What is Language?

It is an audible, articulate, meaningful sound as

produced by the action of the vocal organs;
A systematic means of communicating ideas or
feelings by the use of conventionalized signs,
sounds, gestures, or marks having understood
meanings;
The suggestion by objects, actions, or conditions
of associated ideas or feelings; or
A formal system of signs and symbols including
rules for the formation and transformation of
admissible expressions.
Source: Merriam-Webster Dictionary

What is Language?
We use language for a variety of purposes such
as describing things, expressing our feelings,
persuading people, telling jokes, writing
literature and speculating about the meaning of
life.
Language is relevant to the Theory of Knowledge
because it is one of the main ways in which we
acquire knowledge about the world.
Despite its importance, language is not a perfect
medium of communication and it has drawbacks
as well as benefits.

What is Language?
For example: How often have you found yourself
saying to someone No, thats not what I meant
at all?
One problem is that what one person means
when they say something may not be what
another person understands when they hear it.
Can you think of another example similar to
this?
Furthermore, language is sometimes used to
deliberately deceive and manipulate people.
So we cannot simply take language for granted,
but must look in more detail at what it is and
how it affects our knowledge of the world.

What is Logic?
Logic can be defined as the study of the
principle of correct reasoning.
Its purpose is to develop a science of reasoning.
It clarifies our thinking and helps us to
evaluate the reasoning behind the systems of
belief and theories that we encounter in life.
Logic helps us to understand what our beliefs
mean, how to express them clearly and how they
may be supported.
It is the art and science of good reasoning and
sound argumentation.
It is the examination and analysis of fallacies, or
mistakes in reasoning.
It helps us to create techniques and methods
in testing the validity and correctness of
different kinds of reasoning.

What is the fundamental relation

between Language and Logic?
Logic and Language are directly
related to each other since logic needs
language but language is indirectly
related to logic since language is still
intelligible even without logic.

 If we are to use language for logical

argument, we cannot accept it as is.
But must bring it into conformity with
clearly intelligible logical principles.

This endeavor faces two potential modes

of failure:
(1) it might be impossible to bring
human language fully into conformity
with known logical principles;
(2) there might be fundamental aspects
of logical analysis to which existing
human language is blind.

 These linguistic problems, if uncompromising, could

effectively frustrate any attempt to construct any
philosophical system that yields positive knowledge.
Some of the issues are commonly recognized as
problems per se, i.e., it is generally agreed that the
solution is unknown.
Others may be described as controversies, i.e., while
there is no common agreement about the answer, there
are established schools of thought that believe they
have a correct answer.
For example:
Is there a universal definition of word?
Is there a universal definition of sentence?
Are there any universal grammatical categories
which can be found in all languages?

 Taking the linguistic problems of

philosophy seriously, we must avoid
those common yet false solutions.
First, we cannot reduce logic to mere
formalism, such as the symbolic logic
of mathematics, because in order for a
formalism to be intelligible, we must
be able to translate its symbols into
the concepts of human language.

 Second, we must not lapse into the fallacy of

origins, and try to reduce the question to
pseudo-evolutionary speculation about the
origin of human language.
The entire point of constructing a logical
language is that we are not slaves of the
languages we have inherited, but can
conform them to our thought and ascribe
new meanings to old symbols.
For example:

Jejemon
Man-hole

 The recorded history of the last two

thousand years of philosophy amply
demonstrates how Greek and Latin
vocabulary and grammar were
modified to convey ideas more
precisely.
Nonetheless, we must respect the
possibility that there might be
limits to how much we can modify
language to mirror logical analysis.

BASIC FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE

1. Informative means to convey or
communicate information.
The informative function affirms or
denies propositions.
This function is used to describe the
world or reason about it.
These sentences have a truth value; that
is, the sentences are either true or false.

BASIC FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE

2. Expressive means to express feelings
or attitudes of the writer/speaker, or of
the subject, or evokes feelings in the
reader or listener.
For example,
In Poetry and Literature
Shakespeare's King Lear's lament, Ripeness is
all!
Dickens It was the best of times, it was the worst
of times; it was the age of wisdom; it was the age
of foolishness

BASIC FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE

3. Directive means to cause,
influence, prevent, or overt action.
For example:
Close the windows.
Do not smoke in this area.
The directive function is most commonly
found in commands and requests.
Directive language is not normally considered
true or false.

BASIC FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE

4. Ceremonial is a special function which
is a mixture of expressive and directive
language functions. Performative aspects
are included as well.
For example:
Dearly beloved, we are gathered here
together to witness the holy matrimony of
.

BASIC FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE

5. Performative Utterances is also a special
function of language, which performs the
action it reports.
For example:
I do (marriage ceremony)
I accept
I apologize
I promise
These words denote an action which is
performed by using the verb in the first
person nothing more need be done to
accomplish the action.

What is a Definition?
o The word Definition is defined as the act
of determining something
o To define means to limit, to put
boundaries, borders, or parameters.
o It is the action or the power of describing
or explaining something.
o It attempts to make something definite and
clear.

Basic distinction between

Description and Explanation
Description
It means to represent, indicate,
pronounce, or depict something either a
written or spoken word.
It answers the question What or How.

Explanation
It means to clarify and justify something.
It means to provide reason why something
is or isnt.
It answers the question Why.

Two Parts of a Definition

All definitions follow the definiendum = definiens structure.

1. Definiendum - is the term, word, or phrase being defined in a
definition.
2. Definiens is the word or phrase that defines the definiendum
in a definition.

These two words originated from the Latin participle forms of the
verb definire which means to define.
The meaning of that verb was originally related to limiting, then to
designating by limiting
This verb is derived from the noun finis which means boundary,
limit, border, end.
For example:
Man is a rational being and a political animal.

Definiendum

Definiens

Five Kinds of Definitions

1. Stipulative it suggests or ascribes a new meaning or a
new term for a particular purpose. It is created for a special
particular reason.
2. Lexical it describes the actual use of words in a language.
It is aimed at just documenting the meaning. It is the
standard definition of a word or term.
3. Precising/Explicative it attempts to reduce ambiguity
and vagueness by using a word in its normative sense or
restrictive sense in a particular context to a subset of a
general meaning.
4. Theoretical/Descriptive it is a proposition or formation
of a theory or definition for general understanding.
5. Persuasive it a definition offered to influence attitudes. It
is meant to persuade and manipulate psychologically the
person.

Five purposes of definition

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

To
To
To
To
To

eliminate ambiguity
explain theoretically
increase vocabulary
influence attitudes
reduce vagueness

What can we learn about the study of Logic?

Logic though abstract, is a precise language.
Logical coherence is required even without existential
reality/meaning.
Soundness of argument is not quite necessary as long
as it follows the rules accordingly.
Logic may contain or commit some fallacy or fallacies
but the essential thing is, is to satisfy the conclusion
given the sets of premises with sufficient proof/s even
without any bearing in real life.
Nuances on the practical application of logical rules:
1.
2.
3.

We become more cautious on how we reason and

philosophize;
We become more critical on our analysis on certain
things before passing any judgment; or
We become more careful or mindful in the usage of
words or terms which we use in our daily conversation.

 Logic is about reasoning and

reasoning is a kind of thinking.
It is a kind of thinking in which we try to
solve a problem, make a decision, or
determine what is true.

It is thinking with a purpose or we

may call it purposive thinking.

Three Kinds of Reasoning

A. Deductive Reasoning
It means reasoning from general premises to
particular conclusions.
B. Inductive Reasoning
It means reasoning from particular premises to
general conclusions.
C. Informal Reasoning
It means an attempt to assess and analyze
certain arguments that occur in our everyday
discourse using ordinary language.

Three Kinds of Reasoning

Example:
General Premises

DEDUCTIVE REASONING
All human beings are rational.
All knowing subjects are human beings.
Particular Conclusion
Therefore, some knowing subjects are rational.
INDUCTIVE REASONING
Particular Premises
Atoms are small.
This table is composed of atoms.
General Conclusion
Therefore, all tables are small.
INFORMAL REASONING
Michelle always wear a red shirt.
This argument commits
the fallacy of false cause
Therefore, I think shes in love.

SUMMARY:
All forms of reasoning is thinking but not all
forms of thinking is reasoning.
Pure logic is all about the structure of the
argument.
The validity and invalidity of an argument is
independent of the truth and falsity of its
premises.
We use reason to go beyond the immediate
evidence of our senses.
Logical inference is essential in any form of
reasoning
One of the great attractions of reason as source
of knowledge is that it seems to give us certainty.

Brain Twisters
The Budwiesers are in the first place
and the San Miguel Beers are in fifth,
while the Gold Eagles are midway
between them. If the Red Horses are
ahead of the San Miguel Beers and
the Colts are immediately behind the
Gold Eagles, then who is in second
place?

What is an Inference?
Inference is the process by which one proposition
[conclusion] is reached and affirmed on the basis of one
or more other proposition [premises] accepted as the
starting point of the process.
Reasoning involves inference. The mind draws a
conclusion from a given premise, based on an
inferential connection between these statements.
Reasoning expresses a logical movement from one
statement to another.
For Example:
o The birds are flying south. Winter must be coming.
o The lights are out and their car is gone. I suspect they
are not home.
o She graduated summa cum laude. She must have
studied hard in college.

What is a Proposition?
Propositions are statements that asserts either it is true
or false.
It is oftentimes written in declarative form.
For Example:
o Logic is the study of the principles of correct reasoning.
o Being a president is like riding a tiger.
o Charles Dickens wrote Romeo and Juliet.

What is an Argument?
Argument is a group of statements, one of which is
claimed to follow from the others.
o An argument consist of at least two statements,
one that is claimed to follow, called the
conclusion, and at least one other, called the
premise, that is claimed to support the
conclusion.
o Every argument involves at least one inference
from the premises to the conclusion.
o An argument involves a claim that one
statement follows from the others, that is an
argument purports to show that something is
true.

 An argument thereof is not a mere

collection of propositions but contains a
premise conclusion structure. The
simplest kind of argument consists of
just one premise and a conclusion.
For Example:
The investigation of supernatural phenomena
lies outside the realm of science. Therefore
science can neither prove nor disprove the
existence of God.

In above example, the premise is stated

first and the conclusion second. But
the order in which they are stated is not
significant from the point of view of logic.

 An argument in which the conclusion

is stated in the first sentence and the
premise in the second is shown by the
following example.
Moreover, cutting social security will not
improve the deficit problem. As the
chairman of the National Economic
Development Authority has noted, social
security is funded by separate payroll
taxes and contributes not a cent to the
deficit.

 In some arguments the premise and

conclusion are stated in the same
proposition. Following is an example
of a one-sentence argument whose
premise precedes its conclusion.
The solar system is much younger than
the universe (only 4.5 billion years
compared with 10 to 15 billion years), and
so it must have formed from older matter
that had a previous history.

 Sometimes the conclusion precedes

the premise in a one-sentenced
argument, as in the following
example.
The budget deficit will not be brought
under control because to do so would
require our elected leaders in Congress to
do the unthinkable act courageously and
responsibility.

 As a general rule, when someone gives

reasons to support a point of view, that
person is usually offering an argument.
Likewise when reasons are offered in an
effort to persuade us to perform a
specified action, we are presented with is
in effect an argument even though the
conclusion may be expressed as an
imperative or command.
For Example:
Wisdom is the principal thing; therefore
seek the pursuit of wisdom.
Neither a borrower nor a lender is; for
loan oft loses both itself and a friend.

 An argument is good if the conclusion

follows from the premises while an
argument is bad if the conclusion does
not really follow although it is intended
to.
For Example:
Identical twins who inherit the same
genes have different intelligence quotient.
Environment must play a role in
determining intelligence.
A comet appeared and the locust came.
There must be a connection between the
appearance of a comet and the coming of
the locusts.

How do we expose an argument?

To expose an argument is to pick out the
conclusion and the premise or premises. It is
easier to identify the conclusion. It is the
claim being made. The premise is the reason
to back up the claim.
For Example:
Sharks are not mammals since no fish is a
mammal and sharks are fish.
If the president were really doing his job, the
budget deficit would be reduced. But the
budget deficit has not been reduced. So the
president is not really doing his job.

 It must be noted that a conclusion is not a mere

summary of the premises. It does not simply
restate the premise. The key point is inference.
An argument is neither just a sequence of
statements nor simply a narrative of a temporal
sequence of events.
For Example:
It is sunny today. It is also the beginning of the week.
Since the time he graduated from college he has not
slowed down in his effort to become financially stable
and so he has been long hours and is now reaping the
fruits of his labour.

It is important to distinguish conclusions from

unsupported claims. Reasons must be offered for
accepting a statement before we can classify it as
the conclusion of an argument. Unsupported
claims may be true but we will have to look
elsewhere for reason to believe them.

What is a Premise? Conclusion?

The terms premise and conclusion
denotes a function. Thus no proposition
taken by it can be a premise or a
conclusion. They are such only within
the context of an argument.
An argument may be distinguished
simply as follows:
Premise/s
what serves as the evidence

Conclusion
what is supposed to follow from the evidence

 Premise and conclusion are both relative

works. One and the same proposition can be
a premise in one argument and a conclusion
in another.
For Example:
All mammals feed their young with milk.
All humans are mammals.
Therefore, all humans feed their young with
milk.
All that feed their young with milk are
mammals.
All humans feed their young with milk.
Therefore, all humans are mammals.

 There are clues one can use to pick out the

conclusions and premises of an argument.
Certain words in our language may be used
to signal conclusions or premises.
They are called indicators.
Premise Indicators
Since, as indicated by, because, for, in that, may
be inferred from, as seeing that, for the reason
that, inasmuch as, given that, may be concluded
from, or the reason that, due to the fact that

Conclusion Indicators
Therefore, wherefore, henceforth, accordingly, we
may conclude that, it entails that, hence, thus,
consequently, we may infer that, it must be that,
whence, so, it follows that, implies that

 An argument is seen more clearly if it is

written out in argument form. In this format,
the premises are listed first, followed by a
solid line separating them from the
conclusion, listed at the bottom.
Each statement is numbered and the form is
as follows:
(1) The president, being human is mortal, as
all human beings are mortal.
Premise 1: All human beings are mortal.
Premise 2: The president is a human being.
Conclusion: Therefore, the president is
mortal.

 (2) God does not exist because if he did

there would be no suffering and evil in
the world; but obviously suffering and
evil do exist. Thus, there is no God.
Premise 1: If God existed there would be
no suffering and evil in the world.
Premise 2: But obviously suffering and
evil do exist.
Conclusion: Therefore, there is no God.

How To Recognize Arguments?

Not all passages contain arguments.
One aim of logic is to distinguish passages that
contain arguments from those that do not.
In general, a passage contains an argument if it
claims to prove something.
If it does not do so then it does not contain an
argument.
2 conditions must be fulfilled for a passage to
claim to prove something:
1. At least one of the statements in the passage must
present evidence or reasons for something;
2. There must be a claim that the evidence or reasons
supports something.

For example:
Because aphids are destructive, they are pest.

 Although every passage expressing an

argument contains several propositions
asserted in it, not every passage in which
several propositions are asserted need contain
an argument.
For an argument to be present, one of the
asserted propositions must be claimed to
follow from other propositions asserted to be
true, which are presented as grounds of, or
reasons for believing, the conclusion.
This claim may be either explicit or implicit.
It may be made by the use of premise
indicators or conclusion indicators or by the
occurrence of such words as must, should,
ought, or necessarily in the conclusion.
But the presence of these argument indicators
is not always decisive.

For example:
1) Since Henry graduated from medical
school, his income is probably very
high.
2) Since Henry graduate from medical
school, there have been many changes
in medical school.
The first is an argument but the second
is not although both make use of the
premise indicator since.
The basic structure of the argument can
be illustrated thus:
Q because P

 Basic structure: Q because P

If we are interested in establishing the
truth of Q and P is offered as evidence for
it, the Q because P formulates an
argument.

However, if we regard the truth of Q

as being unproblematic, as being at
least as well established as the truth
of P, but are interested in explaining
why Q is the case, the Q because P is
not an argument but an explanation.

A Case on Stealing and Cheating:

Which is worse?
Two young brothers got into serious trouble. They were
secretly leaving town in a hurry and needed money. Karl,
the older one, broke into a store and stole a thousand
dollars. Bob, the younger one, went to the house of a retired
old man who was known to help people in town. He told the
man that he was very sick and that he needed a thousand
dollars to pay for an operation. Bob asked the old man to
lend him the money and promised that he would pay him
back when he recovered. Well in fact, Bob wasnt really sick
at all, and he had no intention of paying the old man back.
Although the old man didnt know Bob very well, he lent him
the money. So, Bob and Karl skipped town, each with a
thousand dollars.
QUESTION: What is your moral evaluation? Which is worse,
stealing like Karl or cheating like Bob? What makes it worse?
Justify.

Sample argument
What is your moral evaluation?
In the case presented two young brothers are in desperate
need of money since they both got into serious mess, so
they decided to resolve quickly yet thoughtlessly their
problem.
On one hand, Karl broke into a store and stole a thousand
dollars.
On the other hand, Bob lied and deceived an old man that
he badly needed a thousand dollars.
After skillfully fulfilling their hideous plan, they both
skipped town and went away.
Which is worse, stealing like Karl or cheating like Bob?
Both are morally evil but in this case, stealing is worst
because of the following reasons.

P1: The act of stealing is both a legal and

moral infringement.
P2: The effect of stealing is greater than
cheating.
P3: It is a deliberate and willful damage of
property and morale of the owner.
P4: And it is against the ten commandments.
P5: On the other hand, cheating, though a
moral violation as well, has the intention to
deceive a person but not collectively.
C: Therefore, stealing is worst than cheating.

What is CATEGORICAL
PROPOSITION?
In many circumstances, it is a frequent
comment that people do not know how to read.
In fact, students are all too familiar with this
complaint as their professors direct it to them.
What it means, of course, is not that people
(and students in particular) are complete
illiterates, but that they are often poor readers.
Whatever the source of this attitude, it should
be stated here that one of the best remedies
and treatment for poor reading habits is a good
course on logic, and in particular that part of it
which centers on the analysis of propositions.

THE QUANTITY OF PROPOSITIONS

The key rule for determining the quantity of
single (atomic) categorical statements is
formulated in this statement:
The quantity of the subject term determines the
quality of the statement as a whole.

In other words, if you want to know whether

your statement is universal, particular, or
singular, take a close look at the subject term
to see whether it is applied to an entire class
(to all the members), to only part of the class
(some), or to only one member. Thus:
o Universal subject - universal proposition
o Particular subject - particular proposition
o Singular subject - singular proposition

 The above may be illustrated as follows:

All chairs are for sitting.
Some chairs are maple.
This chair is an antique.

For purposes of easy handling, singular propositions in

logic are usually treated as though they were universal.
The classes of statements are therefore reduced to two:
universal and particular.
Since many propositions, however, have no definite or
indicated sign of quantity (all, each, some few, and so
on), we must learn how to classify what logicians call in
designate propositions.
Note that an undesignated (unspecified/non-standard
categorical proposition) proposition is not an additional
class or type of statement that exists alongside one that
must itself be ultimately classified as universal or
particular.
Thus when we read, Parents have a responsibility to
their children, we should decide for ourselves whether
this statement applies to the whole or to only part of the
class of parents.