INTRODUCTION

BULK CARRIER
A bulk carrier, bulk freighter, or bulker is a merchant ship specially designed to transport
unpackaged bulk cargo, such as grains, coal, ore, and cement in its cargo holds.There are
various ways to define the term bulk carrier. As of 1999, the International Convention for the
Safety of Life at Sea defines a bulk carrier as "a ship constructed with a single deck, top side
tanks and hopper side tanks in cargo spaces and intended to primarily carry dry cargo in bulk;
an ore carrier; or a combination carrier." However, most classification societies use a broader
definition where a bulker is any ship that carries dry unpackaged goods.
The first specialized bulk carrier was built in 1852, economic forces have fuelled the
development of these ships, causing them to grow in size and sophistication. Today's bulkers
are specially designed to maximize capacity, safety, efficiency, and to be able to withstand the
rigorous of their work.
Today, bulkers make up 40% of the world's merchant fleets and range in size from singlehold mini-bulkers to mammoth ore ships able to carry 400,000 metric tons of deadweight
(DWT). A number of specialized designs exist: some can unload their own cargo, some
depend on port facilities for unloading, and some even package the cargo as it is loaded. Over
half of all bulkers have Greek, Japanese, or Chinese owners and more than a quarter are
registered in Panama. Korea is the largest single builder of bulkers, and 82% of these ships
were built in Asia.

Literature Review
Bulk Carrier Types
Ore Carriers
Ore carriers are specially designed and may only be employed for a specific trade, eg carriage
of iron ore in bulk from major Australian or Brazilian ports to specific ports in China or

Japan.Ships that are designated as ore carriers have to be strengthened by class standards. In a
seaway these ships tend to be stiffer due to the high density of ore cargoes.
Oil/Bulk/Ore OBO Ships
These ships were designed to alternate between dry bulk and oil cargoes, avoiding a nonearning ballast passage by carrying both cargoes in the same cargo spaces at different times.
They were designed with large hatches to facilitate loading and discharging. However, the
hatch covers were designed to be `oil tight' so the same ship could be loaded with oil cargoes
with strengthened holds for ore cargoes. For this dual purpose operation, OBOs were fitted
with pipelines, pumps and other oil tanker equipment. Major problems on these ships
included gas freeing to load dry cargo after an oil cargo and the high maintenance costs
caused by heavy wear and tear. Owing to the number of losses, notably the Berg Istra (1976),
Berg Vanga (1979) and the Derbyshire (1980), combined with the high maintenance costs,
there has been a reduction in the number of these ships, with few new OBOs built. Most
remaining OBOs are limited to one cargo type.
OBO construction is similar to that of a bulk carrier except that they have larger wing tanks
and their DB tanks are deeper to improve stability when carrying ore cargoes. Many OBOs
have void spaces formed by fitting transverse bulkheads between two cargo holds.

Other features of OBOs are:

1

Oil tight hatch covers to allow the carriage of liquid cargoes

Dedicated slop tanks

Pump room for load/discharge of liquid cargoes

Inert gas system

Tank/hold cleaning system similar to the crude oil washing system on oil tankers
ullaging equipment

Pipeline system (ballast, bilge and cargo) fitted through the duct keel

Bilge lines (for use with dry cargoes)

Self-Unloader Bulk Carriers

Similar in hull structure to other bulk carriers, these vessels are fitted with one of two systems
for discharging cargo:
i) A gravity fed self-unloader: the cargo is dropped onto a conveyor belt running in a duct
keel under the cargo holds that carries the cargo towards the bow or stern of the vessel where
another conveyor lifts it for discharge ashore. The discharging arm is connected to a boom
that can be slewed into position for discharge
ii) A hybrid self-unloader: commonly used, this method does not require any special
structural design of the vessel. The cargo is discharged by grabs into hoppers where it feeds
onto a conveyor belt. The hoppers can be permanently fitted on the ship or may be placed on
the deck of the vessel when discharging.
These ships can discharge cargo in ports without any unloading facilities. The discharging
rates achieved can be the same or higher than those of similar shore based facilities. An added
advantage is that a totally enclosed conveyor system can discharge cargoes such as cement,
coal, grain, ores and fertilizers without causing problems such as dust, cargo wastage, or
damage to the ship's structure by grabs or weather effects.
While the initial cost may be high and the ship's carrying capacity is reduced by fitting an
unloader, this is offset by the quick turn around and reduced port stay.

Open Hatch Bulk Carriers (OHBCs)

These vessels do not have upper and lower wing tanks. Instead, they have straight sides to
carry square shaped bundles of forestry products such as unitised wood pulp, rolled paper or
packaged timber cargoes. They can even carry twenty foot containers. They may have fixed
or travelling gantry cranes for loading/unloading. Due to the nature of their cargoes, these
vessels may be fitted with:
i) Dehumidification systems
ii) Vacuum equipment for loading/discharging cargoes such as steel slabs/pipes, rolled paper,
unitised wood pulp, newsprint, Kraft liner board, Kraft paper etc.

Forest Product Carriers

Open Hatch Bulk Carriers (OHBCs) can also be regarded as a forest product carrier, this
collective term generally refers to the following ship types:
Woodchip Carriers
These vessels are designed to carry woodchips (shredded wood) in bulk. Woodchip is
described as a `neobulk' cargo that requires methods and precautions similar to those
for bulk cargoes. They are usually constructed with 6 watertight (in contrast to
weathertight) cargo holds to prevent water ingress. This is particularly important as
contact with water causes woodchips to expand and could cause severe damage to the
structure of the ship. Additional security measures to prevent water penetration
through air pipes and ventilation ducts to cargo compartments are also incorporated to
protect the cargo.As the cargo holds fill, bulldozers are used to press the cargo. Some
ships are fitted with cargo

loading/ unloading equipment including cranes, grab buckets and wings with
conveyor belts on deck (to pour the chips into cargo holds).
When discharging, the ship's cranes are used together with a grab bucket system
running at the bottom of the cargo compartments. The cargo is carried to the
forecastle by conveyor, where it is discharged ashore through a single discharging
point. However, many ships use conventional grabs to discharge the cargo.
Timber Carriers
These vessels are used for carrying timber or logs in the holds and on deck. The
machinery space and accommodation are located aft to provide clear deck space for
the cargo. Generally, they are fitted with cranes that can handle logs that weight up to
25 tonnes. This means that the decks, tanktops, hatch covers and other structures are
additionally strengthened to withstand these loads.

These ships usually have fixed or portable uprights to support logs/ timbers lashed on
deck. It must be ensured that there is clear access to the mast houses, sounding pipes,
etc, during loaded voyages.
These vessels carry lashings that include turnbuckles, wire ropes, chain, etc, fitted
with a quick release mechanism such as a senhouse slip to release the deck cargo in
case of emergency. On some ships, air powered `speedlashings' automate the lashing
and tightening procedure.
The ship's lashing plan should be adhered to as prescribed in the approved cargo
loading manual. The Code of Safe Practice for Ships Carrying Timber Deck Cargoes
should be complied with for the carriage of timber on these ships.

Wood Pulp Carriers

Wood pulp from soft trees such as pine, larch, hemlock, fir and spruce is the most
common material used to make paper. The major hazard of wood pulp cargo is that it
swells if it comes into contact with water, exerting enormous pressure on the structure
of the cargo hold and possibly causing a structural failure. Additionally, this cargo
depletes oxygen from the environment and generates carbon dioxide, making the
atmosphere in the hold unsuitable for entry.
Considerable attention is required to avoid contamination of the cargo by dirt or by
residues of the previous cargo. Wood pulp is typically carried in bales that have a
protective covering to avoid any contamination to the cargo. To assist in the protection
of a wood pulp cargo, holds are frequently repainted. Air bags are used to prevent the
movement of bales in the hold.
Hybrid Configuration (HyCon) Bulk Carriers
A recent advancement in bulk carrier design is the `hybrid configuration' or `HyCon'.
In this design, the most forward and most aft holds have a double skin but the other
parts of the ship still have a single skin . In this way, the areas that require additional
protection are strengthened without greatly increasing the lightship weight.

A double skin enhances safety, security, dependability, reliability, and reduces the
possibility of damage from accidental flooding. In addition, structures such as frames
and brackets located inside the double skin structure provide a smooth surface for the
cargo, reducing problems with inspection or maintenance. The potential for damage
caused by cargo gear like grabs or bulldozers is reduced, increasing the speed of cargo
discharging in port. The double hull makes inspection much easier through the use of
passageways, ladders and manholes in the double skin. Ballast capacity is also
increased, which is an added advantage in ballast voyages.

Various Bulk Carrier Sizes

Bulk carrier sizes
Terminology Size (DWT)
Characteristics
Minisize
between 3000 and It has less than five holds

Typical Cargo
Minor
bulk,

Handysize

25,000
between

Lakesize

and 40,000
between 20,000 to pass through St. Lawrence

25,000 It usually contain five holds

27,000

Steel

products,General Cargo.
Minor bulk, Steel products

Seaway which calls for a

draught limit of 7.925 m
40,000 It usually contain five holds

Handymax

between

Panamax

and 60,000
Grain, Coal
between
60,000 It usually contains seven Bauxite, Coal,
and 100,000 tonnes

holds.

These

have

that can pass through the

Panama Canal in present
state. Once the expansion is
scheduled

to

be

completed in 2015, these

locks will have chambers
427m (1,400') long by 55m
(180') wide, and 18.3m (60')
deep.

bulk,

max. Phosphate

breadth of about 32.2 m -

done,

Minor

Steel

products,

Grain,

Ore,

Post-

between

Panamax

Capesize

80,000 It usually contains nine

holds. These are wider than
and 120,000
Panamaxes
and
with
dimensions
suitable
for
transiting the new locks of
the expanded Panama Canal
expansion scheduled to be
completed in 2015. These
locks will have chambers
427m long by 55m wide, and
18.3m deep.
between 100,000 It usually contains nine holds. Coal, Ore
and 200,000

Such ships are often described

as Capesize, since if they are
traveling from Asia to Europe
but do not intend to use the
Suez Canal, they will sail
around South Africa's Cape of
Good

Hope.

These large bulk carriers are

gearless, that is to say they
have no derricks or cranes and
depend

entirely

on

shore

appliances for loading and

discharging. This is because
in most places where such
cargoes

are

handled

the

terminals have very advanced

machinery designed for the
quickest possible loading or
VLBC (Very Over 200,000

discharging.
It usually contain nine holds. Coal, Ore

Large

These large bulk carriers are

Carriers)

Bulk

gearless, that is to say they

have no derricks or cranes and
depend

entirely

on

shore

appliances for loading and

discharging. This is because
in most places where such
cargoes

are

handled

the

terminals have very advanced

machinery designed for the
quickest possible loading or
discharging.

1. Choosing a Design:
The history of ship design is one of evolution rather than revolution. Designers learn from
past experience and each new ship tends to be a development of a previous successful design.
The characteristics desired by the shipping company can usually be achieved with various
combinations of dimensions. This choice allows an economic optimum to be obtained whilst
meeting company requirements. An iterative procedure is needed when determining the main
dimensions and ratios.
1.1 Single hull vs. Double hull:
A double hull bulk carrier can be defined as a ship designed for the carriage of oil
mainly in bulk where the cargo spaces are protected from the environment by a
double hull consisting of double side and double bottom spaces dedicated to the
carriage of ballast water.

Ability to prevent or reduce oil spills led DB HULL being standardized for other types of
ships including Bulk carriers by the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution
from Ships or MARPOL Convention.

After the Exxon Valdez oil spill disaster, when that ship grounded on Bligh
Reef outside the port of Valdez in Alaska, the US Government required all
new oil tankers built for use between US ports to be equipped with a full
double hull. However, the damage to the Exxon Valdez penetrated sections
of the hull (the slops oil tanks) which were protected by a partial double
hull. The double hull required by the new regulations would not have
prevented extensive loss of oil from the Exxon Valdez, though it might
have somewhat limited the losses.
Furthermore, a double-hulled Bulk carrier doesn't need longitudinal
bulkheads for longitudinal strength, as the inner hull already provides this.
Eliminating longitudinal bulkheads would result in much wider tanks,
significantly increasing the free surface effect. However, this problem is
easily corrected with the addition of anti-slosh baffles and partial bulkheads

2. Design Criteria:
So to satisfy the owners requirements the dimensions of a ship should be co-ordinate such
that the ship satisfies the design conditions. However, the ship should not be larger than
necessary. The design should offer smarter shipping by reducing fuel costs with an optimized
hull form, and by increasing revenues with greater cargo capacity.

It has been said that the problem for a Naval Architect is to design a ship that will carry
certain deadweight at a reasonable rate of stowage in a seaworthy vessel at a predetermined
speed on a given radius of action as cheaply as possible all in conjunction with a General
Arrangement suited to the ships trade.
The Naval Architect must therefore keep in mind all of the following:

In determining the Main Dimensions for a new ship, guidance can be taken from a similar
ship for which basic details are known. This is known as a basic vessel and must be similar
in type, size, speed and power to the new vessel. It is constantly referred to as the new design
is being developed. When a ship owner makes an initial enquiry, he usually gives the
shipbuilder four items of information:
_ Type of vessel
_ Deadweight of the new ship
_ required service speed
_ Route on which the new vessel will operate

PLANNING, CONTROL OF CARGO

LOADING AND UNLOADING
OPERATIONS

Collecting cargo and Port Information

The safe operation of bulk carriers is dependent on not exceeding allowable stresses in the
cycle of loading, discharging, ballasting and de-ballasting. To prepare the vessel for cargo
stowage and a safe planning, the loading and unloading sequences and other operational
matters should be informed well in advance.
The shore terminal should provide the ship with the following information:

i) Prior to loading bulk cargo, the shipper should declare characteristics & density of the
cargo, stowage factor, angle of repose, amounts and special properties.
ii) Cargo availability and any special requirements for the sequencing of cargo operations.
iii) Characteristics of the loading or unloading equipment including number of loaders and
unloaders to be used, their ranges of movement, and the terminal's nominal and maximum
loading and unloading rates, where applicable.
iv) Minimum depth of water alongside the berth and in the fairway channels.
v) Water density at the berth.
vi) Air draught restrictions at the berth.
vii) Maximum sailing draught and minimum draught for safe manoeuvring permitted by the
port authority.
viii) The amount of cargo remaining on the conveyor belt which will be loaded onboard the
ship after a cargo stoppage signal has been given by the ship.
ix) Terminal requirements/procedures for shifting ship.
x) Local port restrictions, for example, bunkering and deballasting requirements etc.
Cargo trimming is a mandatory requirement for some cargoes, especially where there is a risk
of the cargo shifting or where liquefaction could take place. It is recommended the cargo in
all holds be trimmed in an attempt to minimize the risk of cargo shift.
The ship's Master should be aware of the harmful effects of corrosive and high temperature
cargoes and any special cargo transportation requirements. Ship Masters, deck officers,
charterers and stevedores should be familiar with the relevant IMO Codes (for example, the
IMO Code of Safe Practice for Solid Bulk Cargoes, the IMO Code of Practice for the Safe
Loading and Unloading of Dry Bulk Carriers and the SOLAS Convention).
Devising a Cargo Stowage Plan and Loading/Unloading Plan
Exceeding the permissible limits specified in the ship's approved loading manual will lead to
over-stressing of the ship's structure and may result in catastrophic failure of the hull
structure. The amount and type of cargo to be transported and the intended voyage will

dictate the proposed departure cargo and/or ballast stowage plan. The officer in charge should
always refer to the loading manual to ascertain an appropriate cargo load distribution,
satisfying the imposed limits on structural loading.
1) There are two stages in the development of a safe plan for cargo loading or unloading:
a) Step 1: Given the intended voyage, the amount of cargo and/or water ballast to be carried
and imposed structural and operational limits, devise a safe departure condition, known as the
stowage plan.
b) Step 2: Given the arrival condition of the ship and knowing the departure condition
(stowage plan) to be attained, devise a safe loading or unloading plan that satisfies the
imposed structural and operational limits.
2) In the event that the cargo needs to be distributed differently from that described in
the ship's loading manual, stress and displacement calculations are always to be
carried out to ascertain, for any part of the intended voyage, that:
a) The still water shear forces and bending moments along the ship's length are within the
permissible Seagoing limits.
b) If applicable, the weight of cargo in each hold, and, when block loading is adopted, the
weights of cargo in two successive holds are within the allowable Seagoing limits for the
draught of the ship. These weights include the amount of water ballast carried in the hopper
and double bottom tanks in way of the hold(s).
c) The load limit on the tanktop and other relevant limits, if applicable, on local loading are
not exceeded.
3) The consumption of ship's bunkers during the voyage should be taken into account
when carrying out these stress and displacement calculations.
4) Whilst deriving a plan for cargo operations, the officer in charge must consider the
ballasting operation to ensure:

a) Correct synchronization with the cargo operation.

b) That the deballasting/ballasting rate is specially considered against the loading rate and the
imposed structural and operational limits.
c) That ballasting and deballasting of each pair of symmetrical port and starboard tanks is
carried out simultaneously.
5) During the planning stage of cargo operations, stress and displacement calculations
should be carried out at incremental steps commensurate with the number of pours
and loading sequence of the proposed operation to ensure that:
a) The SWSF and SWBM along the ship's length are within the permissible Harbour limits.
b) If applicable, the weight of cargo in each hold, and, when block loading is adopted, the
weights of cargo in two adjacent holds are within the allowable Harbour limits for the
draught of the ship. These weights include the amount of water ballast carried in the hopper
and double bottom tanks in way of the hold(s).
c) The load limit on the tanktop and other relevant limits, if applicable, on local loading are
not exceeded.
d) At the final departure condition, the SWSF and SWBM along the ship's length are within
the permissible Seagoing stress limits.
6) During the derivation of the cargo stowage, and the loading or unloading plan, it is
recommended that the hull stress levels be kept below the permissible limits by the
greatest possible margin. A cargo loading/unloading plan should be laid out in such a
way that for each step of the cargo operation there is a clear indication of:i) The quantity of cargo and the corresponding hold number(s) to be loaded/unloaded.

ii) The amount of water ballast and the corresponding tank/hold number(s) to be
discharged/loaded.
iii) The ship's draughts and trim at the completion of each step in the cargo operation.
iv) The calculated value of the still water shear forces and bending moments at the
completion of each step in the cargo operation.
v) Estimated time for completion of each step in the cargo operation.
vi) Assumed rate(s) of loading and unloading equipment.
vii) Assumed ballasting rate(s)
The loading/unloading plan should indicate any allowances for cargo stoppage (which may
be necessary to allow the ship to deballast when the loading rate is high), shifting ship,
bunkering, draught checks and cargo trimming.

The loading or unloading plan should only be changed when a revised plan has been
prepared, accepted and signed by both parties. Loading plans should be kept by the ship and
terminal for a period of six months.
A copy of the agreed loading or unloading plan and any subsequent amendments to it should
be lodged with the appropriate authority of the port State.
The more commonly adopted cargo distributions are:

Homogeneous hold loading conditions,

Alternate hold loading conditions,
Block hold loading conditions,
Part hold loading conditions.

1.Homogeneous hold loading conditions:

2.Alternate hold loading conditions:

3.Block/Part hold loading conditions:

TYPES OF CARGO
Dry bulk cargo is shipped in large quantities and can be easily stowed in a single hold with
little risk of cargo damage. Dry bulk cargo is generally categorized as either major bulk or
minor bulk.
Major Bulk Cargo

Major bulk cargo constitutes the vast majority of dry bulk cargo by weight, and includes,
among other things, iron ore, coal and grain. The major bulk cargos and its specific gravity
are as follows:

Specific
Type of cargo

Sub Categories

Density

Gravity

21001) Iron Ore

400
2400

2.1-2.9
0.4
2.4

dry
Iron sulphate - pickling tank -

1200

1.2

wet

1290

1.29

2) Coal

Charcoal
Coal, Anthracite, solid
Coal, Anthracite, broken
Coal, Bituminous, solid
Coal, Bituminous, broken

208
1506
1105
1346
833

0.208
1.506
1.105
1.346
0.833

3)Grains

Rice, hulled
Rice, rough
Rice grits

753
577
689

0.753
0.577
0.689

Wheat
Wheat, cracked
Buckwheat

769
673
657
780-

0.769
0.673
0.657

Grain - Wheat
Flour, wheat

800
593

0.78-0.8
0.593

Sugar, brown
Sugar, powdered
Sugar, granulated
Sugar, raw cane
Sugar beet pulp, dry
Sugar beet pulp, wet
Sugarcane

721
801
849
961
208
561
272

0.721
0.801
0.849
0.961
0.208
0.561
0.272

Corn, on the cob

Corn, shelled
Corn, grits

721
721
673

0.721
0.721
0.673

Barley
Grain - Barley

609
600

0.609
0.6

Oats
Oats, rolled

432
304

0.432
0.304

Rye

705

0.705

Soy beans, whole

753

0.753

4) coarse Grains

Iron ore - crushed

Iron oxide pigment
Iron Pyrites
Iron sulphate - pickling tank -

2900

Minor Bulk cargo:

Minor bulk cargo includes products such as agricultural products, mineral cargoes (including
metal concentrates), cement, forest products and steel products [1,2,3,4]. The minor bulk
cargos and its specific gravity are as follows:

Specific
Type of cargo

Sub Categories

1)cement

Cement - clinker
Cement, Portland
Cement, mortar
Cement, slurry

2)Forest Products

Wood
Wood chips - dry
Afromosia
Apple
Ash, black
Ash, white
Aspen
Balsa
Bamboo
Birch (British)
Cedar, red
Cypress
Douglas Fir
Ebony
Elm ( English )
Elm ( Wych )
Elm ( Rock )
Iroko
Larch
Lignum Vitae
Mahogany ( Honduras )
Mahogany ( African )
Maple
Oak
Pine ( Oregon )
Pine ( Parana )
Pine ( Canadian )
Pine ( Red )
Redwood ( American )

Density

Gravity

1290-1540
1506
2162
1442

1.29-1.54
1.506
2.162
1.442

240- 520
705
660 - 830
540
670
420
170
300 - 400
670
380
510
530
960 - 1120
600
690
815
655
590
1280 - 1370
545
495 - 850
755
590 - 930
530
560
350 - 560
370 - 660
450

0.24-0.52
0.705
0.66-0.83
0.54
0.67
0.42
0.17
0.3-0.4
0.67
0.38
0.51
0.53
0.96-1.12
0.6
0.69
0.815
0.655
0.59
1.28-1.37
0.545
0.495-0.85
0.755
0.59-0.93
0.53
0.56
0.35-0.56
0.37-0.66
0.45

3)Agricultural Products

4)Mineral Concentrates

Redwood ( European )
Spruce ( Canadian )
Spruce ( Sitka )
Sycamore
Teak
Willow
Cottonwood
Coffee
Coffee, fresh beans
Coffee, roast beans
cotton
Cottonseed, dry, de-linted
Cottonseed, dry, not de-linted
Cottonseed, cake, lumpy
Cottonseed, hulls
Cottonseed, meal
Cottonseed, meats
Oil seeds
Oil cake
Oil, linseed
Linseed, whole
Linseed, meal
Bauxite, crushed
Alumina
copper
Copper ore
Copper sulphate, ground

510
450
450
590
630 - 720
420
416

0.51
0.45
0.45
0.59
0.63-0.72
0.42
0.416

561
432

0.561
0.432

561
320
673
192
593
641

0.561
0.32
0.673
0.192
0.593
0.641

785
942
753
513
1281
961
8930
1940-2590
3604

0.785
0.942
0.753
0.513
1.281
0.961
8.93
1.94-2.59
3.604

11340
11389
3684
4085

11.34
11.389
3.684
4.085

zinc
zinc oxide

7135
400

7.135
0.4

Magnetite, solid ( iron ore )

Magnetite, broken

5046
3284

5.046
3.284

Limonite, solid
Limonite, broken
Limestone, solid
Limestone, broken
Limestone, pulverized

3796
2467
2611
1554
1394

3.796
2.467
2.611
1.554
1.394

2400 - 5015

2.4-5.015

lead
Lead, rolled
Lead, red
Lead, white pigment

Pyrite (fool's gold)

5)]Steel Products

steel - rolled
steel - stainless

6)Agricultural Supplies

Phosphate
Gypsum, solid
Gypsum, broken
Gypsum, crushed
Gypsum, pulverized

7)Commercial Products

Potash
urea
wool
leather

7850
7480 - 8000

7.85
7.48-8

1762
2787
1290-1600
1602
1121

1.762
2.787
1.29-1.6
1.602
1.121

1281
735-785
1314
945

1.281
0.735-0.785
1.314
0.945

ANGLE OF REPOSE:The angle of repose or the critical angle of repose, of a granular material is the steepest
angle of descent or dip of the slope relative to the horizontal plane when material on the slope
face is on the verge of sliding. This angle is in the range 090.
Type of Cargo
Iron ore - crushed
Iron sulphate - dry
Iron sulphate - wet
Charcoal
Coal, Anthracite, broken
Coal, Bituminous, broken
Rice, hulled
Cement - clinker
Cement, Portland
Cottonseed, cake, lumpy
Cottonseed, meal
Cottonseed, meats
Oil cake
Phosphate
Gypsum, broken

Angle of Repose
35
30-44
30-44
35
27
35
30-44
75-85
30-44
30-44
35
30-44
45
25-29
40

STOWAGE FACTOR:In shipping, the stowage factor indicates how many cubic metres of space one metric tonne
(or cubic feet of space one long ton) of a particular type of cargo occupies in a hold of a cargo
ship. It is calculated as the ratio of the stowage space required under normal conditions,

including the stowage losses caused by the means of transportation and packaging, to the
weight of the cargo.The stowage factor can be used in ship design and as a reference to
evaluate the efficiency of use of the cargo space on a ship.

Typical Bulk Cargoes

Commodity Stow factor, ft3/longton Stow factor, m3/longton Spec. g, ton/m3

Iron ore

12-15

0.34 0.42

3-2.42

Coal

42-48

1.2-1.36

0.85-0.75

Grain heavy

42-56

1.2-1.42

0.85-0.72

Grain light

55-60

1.56-1.7

0.65-0.6

Bauxite

28-35

0.79-0.99

1.29-1.03

Phosphate/rock

33-34

0.91-0.96

1.12-1.06

General

24-29

0.69-0.82

1.47-1.24