for Value-Added Manufacturing.
7. Simplification of Procedures, Reduction in Transaction Costs.
FOREIGN CAPITAL
COMPONENTS OF FOREIGN CAPITAL
Foreign capital can be obtained either in the form of concessional assistance or nonconcessional flows or foreign investment. Concessional assistance includes grants and loans
obtained at low rates of interest with long maturity period. Such assistance is provided
generally on bilateral basis (government to government) or through multilateral agencies like
the World Bank, International Development-Association etc.
Non-concessional assistance includes mainly external commercial borrowings, loans from other
governments/multilateral agenices on market terms and deposits obtained from non-residents.
Foreign investment is generally in the form of private foreign participation in certain sectors of
the domestic economy.
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2. Full opportunities to earn profits: The foreign interests operating in India would be
permitted to earn profits without subjecting them to undue controls.
3. Guarantee of compensation: If and when foreign enterprises are compulsorily acquired,
compensation will be paid on a fair and equitable basis as already announced in
government's statement of policy.
However, the real 'opening up' came with the announcement of the new industrial policy in July
1991. In subsequent period, several other measures for promoting foreign investment have
also been announced. The only sectors in which FDI is now prohibited are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Multi Brand Retail (Recently Cabinet has approved 49% FDI in it)
Atomic energy,
Lottery business,
Gambling and betting,
Business of chit fund,
Nidhi company,
Trading in transferable development rights, and
Activity/Sector not opened to private sector investment.
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Between the two extremes of 'hard pegs' and 'full float' there is a large spectrum of exchange
rate systems that combine features of these two regimes in various degrees. Most countries in
the present-day world are following intermediate regimes with country-specific features, no
targets for the level of the exchange rate, and exchange market interventions to ensure orderly
exchange rate movements. While the increasingly accepted view is that exchange rates should
be flexible and not fixed or pegged, it is also emphasised that countries should be able to
intervene or manage exchange rates if movements are believed to be destabilising in the short
run.
Tarapore Committee on Fuller Capital Account Convertibility which submitted its Report on
July 31, 2006 envisages an exchange rate policy for India aimed at maintaining the real
effective exchange rate broadly within a +/-5 per cent band around a neutral level. This is
essentially a plea for 'managed floating.
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the East Asian countries had undertaken several steps in 1980s and 1990s to open up their
capital accounts and had removed most of the restrictions on their financial markets. These
steps led to massive capital inflows in these countries. A major part of these inflows were in the
form of 'hot money'" which were extremely vulnerable to expectations and speculation.
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According to these guidelines, the principal rule was that all branches of foreign companies
operating in India should convert themselves into Indian companies with at least 60 per cent
local equity participation.
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supports long-term human and social development needs that private creditors do not
finance;
uses the leverage of financing to promote key policy and institutional reforms (such as
safety net or anticorruption reforms);
Provides financial support (in the form of grants made available from the IBRD's net
income) in areas that are critical to the well-being of poor people in all countries.
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expected to target. Its goals are to increase sustainable agriculture opportunities, improve
health and education, increase access to financing for microfinance and business clients,
advance infrastructure, help small businesses grow revenues, and invest in climate health.
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Goods and investment the Multilateral Agreements on Trade in Goods including the
GATT 1994 and the Trade Related Investment Measures (TRIMS)
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Ministerial conferences: The topmost decision-making body of the WTO is the Ministerial
Conference, which usually meets every two years. It brings together all members of the WTO,
all of which are countries or customs unions. The Ministerial Conference can take decisions on
all matters under any of the multilateral trade agreements.
Ministerial Conference
1st Singapore ministerial conference
2nd Geneva ministerial conference
3rd Seattle ministerial conference
4th Doha ministerial conference
5th Cancun ministerial conference
6th Hong Kong ministerial conference
7th Geneva ministerial conference
8th Geneva ministerial conference
9th Bali ministerial Conference (expected)
Year
1996.
1998
1999
2001
2003
2005
2010
2011
2013
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at Johannesburg (South Africa)in 1996. The Conference has its permanent secretariat in
Geneva. One of the principal achievements of UNCTAD has been to conceive and implement
the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP).
SAFTA
What is Safta?
It is an abbreviation for the South Asian Free Trade Area. It is a proposed FTA between the
seven members of the Saarc group. These include Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal,
Pakistan and Sri Lanka.
What is its ultimate goal?
It will replace the earlier South Asia Preferential Trade Agreement (SAFTA), which was limited in
its scope. The ultimate aim of Safta will be to put in place a full-fledged South Asia Economic
Union on the lines of the EU. Safta is scheduled for launch in January 2006 and will lead to
reduction of tariffs for intra-regional trade among Saarc countries.
What falls within the ambit of Safta?
The agreement incorporates trade in goods. Services and investment are not part of the
agreement.
What are the objectives guiding Safta?
Among its aims are: promoting and enhancing mutual trade and economic cooperation by
eliminating barriers in trade, promoting conditions of fair competition in the free trade area,
ensuring equitable benefits to all and establishing a framework.
G-8
The Group of Eight ('G8) is for the governments of eight of the world's largest economies. (It
excludes, however, two of the actual eight largest economies by nominal GDP: China, 2nd,
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and Brazil, 7th). The forum originated with a 1975 summit hosted by France that brought
together representatives of six governments: France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United
Kingdom, and the United States, thus leading to the name Group of Six or G6. The summit
became known as the Group of Seven or G7 the following year with the addition of Canada. In
1997, Russia was added to the group which then became known as the G8. The European Union
is represented within the G8 but cannot host or chair summits. Collectively, the G8 nations
comprise 51.0% of 2011 global nominal GDP and 42.5% of global GDP (PPP). Each calendar year,
the responsibility of hosting the G8 rotates through the member states in the following order:
France, United States, United Kingdom, Russia, Germany, Japan, Italy, and Canada. The holder
of the presidency sets the agenda, hosts the summit for that year, and determines which
ministerial meetings will take place. Lately, both France and the United Kingdom have
expressed a desire to expand the group to include five developing countries, referred to as the
Outreach Five (O5) or the Plus Five: Brazil, People's Republic of China, India, Mexico, and South
Africa. These countries have participated as guests in previous meetings, which are sometimes
called G8+5.
G-20
The G-20 was formed in 1999 to give developing countries a more powerful voice in forming
the global economy. Together these countries represent two-thirds of the world's people,
and 85% of the its economy. The meetings started as an informal get-together of finance
ministers and central bankers. During the 2008 financial crisis, the first ever G-20 summit was
held on November 16-17 in Washington, DC. The leaders of the G-20 countries agreed to
regulate hedge funds and debt-rating companies such as Standard & Poor's. They also sought to
strengthen standards for accounting and derivatives. Insufficient regulations and standards
were blamed for the crisis that turned into a global recession. For more, see U.S. Resists G-20
Summit Call for Global Financial Regulation.
The G-20 finance ministers and central bank governors continue to meet twice a year, usually
in coordination with meetings of the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the
G-20 summits themselves.
Significant G-20 Summit Meetings:
April 1-2, 2009 - London: G-20 leaders pledged $1 trillion to the IMF and World Bank to
help emerging market countries ward off the effects of the recession. For more see G-20
Global Plan Will Shorten Recession.
September 24-25, 2009 - Pittsburgh: Leaders established a Financial Stability Board that
would implement financial reforms. They agreed to increase banks' capital
requirements, regulate hedge funds, tax havens and executive pay. For more, see G-20
Summit Start of New World Order?
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June 26-27, 2010 - Toronto: Leaders agreed to cut their budget deficits in half by 2013,
and eliminate deficits altogether three years later. For more, see G-20 Summit Focuses
on Debt Reduction.
November 11-12, 2010 - Seoul: In advance of the G-20 meeting, finance ministers
pledged to put a stop to the currency wars which threatened to create global inflation.
For more, see G-20 Meeting Drives Stocks Up, Dollar Down.
November 2-4, 2011 - Cannes: The summit was dominated by discussions about
addressing the Greek debt crisis. They also agreed on plans to create jobs. For more, see
EU Satisfied with Achievements of G20 Summit
2012 Meeting: In June 18-19, 2012, the G-20 meeting was held in Los Cabos, Mexico. It
focused on the euro zone debt crisis. The G-20 leaders pressured German Chancellor Angela
Merkel to work with other European Union leaders to develop a more sustainable Grand Plan
to resolve the Greece debt crisis. Germany does not want to continue to bail out Greece
without continued austerity programs. That's because German taxpayers will ultimately face
higher costs to fund the bailout, and Germany itself is already highly indebted.
In return for continued bailout funds, Germany would like a fiscal union to support the EU's
monetary union. This means EU members would give up political control of their budgets to an
EU-wide approval process. This is necessary before she would support Euro-wide bonds.
(Source: Reuters, G-20 to Press Europe for Lasting Crisis Fix, June 18, 2012)
Its members include: The eight leading industrialized nations - U.S., Japan, Germany, UK,
France, Italy, Canada and Russia. This group of countries also meets on their own, and are
known as the G-8). Eleven emerging market and smaller industrialized countries: Argentina,
Australia, Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, South Korea,
Turkey, plus the EU.
Why Is the G-20 Important?
The growth of Brazil, Russia, India and China (the BRIC countries) has driven the growth of the
global economy. The G-8 countries grow slower. Therefore, the BRIC countries are critical for
ensuring continued global economic prosperity.
In the past, the leaders of the G-8 could meet and decide on global economic issues without
much interference from the BRIC countries. However, these countries have become more
important in providing the needs of the G-8 countries: Russia provides most of the natural gas
to Europe, China provides much of the manufacturing for the U.S., and India provides high tech
services.
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ASEAN
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was formed in 1967 by Indonesia,
Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand to promote political and economic
cooperation and regional stability. Brunei joined in 1984, shortly after its independence from
the United Kingdom, and Vietnam joined ASEAN as its seventh member in 1995. Laos and
Burma were admitted into full membership in July 1997 as ASEAN celebrated its 30th
anniversary. Cambodia became ASEANs tenth member in 1999.
The ASEAN Declaration in 1967, considered ASEANs founding document, formalized the
principles of peace and cooperation to which ASEAN is dedicated. The ASEAN Charter entered
into force on 15 December 2008. With the entry into force of the ASEAN Charter, ASEAN
established its legal identity as an international organization and took a major step in its
community-building process.
The ASEAN Community is comprised of three pillars, the Political-Security Community,
Economic Community and Socio-Cultural Community. Each pillar has its own Blueprint
approved at the summit level, and, together with the Initiative for ASEAN Integration (IAI)
Strategic Framework and IAI Work Plan Phase II (2009-2015), they form the Roadmap for and
ASEAN Community 2009-2015.
ASEAN commands far greater influence on Asia-Pacific trade, political, and security issues
than its members could achieve individually. This has driven ASEANs community building
efforts. This work is based largely on consultation, consensus, and cooperation.
Every year following the ASEAN Ministerial Meeting, ASEAN holds its Post-Ministerial
Conference (PMC) to which the Secretary of State is invited. In 1994, ASEAN took the lead in
establishing the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), which now has 27 members and meets each
year at the ministerial level just after the PMC.
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The 27th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting (1994) stated that "The ARF could become an effective
consultative Asia-Pacific Forum for promoting open dialogue on political and security
cooperation in the region. In this context, ASEAN should work with its ARF partners to bring
about a more predictable and constructive pattern of relations in the Asia Pacific."
The current participants in the ARF are as follows: Australia, Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam,
Cambodia, Canada, China, European Union, India, Indonesia, Japan, Democratic Peoples'
Republic of Korea, Republic of Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Mongolia, New Zealand,
Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Russian Federation, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand,
Timor Leste, United States, and Vietnam.
ASEAN+3 comprise of 10 ASEAN nation and China, South Korean and Japan.
ASEAN+6 comprise of 10 ASEAN nation and China, Japan, South Korea, India, Australia and New
Zealand.
EUROPEAN UNION
The European Union is a geo-political entity covering a large portion of the European
continent. It is founded upon numerous treaties and has undergone expansions that have
taken it from 6 member states to 27, a majority of states in Europe.
History
The precursor to the European Union was established after World War II in the late 1940s in an
effort to unite the countries of Europe and end the period of wars between neighboring
countries. These nations began to officially unite in 1949 with the Council of Europe. In 1950
the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community expanded the cooperation. The six
nations involved in this initial treaty were Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and
the Netherlands. Today these countries are referred to as the "founding members."
During the 1950s, the Cold War, protests, and divisions between Eastern and Western Europe
showed the need for further European unification. In order to do this, the Treaty of Rome was
signed on March 25, 1957, thus creating the European Economic Community and allowing
people and products to move throughout Europe. Throughout the decades additional countries
joined the community.
In order to further unify Europe, the Single European Act was signed in 1987 with the aim of
eventually creating a "single market" for trade. Europe was further unified in 1989 with the
elimination of the boundary between Eastern and Western Europe - the Berlin Wall.
The Modern-Day EU
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Throughout the 1990s, the "single market" idea allowed easier trade, more citizen interaction
on issues such as the environment and security, and easier travel through the different
countries.
Even though the countries of Europe had various treaties in place prior to the early 1990s, this
time is generally recognized as the period when the modern day European Union arose due to
the Treaty of Maastricht on European Union which was signed on February 7, 1992 and put
into action on November 1, 1993.
The Treaty of Maastricht identified five goals designed to unify Europe in more ways than just
economically. The goals are:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
In order to reach these goals, the Treaty of Maastricht has various policies dealing with issues
such as industry, education, and youth. In addition, the Treaty put a single European currency,
the euro, in the works to establish fiscal unification in 1999. In 2004 and 2007, the EU
expanded, bringing the total number of member states as of 2008 to 27.
In December 2007, all of the member nations signed the Treaty of Lisbon in hopes of making
the EU more democratic and efficient to deal with climate change, national security, and
sustainable development.
How a Country Joins the EU?
For countries interested in joining the EU, there are several requirements that they must meet
in order to proceed to accession and become a member state.
The first requirement has to do with the political aspect. All countries in the EU are required to
have a government that guarantees democracy, human rights, and the rule of law, as well as
protects the rights of minorities.
In addition to these political areas, each country must have a market economy that is strong
enough to stand on its own within the competitive EU marketplace.
Finally, the candidate country must be willing to follow the objectives of the EU that deal
politics, the economy, and monetary issues. This also requires that they be prepared to be a
part of the administrative and judicial structures of the EU.
After it is believed that the candidate nation has met each of these requirements, the country is
screened, and if approved the Council of the European Union and the country draft a Treaty of
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Accession which then goes to the European Commission and European Parliament ratification
and approval. If successful after this process, the nation is able to become a member state.
How the EU Works?
With so many different nations participating, the governance of the EU is challenging, however,
it is a structure that continually changes to become the most effective for the conditions of the
time. Today, treaties and laws are created by the "institutional triangle" that is composed of
the Council representing national governments, the European Parliament representing the
people, and the European Commission that is responsible for holding up Europe's main
interests.
The Council is formally called the Council of the European Union and is the main decision
making body present. There is also a Council President here and each member state takes a six
month turn in the position. In addition, the Council has the legislative power and decisions are
made with a majority vote, a qualified majority, or a unanimous vote from member state
representatives.
The European Parliament is an elected body representing the citizens of the EU and
participates in the legislative process as well. These representative members are directly
elected every five years.
Finally, the European Commission manages the EU with members that are appointed by the
Council for five year terms- usually one Commissioner from each member state. Its main job is
to uphold the common interest of the EU.
In addition to these three main divisions, the EU also has courts, committees, and banks which
participate on certain issues and aid in successful management.
IBSA
After the failed Cancn Conference of the World Trade Organisation (WTO), developing
countries felt the need to strengthen their cooperation in trade, investment and economic
diplomacy. The leaders of three regional goliaths spearheaded a new approach for SouthSouth cooperation at the 2003 UN General Assembly Forum, resulting in a trilateral IndiaBrazil-South Africa agreement. The term, South-South cooperation signifies the cooperation
between India (South Asia), Brazil (South America) and South Africa.
The establishment of IBSA was formalized by the Brasilia Declaration, which mentions India,
Brazil and South Africa democratic credentials, their condition as developing nations and their
capacity of acting on a global scale as the main reasons for the three countries to come
together. Their status as middle powers, their common need to address social inequalities
within their borders and the existence of consolidated industrial areas in the three countries
are often mentioned as additional elements that bring convergence amongst the members of
the Forum.
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IBSA concluded its first round of Summits of Heads of State and Government Summits in 2008.
Over the years, IBSA has become an umbrella for various initiatives, both in the diplomatic field
and in Public Administration sectors. Thus, the Group has also become an instrument for
connecting India, Brazil and South Africa at all levels, aiming not only to increase these
countries projection on the international scenario but to strengthen the relations amongst
themselves.
IBSA keeps an open and flexible structure. It does not have a headquarter nor a permanent
executive secretariat. At the highest level, in counts on the Summits of Heads of State and
Government, whose last edition occurred on October 18th, and 19th, 2011, in South Africa. The
next Summit will occur in 2013, in India.
The work of monitoring and coordinating the IBSA activities is a responsibility of Senior Officials
of the Foreign Ministers, known as Focal Points.
In summary, the progress of the activities can be divided into four tracks:
(i) Political Coordination
(ii) Sectoral Cooperation, through 16 Working Groups
(iii) IBSA Fund for Alleviation of Poverty and Hunger
(iv) Involvement of other actors beyond the Executive, e.g.: parliamentarians, Constitution
courts, civil society, businessmen and opinion makers.
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The agency is directed by the Conference of Member Nations, which meets every two years to
review the work carried out by the organization and to approve a Programme of Work and
Budget for the next two-year period. The Conference elects a council of 49 member states
(serve three-year rotating terms) that acts as an interim governing body, and the DirectorGeneral, that heads the agency.
FAO is composed of eight departments: Administration and Finance, Agriculture and Consumer
Protection, Economic and Social Development, Fisheries and Aquaculture, Forestry, Knowledge
and Communication, Natural Resource Management and Technical Cooperation.
BRICS
BRICS, originally "BRIC" before the inclusion of South Africa in 2010, is the title of an
association of emerging national economies: Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa.
With the possible exception of Russia, the BRICS members are all developing or newly
industrialised countries, but they are distinguished by their large, fast-growing economies
and significant influence on regional and global affairs. As of 2013, the five BRICS countries
represent almost 3 billion people, with a combined nominal GDP of US$14.9 trillion, and an
estimated US$4 trillion in combined foreign reserves. Presently, India holds the chair of the
BRICS group.
Summit
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
Participant
BRIC
BRIC
BRICS
BRICS
BRICS(expected)
Year
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Place
Russia
Brazil
China
India
South Africa
OECD
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, abbreviated as OECD and
based in Paris (FR), is an international organization of 34 countries committed to democracy
and the market economy. The forerunner to the OECD was the Organisation for European
Economic Co-operation and Development (OEEC), formed in 1947 to administer American and
Canadian aid under the auspices of the Marshall Plan following World War II. The OECD was
established on 14 December 1960. It is based in Paris.
OPEC
The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries is an intergovernmental organization
of twelve oil-producing countries made up of Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait,
Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Venezuela. OPEC has had its
headquarters in Vienna since 1965, and hosts regular meetings among the oil ministers of its
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Member Countries. Indonesia withdrew in 2008 after it became a net importer of oil, but
stated it would likely return if it became a net exporter again.
According to its statutes, one of the principal goals is the determination of the best means for
safeguarding the organization's interests, individually and collectively. It also pursues ways and
means of ensuring the stabilization of prices in international oil markets with a view to
eliminating harmful and unnecessary fluctuations; giving due regard at all times to the interests
of the producing nations and to the necessity of securing a steady income to the producing
countries; an efficient and regular supply of petroleum to consuming nations, and a fair return
on their capital to those investing in the petroleum industry.
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Target of completing the Doha work programme by 2004 was described as over
ambitious.
Mandate had certain interpretational complexities such as:
1) There was no fixed definition of all forms of export subsidies. The USA was of the view
that focus was on export subsidies only. The EU was of the view that it covers all forms
of export support. In developing countries view this was also applicable to subsidy
provisions in other export competition elements such as export credit, food aids, state
trading enterprises, etc.
2) There was no clarity on substantial reduction in trade-distorting domestic support. The
EU had a view that it covers only amber box, while many others, including the Cairns
Group and leading developing countries had a view that it also includes green box
because of its sheer size of US$ 78 billion a year.
I. AGRICULTURE
Agriculture has always been the most debated sector in WTO rounds. Negotiations on
agriculture sector under Doha had been carried out through Agreement on Agriculture (AoA),
which was presented in Uruguay Round and entered into force during 1995, with the
establishment of the WTO. The member countries have been protecting their domestic
agriculture sector by a host of actions such as domestic support (that is, production subsidy,
price supports, etc., affecting production level), export subsidy, imposition of tariff (most visible
form of restricting market access), tariff quota and non-tariff measures. The AoA was primarily
about reduction of barriers to trade in agricultural commodities, exercised through such
measures.
Before the Uruguay Round, trade in agricultural commodities was highly distorted on account
of excessive governmental interventions and support measures such as farm subsidy and price
supports. The AoA of the Uruguay Round was the first ever multilateral initiative that provided
framework of rules aimed at disciplining the unfair agricultural policies of the member
countries, especially members of the OECD countries. In this agreement, both developed and
developing countries had undertaken significant commitments to reduce domestic support,
export subsidy and tariff and non tariff barriers, besides accepting disciplines on areas having
trade-distorting effects. However, the Least Developed Countries (LDCs) were not required to
make any such commitment.
However, the outcome was not satisfactory. Thus, all this led to inclusion of AoA in Doha round.
The objectives of AoA under Doha Round are to achieve substantial improvements in market
access; reduction of, with a view to phasing out, all forms of export subsidies; and substantial
reduction in trade-distorting domestic support. Provision for Special and Differential Treatment
(SDT) to LDCs is also a part of the agenda. The current negotiations on AoA revolve around
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three major issues- formula for tariff reduction, subsidies reduction and special safeguard
mechanism.
TARIFF REDUCTION
The developed countries, represented by US and EU, have proposed a blended formula
involving a mix of the Uruguay Round formula, Swiss formula and duty free for a certain
percentage of tariff lines for reducing the tariff levels.
On the other hand, the developing countries, represented by G20, have not agreed to accept
blended formula and around 75 developing countries, including India, have preferred the
Uruguay Round formula because of the following structural flaws in blended formula11 :
It enables, on a self-declaratory basis, countries to opt for those tariff lines subject to
minimal cuts (i.e. apply average based Uruguay Round formula) which are of higher
commercial interest to many other member countries.
At present, the draft blueprints issued for final deal on agricultural trade negotiations,
circulated on February 8, 2008, have proposed a Tiered formula for reduction in Final Bound
Tariff, t. As per the tiered formula, the tariff level has been divided into five slabs (different for
developed and developing countries). The principle at work is the higher the tariff, the greater
the required reduction for that tariff.
SUBSIDIES REDUCTION
Subsidy provision is a fiscal/monetary measure that distorts the price of an input or/and an
output. Subsidy can take several forms such as production subsidy, subsidised interest rates on
credit for production, minimum export price, etc. Subsidies have certain social and economic
domestic objectives and, therefore, reduction in subsidies involves some drastic changes in
policy at domestic level.
Regarding the reduction in subsidies, the developed countries are proposing that the member
countries should make commitment to reduce all forms of agricultural subsidies.
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On the other hand, developing countries are of the view that their limited financial resources
do not allow them to provide substantial agricultural subsidies; therefore, they are not
responsible for distortions in agriculture being created by subsidy provisions. Developed
countries should undertake reduction in subsidy provisions. Moreover, the developing
countries agriculture sector is dependent on primitive production techniques, therefore,
additional provisions should be made to enable them to pursue policies aimed at agricultural
productivity growth. For instance, input subsidies given to crops wherein productivity levels are
below the world average should be covered under the Green Box.
At present, the 2008 Draft has proposed a tiered formula for reduction in Overall TradeDistorting Domestic Support (Base OTDS) for both developed and developing countries which
has been defined as:
For Developed Countries
Base OTDS (X) = Final Bound Aggregate Measure of Support (AMS) specified in Part IV of a
members schedule + (5 per cent of average total value of production for product-specific AMS
+ 5 per cent of average total value of production for non-product-specific AMS) + average of
Blue Box payments or 5 per cent of average total value of agricultural production, whichever is
higher
For Developing Countries
Base OTDS (X) = Final Bound AMS specified in Part IV of a members schedule + (10 per cent of
average total value of production for product-specific AMS + 10 per cent of average total value
of production for non-product-specific AMS) + average of Blue Box payments or 5 per cent of
average total value of agricultural production, whichever is higher
As per the tiered subsidy reduction formula, three tiers have been defined for reducing
subsidies by developed countries. The reduction is based on the principle of the higher the
subsidy, the greater the reduction to be made. The developing countries, which have some
subsidy reduction commitment, have been given special concession, they are required to
reduce their subsidy by 2/3rd of the reduction made by developed countries at slab three and
they have been given an implementation period of 8 years whereas developed countries have
been given a period of 5 years.
Indias stand point on this particular issue is that any tariff reduction commitments can be
considered by developing countries only after substantial reduction has actually been
effected by the developed countries in all the three areas: market access, domestic support
and export subsidies.
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Special Safeguard Mechanism (SSM): SSM is a measure designed to protect poor farmers by
allowing countries to impose a special tariff on certain agricultural goods in the event of an
import surge or price fall.
The developing countries want the availability of SSM to all of them irrespective of tariff
reduction in the event of a surge in the imports or decline in prices to ensure food and
livelihood security of their people.
On the other hand, the developed countries, particularly, the United States, have argued that
while making the provision for SSM, the threshold to invoke such a measure has been set too
low which implies that it will be too easy for developing countries to invoke SSM, for even a
small size of decrease in international price of import or for a small size of increase in quantity
of import.
As per the Lamy Text, the bound rate trigger has been given a value of 140 per cent, i.e., import
volumes to rise by more than 40 per cent to enable increase of tariffs beyond the UR bound
levels. India suggested a figure of 115 per cent and the US insisted on a trigger of 140 per cent.
India has expressed its inability to accept this trigger, citing studies purportedly proving that
substantial injury can occur at level above 110 per cent.
At present, the 2008 Draft has put forth a proposal for SSM with the following features:
SSM shall not be invoked for more than [3] [8] [products] 15 in a 12- month period.
The Volume based measure can be invoked if the quantity of import is more than at
least 105 per cent of the base import. In such a scenario the imposing country can apply
maximum additional duty on applied tariff with a condition on bound tariff.
The price based measure can be invoked if the c.i.f. import price is less than [70] per
cent of average monthly price (MFN Basis) of proceeding 3 years period (trigger price),
provided, the domestic currency at the time of importation has depreciated by at least
10 per cent over the preceding 12-months period.
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However, there was still continuation of tariff peaks and tariff escalation16 maintained by
developed countries with respect to products of interest to developing countries such as
textiles, clothing, footwear, leather goods, rubber, etc.
In the aftermath of Uruguay Round, major developed countries were found to be liberally using
the technical barriers (Sanitary and Phytosanitary/SPS, Certification and other Technical
Barriers to Trade/TBT) and WTO rules (that is, rules relating to anti-dumping measures,
subsidies and safeguard duties). Following them, some large developing countries have also
begun to use such practices. Thus, the non tariff barriers (NTBs) have emerged as potent
instruments for the protection of domestic industry. The brunt of this development was largely
borne by the developing countries at large.
In this scenario, negotiations for NAMA were undertaken under Doha Round. The main
elements of the Doha Mandate were to negotiate modalities aiming at:
The developed countries were of the view that reduction in tariff on non-agricultural
commodities should be undertaken mainly by the developing countries as the average tariff
levels in the OECD countries and some other developed countries were already low.
On the other hand, the developing countries were of the view that the mandate, through SDT
had special dispensations for them. Therefore, they were not required to make huge reductions
in tariff.
The rate of reduction is highest for high income countries (HICs) in agriculture sector. In case of
NAMA, rate of reduction is higher for HICs for applied rates but for bound rates developing
countries are required to undertake higher reduction. The greater lowering of bound rates by
developing countries implies that their future policy space will be lesser.
However, it has been pointed out that despite the lower tariff levels applied in developed
countries through Doha, the effective market access for LDCs in the EU will be negligible and
still negative in the US, as the tariff lines on which tariff cuts have not been changed comprise
the products which are of export interest for LDCs (Celine Carrere and Jaime de Melo, 2009).
III. SERVICES
From the view point of developing countries, one of the best outcomes of the Uruguay Round
was General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS).
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The principle at work was: each according to capacity and requirements. Further, there was an
unconditional application of MFN principle. Thus, unlike other various GATT agreements, GATS
did not impose stringent binding commitments on either the developing countries or on
developed countries. With increasing importance of services exports in total world exports,
GATS continued to remain a part of negotiations and was added in the agenda of Doha round.
Conceptually, the GATS commitments are based on two lines, horizontal commitments and
sector-specific commitments. The horizontal commitments imply applicability to all sectors and
sector specific commitments are applicable only to the sub-service sector being negotiated.
Within each line there are two categories, viz., limitation on market access and limitation on
national treatment . For each of the category, commitments have been made under four modes
of supply of services which are:
The benefit of GATS in terms of market access for developing countries was very little as in the
schedule of commitments the developed countries had given a little concession in sectors of
interest to developing countries, particularly under Mode 4 where the developing countries had
competitive advantage. The maximum number of commitments was made in health care and
education. With respect to movement of natural persons (Mode 4), sector-specific
commitments of developed countries were mostly linked to commercial presence (Mode 3),
implying liberalisation of foreign investment.
All the developed countries, and particularly the US, the EU and Canada, had imposed a wide
range of conditions on market access and applied numerous domestic regulations to create
barriers to the entry of skilled natural persons of developing countries into their markets.
Further, under mode 4, an individual could not apply for any work in his own right on an
individual basis. He had to be an employee of a company. Thus, GATS of the Uruguay Round did
not provide much benefit to the developing countries and, therefore, it was made a part of
Doha agenda.
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The implications of such an agreement for developing countries was the most controversial and
hotly-debated issue. It was argued that the agreement was aimed primarily at protecting the
interests of patent/property right holders through the provision of compulsory licensing.
Some of the items put on the agenda of the TRIPS review under Doha round are discussed
below:
Traditional Knowledge: The concept of traditional knowledge refers to genetic resources,
indigenous medicinal knowledge and other resources. The problem of protection is that the
traditional medicinal knowledge based on plants is usually not patentable - it is either obvious
or it is in the public domain. However, a pharmaceutical product derived from plants via that
traditional medicinal knowledge is patentable and the patent belongs to the pharmaceutical
company.
Public Health Issues: TRIPS Agreement has implication for public health issues also, particularly
for developing member countries. Infectious diseases kill over 10 million people each year,
more than 90 per cent of whom are in the developing world. There is a lack of access by
developing countries to several life saving drugs. The TRIPS agreement recognises that while
protecting the products of innovation, the social needs should not be ignored, for e.g., in case
of a public emergency, if a pharmaceutical manufacturer is not able to produce enough of a
needed medicine for which it has a patent, the member country can require that company to
license its medicines to another domestic manufacturer in order to supplement any anticipated
shortfall. This practice is known as compulsory licensing. However, the Article 31(f) of the TRIPS
agreement, which deals with the issue of compulsory licenses, provides that production under
compulsory licensing must be predominantly for the domestic market. The basic problem is
that many developing countries simply have no capacity to produce the necessary medicines,
even under license.
Geographical Indications: The protection of geographical indications has been made a part of
the agenda for restricting the acts of unfair competition. The geographical indications are
defined by the TRIPS agreement as indications which identify a good as originating in the
territory of a member country, or a region or a locality in that territory, where a given quality,
reputation or other characteristic of the good is essentially attributable to its geographical
origin. The protection of geographical indications through TRIPS requires more stringent
domestic policies for member countries as the simple unfair competition laws such as
misrepresentation cant be relied upon for this.
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indigenisation of manufacturing, etc., were allowed to invest. In this respect, the TRIMS
agreement of the Uruguay Round was a direct attack on investment policies of developing
countries. During the negotiations, attempts were made, specifically by the US, Japan and the
EU, to widen the scope of such measures by expanding the list but it was opposed by
developing countries.
The developed countries are of the view that all types of trade-restricting investment measures
should be phased out. On the other hand, the developing countries are not in favour of
removing all investment measures even if they restrict free trade flows. India has made its
submission in the WTO regarding TRIMS as:
Developing countries are growing, therefore, they need some policy space to determine
the manner in which investments should be regulated and channeled.
Focus should be on growth enhancing investments along with ensuring that there would
not be any crowding out for small and medium enterprises.
These along with some other issues have been hindering the conclusion of Doha Round since its
inception in 2001.
The importance of the conclusion of Doha Round has been highlighted by a study done by
Antoine Bouet and David Laborde, 2008 which has concluded that there would be a potential
loss of US$1,064 billion in world trade if world leaders failed in early conclusion of the Doha
Development Round of trade negotiations.
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opening the domestic market to foreign competition through progressive tariff cuts was
perceived harmful for the local industries. Instead, the country was more willing to discuss
trade and development related issues at UNCTAD forums in collaboration with other
developing countries like Brazil (primarily through the G-77 network). Despite adoption of a
proactive approach at WTO, India still feels comfortable to discuss trade-related issues at
UNCTAD forums for coalition building among developing countries on areas pertaining to
mutual interest.
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mainly to developed countries. The G-33 and India remain firm that a priori exclusion of any
product, particularly SPs from the ambit of the SSM cannot be justified or accepted.
Substantial and effective cuts in overall trade-distorting domestic support by the United States
(70-75 per cent cut) and by the European Union (75-80 per cent cut), including resolving the
issue of product specific caps on Aggregate Measurement of Support (AMS) and in the new
Blue Box.
Non-agricultural Market Access: Choice of Swiss coefficients that ensures less than full
reciprocity (LTFR) in percentage reduction commitments from bound rates. The current
numbers in the chairmans draft modalities, namely coefficients of 19-23 for developing
countries and 8-9 for developed countries does not meet LTFR. A fair markup on the unbound
tariff lines. Flexibilities those are adequate and appropriate to address the sensitivities of
developing countries.
SERVICES
Commitments by the developed countries on substantial openings for Indias contractual
service suppliers (CSS) and independent professionals (IPs) in Mode 4 relating to movement of
natural persons.
Development of disciplines in Domestic Regulations in Mode 4 involving qualification and
licensing requirements and procedures
RULES
Strengthening of disciplines in anti-dumping include mandatory application of lesser duty rule,
prohibition of zeroing, stronger rules on reviews, including sunset review.
Against the enlargement of the scope of the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing
Measures (ASCM) and/or limit existing flexibilities for the developing countries.
Effective special and differential (S&D) treatment in any new disciplines on fisheries subsidies,
particularly in the light of employment and livelihood concerns for small, artisanal fishing
communities and for retaining sufficient policy space.
The major issues in the current negotiations in the WTO are related to Agriculture and NAMA
discussions which resumed on the basis of the draft modalities on Agriculture and NAMA issued
by the Chairs of the respective Negotiating Groups on December 6, 2008. As per the draft
agriculture modalities, developed countries would have to reduce their bound tariffs in equal
annual installments over five years with an overall minimum average cut of 54 per cent.
Developing countries would have to reduce their bound tariffs with maximum overall average
cut of 36 per cent over a larger implementation period of ten years. Both developed and
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developing members would have the flexibility to designate an appropriate number of tariff
lines as sensitive products, on which they would undertake lower tariff cuts. The revised draft
modalities propose a special product (SP) entitlement of 12 per cent of agricultural tariff lines.
The average tariff cut on SPs is proposed as 11 per cent, including 5 per cent of total tariff lines
at zero cuts. This is a special and differential treatment for developing countries. In the case of
NAMA negotiations, the tariff reductions are proposed through a non-linear Swiss formula with
a three-tiered coefficient of 20, 22 and 25 for formula reductions linked to specific flexibilities
for protecting sensitive NAMA tariff lines of developing countries, and a coefficient of 8 for
tariff reduction of developed countries.
To conclude, while India, so far, may not have been able to gain a lot from the negotiations, it
certainly came out of seclusion during the Doha Ministerial (2001) and is currently leading the
developing country coalitions at WTO.
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The proposal would enable provisioning of creation of urban infrastructure, particularly in small
and medium towns, in all States and UTs. These projects would be subsumed in the next phase
of the JNNURM for the 12th Five Year Plan.
The lifting of Ban is supposed to give a push to Indias weak merchandise exports and is
estimated to add 5 billion dollar to exports over the next two year with West Asia
identified as a key market for processed food from India.
It will help Indian exporters to move up the value chain as well as create additional
employment in the country.
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An always open policy of this sector will not only help reduce wastage of perishable
products but also encourage value addition.
It was seen that Exports of agricultural and processed foods have almost doubled to around
86018 crore rupees in 2012-13 from 43727 crore rupees in 2011-12.
Presently the major agricultural exports of India are that of raw or primary produce and
unprocessed or semi processed agriculture commodities, which are vulnerable to restrictions
attributing to various reasons such as bad weather conditions, deficient or delayed rainfall and
food security issue.
The Government opened up export of rice and wheat since September 2011 and has emerged a
large exporter of these commodities since then.
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The bank report also has claimed that the ongoing political battle in United States for raising
the borrowing limit and spending cuts by the Government would bring loss of confidence in the
rate of dollar creating an alarming situation for the world financial market and effect the
growth rate. It also pointed out the diplomatic tensions between China and Japan would also
have an impact on the growth rate.
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The Union Cabinet on10 January 2013 approved a proposal of infusing 12517 crores rupees in
public sector banks so that bank could enhance the lending activity and meet the capital
adequacy norms.
As per the Finance Minister P Chidambaram about 9-10 public sector banks are going to be
benefitted from the capital infusion programme. Also, the name of the banks, the amount for
each bank and terms of the conditions will be decided in consultation with them at the time of
infusion.
The government is supposed to Provide capital funds to PSBs during the year 2012-13 to the
tune of 12517 crore to maintain their Tier-l CRAR (capital to risk-weighted assets ratio) at
comfortable level.
The need for that is to make the PSU remain obedient with the stricter capital adequacy norms
under BASEL-III as well as to support internationally active PSBs for their national and
international banking operations undertaken through their subsidiaries and associates.
In principle approval of the Cabinet is accorded for need based additional capital infusion in
PSBs from the year 2013-14 to 2018-19 for ensuring compliance to Capital Adequacy norms
under Basel- III.
Benefits of the Capital Infusion in Banks
The capital investment will ensure fulfillment to the regulatory norms on capital
adequacy and will cater to the credit needs of productive sectors of the economy as well
as to withstand the impact of stress in the economy.
It will support national and international banking operations of PSBs and will boost the
confidence of investors and market sentiments.
The infusion of. 12517 crore rupees in the equity capital of PSBs would enable them to
expand their credit growth.
This additional availability of credit will cater to the credit needs of our economy and
will also benefit employment oriented sectors, especially agriculture, micro and small
enterprises, export, entrepreneurs etc. in promotion of their economic activities which
would, in turn, contribute substantially to the growth of the economy.
The Government is committed in making all the PSBs financially sound and healthy so as to
ensure that the growing credit needs of our economy are adequately met. To meet the credit
requirement of the economy, banks would require capital funds commensurate to the increase
in their Risk Weighted Assets (RWAs).
The government earlier had infused about 20117 crore rupees in public sector banks during
2010-11, and 12000 crore rupees in 2011-12.
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Transfer of cash benefits like pensions, scholarships, NREGA wages and others directly
through the Government in the Bank or Post Office Accounts of identified beneficiaries
under the Direct Benefits Transfer (DBT) programme. The program would also device
necessary system so that the transfers can be done in a phased, time-bound manner for
Direct Benefits Transfer.
Direct Benefits Transfer would not act as a substitute for delivery of public services and
it would continue to be in place via normal delivery channels.
The Direct Benefits Transfer would not allow replacement of food through cash
managed under Public Distribution System. The Government will be committed towards
legislation of the National Food Security Act.
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As per the SEBI Data, In December, 2012 Foreign Institutional Investors (FIIs) were gross buyers
of shares worth Rs 71595 crore while they sold equities amounting to Rs 47412 crore rupees.
This translates into a net inflow of Rs 24183 crore or around.4.42 billion dollar.
Earlier in the month of February FIIs had infused Rs 25212 crore in stocks, which is counted to
be second highest investment in Year 2012 since their entry into Indian capital markets in 1992.
If we take the latest inflows into count, FII investment in that case in the countrys equity
market reached Rs 127455 crore ($24 billion) for the year 2012 with just one more trading
session left.
Foreign investors are pouring money into the Indian stocks in hopes of cut in interest rates by
the RBI. FIIs continued their positive standpoint on the Indian equities as the lack of investment
options make the country an attractive destination.
In addition to equities, FIIs invested Rs 1178 crore rupees in the debt market the month taking
the years tally to Rs 34462 crore.
As on 28 December 2012 the number of registered FIIs in the country stood at 1759 and total
numbers of sub-accounts were 6358 during the same period.
About Foreign Institutional Investors
Foreign Institutional investors are those organizations which sum up huge amount of money
and invest that amount in securities, real property and other investment assets. Some Foreign
Institutional investors are also operating companies that decide to invest their profits to some
degree in these types of assets.
The most common types of typical investors includes banks, insurance companies, retirement
or pension funds, hedge funds, investment advisors and mutual funds. They act as highly
specialized investors on behalf of others which are considered as their economic role.
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The objective of these incentives was stabilisation of the situation as well as shift from the
negative territory to the positive one. Another objective of the incentives was keeping trade
deficit under the control.
Exports during the period of April-November 2012 shrunk by 5.95 percent to US$ 189.2 billion.
If the situation continues, it would be very difficult for India to achieve export target of US$ 360
billion dollar in 2012-2013 fiscal year.
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In the third week of December 2012, the government found it difficult for achieving customs,
corporate tax as well as excise target as it was projected in Budget. This happened because
there were unresponsive corporate profits.
During November 2012, indirect tax accumulation increased by 17.2 percent to 36081 crore
Rupees in comparison to 30790 crore Rupees.
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P-Notes or PNs or Participatory Notes are used by the HNIs or High Networth Individuals,
foreign institutions as well as hedge funds. P-Notes allow them to invest their money in Indian
markets via registered FIIs or Foreign Institutional Investors. This saves them cost as well as
time related to direct registrations.
So basically, PNs are the tools or instruments which are issued by the registered FIIs to the
overseas investors who are willing to invest in stock market of India without registering with
market regulator SEBI.
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Out of the 11 companies listed so far, 10 are trading above their issue prices, while one is below
its IPO price.
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base price by 30 per cent for four circles that did not attract bidders in November. The circles
are Delhi, Mumbai, Karnataka and Rajasthan. The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs also
cleared a new urea investment policy.
Indias chance of powering would begin only after 2015 as Chinas fortunes would start
diminishing.
By the year 2030, Asia (mainly India) would return back to its position of being the
powerhouse of the world, like it was before 1500.
India will rush forward after 2020 as China would begin decelerating, primarily on
certain demographic trends.
China is indeed ahead of India, but the gap between India and China would start zeroing
in by 2030. The economic growth rate of India will surge while that of China will slow
down.
In 2030, India might be rising as the economic powerhouse just like China is today. The
current economic growth rate of China, 8-10 percent would become just a memory for
the country.
Overall size of the working-age population in China would increase in 2016 and
decrease from 994 million to 961 million in 2030. Contrarily, working age population of
India would most probably rise until around 2050.
The demographic opportunities of India will rise between 2015 to 2050. Chinas
opportunities window is from 1990 to 2025. Contrarily, USs opportunity was best
between 1970 to 2015.
Median age of India which is at present 26 will increase to 32 by 2030, which would still
be the least among top 10 economies of world.
The report also mentioned that anytime after 2030, India instead of China would be
having the largest middle-class consumption, which would be even larger than US and
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Europe combined. However, India might face trapping in the status of middle-income
group in case the resources constraint, especially food, water and energy are not
resolved. More investment would be required in science and technology sector in order
to keep the pace of economy in the value chain.
It was however made clear that the journey of economic development of both India as well as
China will not be smooth. But if the difficulties were handled well, India as well as China would
be dominating the world in 2030.
About Global Trends 2030: Alternative Worlds
The latest National Intelligence Council's (NIC) Global Trends Report was released on 10
December 2012 by the Office of the Director of National Intelligence. This report is called Global
Trends 2030: Alternative Worlds. Global Trends project offers expertise beyond government on
certain factors like demography, environment, globalisation. The documents are prepared by
Global Trends to assist the makers of policies in long-term planning on major issues which hold
worldwide importance.
First Global Trends Report was released back in 1997. New global trends report is being
published after every four years after the U.S. presidential elections. For the production of
Global Trends 2030, a range of analytical tools, in-depth research as well as detailed modeling
was employed.
The Category-I AIFs are those funds that get incentives from the government, SEBI or
other regulators. It includes Social Venture Funds, Infrastructure Funds, Venture Capital
Funds and SME Funds.
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The Category-II AIFs are those funds which can invest anywhere in any combination but
are prohibited from raising debt, except for meeting their day-to-day operational
requirements. These AIFs include PE funds, debt funds or fund of funds.
The Category-III AIFs are those trading with a view to make short-term returns and
include hedge funds, among others.
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The Ministry also decided to deallocate New Patrapara coal block in Orissa and to return the full
bank guarantee amount without any deduction. The Coal Ministry in another letter to Monnet
Ispat said that the Bank Guarantee as calculated by Coal Controller is to be deposited by the
allottee company within one month from the date of letter failing which the block may be
deallocated.
In case of Domco Smokeless Fuels, the Ministry decided to deallocate the Lalgarh (North) coal
block in Jharkhand. With regard to North Dhadu coal block jointly allocated to four firms, the
Ministry has decided to deallocate the North Dhadu coal block in addition to the forfeiture of
full bank guarantee.
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The decision of RBI came up in response to the suggestion of the working Group constituted
after the announcement if the Monetary Policy Statement of April 2012. The working group
suggested that the banks are not permitted to finance purchase of any type of gold other than
the working capital.
This decision of RBI came up in response to the significant growth in the imports of the gold in
past few years that has created pressure on the current account deficit. The Gold imports of
India in 2011-12 stood up at 60 billion dollar.
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Also with opening up the pension sector, PFRDA bill gives statutory powers to the interim
regulator, constituted through an executive order in 2003.
However, it is not easy for the union government to pass this legislation in the parliament
because the Opposition Bhartiya Janta Party (BJP) opposed the hike in FDI limit in insurance
and insisted for the bill to be brought again in Parliament Standing Committee.
Due to arbitrary allotment of the coal blocks the Indian exchequer suffered a loss of Rs
1.86 lakh crore equivalents to $ 37 billion
Up to 31 March 2011 total 194 coal blocks were allotted to different private and
government parties with an aggregate quantity of 44,440 million tonnes of coal
The beneficiary of these allotments as per CAG report were 25 major companies of India
including Essar Power, Jindal Steel and Power, Hindalco and Tata Power
To bring out transparency in the process, the CAG suggested competitive bidding as a
better solution.
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In its decision last week, the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs cleared its stand on the
companies of broadcast content that the TV news Channels and FM radio channels can have a
foreign investment cap of 26 percent. This decision was made to make sure that majority of
control remains back in the hands of Indian Partner.
Following the Finance Act 2012, the introduction of the General Anti-Avoidance Rules (GAAR)
was done into the Income Tax Act, 1961. The committee briefly analysed the provisions of
GAAR as per the inputs available from stakeholders and following the recommendations made
the amendments in the Act were made for finalization of the guidelines for the Income Tax
Rules, 1962.
Shomes Committee
The expert committee on GAAR (General Anti-Avoidance Rules) was constituted under the
Chairmanship of Dr. Parthasarsthi Shome with members, namely Shri N. Rangachary (Former
Chairman of IRDA and CBDT), Dr. Ajay Shah (Prof. NIPFP) and Shri Sunil Gupta (Joint SecretaryTax Policy and Legislation, Department of Revenue) for undertaking the consultations of
stakeholders and finalization of guidelines for GAAR. The main objective of the committee was
to get feedbacks from the stakeholders and prepare new guidelines or to amend the previous
guidelines after examining the things finely.The committee was constituted by the Central
Board of Direct Taxes after being approved by the Prime Minister of India.
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The proposal makes a clear stand that investors looking ahead for investments will have
to take the permission in form of approvals from the Foreign Investment Promotion
Board
Investment of minimum $100 million is a must for any foreign investor planning to
invest in India, out of which 50% of the investment should be made in creation of backend infrastructure. Back-end investment means investments that is made in quality
control, warehouse creation, cold storage, design improvement, manufacturing,
processing and packaging
The investors will have to get 30% of the production of their total products by the smallscale industries
The proposal also clears that the agricultural produce like pulses, flowers, fruits,
vegetables, poultry item, fishery, meat and others can be unbranded
Investors can invest in the 51 cities with a minimum population of 10 lakh people as per
the census presented in the year 2011
This will help in making equity invasion for the aviation companies seeking financial
support at the time when maximum of the domestic airlines are passing through a
phase of losses.
Investors who are not functional in airline business can own equity of 49 percent
directly or indirectly in the Indian Aviation Companies.
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49 percent of FDI in power trading exchanges will be taken care of as per the regulation
laid down by SEBI and Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (Power Market)
Regulations) 2010
The commerce minister stated that Foreign Institutional Investors cannot exceed a limit
of 26 percent investment and the paid-up capital will be restricted to 23 percent
FII can be permitted under automatic routes whereas; the FDI will be scrutinized under
the route approved by the government
The generation of electricity, power transmission and distribution along with trading will
be done in accordance to the provisions of the Electricity Act 2003
The current policy allows FDI up to 100 percent in power sector (atomic energy is an
exception)
Economy: Help in reversal of the economic slowdown, attract the investment of billions
of dollars from foreign market and spin jobs to a greater extent
Kirana Stores: Will lower down the selling price, because they will purchase the supplies
from deep down retailers
Retailers: Can sell their equity up to 51% to the global leaders
Farmers: They can sell their produce directly at higher prices and the presence of middle
man will end
States: Decision to allow the retail giants or prohibit lies in the hands of states
Common Man: A chance to gain big discount with many options to shop
UPA government: Got a chance to wash away the blames of policy paralysis
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based on Indian Vulnerability Index indicators, which has been experiencing the euro zone debt
crisis and the global slowdown.
A detailed analysis of Indias position in external debt at the end of March, 2012 has been
presented in the status report. It is also based on the data released by the Reserve Bank of India
on 29 June 2012. The report not only presents the analysis of external debts trend and
composition on the country but it also presents a comparative picture of this debt in reference
to other developing nations of the world with respect to the fluid global economic situations.
The best part of the report produced is that instead of all the facts presented and
developments Indias debt is within manageable limits and can be indicated by the debt service
ratio to 6 percent and external debt-to-GDP ratio of 20 percent in 2011-2012. Thus India
continues to be within the less vulnerable countries when it comes to external debt indicators
compared to that of the indebted countries.
The Global Development Finance, 2012 from World Bank, India stood at the fifth position for
absolute debt stocks when compared with the 20 other developing debtor countries. But when
taken care of the ration of external debt to that of the gross national income, India was at the
fifth position from the lowest side.
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The Public Accounts Committee (PAC) in its meeting on 23 August 2012 called for deterrent
penal provisions against units in Special Economic Zones which default duty payments to the
exchequer. PAC in a report adopted in the meeting recommended an oversight mechanism
which would ensure no misuse of the SEZ policy.
The PAC panel based its findings on a sample of 22 SEZ units. The panel found that out of an
overall export of Rs 7149.23 crore made by 22 SEZ units, the actual export content was only Rs
1999.27 crore (28%) and the remaining Rs 5149.96 crores (72%) related to Domestic Tariff Area
earnings.
Panel Findings & Recommendations
The report stated that low figures of actual physical export of goods were typical of most SEZ
units. The aim of SEZ Act was to boost exports and earning of foreign exchange by giving these
units certain duty waivers and incentives. PAC however observed that there is no mandatory
requirement of undertaking exports in the SEZ legislation. Since the units located in SEZs enjoy
tax benefits and are expected to fuel economic growth, PAC recommended revisiting the
scheme.
The committee recommended that all SEZs undertake physical export of at least 51% of their
product, and even import tax waivers raw material for goods falling under the Domestic Tariff
Area (DTA) is to be considered on the credit account of the SEZ firms.
It was noted that SEZ units could sell their goods, including by products, and services in DTA on
payment of applicable duty including at nil rate with no requirement to payback the duty
foregone on inputs used in the clearance of products. This policy will put SEZ units at a distinctly
advantageous position compared to similar units in the DTA.
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The government permitted foreign entities to provide credit enhancement to rupee bonds of
Indian companies which will improve their appeal to investors. The minimum maturity period of
such rupee bonds was reduced from seven years to three years.
Manufacturing sector too now will enjoy access to cheap dollar funds and they will be thus able
to revive investments plans stuck on account of high costs. Earlier, only infrastructure and
infrastructure finance companies could issue rupee-denominated bonds with guarantees from
multilateral or regional financial institutions.
The decision taken by the high-level committee on 22 August 2012 includes the following:
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The proposal for 49 percent FDI in insurance and pension sector was made during Pranab
Mukherjees tenure at the finance minister office. However, the decision on the same was
delayed because of resistance from the cronies.
With the approval of Union Finance Ministry, the bill will now be discussed in the cabinet and
will require to be approved by the parliament. The chances of the bill getting through in the
monsoon session of the parliament are very low as opposition parties have been consistently
stalling the house on the issue of coal scam. The monsoon session is set to end on 27 August
2012.
As per the Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority (IRDA) estimates, over the next
five years, the insurance sector requires a capital infusion of more than 12 billion dollar. The
Union Government has been trying hard to introduce the major reforms to revive the ailing
economy. The measures such as FDI in multi -brand retail and civil avaiation, implementation of
Goods and Services Tax (GST) have, however, faced fierce opposition from different political
parties.
Indian economy is rapidly moving towards the grim economic situation similar faced during the
recession. The economy needs some big ticket reforms to reverse the pessimistic economic
environment. India's GDP growth fell to 6.5 percent during 2011-12 but the fourth quarter
growth rate dropped to 5.3 percent, the slowest in past nine years. Business confidence among
the investors and business leaders has touched the historic low as industrial output and trade
figures are constantly going down.
The tight monetary policy measures adopted by the central bank to check inflation has actually
aggravated the situation as high interest rates are hugely impacting the overall growth
scenario. Indian industries have been reiterating that there is an urgent need to create
conditions for revival of private investment.
The FDI in insurance might prove to be a start of the long pending reform but the Union Finance
Minister P Chidambaram will have to work hard on political front to make it possible. Earlier the
government had to defer the decision on the bill as it faced opposition from its allies such as
Trinammol Congress.
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These guidelines have to implemented by NBFCs in two phases by the end of October 2012.
Earlier, the RBI had issued similar guidelines with regards to securitisation of loans by banks.
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An inter-ministerial group formed in 2007 and entrusted with the responsibility of regulating
prices of patented medicines recommended using a per capita income-linked reference pricing
mechanism. The proposal by the group is expected to reduce prices of several patented dugs by
up to one-third. However it will hit the profitability of foreign companies.
The committee suggested fixing the price of patented drugs by comparing the price at which
these drugs are procured by governments in the UK, Canada, France, Australia and New
Zealand. The committee recommended that the retail price is to be fixed by adjusting it to the
per capita income of the country. The new mechanism is to be applicable for patented drugs
that dont have any therapeutic equivalents in the market.
For patented drugs that have similar alternatives in the market, the price is to be fixed in such a
manner that it should not lead to an overall increase in the treatment cost. If the global launch
of the patented drug takes place in India, the retail price will have to be based on the cost of
developing the drugs and other factors. Prices of patented drugs are currently unregulated.
Patented drugs account for 1% of the $13-billion domestic market. This share is expected to
grow to 5% of the estimated $50-60 billion drug market by 2020.
The Indian Pharmaceutical Alliance, the representative body of big Indian drugmakers,
supported the reference-based system. The Organisation of Pharmaceutical Producers of India
(OPPI), the lobby body of multinationals however stated that the cross-country per capita
income-linked proposal is fundamentally flawed.
The Indian government is of the opinion that if patented drugs are not regulated, these would
remain unaffordable for most Indians. A WHO study stated that as many as 79% of Indian
patients pay for their healthcare expenditure from their own pockets. However it must also be
noted that if the government fixes the prices of these drugs at excessively low levels,
companies may stop selling drugs in the market.
Historical Backdrop
India had adopted a new product patent regime in 2005 after it became a signatory to TRIPS, an
international intellectual property protection agreement, providing 20 years of marketing
exclusivity to the patent holder. Global innovator companies such as GSK, Bayer AG, Novartis,
Merck & Co and Bristol Myers Squibb who started launching their drugs in India continue to
remain jittery about the governments policies aimed at reducing healthcare costs. They
complain that Indias implementation of intellectual property rights has been unsatisfactory.
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total of 735474 trades took place in the equity segment of NSE in the January-June period of
2012, making it the worlds largest exchange on this parameter. NSE was followed by NYSE
Euronext and Nasdaq OMX at the second and the third positions.
Industry experts attributed the recent position of NSE acquired by the bourse to growing
investor base, use of latest technology and new products. NSE's platform is connected to two
lakh trading terminals in more than 2000 towns and cities across the country.
NSE is the second largest exchange globally after Korea Exchange for index options. Eurex was
the third largest exchange worldwide in terms of total number of index options traded during
the first six months of 2012.
BSE recorded a total of 187824 trades during this period in its equity segment. The total
number of listed companies is much larger in case of the BSE, the exchange however lags
behind NSE significantly in terms of volume and value of trades.
The latest data published by WFE indicated that investors from tier-three cities contributed
more than 45 per cent of total cash market retail turnover in the financial year 2011- 12. The
tier-three cities account for more than half of the total retail investor base on NSE platform.
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The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) in a notification issued on 3 August 2012 stated that all
registered non-banking financial companies (NBFCs) which who intend to convert themselves
into non-banking financial company-micro finance institutions (NBFC-MFIs) would have to seek
registration with immediate effect, not later than 31 October 2012.
The central bank also mentioned that the NBFCs have to maintain net-owned funds (NOF) at Rs
3 crore by 31 March 2013, and at Rs.5 crore by 31 March 31 2014. If the NBFCs fail maintain the
NOF they will have to ensure that lending to the micro finance sector, that is, individuals, SHGs
or JLGs, which qualify for loans from MFIs to be restricted to 10 per cent of the total assets.
The NBFCs operating in the north-eastern region are to maintain the minimum NOF at Rs.1
crore by 31 March 2012, and at Rs.2 crore by 31 March 2014.
Operational Flexibility
To promote operational flexibility the NBFCs are to ensure that the average interest rate on
loans during a financial year does not exceed the average borrowing cost during that financial
year plus the margin, within the prescribed cap. The RBI notification also stated that while the
rate of interest on individual loans may exceed 26 per cent, the maximum variance permitted
for individual loans between the minimum and the maximum interest rate cannot exceed 4 per
cent.
The average interest paid on borrowings and charged by the MFI will have to be calculated on
the average monthly balances of outstanding borrowings and the loan portfolio, respectively.
Cap Margin
The RBI also decided that the cap on margins as defined by the Malegam Committee are not to
exceed 10 per cent for large MFIs (loans portfolios exceeding Rs.100 crore) and 12 per cent for
others. The measure was initiated to ensure that in a low cost environment, the ultimate
borrower will benefit, while in a rising interest rate environment and that the lending NBFCMFIs will have sufficient leeway to operate on viable lines.
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JFC is the regulation, licensing and supervision of financial services providers for compliance
with prudential norms and conduct of business requirements in Jersey.
The MOU with the Financial Services Authority (FSA), UK was signed on 17 July 2012 at FSA, UK
Headquarters, London. The FSA is the United Kingdoms principal national financial services and
markets regulator and administers the Financial Services and Markets Act 2000(FSMA) that
provides for the supervision of firms, financial services, financial products as well the financial
markets.
The MoU with the Financial Supervisory Authority of Norway (Finanstilsynet) was signed on 19
July 2012 at FSA, Norway headquarters. Finanstilsynet as the supervisory authority is entrusted
with supervision of banks (insurance companies and investment firms, etc.) in Norway as per
the Financial Supervision Act of 1956.
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a)
b)
c)
d)
1,2
2,3,4
1,4
All of the Above
11. Fresh evaluation of every item of expenditure from the very beginning of each financial
year is called?
a) Fresh Budgeting
b) Deficit Budgeting
c) Performance Budgeting
d) Zero-based Budgeting
12. National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) was established in
a) 1947
b) 1952
c) 1951
d) 1950
13. 'Sensitive Sector' as defined by RBI includes
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Capital Market
Real Estate
Commodities
All of the above
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15.2 percent
14.8 percent
12.5 percent
13.6 percent
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26. Name the Union Minister who had suggested setting up of a National Investment Board
(NIB) under Prime Minister Manmohan Singh to accord speedy clearances to mega
proposals.
a) Sharad Pawar
b) A.K. Antony
c) Kapil Sibal
d) P. Chidambaram
27. Reserve Bank of India injected a liquidity of around ___________by slashing down the
Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) by 25 basis points to 4.50 percent from 4.75 percent.
a) 17000 crore
b) 15000 crore
c) 10000 crore
d) 12000 crore
28. Shimla Municipal Corporation introduced a Tax on Shimla entry of vehicles that are not
registered in Himachal Pradesh. What was the name of that tax?
a) Envy Tax
b) Green Tax
c) Carbon tax
d) Natural resource consumption tax
29. Name the report which was submitted to the finance minister of India by the Shome
Committee constituted by the Central Board of Direct Taxes, after the approval of Prime
Minister of India.
a) GARR Report
b) CAG Report
c) Financial Credit Report
d) Tax Mitigation Report
30. For what percent, The Government of India on 20 September 2012 hiked the foreign
investment cap for the broadcasting service providers?
a) 65 percent
b) 74 percent
c) 80 percent
d) 54 percent
31. The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) on 24 September 2012 approved a
package on debt restructuring for the state-electricity boards. What was net worth of
that package?
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32. Which agency was instructed by the Central Vigilance Commission on 24 September
2012 to expand its investigation scope on Coal Block Allocation to private firms in
between 1993 to 2004?
a) Directorate of Revenue Intelligence
b) Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI)
c) CAG Committee
d) None of These
33. Market regulator Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) has approved a proposed
hike of the government's stake in Industrial Finance Corporation of India Ltd (IFCI) to
make it a state-run company. What was hike that Percent?
a) 56.25 Percent
b) 55.57 Percent
c) 54.35 Percent
d) 58.65 Percent
34. State Bank of India, the countrys largest bank, cuts its base rate with how much point
making it to 9.75 percent?
a) 25 basis point
b) 45 basis point
c) 35 basis point
d) 50 basis point
35. The Delhi Metro Rail Corporation was awarded with the work of Management
Consulting Services in which international Metro Rail Project?
a) Jakarta Metro rail project
b) Moscow Metro rail project
c) London Metro rail project
d) Copenhagen Metro rail project
36. Name the country that has issued ban on the import of Egg and Chicken from India in
wake up of the recommendations of the World Organisation for Animal Health about
the outbreak of bird-flu in the Government run Turkey Farm at Hesaraghatta, Karnataka.
a) Oman
b) Germany
c) USA
d) Korea
37. The Union Government of India in the Month of November 2012 announced a revised
Minimum Support Price (MSP) for cotton and this would help in inducing stabilisation in
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cotton price. Cotton has witnessed a sharp decline in the past and remained operational
round about its minimum support price. The previous minimum support price of
medium staple cotton was 2800 rupees per quintal. What is the revised price for the
same?
a) 3000 rupees per quintal
b) 3600 rupees per quintal
c) 3200 rupees per quintal
d) 4300 rupees per quintal
38. The Reserve Bank of India, in its notification released in November 2012 directed banks
not to provide loans to its customers for purchase of all types of gold, which includes
primary gold, jewellery, bullion, gold coins, units of Gold Exchange Traded Funds (ETF)
and units of gold mutual funds. Which of the statements mentioned below is false in
case of the notification released?
a) The order was directed for discouraging people from getting involved in speculative
activities
b) The notification from the Reserve Bank of India also directed the banks not to grant
advances against gold bullion to traders or dealers
c) This decision of RBI came up in response to the significant growth in the imports of
the gold in past few years that has created pressure on the current account deficit.
in 2011-12 that stood up at 60 billion dollar
d) The decision of RBI came up in response to the suggestion of the working Group
constituted after the announcement if the Monetary Policy Statement of April 2011
i. Statement c is false
ii. Statement a and b are false
iii. Statements a, b and c are false
iv.
All the above mentioned statements are false
39. Which of the following statements in relation to the Cabinet Committee on Economic
Affairs decision for approval 9.5 percent Stake Disinvestment in NTPC is correct?
a) With this equity disinvestment of NTPC would bring back a sum of about 13000
crore rupees.
b) With this disinvestment the governments holding on NTPC would fall down from
present 84.5 percent to 75 percent
c) This will adhere to the minimum public shareholding norms that was stipulated by
the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI), the market regulators
d) At present Government holding on the NTPC was 84. 5 percent
i. Statements a, b, c and d are false
ii. Statements a, b, c and d are true
iii. Statements a, b, and c are true
iv.
Statement b is false
40. The Reserve Bank of India asked Banks not to Provide Loans for Purchase of Gold but
allowed the banks to sanction loans as per the general working capital requirements to
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one section of the business market. Name the section that has been kept aside from the
cover of no loan policy for purchase of gold?
a) Gold Merchants
b) Normal people buying gold for household purposes and celebrations
c) Jewelers
d) Common man from buying gold for making investments in the share market
41. The Union Government of India moving ahead with its proposal to hike foreign
investment cap in the Insurance Sector 49 percent from its previous share. What was
the previous cap of FDI on Insurance sector?
a) 17 percent
b) 36 percent
c) 26 percent
d) 11 percent
42. RBI Expanded the Lending Norms on Priority Sectors like housing, agriculture, small and
medium enterprises, as well as the central bank also expanded the scope of bank loans
for these sectors up to 2 crore Rupees. To come into existence the lending scheme was
supposed to fulfil the criterions mentioned under an Act. Name the Act?
a) Micro, Small And Medium Enterprises Development Act- 2006 (MSMED Act-2006)
b) Accident Compensation Act 2001 (AC Act 2001 )
c) The Indo-American Chamber of Commerce (IACC)
d) Small, Micro and Medium Enterprise Development Act- 2012 (SMMED Act-2012)
43. Shimla Municipal Corporation introduced a TAX on Shimla entry of vehicles that are not
registered in Himachal Pradesh. What was the name of that tax?
a) Envy Tax
b) Green Tax
c) Carbon tax
d) Natural resource consumption tax
44. Name the report which was submitted to the finance minister of India by the Shome
Committee constituted by the Central Board of Direct Taxes, after the approval of Prime
Minister of India.
a) GAAR Report
b) CAG Report
c) Financial Credit Report
d) Tax Mitigation Report
45. Which committee was constituted for reforms in tax-structure?
a) Narsimham Committee
b) Chelliah Committee
c) Gadgil Committee
d) Kelkar Committee
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ANSWERS
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
b
a
b
d
a
c
b
a
c
a
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
d
d
a
c
a
d
a
a
b
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
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c
a
b
b
a
d
a
b
a
b
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
a
b
b
a
a
a
b
a
b
c
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
c
a
b
a
b
b
d
c
a
a
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