Dynamic Range and Noise Considerations within the Design of

a Precision Sonar System

Author: Fabian P. Hartery, B. Eng.
Dynamic Range and System Gain Structure
One of the least understood areas within sonar is how dynamic range and noise figure
considerations apply to the overall system design. Many designers consider these
concepts as simply being relegated to RF work. Needless to say, in order to understand
the proper dynamics of a sonar design, the receivers gain structure needs to be identified.
Too much gain in a receiving system will present the case where the front-end signals
distort and the systems analog to digital converter (ADC) over ranges. Ok? Where do we
start out?
Dynamic range is defined as the maximum signal limit over which a design can linearly
operate. In this respect, the basic limiting feature of any data acquisition system is its
ADC. The signal to noise ratio (SNR) of this device is its key specification. We will use
the AD9240, from Analog Devices, as the part of choice within our present calculations.
This device operates up to a 10 MHz sampling rate, with 14 bits accuracy, with a typical
SNR of 78 decibels (dB).
In system testing, it is the effective number of bits (ENOB) that really defines the true
performance of an ADC. For the AD9240, ENOB is slightly greater than 12 bits. The
missing two bits are actually the representative of device noise, due to both quantization
and internal device limitations that coincide with the design of the ADCs sample and
hold circuitry. To rephrase this, the AD9240 is considered to be a perfect 12-bit converter.
Let us now calculate the required system gain and the dynamic range performance using
the AD9240 with a low noise receiver preamp.
It is a common misperception that the internal noise within the sonars preamplifier is the
dominant factor in determining system noise performance. For example, the AD745
operational amplifier, which is available from Analog Devices, represents a system noise
contribution of 1.3 nano volts per root hertz (nVrms/Hz). Now lets consider the system
noise presented by an amplifier having a one-mega ohm termination or input impedance.
This impedance is deemed necessary to prevent desensitizing the receive hydrophone,
through transducer loading.
Vn source= 4KTRsB
Vn Johnson source resistance noise voltage Vrms/Hz
K= 1.38 x 10-23 J/K (Joules/Kelvin) a scientific constant
T temperature in K
Rs source resistance in ohms
B bandwidth (1 Hz)

A one-mega ohm resistance value represents an initial noise contribution of 126.52

nVrms/Hz at a temperature of 290 K (17 C). For a 200 KHz operating bandwidth, this
figure amounts to a total system noise of 56.58 uVrms.
Based on these observations, the OPA642 operational amplifier from Texas Instruments is
a far better selection. It has a high harmonic distortion performance 95 dBc @5MHz
while only contributing 2.7 nV/Hz to the systems noise performance. Selecting the
OPA642 with a one-mega input termination therefore amounts to an initial system noise
of about 130 nV/Hz. Now, how do we determine the required system gain to optimize
the receivers dynamic range?
Skolnik1 presents an assessment of noise figure degradation by an ADC through
considerations made with respect to constant false alarm rate (CFAR) processing. This
relates to an attempt to resolve a target detection while in close proximity to the systems
noise floor. This is given by the equation:
Lq=10log((k2 + Nq)/k2)
Where k is the number of bits toggled by the analog noise floor within a perfect ADC
Nq is noise added through quantization uncertainty (1/12)
Lq is the CFAR degradation loss
For an acceptable CFAR degradation of 0.35 dB, k is calculated to be equal to 1. Since
we now know at what input levels the analog input noise floor should ride within the
ADC settings, we can now determine the required system gain and calculate the sonars
dynamic range. Here, we note that the AD9240 has a 5-volt peak-to-peak maximum input
as well as a 2-volt peak-to-peak configuration. A review of this devices data sheet will
indicate the distortion performance of this device is best replicated when operating with
respect to the greater input rail.
In terms of input power with respect to a 50-ohm system, a 5-volt peak-to-peak (or 2.5
volt peak) input is:
Pmax= 10log((2.5/2)2/50/0.001)
= 18 dBm

dBm

We can now calculate the required gain, since we now know its placement with respect to
the number of bits within the ADCs noise floor. The sign bit does not contribute the
systems dynamic range; therefore it is subtracted from the digital accuracy of the ADC.
Vnoise= 2.5/2/212-1-1)
= 1.7263 mVrms

Radar Handbook, Skolnik, Merrill, 2nd edition, McGraw Hill, New York, TK6575.R262 1990, ISBN 007-057913-X

Pnoise= 10log((1.726310-3)2/50/0.001)
= -42.2472 dBm

dBm

If the sonar bandwidth is assumed to be 200 KHz,

Psystem= 10log((56.8510-6)2 /50/0.001)
= -71.936 dBm
The systems dynamic range is 18-(-42.2472) 60 dB. The required system gain is
therefore 1.726310-3/56.85-6 30 dB.

Minimal Detectable Signal (MDS)

The minimal detectable signal (MDS) for this sonar design would equal the input referred
noise along with the additional noise degradation by the preamplifier (-71.936 dBm)
provided there are no further compromising stages. If a target exists at an equal power to
the noise floor, averaging two samples will make it immediately apparent, with 3 dB of
processing gain. Hence, this is why an MDS typically references a 3 dB threshold over
the noise floor. Minimal signal processing will result in a target detection. The human eye
has a similar ability to point out consistencies in this way, despite the presence of noise.
For a low impedance system, additive electronic device noise is a consistent concern
since the thermal noise of the input impedance is very small. The MDS for these types of
systems is given by the following formula.
MDS= -10log(System B.W.) System Noise Figure 174 dBm
Note that 174 dBm is representative of Johnson noise effects

Speed Requirements for Distortion Considerations

When selecting the slew rate for the operational amplifiers within a sonar design, one
could take the hard-nosed approach to use the fastest op amps available. This may not be
a responsible approach when reviewed against cost critical assessment within a
manufacturing environment. There should also be ample concern with respect to circuit
stability and high bandwidth or overly fast circuit designs will aggravate this issue.
From a computation viewpoint, the following formula specifies the required slew rate, for
a peak voltage output, for a maximum frequency of operation. A figure of merit (10) is
also applied to prevent the selection of an amplifier that would present a margin
performance. Slew limiting generally leads to signal distortion that is particularly
sensitive to generating high harmonic output content.
Slew rate= 10(2FmaxVpeak)/106 V/u-sec (volts per micro second)

System Stability Concerns

The last consideration deemed necessary to enhance optimum sonar performance is to use
a highly stable system clock that possesses minimal jitter content. The maximum SNR
limit for an ADC is dependent upon the following calculation.
SNRmax=20log(1/(2FinTjitter))

dB

Where Fin is the maximum input frequency and Tjitter is the r.m.s. jitter content.
Jitter will not only exist within the digitizing clock, it will exist within the analog
waveforms within the sonar design itself. The total effects of clock and analog jitter are
effectively a r.m.s. summation.
There are no electrical designs that are jitter free iterations. Jitter is a timing variance
due to power supplies noise, component chemistry and varying digital thresholds. The
effects of jitter may not immediately apparent in a system through monitoring of analog
and digital waveforms, unless the problems are excessively critical. Jitter is most notably
assessed by a loss in signal processing gain, which should appear with data set averaging
seen within a Fourier Transform. This is calculated with respect to the following formula:
Signal Processing Gain= 10log(number of averaged samples)

dB

Outside of using high-speed designs to fight the effects of jitter, digitization should be
made at the lowest intermediate frequency as practically possible. The effects of phase
noise within an electronics design are an outward a sign that jitter is a concern.

Non-linear Representations of Dynamic Range

This treatment, for dynamic range, assumes a linear interpretation for this measurement.
Equipment manufactures often wish to over state dynamic range specifications by using
time variable gain control (TVG) to compress signal levels reaching the ADC. In essence,
this is topping up the acceptable signal levels the ADC can potentially digitize though
gain compression. Dynamic range, in this arrangement, is not referred to the linear
capabilities of the measurement system, but the capability of the system to handle
overload signal conditions. This would be dynamic range referred to the sonars input
transducer.

An ADC modeled as an RF Component

As a final note to this treatment of a sonar receiver design, it is also possible to model an
ADC as a practical RF component, with a noise figure (NF). In this instance, the
following formula applies:
NF= (Max Input- SNR) - 10log(Input Frequency) - (-174 dBm)

dB

If the input frequency for an AD9240 is 2 MHz, the device has an equivalent noise figure
of 51 dB. For anyone familiar with RF systems, this order of merit would be staggering.
It obviously explains why an adequate gain structure is needed before an ADC to
minimize its performance degradation upon the receiver design. This result is reflected
within the Friis equation that relates noise figure degradation in terms of the receivers
topology2.
NF system = 10 log (F system) dB
F system (noise factor) = F1 + (F2-1)/G1 + (F3-1)/G1G2 + . Fn-1/(G1G2Gn)
In addition to the case of a noise figure model, an ADC also processes an equivalent third
order intercept point (IP) for analyzing the effects of intermodulation distortion. The
intercept point is calculated in the following manner:
Intercept point= [Harmonic suppression/(N-1)] + Input Power
The most common IP used within RF calculations references the third order intercept
point or IP3. The IP is a measure of the effectiveness of the ADCs track and hold
amplifier and is valid over the relevant frequency range and for analog input values
within 10 dB of the converters full-scale (FS) range. When the analog level is less than
10 dBFS, the nonlinearities of the encoder tend to dominate and the intercept point
concept is invalid.
The most common test for an assessment of intermodulation (IMD) distortion within an
RF system employs two-tone signal injection. These signals are relatively close in
proximity, as the following example suggests.
If two tones are injected into the input of the AD9240 at a level of 10 dBm (-8 dBFS), at
frequencies of 2.3 and 2.4 MHz, the relevant IMD spurs are at 2.2 and 2.5 MHz.
Referencing the product specification; they should appear to be 88 dB down (-80 dBm).
The converters IP3 is therefore:
2

Modern Communications Systems, Smith, Jack, pg 80, McGraw Hill, New York, TK6553.S5595 1986,
ISBN 0-07-058730-2

IP3= 88/(3-1) + 10= 54 dB

One of the key requirements of an ADC a requirement for a spurious free dynamic range
which meets or exceeds the performance of the analog front end. The figure presented
above is in excess of most analog amplifiers presently available upon the market place.

Sonar Accuracy and System Requirements

While the reader has been presented with the mathematics to understand a sonars
dynamic range and noise figure performance, no presentation has been made in lieu of a
systems initial specifications. These aspects of a sonar design are commonly a userbased requirement, established by the client of the final hardware. For instance, the
previous sections alluded to a system bandwidth requirement that seemed to mysterious
pop out as 200 KHz from thin air. This is not a point of normality.
The bandwidth of a sonar design is a direct reflection on the application at hand and the
measurement accuracy needed. A 200 KHz sonar system is an extremely wide bandwidth
sonar that would have an application aimed towards biomedical applications. The
accuracy of this system is derived in the following manner. If we consider two targets
separate by a distance D, a square pulse will distinctly identify both targets as discrete
detections, if the pulse width is equal to the time distance between them. Since this is a
two-way event, the accuracy performance is half of the required pulse width. Once again,
since there is a mean separation point between both targets, a plus minus accuracy
requirement halves this result, yet again. If we presume that water is the medias
environment, the speed of wave propagation in this example is nominally 1500 m/s. Thus
the accuracy of this sonar design is :
Accuracy (D/2) = ((1500 m/s)/(200 KHz))/(22) m
= 1.875 10-3 m or 1.873 mm
Acoustic transducers are conspicuously resonant systems. As we push the need for
measurement accuracy, we are pushing the need for bandwidth resolution. The third
implication that falls out from this arrangement is that a higher primary frequency is
required to create the sonic transmission. A 200 KHz design would subsequently coincide
to a high frequency transducer, typically in the low range of megahertz. This type of
performance is not a common requirement in a more practical application as military
sonar for two valid reasons. The first reason is measurement practicality. Millimeter
accuracy may be overkill, especially when applied to an ocean bound applications. An
associated sonar bandwidth in this case may never exceed 10 KHz. Even then, many
practical users may see this 3.75 cm accuracy limit as overly excessive. Nevertheless,
there is one factor not being addressed in this instance, This is the attenuation of the
primary carrier in the media, itself.

Sonic propagation is logarithmically attenuated in a media, both through spherical

spreading of the wave front and acoustic absorption. A megahertz based sonar would
therefore only be a near range application. Anti-submarine sonars may potentially
require a one-meter accuracy (0.5m). A 750 Hz bandwidth would be the final system
specification and the sonar would be tasked to operate in the low order of kilohertz to
increase sonar range. This vastly expands the capability to detect sonar anomalies many
kilometers from the originating sonar source. Otherwise, passive sonar also exists to
permit passive surveillance within suspect waters. One could surmise that a sonar buoy of
this nature could listen acoustically, but communicate back target reports on a RF radio
link.
One final comment that could be made is that high frequency sonar relates to a design
that shrinks aperture requirements, while enhancing measurement accuracy. This
application may be driven towards precision acoustic positioning or demanding
biomedical applications.

Computing the ENOB from an ADCs SNR Performance

The following formula is used to compute the ENOB from a devices SNR performance:
N= (SNR 1.76)/6.02
The manufacturer with respect to a full scale or near full-scale specifies the ADCs
merits. Nevertheless, the SNR stated this way ignores this devices spurii and harmonic
content associated with input signals and correlated intermodulation distortion (IMD)
products. The inclusion of distortion products also ignores harmonic content stated within
the SINAD (signal including noise and distortion) specification. A commercially
available 14-bit ADC likewise may only represent a perfect 12 bit design.

System Gain Requirements within a Radar Design

We have initially determined the system gain requirements for a one-mega ohm
preamplifier input impedance along with a 200 KHz bandwidth a sonar system. For a
radar system, the receivers input noise power may be directly calculated from the
MDS equation previously presented.
For the same ADC that has been chosen, a one megahertz radar system bandwidth will
have an input referred noise power level of 114 dBm before the system noise figure
is taken into account. If the receiver chain has a nominal noise figure of 2.6 dB, the
required system gain will be 69 dB noting an equivalent CFAR performance. The
following illustrations shall demonstrate an RF receiver chain design analysis that
provides a -42.2 dBm power level at the input of the ADC, thus minimizing this
components noise figure contribution.