1 Topics in Linear Algebra

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TOPICS IN LINEAR
ALGEBRA
Prepared by
Rolando A. Danao, PhD
Professor Emeritus
School of Economics
University of the Philippines
Quezon City
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MATRICES, VECTORS, & SCALARS

A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers (or symbols
representing numbers) and is written in the form
a11
a
21
A=
M
a m1
a12
a 22
M
a m2
a1n
L a 2n
M
M
L a mn
L
The numbers in the array are called entries.

Each entry has double subscripts which indicate the address
of the entry, e.g., a21 is located in the 2nd row and 1st column
of A.

A matrix with m rows and n columns is referred to as an
mn matrix and m and n are called the dimensions of
the matrix.
If m = n, the matrix is called a square matrix of order
n.
A matrix with only one row is called a row vector and
one with only one column is called a column vector.
Either one is called a vector. A vector with n entries is
called an n-vector.
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A scalar is a single number which may be real or
complex.
Notation:
Matrices will be denoted by bold capital Latin letters
(e.g., A, B, C)
Vectors will be denoted by bold small Latin letters (e.g.,
x, y, z)
Scalars will be denoted by italicized small letters (e.g., a,
b, c, x, y, z) or lower case Greek letters (e.g., , , ).

If x is an n1 vector, we write
x1
x
2
x=
M

xn
If we wish to write x as a row vector, we use the transpose

notation:
x T = x1
x2
L xn
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We adopt the convention that unless specified
otherwise a vector is a column vector.
The set of real numbers is denoted by R and the set of
n-vectors with real entries is denoted by Rn.
The matrix with zero entries is called the zero matrix
or null matrix and is denoted by [0].
OPERATIONS ON
MATRICES, VECTORS,
AND SCALARS
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ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

OF MATRICES AND VECTORS
Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if and only
if A and B have the same number of rows and the same
number of columns and aij = bij for all i and j.
Let A and B be mn matrices. The sum of A and B,
denoted by A + B, is the mn matrix obtained by
adding the entries of A and B with the same address
(i.e., adding bij to aij).
The difference A B is obtained by subtracting bij
from aij.

Example
2 5 0
A=
3 1 8
6 1 2
B=
7 9 0
2 + 6 5 + 1 0 + 2 8 6 2
A+B =
= 10 8 8
3
+
7
1
+
9
8
+
0
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Example
2
x = 1
4
5
y = 4
6
2 ( 5) 3
x y = 1 ( 4) = 3
4 ( 6) 2
ADDITION OF MATRICES
Theorem.
(a) A + B = B + A
(Commutative Property)
(b) A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C (Associative Property)

(c) A + [0] = A = [0] + A
(Identity for Addition)
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SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
Let A be an mn matrix and let c be a scalar. The scalar
multiple of c and A, denoted by cA, is the mn matrix
obtained by multiplying each entry of A by c. This
operation is called scalar multiplication.
Example
0 2 3
B=
2 1 8
3(0) 3( 2) 3(3) 0 6 9
3B =
= 6 3 24
3
2
3
1
3
8
(
)
(
)
(
)
SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
Theorem.
(a) (a + b)A = aA + bA
(b) a(bA) = (ab)A
(c) a(A + B) = aA + aB
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INNER PRODUCT
Let x and y be vectors in Rn. The inner product (vector
product) of x and y is defined as
n
x y = x1 y1 + x 2 y 2 + LL+ x n y n =
T
xy
i =1
i i
Thus, the inner product of two vectors is a scalar.
INNER PRODUCT
Theorem.
(a) xTy = yTx
(b) xT(c y) = c xTy
(c) (x + y)Tz = xTz + yTz
(d) xTx 0
(e) xTx = 0 if and only if x = 0.
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INNER PRODUCT
Example:
Let xT = [x1 x2 . . . xn] be a consumption vector where
xj denotes consumption of the jth good.
Let pT = [p1 p2 . . . pn] be the price vector where pj
denotes the price of good j.
Then
n
p T x = p1 x1 + p2 x 2 + L+ pn x n =
px
i =1
i i
is total consumption expenditure.
MATRIX MULTIPLICATION
Let A be an mn matrix and B an np matrix.
The product AB is defined as the mp matrix whose
(i,j)-entry is the inner product of the ith row of A and
the jth column of B.
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Example
1 0
A = 3 1
2 5
6 2
B=
0 1
1(6) + 0(0) 1(2) + 0(1) 6 2

AB = 3(6) + 1(0) 3(2) + 1(1) = 18 7
2(6) + 5(0) 2(2) + 5(1) 12 9
Example
1 3 2
A = 2 4 1
3 1 2
x1

x = x2
x 3
x1 3x 2 + 2 x 3
Ax = 2 x1 4 x 2 + x 3
3x1 x 2 + 2 x 3
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A system of linear equations can be written in matrix
form.
For example, the system of equations
3x + 5y = 15
4x 7y = 28
may be written as
3 5 x
15
4 7 y = 28
The matrix product AB is defined only if the number
of columns of A equals the number of rows of B.
Thus, AB may be defined but BA may not be defined.
For example, if A is 23 matrix and B is 34 matrix,
then AB is defined but BA is not.
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Matrix multiplication is not commutative.
Example
3 2
A=
1 0
1 2
B=
0 3
3 12
AB =
1 2
5 2
BA =
3 0
AB BA.
THE IDENTITY MATRIX

If A is a square matrix of order n, then the entries a11,
a22, . . ., ann constitute the main diagonal or simply, the
diagonal of A.
An identity matrix is a square matrix in which every
entry on the main diagonal is a 1 and every entry off the
main diagonal is 0.
The nn identity matrix is denoted by In or I when the
context is clear.
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THE IDENTITY MATRIX

Examples
1 0
I2 =
0 1
1
0
I4 =
0
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
THE IDENTITY MATRIX

Multiplication by an identity matrix
a11
a
21
a12 1 0 a11 (1) + a12 (0) a11 (0) + a12 (1) a11
=
a 22 0 1 = a 21 (1) + a 22 (0) a 21 (0) + a 22 (1) a 21
Thus, AI = A
a12
a 22
Similarly, IA = A
1 0 x
1( x ) + 0( y ) x
=
0 1 y
0( x ) + 1( y ) = y
Thus, Ix = x
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MATRIX OPERATIONS
Theorem.
(a) A(BC) = (AB)C
(Associative Law)
(b) A(B C) = AB AC
(Distributive Law)
(A B)C = AC BC
(Distributive Law)
(c) AI = A = IA
(d) c(AB) = (cA)B = A(cB)
(e) A0 = [0] = 0A
TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX
The transpose of an mn matrix A is the nm matrix AT
obtained by taking the jth row of A as the jth column of AT.
Example
3 0 1
A=
6
5 4
3 5
A = 0 4
1 6
T
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TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX
Theorem.
(a) (AT)T = A
(b) (A B)T = AT BT
(c) (cA)T = cAT
(d) (AB)T = BTAT
SYMMETRIC MATRICES
A square matrix A is said to be symmetric if and only if
AT = A.
Example
3 2 5
A = 2 0 1
5 1 7
3 2 5
A = 2 0 1
5 1 7
T
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DETERMINANTS
For the 11 matrix A = [a11], the determinant of A,
denoted by det A, is defined as
det A = a11.
For the 22 matrix
a11
A=
a 21
a12
a 22
we define det A as
det A = a11a22 a21a12
DETERMINANTS
The determinants of matrices of order greater than 2
are defined by induction, i.e., the determinant of 33
matrices are defined in terms of determinants of 22
matrices, those of 44 matrices in terms of
determinants of 33 matrices, and so on.
First, we need some terminology.
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DETERMINANTS
Let A be a 33 matrix.
The minor of aij, denoted by mij, is the determinant of
the submatrix obtained by deleting the ith row and the
jth column of A.
The cofactor of aij, denoted by cij, is defined as
cij = (1)i + j mij
DETERMINANTS
Example
2 1 3
A = 4 5 0
6 2 1
To get the minor of a21, delete the 2nd row;

Delete the 1st column.
The minor of a21 is
1 3
m21 = det
= 1(1) 2( 3) = 5
2 1
and its cofactor is
c21 = ( 1) 2 + 1 m21 = ( 5) = 5
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DETERMINANTS
Let A be a 33 matrix and consider the following array
of numbers:
a11c11 a12c12 a13c13
a21c21 a22c22 a23c23
a31c31 a32c32 a33c33
It can be shown that the row sums and column sums of
the above array are equal to one another.
This common sum is defined as the determinant of the
33 matrix A.
DETERMINANTS
Example
2 1 3
A = 4 5 0
1 2 1
Using the first row to evaluate the determinant of A, we have
det A = a11c11 + a12 c12 + a13 c13
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DETERMINANTS
2 1 3
A = 4 5 0
1 2 1
5 0
c11 = ( 1) 1+1 det
=5
2 1
4 0
c12 = ( 1) 1+ 2 det
= 4
1 1
4 5
c13 = ( 1) 1+ 3 det
=3
1 2
det A = a11c11 + a12c12 + a13c13

det A = 2(5) + 1( 4) + 3(3) = 15
DETERMINANTS
Using the third column to evaluate the determinant of A,
we have
det A = a13 c13 + a 23 c23 + a 33 c33
4 5
c13 = ( 1) 1+ 3 det
=3
1 2
2
c 23 = ( 1) 2 + 3 det
1
2
c33 = ( 1) 3+ 3 det
4
2 1 3
A = 4 5 0
1 2 1
1
= 3
2
1
=6
5
det A = 3(3) + 0(3) + 1(6) = 15
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DETERMINANTS
The determinant of a 44 matrix is similarly
defined.
Its minors and cofactors are defined in terms of
determinants of 33 submatrices.
By induction, we may define the determinants of
55 matrices, 66 matrices and so on.
DETERMINANTS
Example
1
1
A=
2
2
8 3 5
1 1 4
4 3 0
0
Let us use the fourth row to evaluate det A. The advantage

of using the fourth row is that it has two zero entries which
means that we need to compute only two cofactors.
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DETERMINANTS
Example
1
1
A=
2
2
8 3 5
1 1 4
4 3 0
0
det A = a 41c41 + a 42 c42 + a 43 c43 + a 44 c44
= 0(c41 ) + a 42 c42 + a 43 c43 + 0(c44 )
DETERMINANTS
1
1
A=
2
2
8 3 5
1 1 4
4 3 0
1
1
A=
2
0
8
2
5
1 1 4
4 3 0
4
3
Need to calculate: c42 , c43

1 4 2
c42 = ( 1) 4 + 2 det 1 3 5 = 49
2 1 4
1 0 2
c 43 = ( 1) 4 + 3 det 1 8 5 = 7-7
2 1 4
det A = 4(49) + (3)(7) = 175
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DETERMINANTS
Theorem.
(a) det AT = det A
(b) det (AB) = (det A)(det B)
Example
3 1
A=
,
2 4
3 2
AT =
1 4
det A = 10 = det AT
DETERMINANTS
Example
3 1
A=
,
2
4
1 0
B=
3 2
det A = 10,
det B = 2
3 1 1 0 0 2
AB =
2 4 3 2 10 8
det AB = 20 = (det A)(det B)
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THE MAIN DIAGONAL OF A

SQUARE MATRIX
a11
a
21
A=
M
a n1
2 1 3
4 5 0
1 2 1
a12
a 22
M
a n2
L a1n
L a 2 n
M
M
L a nn
1
1
2
8 3 5
1 1 4
4 3 0
0
TRIANGULAR MATRICES
A square matrix is said to be upper triangular if and
only if its entries below the main diagonal are zeros.
A square matrix is said to be lower triangular if and
only if its entries above the main diagonal are zeros.
A square matrix is called a diagonal matrix if and only
if all its entries above and below the main diagonal are
zeros.
These matrices are called triangular matrices.
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TRIANGULAR MATRICES
Examples
1 0 2
0 8 5
0
0
4
1 0 0
2 5 0
3 4 6
1 0 0
0 5 0
0 0 6
Upper Triangular
Matrix
Lower Triangular
Matrix
Diagonal
Matrix
TRIANGULAR MATRICES
Theorem. The determinant of a triangular matrix is the product
of its diagonal entries.
Illustration of proof: Let A be a 3x3 upper triangular matrix.
a11 a12 a13
A = 0 a22 a23
0 a33
0
a 22
det A = a11 ( 1) 2 det
0
a 23
+0+0
a 33
= a11 (a 22 a 33 0)
= a11a 22 a 33
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THE INVERSE OF A SQUARE

MATRIX
The inverse of a square matrix A is a square matrix B of the
same order that satisfies AB = I = BA.
Example
1 1
A=
,
0
2
0 1 / 2
B=
1 1 / 2
1 1 0 1 / 2 1 0
AB =
=
=I
0 1 1 / 2 0 1
2
0 1 / 2 1 1 1 0
BA =
=
=I
0 0 1
1 1 / 2 2

MATRIX
Remark 1. From the definition, it is clear that if B is
an inverse of A, then A is an inverse of B.
Remark 2. The inverse of a square matrix is unique.
For if B and C are inverses of A, then
AB = I = BA,
AC = I = CA.
Hence,
B = BI = B(AC) = (BA)C = IC = C.
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MATRIX
Remark 3. There are matrices that do not have inverses.
Example
1 1
A=
1 1
Suppose that
1 1 b11
AB =
1 1 b21
Then
b11 + b21 = 1
b11 + b21 = 0
b12 1
=
b22 0
This is not possible.

MATRIX
Notation. The inverse of a square matrix A is
denoted by A-1.
Thus we have
AA-1 = I = A-1A
A square matrix is said to be nonsingular if and only if
it has an inverse; otherwise, it is said to be singular.
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MATRIX
Theorem.
(a) (A1)1 = A
(b) (AB)1 = B1A1
(c) (AT)1 = (A1)T
Proof:
(a) Immediate from the definition.
(b) (AB)(B1A1) = A(BB1)A1
= AIA1
= AA1
=I
(Associative Law)
(Definition of inverse)
(Property of I)

MATRIX
(B1A1)(AB) = B1(A1A)B
= B1IB
= B1B
=I
(Associative Law)
(Property of I)
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MATRIX
(c) By definition of the inverse of a matrix A,
A1A = I,
AA1 = I.
Taking the transpose of both sides of these equations
and noting that the transpose of a product is the
product of the transposes in reverse order and that the
transpose of I is itself, we get
(AT)(A1)T = I,
(A1)TAT = I
Hence,
(AT)1 = (A1)T.

MATRIX
Theorem. A square matrix is nonsingular if and
only if its determinant is nonzero.
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MATRIX
The cofactor matrix of an nn matrix A is the
matrix
c11
c
21
cof A =
M
cn1
c12
c22
M
cn2
L c1n
L c2n
O M
L cnn
where cij is the cofactor of aij.

The adjoint matrix of A, denoted by adj A, defined as
adj A = (cof A)T.

MATRIX
Theorem. If A is nonsingular, then
A 1 =
1
adj A
det A
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MATRIX
Example 1. Find the inverse of the matrix
3 0 1
A = 2 1 4
1 0 1
First, we note that det A = 2; hence, A is nonsingular.

Then we calculate the cofactors of A.

MATRIX
Cofactors of A:
3 0 1
A = 2 1 4
1 0 1
1 4
2 4
2 1
c11 = ( 1) 2 det
= 1, c12 = ( 1) 3 det
= 2, c13 = ( 1) 4 det
= 1
1 1
1 0
0 1
0 1
3 1
3 0
4
5
c 21 = ( 1) 3 det
= 0, c22 = ( 1) det 1 1 = 2, c23 = ( 1) det 1 0 = 0
0
1
0 1
3 1
3 0
c31 = ( 1) 4 det
= 1, c32 = ( 1) 5 det
= 10, c33 = ( 1) 6 det
=3
1 4
2 4
2 1
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MATRIX
2 1
1
cof A = 0
2
0 ,
1 10
3
A 1
1 0 1
adj A = 2 2 10
1 0
3
1 0 1 1 / 2 0 1 / 2
1
= 2 2 10 = 1
1 5
2
1 0
3 1 / 2 0 3 / 2

MATRIX
AA 1
3 0 1 1 / 2 0 1 / 2 1 0 0
= 2 1 4 1
1 5 = 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 / 2 0 3 / 2 0 0 1
1 / 2 0 1 / 2 3 0 1 1 0 0
A 1 A = 1
1 5 2 1 4 = 0 1 0
1 / 2 0 3 / 2 1 0 1 0 0 1
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MATRIX
Example 2. Find the inverse of the matrix
5 0 4
A = 8 3 6
2 7 1
First, we note that det A = 5; hence, A is nonsingular.

Then we calculate the cofactors of A.

MATRIX
Cofactors of A:
5 0 4
A = 8 3 6
2 7 1
3 6
8 6
8 3
c11 = (1) 2 det
= 39, c12 = ( 1) 3 det
= 4, c13 = (1) 4 det
= 50
7 1
2 1
2 7
0 4
5 4
5 0
c21 = (1) 3 det
= 28, c22 = (1) 4 det
= 3, c23 = (1) 5 det
= 35
7 1
2 1
2 7
0 4
5 4
5 0
c31 = ( 1) 4 det
= 12, c32 = (1) 5 det
= 2, c33 = (1) 6 det
= 15
3 6
8 6
8 3
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MATRIX
50
39 4
cof A = 28 3 35,
12 2
15
39 28 12
adj A = 4
3
2
50 35 15
39 28 12
1
A = 4
3
2
5
50 35 15
1
SOLVING SYSTEMS OF
LINEAR EQUATIONS
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Solution by Matrix Inversion

Suppose we have n linear equations in the n
unknowns x1, x2, ..., xn, say
Ax = b
(*)
where A is an nn, x is n1, and b is n1.
If A is nonsingular, then A1 exists.
We multiply both sides of the equation (*) by A1:
A1Ax = A1b
Ix = A1b
x = A1b

Since A1 is unique, the solution is also unique.
In fact, the next theorem states that the uniqueness of
the solution also implies that the matrix A is
nonsingular.
Theorem. Let A be a square matrix.
(a) Ax = b has a unique solution if and only if A is
nonsingular.
(b) The only solution to Ax = 0 is x = 0 if and only if
A is nonsingular.
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Example
(a) Solve the following system of equations:
3x1 + + x3 = 4
2x1 + x2 + 4x3 = 6
x1
+ x3 = 8

In matrix form, we have
3 0 1 x 1 4
2 1 4 x = 6
2
1 0 1 x 3 8
A
A1 was obtained previously:
A
x =b
1 / 2 0 1 / 2
= 1
1 5
1 / 2 0 3 / 2
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Solving for x: x = A-1b
1 / 2 0 1 / 2 4 (1 / 2)4 + (0)6 + ( 1 / 2)8 2
x= 1
1 5 6 = (1)4 + (1)6 + ( 5)8 = 30
1 / 2 0 3 / 2 8 ( 1 / 2)4 + (0)6 + (3 / 2)8 10
Thus, x1 = 2, x2 = 30, x3 = 10.

(b) Solve the system of equations:
2x1 x2 = 4
3x1 + 4x2 = 6
In matrix form, we have
2 1 x1 4
3 4 x = 6
x = b
Since det A = 11, A1 exists.
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The cofactors of A are
2 1
A=
3 4
c11 = (1)2(4) = 4
c12 = (1)3(3) = 3
c21 = (1)3(1) = 1
c22 = (1)4(2) = 2
4 3
cof A =
,
1
2
4 1
adj A =
3 2

A 1 =
1 4 1 4 / 11 1 / 11
=
11 3 2 3 / 11 2 / 11
4 / 11 1 / 11 4 16 / 11 + 6 / 11 2
x=
=
=
3 / 11 2 / 11 6 12 / 11 + 12 / 11 0
Thus, x1 = 2, x2 = 0.
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Solution by Cramer's Rule

For convenience, let A be a 33 nonsingular matrix.
Consider the equation Ax = b.
The solution is given by
x = A 1b =
adj A b
det A

x1
x = 1
2 det A
x 3
c11
c
12
c13
c21
c22
c23
c 31 b1
c 32 b2
c33 b3
x1 =
1
(b1c11 + b2 c21 + b3 c31 )
det A
x2 =
1
b c + b2 c22 + b3 c32
det A 1 12
x3 =
1
(b1c13 + b2 c23 + b3c33 )
det A
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Let A1 be the matrix obtained by replacing the first column of A
by b, i.e.,
a11
A = a 21
a 31
a12
a 22
a 32
a13
a 23
a 33
b1
A 1 = b2
b3
a12
a 22
a 32
a13
a 23
a 33
Comparing A1 with A, we note that the cofactor of b1 in A1 is the

same as the cofactor of a11 in A, the cofactor of b2 in A1 is the same
as the cofactor of a21 in A, and the cofactor of b3 in A1 is the same
as the cofactor of a31 in A. Thus, evaluating det A1 by using its first
column, we get
det A1 = b1c11 + b2c21 + b3c31

Let A2 be the matrix obtained by replacing the second column of A
by b, i.e.,
a11
A = a 21
a 31
a12
a 22
a 32
a13
a 23
a 33
a11 b1
A 2 = a 21 b2
a 31 b3
a13
a 23
a 33

as the cofactor of a32 in A. Thus, evaluating det A2 by using its second
column, we get
det A2 = b1c12 + b2c22 + b3c32
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Let A3 be the matrix obtained by replacing the third column of A
by b, i.e.,
a11
A = a 21
a 31
a12
a 22
a 32
a13
a 23
a 33
a11
A 3 = a 21
a 31
a12
a 22
a 32
b1
b2
b3

as the cofactor of a33 in A. Thus, evaluating det A3 by using its first
column, we get
det A3 = b1c13 + b2c23 + b3c33

x1
x = 1
2 det A
x 3
c11
c
12
c13
c21
c22
c23
c31 b1
c32 b2
c33 b3
x1 =
1
(b1c11 + b2 c21 + b3 c31 )
det A
x2 =
1
b c + b2 c22 + b3 c32
det A 1 12
det A2 = b1c12 + b2c22 + b3c32
x3 =
1
(b1c13 + b2 c23 + b3c33 )
det A
det A3 = b1c13 + b2c23 + b3c33
det A1 = b1c11 + b2c21 + b3c31
40
11/23/2012

x1 =
det A 1
1
b1c11 + b2 c21 + b3 c31 ) =
(
det A
det A
x2 =
det A 2
1
b1c12 + b2 c22 + b3 c32 ) =
(
det A
det A
x3 =
det A 3
1
(b1c13 + b2 c23 + b3c33 ) =
det A
det A

Theorem. (Cramer's Rule). Given the equation Ax = b,
where A is an nn nonsingular matrix. Let Aj be the
matrix obtained by replacing the jth column of A by b.
Then
xj =
det A j
det A
41
11/23/2012

3 0 1 x 1 4
2 1 4 x = 6
2
1 0 1 x 3 8
Since det A = 2, A is nonsingular.
4 0 1
A 1 = 6 1 4,
8 0 1
det A 1 = 4,
3 4 1
A 2 = 2 6 4 ,
1 8 1
det A 2 = 60,
3 0 4
A 3 = 2 1 6,
1 0 8
det A 3 = 20,
x1 =
x2 =
det A 1 4
=
= 2
2
det A
det A 2 60
=
= 30
2
det A
x3 =
det A 3 20
=
= 10
det A
2
42

1 Topics in Linear Algebra

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11/23/2012

MATRICES, VECTORS, & SCALARS

The numbers in the array are called entries.

MATRICES, VECTORS, & SCALARS

MATRICES, VECTORS, & SCALARS

MATRICES, VECTORS, & SCALARS

If we wish to write x as a row vector, we use the transpose

MATRICES, VECTORS, & SCALARS

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

(b) A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C (Associative Property)

(Identity for Addition)

Thus, the inner product of two vectors is a scalar.

is total consumption expenditure.

1(6) + 0(0) 1(2) + 0(1) 6 2

THE IDENTITY MATRIX

THE IDENTITY MATRIX

THE IDENTITY MATRIX

To get the minor of a21, delete the 2nd row;

and its cofactor is

Using the first row to evaluate the determinant of A, we have

det A = a11c11 + a12 c12 + a13 c13

det A = a11c11 + a12c12 + a13c13

det A = 3(3) + 0(3) + 1(6) = 15

Let us use the fourth row to evaluate det A. The advantage

det A = a 41c41 + a 42 c42 + a 43 c43 + a 44 c44

= 0(c41 ) + a 42 c42 + a 43 c43 + 0(c44 )

Need to calculate: c42 , c43

det A = 4(49) + (3)(7) = 175

det AB = 20 = (det A)(det B)

THE MAIN DIAGONAL OF A

THE INVERSE OF A SQUARE

THE INVERSE OF A SQUARE

THE INVERSE OF A SQUARE

This is not possible.

THE INVERSE OF A SQUARE

THE INVERSE OF A SQUARE

THE INVERSE OF A SQUARE

THE INVERSE OF A SQUARE

THE INVERSE OF A SQUARE

THE INVERSE OF A SQUARE

where cij is the cofactor of aij.

THE INVERSE OF A SQUARE

THE INVERSE OF A SQUARE

First, we note that det A = 2; hence, A is nonsingular.

THE INVERSE OF A SQUARE

THE INVERSE OF A SQUARE

THE INVERSE OF A SQUARE

THE INVERSE OF A SQUARE

First, we note that det A = 5; hence, A is nonsingular.

THE INVERSE OF A SQUARE

THE INVERSE OF A SQUARE

Solution by Matrix Inversion

Solution by Matrix Inversion

Solution by Matrix Inversion

Solution by Matrix Inversion

Solution by Matrix Inversion

Thus, x1 = 2, x2 = 30, x3 = 10.

Solution by Matrix Inversion

Since det A = 11, A1 exists.

Solution by Matrix Inversion

Solution by Matrix Inversion