Surf Engineering 1 y 2 Semiconductor Properties

1.
Properties
p
of semiconductor materials
Universidad Politcnica de Madrid
Fundamentals of Semiconductor Fabrication

G.S. May and S.N. Sze
Ch t
Chapters:
1 and
d2
2.4
4
Semiconductor Devices: Physics

y
and Technology
gy
S.M. Sze
Ch t
Chapters:
2
2.1,
1 2
2.2,
2 2
2.4,
4 2
2.5,
5 2
2.6
6 and
d2
2.7
7
Classification of Materials
Resistivity
Quartz
Wood
Diamond
Insulators
Si
Ge
Semiconductors
Pb
Au
Conductors
1018 1016 1014 1012 1010 108 106 104 102 100 10-2 10-4 10-6 10-8
Resistivityy ((cm))
Key point: the conductivity of semiconductors can be controlled by doping
Semiconductor materials
II
III IV V VI VII
Semiconductors
Element
Si, Ge
Compo
ound
III-V
Binary:
GaAs, AlAs, InAs
GaP InP
GaP,
InP, AlP
GaN, InN
Ternary:
AlGaAs, InGaAs,
InGaP, InGaN
Quaternary:
GaInNAs
Quinary:
GaInNAsSb
II-VI
Example: Al0.3Ga0.7As = alloy of 30% Al and 70% Ga (mole fraction)
Properties change with alloy composition.
ZnO, CdHgTe,
ZnSe
Crystalline structure
Amorphous structure
a
Ga
Polycrystalline structure
Diamond Lattice (Si)
Zinc-blende Lattice (GaAs)
Concept of Unit Cell

Single crystal structure
a = lattice constant for cubic case
Lattice is defined by translational symmetry:

L = n1a + n2b + n3c (n1, n2, n3 are integers)
Crystalline structure
Diamond-like
a/4
a
a/2
Each atom shared by

8 cubes: 8/8 = 1
Each atom shared by

2 cubes: 6/2 = 3
Each atom inside the

unit cell: 4
Number of atoms p
per cm3 = 8 / a3 = 8 / ((5.43 x 10-8)3 = 5 x 1022 at/cm-3
a (Si) = 5.43 Angstrom
Miller Index Notation

[001]
[111]
[100]
How to identify directions? (basis of unit vectors)

[[h k l]] given
g
direction
<h k l> family of equivalent directions: i.e. [100], [001], .
[010]
[110]
How to identify planes? (vectors perpendicular to planes)

(h k l) given plane
{h k l} family of equivalent planes: i.e. (100), (001),
(1 0 0)
William Hallowes Miller

((1801 - 1839))
How to construct Miller indices? (Cubic case)

Plane intercepts with crystal axes of a unit cell
Intercepts: X = a
Y=
Z=
1/a
1/ xa
1/
Reciprocal
Intercepts: X = a
Y=a
Z=
1
0
0
(100)
In a units
1/a
1/a xa
1/
1/
Reciprocal
(110)
In a units
Intercepts: X = a/2
Y=a
Z=
1
1
0
2/a
1/a xa
1/
Reciprocal
2
1
0
(210)
In a units
Miller indices are always integers and they

are the inverses of the intercepts in real space
How to construct Miller indices in hexagonal symetry

With three (independent) axis system: a1, a2, a3
Plane C
a3
Plane
a e A =(100)
( 00)
Plane B =(010)
Plane C =(110)
Plane B
a2
a1
Intercepts at : a1
1/a1
1/ xa1
1/
1
0
0
All these planes are equivalent by a 60 rotation

But the [100] direction is not to the (100) plane
a2
a1
Plane A
Byy convention a 4-axis ((4-index)) system

y
is used to
describe the hexagonal structure which removes
these apparent discrepancies.
How to construct Miller indices in hexagonal symetry

With four (not independent) axis system: a1, a2, a3, a4
Plane C
a4
Plane
a e A = (1010)
( 0 0)
Plane B = (0110)
Plane C = (1100)
Intercepts at: a1
a3
1/a1
1/ xai
1/a3
1/
1
0
1
0
Now the (1010) direction is to the A plane (a1 - a3 composition)

a3
a1
Plane B
The plane perpendicular to the a4 axis is called the

b
basal
l plane.
l
It
Its Mill
Miller iindices
di
are (0001)
a2
a3
a1
Plane A
a2
Generic Miller indices are written as (h k i l) or (h k i c)
(
), i.e. theyy are not independent
p
Note that i = (h+k),
That is, the sum of the first three equals zero
WHY such elaborated

elaborated Miller indices?
Using reciprocals avoids the mathematical complication of infinite intercepts
Represent the plane coordinates and distance between planes in reciprocal space,
(TEM where diffraction images are used)
(TEM,
used).
Reciprocal Space: geometrical construction for crystallography and solid state physics
c
Vectors in real space are: L = n1a + n2b + n3c

Reciprocal lattice vectors are g = h a* + k b* + l c* ; (hkl) the Miller indices
b
a
c
a* b c) / a b c
b* (c a) / a (b c)
c* (a b) / a (b c)
c
and
and
and
|a*| = 1 / |a|
|b*| = 1 / |b| (reciprocals)
|c*|| = 1 / |c|
|c
being |a (b c)| = a x (b x c) = volume of unit cell
b
a
with:
Reall iinterplanar
R
t l
spacing
i (dhkl) between
b t
consecutive
ti (hkl) planes
l
iis: dhkl = 1/ g
For succesive planes with (100) Miller indices (orange) real distance between
them is d100 = a, while in reciprocal space is g100 = 1a* = 1/ a
For succesive p
planes with ((200)) Miller indices (g
(green)) d200 = a/2,, while in
reciprocal space is g200 = 2a* =2/a
Reciprocal Space:
Fourier transform of the spatial wavefunction of the original lattice (or direct lattice)
Transforms real points and distances into diffraction patterns
Gives a better understanding of scattering and any diffraction measurement (XRD
(XRD, TEM)
Tunneling Microscope vs X-Ray Diffraction
Purity
E
Expressed
d iin N
Ns ((nines)
i
)
purity of 99.9999 % = 6N
Generally, a minimum of 7N purity it is needed for IC applications
Calculate the purity of a 500 gr Si crystal containing 61014 cm-3 impurities of As

D
Density
it off Si = 2.53
2 53 gr/cm
/ 3, Atomic
At i weight
i ht = 28 gr/mol
/ l
mol
500 gr of Si
28gr
6.0231023 atoms
= 17.86 mol; X
= 1.071025 atoms
mol
cm 3
500 gr of Si
= 197.6 cm3;
2 .53 gr
1.071025 atoms
atoms density =
= 5.411022 atoms/cm3
3
197.6 cm
5.411022 6 1014
P it =
Purity
x 100 = 99.9999988
99 9999988
5.411022
7
7.5N
5N
Discrete energy
gy levels are conceptually
p
y the same as bands in solids!!
Pauli exclusion principle
Free electrons
Coupled Systems
Bound electrons
Levels splitting depend on wavefunction interaction

Consequences of the periodic structure of crystals

For Carbon (Z=6)
Electron Shells (1s2,2s2, 2p2)
Ele
ectron Ene
ergy
For Si (Z=14)
Electron Shells (1s2,2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p2)
Bands properties depend on:
Coupling
No interaction
average distance between atoms

nature of those atoms
determine electrical behavior
(metal, insulator, semiconductor)
Interatomic spacing
Electrical conduction in Semiconductors
What is needed for

electrical conduction?
Carriers free to move under an electric field (accelerate)

Free states to move in from the previous one occupied
For a metal: no problem. Many free carriers (electrons) and a quasi-continuum of free states.
No gap.
For a semiconductor: depends on doping and temperature (breaking bonds, ionization).
Two-carrier (electron and hole) conductivity.
F an iinsulator:
For
l
there
h
would
ld b
be no conductivity,
d i i unless
l
under
d extreme conditions.
di i
Linear array of atoms (1D)

Use of rectangular shaped potential
Solution
S l ti off Schrdinger
S h di
equation
ti
V
(
r
)
(r ) E (r )
2m
k ( r ) e j k r U n ( k , r )
Real
potential
(Bloch functions)
Un(k,r) are periodic functions in space with

potential periodicity (envelope function)
For a single atom:
Levels 1s, 2s 2p, 3s 3p 3d, etc...
Rectangular
Rectang
lar
potential
For a linear array of atoms: energy bands
Energy bands
GAP
Indirect
Direct
Degeneracy
Light holes
Heavy holes
p=
Crystals may have different properties depending on the directions

4
3
GaAs
Conduction
band
Carrier
population
2
Energ
gy (eV)
2
E=0.31
1
Eg
0
-1
-2
Conduction
band
Si
1
Eg
0
-1
Valence
band
[[111]]
[[100]]
-2
Valence
band
[[111]]
[[100]]
Concept of effective mass

When an electron is moving inside a solid material, the interaction with atoms will affect its
movement and this cannot be described byy a simple
p Newton's law.
The concept of effective mass allows to describe the movement of electrons by Newton's law.
If m* (effective mass) includes all internal effects from the crystal potential,
Then the force exerted on the electron by an external electric field is
Then,
Using the group velocity, Planks relation, and a Bloch function representing the electron:
p=
The effective
Th
ff ti mass is
i proportional
ti
l tto th
the reciprocal
i
l
of the curvature of the energy band profile.
The smaller the curvature, the higher the effective mass.
A hole is a virtual particle that represents

the movement of many electrons moving in
th opposite
the
it direction
di ti under
d an electric
l t i field
fi ld
The effective mass of holes is in general
higher that that of electrons.
electrons This seems a
natural result of the higher difficulty to move
many electrons sequentially.
Small band curvature

means a heavyy (big)
( g) mass
High band curvature

means a light
li ht ((small)
ll) mass
The energy band dispersion is taken as a

parabolic function of the wave vector k
(approximation to the Brillouin zone center).
center)
Ec
The group velocity essentially means the
average motion of the components of the wave
packet that represent
p
p
the electron.
A higher or infinite effective mass means that

the crystal field opposes the external field and
slows down the electron movement. Electron
momentum is mostly transferred to the lattice.
m*(k)
m*(k) is only constant near k=0

Binaries and ternary compounds
Ba
andga
ap ene
ergy (e
eV)
Vegards
g
law
AlN
aInxGa1x As x aInAs (1 x) aGaAs
Bandgap
(almost linear)
Bowing parameter
Eg In x Ga1x As x Eg InAs (1 x ) Eg GaAs b x (1 x )
GaN
AlP
SiC
GaP
AlSb
GaAs
1
0
30
3,0
InN
35
3,5
(non- linear)
AlAs
InP
Si
Ge
55
5,5
Bowing
gp
parameter
stands for non-linear
behavior
GaSb
InAs
60
6,0
Lattice Constant
InSb
65
6,5
()
Bandgap energy versus T
Varshnis law
T 2
E (T ) Eg
Eg
E (0)
(T )
Electrron Energy
Interatomic spacing
We need to determine the carrier distribution with respect to energy

in different bands. How electrons (holes) fill the bands:
Two concepts will be introduced to determine this:
Density
D
it off states
t t
Fermi-Dirac distribution and Fermi-Level
The distribution of these states in the bands is not uniform in energy
Density of states tells us how many states exist at a given energy E
The function f(E) specifies, under equilibrium conditions, the probability that
an available state at an energy E will be occupied by an electron. It is a
probability
p
y distribution function.
Carrier distribution Functions

Fermi-Dirac (fermions, spin , Pauli)
Bose Einstein (bosons, spin 1, no Pauli)
Maxwell-Boltzman (non interac. molec.)
E EF (eV)
Notice that if E - EF is high

g enough
g ((~3 KT)) all functions are equal
q
This is the case of a non-degenerate semiconductor and then,
F-D may be replaced by M-B, much easier to handle.
F-D
F D function reaches rapidly unity (100%) below the Fermi energy
B-E function diverges at Fermi energy and is not valid below it.
Fermi Dirac distribution

Fermi-Dirac
distribution. Fermi Level
fe (E)
1
E EF
1 exp
kT
E - EF (eV)
Means the carrier Energy Average (Chemical potential)
50%
%p
probability
y for E = EF at any
y temperature
p
Close to CB when more electrons than holes
Close to the VB when more holes than electrons
At (almost) midgap for intrinsic semiconductors
At 0K is
i a step-like
t lik function
f
ti
At higher temperature the probability for electrons in CB increases
How many electrons (holes) in a Band?

Probability to occupy a state of a given energy (Fermi distribution)
Electrons
Holes
fe (E)
1
E EF
1 exp
kT
f p (E) 1 fe (E)
1
E E
1 exp F
kT
Density
y of states available
Electrons : g e ( E )
1 2m
2 2 2
*
e
3/ 2
E Ec 1/ 2
3/ 2
1 2mh*
1/ 2
Holes : g p ( E ) 2 2 Ev E
2
Electron (hole) density
g (E)
n( E ) g ( E ) f ( E ) dE
dE
exp ( E EF ) / k BT 1
Integration limits?
Non degenerate case: Ec EF > ~3 kT

Non-degenerate
f (E )
1
E EF
1 exp
kT
1 2me kT
4 2
Approximated by
M
Maxwell-Boltzman
ll B lt
eq.
E E
f ( E ) exp F
kT
3/ 2
E EF
exp c
kT
3/ 2
EF Ev
EF Ev
exp
NV exp
kT
kT
1 2mh kT
p
4 2
Ec E F
N
exp
C
kT
This defines the effective density of states NC, NV that have a RT value of:
NC
NV
4
1
2 m e kT
2
2 m h kT
2
3/2
19
~
2
.
72
10
cm
3/2
19
~
1
.
16
10
cm
for Si
only close to k=0

where m* is const.
for Si
Electron and Hole Carrier Densities

Definition of ni
n.p is a constant product for a given T and material
E c E F E F Ev
n p n N c N v exp
kT
Ec Ev
EG
N c N v expp
N c N v expp
kT
kT
ONLY INTRINSIC (E at midgap)
EG
10
3
ni n p N c N v exp
~ 1.0 10 cm for Si
2kT
ALWAYS (no
( specific
ifi EF position)
iti )
2
i
ni is
i called
ll d the
th intrinsic
i t i i carrier
i density,
d it andd depends
d
d on:
Semiconductor (gap energy, Eg)
Semiconductor (effective masses)
Temperature (through both T and Eg)

The situation we have considered here is referred to as the INTRINSIC case:
* The number of electrons and holes MUST be EQUAL (covalent bond breaking)
* This fact may be exploited to obtain an expression for the FERMI LEVEL position
ni n p N C exp ( Ec EF ) / kT NV exp ( E F Ev ) / kT
NV
2 E F Ec Ev
exp
p
NC
kT
N v Eg 3
mh*
Ec Ev 1
EF
kT ln
kT ln *
2
2
Nc 2 4
me
FERMI LEVEL LIES NEAR MIDWAY BETWEEN
THE CONDUCTION & VALENCE BANDS
Ec= Ev + Eg
Assuming Ev = 0
Position changes with material and temperature


EXAMPLE
Relative to the middle of the band gap
gap, estimate the position of the Fermi level in intrinsic Si at 300 K and 600 K
K.
The electron and hole effective masses may be taken as 1.1mo and 0.6mo, respectively. Does the Fermi level lie
above or below the middle of the gap at these temperatures?
mh* E g 3
3
0.6 E g
E F (300 K)
kT ln *
0.0259 ln
0.011 eV
2 4
m
2
4
1
.
1
2
e
Eg
mh* E g 3
3
0.6 E
E F (600 K)
0.0518 ln g 0.022 eV
kT ln *
2 4
1.1 2
me 2 4
Eg
NOTE THAT SINCE mh* < me* FOR SILICON, THE FERMI LEVEL WILL ALWAYS LIE
BELOW THE MIDDLE OF THE GAP FOR AN INTRINSIC MATERIAL!
ALSO NOTE HOW INCREASING TEMPERATURE PUSHES THE
FERMI LEVEL FURTHER DOWN BELOW THE MID-GAP
Band filling
f ( E)
1
E EF
1 exp
kT
Intrinsic
The Fermi level
DOES not move
Intrinsic carrier density will change exponentially with Temperature!

Band filling
HOLES
g(E)
Intrinsic semiconductor
f(E)
equal density of electrons and holes
ni no po
Extrinsic (doped) semiconductors (Si case 3s2, 3p2)
Intrinsic
p-type
Si atoms: 4 covalent bonds
Boron (3 electrons) in Si
n-type
Phosphorous (5 electrons) in Si
me* o 2
Ec Ed 13,6 (eV )
mo s
mo s o
ro 0,53 * (A)
me o
Dopant atoms cannot move. Upon ionization, there is a fixed charge!
Extrinsic (doped) semiconductors (Si - case)
Donor level
EF
g(E)
E i i semiconductor
Extrinsic
i
d
f(E)
diff
different
t density
d
i off electrons
l
and
dh
holes
l
At a given temperature, how to calculate:

The position of the Fermi level
The density of electrons
The density of holes
ni2 n p
Extrinsic versus intrinsic semiconductors

Intrinsic
Intrinsic
(ni)
1017
1 x 1016 cm-3
no (cm-33 )
1016
Extrinsic
(Nd)
Eti i
Extrinsic
1015
1 x 1015 cm-3
n0 (cm-1)
Ionization
1014
1013
1012
Intrinsic (ni)
1011
0
10
12
1000/T
((K))-1
1000/T
Fermi level position as a function

of the temperature and doping
Carrier density in doped (extrinsic)

and intrinsic semiconductors as a
function of temperature and doping
Extrinsic versus intrinsic semiconductors
General case of a semiconductor with donors (Nd) and acceptors (Na)
n N a p N d
Charge neutrality condition:

Carrier densities:
n N C exp ( Ec E F ) / kT
p NV exp ( E F Ev ) / kT
Ionization Factor:
E EF
Na Na f (Ea ) Na 1 exp a
kT
E Ed
N d N d 1 f ( Ea ) N d 1 expp F
kT
Particular case of a n-type semiconductor (Nd)
n Nd
Charge neutrality condition with Na = 0:
n p Nd
ni2 n p
4n
2
d
N N
n
2
2
i
If att RT
Nd >> ni
p ni2 / Nd
Impurities doping
Impurities,
III
Donor impurity: 1 more electron than the host atom
IV
VI
For Si : As o P (all group V)

For GaAs : Si, C in Ga sites (amphoterous)
Acceptor impurity: 1 electron less than the host atom
For Si : B (all group III)
For GaAs : Be (group II) in Ga sites
Si, C in As sites (amphoterous)
Selecting a donor (acceptor) depends on:
Atom size
Atom electronegativity
Doping control
Crystal compatibility
Doping technique
Energy
E
l
level
l (shallow,
( h ll
d
deep,
multiple)
li l )
VII
Impurities doping
Impurities,
Shallow level character compares with kT
EC
EF
n-type
donors
EF
acceptors
EF
intrinsic
p-type
EV
As a consequence of doping
the Fermi level shifts closer
to the band edges
Ionization energies for several dopants

in Si and GaAs
Shallow level
higher ionization rate
Crystal defects
Point defects (difficult to detect and measure, but quite ACTIVE)
Silicon
Substitutional
(AsSi)
Lattice vacancy
(VSi)
Interstitial
(IAs)
Frenkel Pair
Antisite
((As in Ga site))
GaAs
Antisite
(Ga in As site)
They generate energy levels in the bandgap

Crystal defects
Extended defects (easier to detect and measure)
Edge
Screw
Dislocations
Stacking faults
Au
They may generate

Th
t energy levels
l
l in
i the
th bandgap.
b d
Degrade mobility and optical properties
St
Steps
i the
in
th fabrication
f b i ti off a device
d i
1.
Select a high purity, high quality wafer (substrate)
2
2.
E it
Epitaxy
(
(growth
th off a thin
thi layer,
l
a few
f
microns
i
thi k)
thick)
3
3.
Different processes depending on the device
4.
All the p
processing
g is carried out on the epitaxial
p
layer
y
(planar technology)
5
5.
The final
Th
fi l quality
lit off the
th device
d i depends
d
d on the
th quality
lit
and control of all processes involved
Steps in the fabrication of a device

Materials used
Semiconductors: Si, Ga(Al)As,In(Ga)P, InGaAs, Ga(Al)N, InGaN
Oxides: SiO2, Si3N4
Insulators,, passivation
p
Metals: Au, AuGe (2%), AuZn (2%), Al, Cu,
Ohmic contacts
Schottky barriers
Polycrystalline Si (Polysilicon)
MOS gates,
Integrated resistances
Organic materials: polyamide
Passivation
Others: dopants, gasses for dry etching, chemicals,

photoresists for standard and nano lithography
Epitaxy
Heteroepitaxy:
The epitaxial layer and substrate are the same material (GaAs on
GaAs Si on Si) or different but with same in-plane
GaAs,
in plane lattice constant
The epitaxial layer and substrate are different materials (GaN on
sapphire InGaAs on InP) with the same or different lattice constant
sapphire,
constant.
<
dislocations
Crritical layer
thickness
Homoepitaxy:
In plane compression
Out plane tension
Lattice mismatch
is defined as
Lattice matched
Same lattice constants
AlAs on GaAs
InGaAs 53% on InP
Pseudomorphic
Different lattice constant
Lattice is strained
InGaAs on GaAs
m(%)
a epi a subs
a subs
100
Metamorphic
Different lattice constant
Strain is relieved by
relaxation forming dislocations
Fabrication of a device
Planar technology (All the processes are carried out on the surface)
Example: p
p-n
n junction
1. Epitaxy of Si:n
2. Oxidation
5. Development
8. Doping
3. Resist deposition
9. Metallization
6. Etching of the oxide
4. Resist exposure to UV light
7. Resist removal
Final p-n junction
Wafers
Single crystal Si ingot grown by

a Czochralsky process
Slicing and grinding
Problems
1.
We want to dope
p GaAs with donor impurities
p
by
y adding
g Si in the crucible during
g the g
growth p
process.
We know that the weight of the liquid GaAs in the crucible is 350 gr. Calculate the weight of Si that it is
necessary to add, in order to obtain a donor concentration of 61017 cm-3.
2.
If the lattice constant of an InP substrate is 5.868 , calculate the mole fraction of In which allows
growing
i IInGaAs
G A lattice
l tti matched
t h d to
t this
thi substrate.
b t t
3.
We grow an InGaAs layer with 30% In on GaAs. Calculate the lattice mismatch.
4
4.
Estimate the bandgap energy at 300K of the In0.2Ga0.8P,

P if we know that the bowing parameter for this
material is 1.21 eV.
5.
Calculate the bandgap energy of the InP at 200K.
6.
The bandgap energy of the Si is 1.12 eV at room temperature.

a) Calculate the probability of finding electrons at the edge of the conduction band if it is absolutely
intrinsic.
b) As a consequence of n-type doping, the Fermi level shifts 0.53 eV from the value of intrinsic Si.
C l l t now th
Calculate
the same probability.
b bilit
Parameters and data:

Density of GaAs : GaAs=5.32
=5 32 gr/cm3 Atomic weights: Si=28 gr/mol,
gr/mol Ga=70 gr/mol,
gr/mol As=75 gr/mol
Lattice constants: InAs=6.058 , GaAs=5.65
Bandgap at 300K: InP=1.35 eV, GaP=2.26 eV
-4
InP: Eg0=1.4206 eV, =4.90610 eV/K, = 327 K, Boltzmann constant = 1.3810-23 J/K, q=1.610-19 C

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1.

Universidad Politcnica de Madrid

Fundamentals of Semiconductor Fabrication

Semiconductor Devices: Physics

Universidad Politcnica de Madrid

Universidad Politcnica de Madrid

Universidad Politcnica de Madrid

Diamond Lattice (Si)

Zinc-blende Lattice (GaAs)

Concept of Unit Cell

a = lattice constant for cubic case

Lattice is defined by translational symmetry:

Each atom shared by

Each atom shared by

Each atom inside the

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Miller Index Notation

How to identify directions? (basis of unit vectors)

How to identify planes? (vectors perpendicular to planes)

William Hallowes Miller

Universidad Politcnica de Madrid

How to construct Miller indices? (Cubic case)

Miller indices are always integers and they

How to construct Miller indices in hexagonal symetry

All these planes are equivalent by a 60 rotation

Byy convention a 4-axis ((4-index)) system

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How to construct Miller indices in hexagonal symetry

Now the (1010) direction is to the A plane (a1 - a3 composition)

The plane perpendicular to the a4 axis is called the

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WHY such elaborated

Vectors in real space are: L = n1a + n2b + n3c

being |a (b c)| = a x (b x c) = volume of unit cell

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Tunneling Microscope vs X-Ray Diffraction

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Calculate the purity of a 500 gr Si crystal containing 61014 cm-3 impurities of As

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Pauli exclusion principle

Levels splitting depend on wavefunction interaction

Consequences of the periodic structure of crystals

Bands properties depend on:

average distance between atoms

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Electrical conduction in Semiconductors

What is needed for

Carriers free to move under an electric field (accelerate)

Linear array of atoms (1D)

Un(k,r) are periodic functions in space with

For a linear array of atoms: energy bands

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Crystals may have different properties depending on the directions

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Concept of effective mass

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A hole is a virtual particle that represents

Small band curvature

High band curvature

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The energy band dispersion is taken as a

A higher or infinite effective mass means that

m*(k) is only constant near k=0

Binaries and ternary compounds