JeanJacques Rousseau, in his 1762 treatise "Du contrat

social" ("The Social Contract", outlined a much less

individualist(and much more collectivist) versionofcontract
theory, basedontheconceptionofpopularsovereignty(the
beliefthatthelegitimacyofthestateiscreatedbythewillor
consent of its people, who are the source of all political
power), and on his advocacy of direct democracy. He
argued that, as an individual,thesubjectcanbeegoistand
decide that his personal interest should override the
collectiveinterest.However,aspartofacollectivebody,the
individual subject puts aside his Egoism to create a
"general will" (the persistence of equality and freedom in
the society). Rousseau goes so far as to indicate that
people who do not obey the general willmustbe"forcedto
be free". Rousseau's version of the social contract is the
one most often associated with the term "social contract"
itself. His theories had a strong influence on both the1789
French Revolution and the subsequent formation of the
Socialist
movement.(Source:http://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_contractarianism.html)

John Locke (16321704) is one of the most influential

political philosophers of the modern period. In the Two
Treatises of Government, he defended the claim that men
are by nature free and equal against claims that God had
made all people naturally subject to a monarch.Heargued
that people have rights, such astherighttolife,liberty,and
property, that have a foundation independent ofthelawsof
any particular society. Locke used the claim that men are
naturally free and equal as part of the justification for
understanding legitimate political government as the result
of a social contract where people in the state of nature
conditionally transfersomeoftheirrightstothegovernment
in order to better ensure the stable,comfortableenjoyment
of their lives, liberty, and property.Sincegovernmentsexist
by the consent ofthepeopleinordertoprotecttherightsof
the people and promote the public good, governmentsthat
fail to do so can be resisted and replaced with new
governments. Locke is thus also important for his defense of the right of revolution.Lockealso
defends the principle of majority rule and the separation of legislative and executivepowers.In
the Letter Concerning Toleration, Locke denied that coercion should be used tobringpeopleto
(what the ruler believes is) the true religion and also denied that churches should have any
coercive power over their members. Locke elaborated on these themes in his later political

writings, such as the Second Letter on Toleration and Third Letter on Toleration. (Source:
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/lockepolitical/)

Thomas Hobbes, The English philosopher

Thomas Hobbes (15881679) is bestknownforhis
political thought, and deservedly so. His vision of
the world is strikingly original and still relevant to
contemporary politics. His main concern is the
problem of social and political order: how human
beings can live together in peace and avoid the
danger and fear of civil conflict. His two influences
are one, a reaction against religious authority as it
had been known, and especially against the
scholastic philosophy that accepted and defended
such authority.Andtwo,adeepadmirationfor(and
involvement in) the emerging scientific method,
alongside an admiration for a much older
discipline, geometry. Both influences affected how
Hobbes expressed his moral and political ideas.In
some areas it's also clear that they significantly
affected the ideas themselves.For,Hobbes,
humans are pathetic [appears pitiful]. What is our political fate? He asks. For him, in order to
have apeacefullife,weneedanauthoritariansoundingsovereign.Amonarchwhotellsuswhat
to do or directs our lives. He thinks the natural condition of mankind is violent, insecure and
always under threat. He believes we need the government, but we should not make that
governmentaccountabletothepeople.Weneedamonarch/leader/kingwhodoesnotanswerto
his/herpeople.Wejustfollowhim/her.
(Source:h
ttp://www.iep.utm.edu/hobmoral/#H3)

Socrates(469399BCE)
According to Cicero, Socrates was the first to
bring philosophy downfromheaven,locatingit
in cities and even in homes. It is argued that
Socrates believed "ideals belong in a world
onlythewisemancanunderstand"makingthe
philosopher the only type of personsuitableto
governothers.

In Plato's dialogue the Republic, Socrates

openly objected to the democracy that ran
Athens during his adult life. It was not only
Athenian democracy: Socrates found short of
ideal any government that did not conform to
his presentation of a perfect regime led by
philosophers, and Athenian government was
far from that. It is, however, possible that the
Socrates of Plato's Republic is colored by
Plato's own views. During the last years of Socrates' life, Athens was in continual flux due to
politicalupheaval.DemocracywasatlastoverthrownbyajuntaknownastheThirtyTyrants,led
by Plato's relative, Critias, who had once been a student and friend of Socrates. The Tyrants
ruled for about a year before the Athenian democracy wasreinstated,atwhichpointitdeclared
anamnestyforallrecentevents.

Socrates' opposition to democracy is often denied, and the question is one of the biggest
philosophical debates when trying to determine exactly what Socrates believed. In the view of
Socratesethicsandpoliticsarecloselyconnectedwitheachother.Withoutpoliticsethicscarries
no value, and without ethics politics becomes harmful. The highest of all virtues isthepolitical
artwhichincludesstatecraftandmakesmengoodpoliticiansandpublicofficials.

In other words, Socrates thought that the purpose of politics was not to capture power, nor it
was an art how to remain in power. Political ethics make good and proper citizens. Bothpublic
and private persons mustlearntheartofpoliticalethics.Socratesalsodiscussedtheconceptof
law.Hedividedlawintounwrittendivinelawandwrittenhumanlaw.Hecautionedusbypointing
outthattherewasnodiscrepancybetweenthesetwosetsoflaws.

Socrates dealt with a popular and at the same time important concept of politics popularly
known as allegiance to law. He devised the theory of concord which means the citizens must
show allegiance and obedience to law. Interpreting Socratess allegiancetolaw,Xenophon,the
most reliable interpreter of Socratess view, saysA Republic thatisobedienttolawsishappy
in peaceandinvincibleinwar.Moreover,youknowthatconcordisagreathappinessinastate.
Socratesadmittedthediversitiesamongthecitizensanddifferencesofopinion.

Source:h
ttp://www.politicalsciencenotes.com/socrates/socrateslifeteachingsandpoliticalideas/847

Plato is a wellknown Greek philosopher, scientist,

historian, and political theorist. He is the son of the
statuary, Sophroniscus, and of the midwife, Phaenarete.
Plato was a disciple of Socrates. He wasborninAthens
in June of 427B.C.Heexcelledinthefieldsofastrology,
geometry and was acquainted with the doctrines of
Greek leaders. Because he was a close follower of the
teachings ofSocrates,themajorityofhisideasaboutthe
system of justice and his perception of how the system
operatesinsociety,directlyrepresentthoseofSocrates

In The Republic, justice is presented almost as awayto

measure the moral values of individuals for citizens in
society. Despite the fact that The Republic is largely
dedicated to explaining and defining the system of
justice through the lens of past teachings, it defines and
explores issues of political doctrine and mores. Among
themajorwritingsthatPlatohaspublished,TheRepublic
is the most influential historical document.Infact,itisso
significant that the theory proposed in this historical work relates to the political beliefs and
systems of the contemporary world. Plato's proposal has challenged political scientists and
theorists to detach from their assumptions about the system of justice and to observe the
system withtheunderstandingthatmoralityandjusticearethebuildingblocksofPlato'spolitical
theory.
Plato defines clearly the definition of justice and morality. His workisamajorpoliticaldiscovery
to the truth of right and wrong. The system of justice can be interpreted in different ways but
essentially its political theory proves that the strong holds advantage over the weak is a
universal truth. However, his revealing of the truth between right and wrong gives birth to the
notion that justice is definedbytheactofgoodwill,ratherthantheselfinterestoftheindividual.
TheintellectualnotionofjusticethatPlatoarguesforissopowerfulthatthevalidityofitspolitical
doctrinesistimelessinhumanhistory.
Source
https://www.ukessays.com/essays/philosophy/platoscontributioninpoliticalsciencephilosophyessay.php

Aristotle(384322B.C.E)

Aristotle is a towering figure in ancient Greek

philosophy, making contributions to logic,
metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology,
botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine,
dance and theatre. He wasastudentofPlato
who in turn studied under Socrates. He was
more empiricallyminded than Plato or
Socrates and is famous for rejecting Plato's
theory of forms. Aristotle states that the
politician and lawgiveriswhollyoccupiedwith
the citystate, and the constitutionisacertain
way of organizing those who inhabit the
citystate (III.1.1274b368). His general
theory of constitutions is set forth in Politics
III. He begins with a definition of the citizen
(polits), since the citystate is by nature a collective entity, a multitude of citizens.Citizensare
distinguished from other inhabitants, such as resident aliens andslavesandevenchildrenand
seniors are not unqualified citizens (nor are most ordinary workers). After further analysis he
defines the citizen as a person who has the right (exousia) to participate in deliberative or
judicial office (1275b1821This is reflected in Aristotle's definition of the citizen (without
qualification). Further, he defines the citystate (in the unqualified sense)asamultitudeofsuch
citizenswhichisadequateforaselfsufficientlife(1275b2021).
Aristotle defines the constitution (politeia) as a way of organizing the offices of the citystate,
particularly the sovereign office (III.6.1278b810 cf. IV.1.1289a1518). The constitution thus
defines the governing body, which takes different forms: for example, in a democracy it is the
people, and in an oligarchy it is a select few (the wealthy or well born). Before attempting to
distinguish and evaluate various constitutions Aristotleconsiderstwoquestions.First,whydoes

a citystate come into being? He recalls the thesis, defended in Politics I.2, that human beings
arebynaturepoliticalanimals,whonaturallywanttolivetogether.
(Source:http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotlepolitics/)

KarlMarx
Karl Marx was bornandraisedinTrier,acitythatwasthenin
the Kingdom of Prussia but now occupies southwestern
GermanyontheFrenchborder.

Its not that Marx was antagonistic toward religion, he just

saw it from a uniquely historical perspective. Everything to
Marx was a matter of society which, in turn, was a reflection
of economics. Oppression, poor economic conditions, fear
and desperation caused humanity to cling to religion and
Marx always hoped for a world where such comfort was
unneeded. Politics to Marx, like religion, is amanifestationof
economicsandthematerialworld.

Marx was the founder of communism. Politics to Marx was

wrapped upineconomicsandsocialconditions.Attheturnof
the 21st century, China, Cuba, Laos and Vietnam remained
theonlyofficiallyMarxistLeniniststatesremaining.

(Source:h
ttp://hollowverse.com/karlmarx/)

NiccolMachiavelli(14691527)

His three works, The Prince, The Discourses, and

The History of Florence, provided the first modern
analysisofpoliticalscienceandthehabitsofrulers.

Machiavelli was concerned with virt, the habits he

believed made a ruler successful. Virt did not
always relate to virtue, as Machiavelli's most
remembered maxim, "The end justifies the means,"
demonstrates.

Machiavelli is not original through its topic as many

before him had studied politics and had done it so
brilliantly, coming up with original works. What is
original about Machiavellisperspectiveishismethod
of approaching the political phenomenon:

Machiavelli invents a realistic theory of politics. He bases the very ethical principles on the
principles of politics which, inturn,relyontologicallyonthedialecticofpurposesandmeans[]
He is looking for causeandeffect,believesinexperience,inthelessonofhistory,inactions.He
discovers the psychology of people and that which is permanent about it. He studies the
universeofintentandaction.[25]

The author of The Prince canbeseenasoneofthemostprofoundpoliticalpsychologistsforhe

grasped human natures negative side, its vices, dark passions and hidden effects, reaching a
deep level of scepticism, on which he built his Machiavellianism. One thing is clear, though:
Machiavelli did not invent shrewdness, treason or political crime. But he deducedatheoretical
principle out of the political practice, a universally valid norm and he conjured a decisive proof
for the secularisation of thinking.[26] Machiavellianism as a practical political attitude is a
despicableanddangerousphenomenon.However,itisnotMachiavelliwhoisresponsibleforit.

(Sources:https://www.brainscape.com/flashcards/20465963/WhichFlorentineisconsideredthe
fatherofmodernpoliticalscience%3F
http://seejps.lumina.org/index.php/volumeinumber4theexerciseofpower500yearsafterthe
princewaswritten/53machiavellisroleandimportanceinthehistoryofpoliticalthoughtmac
hiavellithecreatorofanewpoliticalparadigm)

AdamSmith(17231790)
AdamSmithisa18thcenturyphilosopherand
politicaleconomist,oftenidentifiedasthefatherof
moderncapitalism.S
mithpublishedalargebodyof
worksthroughouthislife,beginningwithhisfirst
book," TheTheoryofMoralSentiments",writtenin
1759,andendingwiththe" EssaysonPhilosophical
Subjects"whichwaspublishedposthumouslyin
1795.Hissinglemostimportantbook,though,was
undoubtedly" TheWealthofNations"(fulltitle" An
InquiryIntotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthof
Nations"),publishedin1776andwidelyconsidered
oneofthemostinfluentialbooksoneconomicsofall
time.
"TheTheoryofMoralSentiments"wasSmith'sfirst
publishedwork,buthehimselfconsideredithismost
important,andhecontinuedtorevisethework
throughouthislife,makingextensiverevisionstothe
final(6th)editionshortlybeforehisdeathin1790.Itprovidedthee
thical,philosophical,
psychologicalandmethodologicalunderpinningstohislaterworks,anditwasactuallyinthis
workthatSmithfirstreferredtothe"invisiblehand"todescribetheapparentbenefitstosociety
ofpeoplebehavingintheirowninterests.

Inthebook,hecriticallyexaminedthemoralthinkingofthetime,withtheaimofexplaininghow
mankindcanformmoraljudgementsinspiteofitsnaturalinclinationtowardselfinterest.He
concludedthatconsciencearisesfromsocialrelationships,andproposedatheoryof
"sympathy"inwhichtheactofobservingothersmakespeopleawareofthemselvesandofthe
moralityoftheirownbehaviour.WhileatfirstglancethisA
ltruismseemstocontradictthe
EgoismandIndividualismfoundinhislaterworks(thesocalled"AdamSmithProblem"),it
shouldbenotedthathewasalsosuggestingthatindividualswouldactuallyfinditintheirown
selfinteresttodevelopthissympathy.
"AnInquiryIntotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNations",publishedin1776,isaclearly
writtenaccountofpoliticaleconomyatthedawnoftheIndustrialRevolution,andiswidely
consideredtobethefirstandmostinfluentialmodernworkofeconomics.Init,heexpandson
threemainconceptsthattogetherformthefoundationoffreemarketeconomicsandCapitalism:
thedivisionoflabour,thepursuitofselfinterestandfreedomoftrade.
Hearguedinthe" WealthofNations"that,whilehumanmotivesareoftenselfishnessand
greed,thecompetitioninthefreemarketwouldtendtobenefitsocietyasawholebykeeping
priceslow,whilestillbuildinginanincentiveforawidevarietyofgoodsandservices("thestudy
ofhisownadvantagenaturally,orrathernecessarily,leadshimtopreferthatemploymentwhich
ismostadvantageoustothesociety").Hefurtherarguedthatadivisionoflabourwouldeffecta
greatincreaseinproductionandthat,althoughthefreemarketappearschaoticand
unrestrained,itisactuallyguidedtoproducetherightamountandvarietyofgoodsbya
socalled"invisiblehand"(thesameanalogyinadifferentform).

(Source:h
ttp://www.philosophybasics.com/philosophers_smith.html)