Wave Phenomena

Physics 15c

Lecture 11
Fourier Analysis
(H&L Sections 13.14)
(Georgi Chapter 10)

Administravia
!

Midterm average 68
!
!

You did well in general

Many got the easy parts wrong, e.g. Problem 1(a) and 3(a)

Term Paper
!
!
!

5 10 pages on a topic relevant to the course

Discuss your topic with me before Spring Break
Type it using any software you like
! I dont want to read your handwriting
! Plots and pictures may be glued on
Deadline is 4/15, 5 PM

What We Did Last Time

!

Studied reflection of mechanical waves

!
!

Similar to reflection of electromagnetic waves

Mechanical impedance is defined by F = Zv
! For transverse/longitudinal waves: Z =
[T or K ]l
! Useful in analyzing reflection

Studied standing waves

!
!
!

Created by reflecting sinusoidal waves

Oscillation pattern has nodes and antinodes
Musical instruments use standing waves to produce their
distinct sound

Goals For Today

!

Define Fourier integral

!

Fourier series is defined for repetitive functions

! Discreet values of frequencies contribute

f (t ) = a0 + ( an cos nt + bn sin nt )
n =1

Extend the definition to include non-repetitive functions

! Sum becomes an integral

Discuss pulses and wave packets

!
!
!

Sending information using waves

Signal speed and bandwidth
Connection with Quantum Mechanics

Looking Back
!

In Lecture #5, we solved the wave equation

2
2
2
=

(
x
,
t
)
c
( x, t )
w
t 2
x 2

cw =
i ( kx t )
! Normal-mode solutions # ( x, t ) = 0 e
k
! Using Fourier series, we can make any arbitrary waveform
with linear combination of the normal modes
! Example: forward-going repetitive waves
2 n
n =

T
( x, t ) = f ( x cwt ) = ( an cos(kn x n t ) + bn sin(kn x n t ) )
n =1
kn = cw n
! Non-repetitive waves also OK if we make T #
! This makes continuous

A little math work needed

Fourier Series
!

For repetitive function f(t)

f (t ) = a0 + ( an cos nt + bn sin nt )
n =1

a0 =

1 T
f (t )dt
T 0

an =

2 T
f (t ) cos n tdt
T 0

bn =

n =

2 n
T

2 T
f (t ) sin ntdt
T 0

Express cosnt and sinnt with complex exponentials

an ibn int an + ibn int

a
t
b
t
e +
e
cos

sin

+
=
(
)

n
n
n
n

2
2

n =1
n =1
1

a + ibm imt
an + ibn int
e
e
= m
+

2
n =1 2

m =
!

m = n am = an bm = bn m = n

Fourier Series

Sum includes n = 0

an + ibn
f (t ) = Fn e int
and F0 = a0
2
n =
! How do we calculate Fn?
12 T
2 T
1 T
Fn = f (t ) cos ntdt + i f (t ) sin ntdt = f (t )eint dt
2 T 0
T 0
T 0
!

Define Fn =

F0 =

1 T
f (t )dt
T 0

same

Its useful later if I shift the integration range here

1 T2
OK because f(t)
Fn =
f (t )eint dt
is repetitive
T T 2

Now we take it to the continuous limit

Fourier Integral

Fe

f (t ) =

n =
!

i n t

1 T2
f (t )eint dt

T
2

n =

2 n
T

Make T #
f (t ) = lim

n =

= lim

Fn e int = lim

Fn

in t

n =

2
T

T
Fn e i t d
2

= F ( )e i t d

Fn =

T
1
Fn =
T 2
2

F ( ) lim

f (t )ei t dt

F() is the Fourier integral of f(t)

f (t ) = F ( )e i t d

F ( ) =

1
2

f (t )ei t dt

Fourier Integral

f (t ) = F ( )e i t d

F ( ) =

Fourier integral F() is

!
!

1
2

f (t )ei t dt

A decomposition of f(t) into different frequencies

An alternative, complete representation of f(t)
! One can convert f(t) into F() and vice versa

F() and f(t) are two equally-good representations

of a same function
!
!

f(t) is in the time domain

F() is in the frequency domain

Warning
!

Different conventions exist in Fourier integrals

f (t ) = F ( )e i t d and F ( ) =

f (t ) =

1
2

f (t )ei t dt

1
F ( )e i t d and F ( ) = f (t )ei t dt

2
1
1
f (t ) =
F ( )e i t d and F ( ) =
f (t )ei t dt

2
2

Watch out when you read other textbooks

Square Pulse
!

1
T

Consider a short pulse with unit area

T1
f (t ) =
0

Fourier
!

!
!

t < T2
t > T2

F ( ) =

1
2

1
2 T

f (t )ei t dt =

T 2

T 2

ei t dt =

F() is a bunch of little ripples

around = 0
Height is 1/2
Area is 1/T

T
1

F (0) =

sin

T
2

1
2

2
T

Pulse Width
!

Pulse of duration T # F ( ) =
!
!

sin

The shorter the pulse, the wider the F()

(width in t) (width in ) = 2 = const

width

2
T

This is a general feature of Fourier transformation

!

Example: Gaussian function

t2

2
1
f (t ) =
e 2T
2 T

1 2T
F ( ) =
e
2

2 2

1
T

Sending Information
!

Consider sending information using waves

!
!
!

Voice in the air

Voice converted into EM signals on a phone cable
Video signals through a TV cable

You cant do it with pure sine waves cos(kx t)

!
!

It just goes on # Completely predictable # No information

You need waves that change patterns with time
! What you really need are pulses
Pulse width T determines the speed
! Pulses must be separated by at least T

Amplitude Modulation
!

Audio signals range from 20 to 20 kHz

!
!

Too low for efficient radio transmission

Use a better frequency and modulate amplitude
Carrier wave

Audio signal
Amplitude-modulated
waves
!

Modulated waves are no longer pure sine waves

!

What is the frequency composition?

Wave Packet
!

Consider carrier waves modulated by a pulse

!

This makes a short train of waves

# A wave packet
i t
e 0
f (t ) =
0

t < T2
t > T2

T = 1/(20 kHz) for audio signals

f (t )

Fourier integral is
F ( ) =

1
2

T 2

T 2

e i0t ei t dt =

( 0 )T
1
sin
( 0 )
2

Wave Packet
F ( ) =
!

( 0 )T
1
sin
( 0 )
2

2
T

Similar to the square pulse

!
!

Width is 2/T
Centered at = 0

To send pulses every T second, your signal must have a minimum

spread of 2/T in , which corresponds to 1/T in frequency
!
!

This is called the bandwidth of your radio station

This limits how close the frequencies of radio stations can be
! You need 20 kHz for HiFi audio
!

Its more like 5 kHz in commercial AM stations

Bandwidth
!

Speed of information transfer = # of pulses / second

!
!
!

Determined by the pulse width in the time domain

Translated into bandwidth in the frequency domain
We say bandwidth to mean speed of communication
! Broadband means fast communication

Each medium has its maximum bandwidth

!

You can split it into smaller bandwidth channels

! Radio wave frequencies # Regulated by the government
! Cable TV # 750 MHz / 6 MHz = 125 channels
You want to minimize the bandwidth of each channel
! Telephones carry only between 400 and 3400 Hz

Delta Function
!

!
!

1
T

Take the square pulse again

Make it narrower by T 0
The height grows 1/T

We get an infinitely narrow pulse with unit area

!

Diracs delta function (t)

t = 0
and (t ) dt = 1
(t ) =

0 t 0
For any function f(t)

f (t ) (t )dt = f (0)

f (t ) (t t0 )dt = f (t0 )

Delta Function
!

What is the Fourier integral of (t)?

1
F ( ) =
2
!

1
i t
(t )e dt = 2

(t) contains all frequencies equally

(t ) =

1
2

e i t d

You can get this also by

making T # 0 in
1
T
sin
F ( ) =
T
2

Another way of defining (t)

Pure Sine Waves

!

Consider pure sine waves with angular frequency 0

f (t ) = e i0t
F ( ) =

1
2

e i0t ei t dt =

1
2

ei ( 0 ) t dt = ( 0 )

F ( )

f (t )
t

10

How Things Fit Together

width

infinite

domain
(0 )

(t)

uniform

infinite

f(t)

F()

1/T

Waveform

t domain

t width

Sinusoidal

uniform

pulse
Finite pulse and
everything else
!

Pure sine waves and pulses are the two extreme

cases of all waves
!
!

Everything falls in between

Widths in t and are inversely proportional to each other
! Wait Did I prove it?

Arbitrary Signal Width

!

Now we consider a signal with an arbitrary shape

F ( )

f (t )
Fourier

Lets define the average time and the average frequency

t f (t ) dt
2

f (t ) dt

F ( ) d
=
F ( ) d

Because (energy density) (amplitude)2

Now we define the r.m.s. widths in t and
!

( t )

(t t )

( )

= (

r.m.s. = root
mean square

11

Arbitrary Signal Width

( t t ) f (t )
) =
f (t ) dt

( t )

(t

dt

(
) =

( )

= (

F ( ) d
2

We can express F() with f(t) as F ( ) =

What can we do
with this mess??

F ( ) d

1
2

f (t )ei t dt

1
f (t ) f * ( s )ei ( t s ) d dtds
4 2
1
=
f (t ) f * ( s ) (t s)dtds
2
1
2
=
f (t ) dt
2

F ( ) d =
2

Arbitrary Signal Width

Next we take f (t ) = F ( )eit d

d
[ f (t )] = i F ( )eit d
dt

Differentiate
with t

We can use this to construct

F ( ) d =
2

F ( )e i t d = i

) F ( ) ( ) F * ( ) ( ) d d

1
2

1
2

i dt f (t ) dt

d
[ f (t )]
dt

) F ( ) ( ) F * ( )e i ( )t d d dt
0

12

Arbitrary Signal Width

!

Now we have

( t t ) f (t )
f (t ) dt

( t )

i dt f (t ) dt

dt

( )

f (t ) dt

Here comes the trick: we calculate the integral

I ( ) =

t t i i f (t ) dt
dt

!
!

>0

f (t ) dt

Its a positive number divided by a positive number

is a real number

Arbitrary Signal Width

I ( ) = ( t ) + 2 ( ) +
2

d
( t t ) f (t ) i i dt

( t t

(t ) dt

f (t ) dt

) f (t ) dtd

f * (t ) + f (t ) ( t t
dt

)f

(t ) dt

Integrate the first term in parts

)f

The integral in the denominator becomes

( t t

f * (t ) + i i f (t ) ( t t
dt

d
2
f (t ) + ( t t

dt

) f (t ) f

(t ) + f (t ) ( t t
dt

)f

(t ) dt

= 0 because the pulse has a finite extent

( tf (t ) ) f * (t ) + f (t ) tf * (t ) dt = f (t ) dt

dt
dt
2

13

Arbitrary Signal Width

!

Weve come a long way

!
!

Now we got I ( ) = ( t ) + 2 ( ) > 0

If a quadratic function of is always positive,
2

D = 1 4 ( t ) ( ) < 0
2

finally!

t >

1
2

For any signal, the product of the r.m.s. widths t and

in the time and frequency domain is greater than 1/2

Space and Wavenumber

!

We have studied Fourier transformation in time t and

frequency
!
!

We can also do it in space x and wavenumber k

Everything works the same way

1
f ( x) = F (k )e ikx dk F (k ) =
f ( x)eikx dx

2
1
In particular, xk > for any signal traveling in space
2
! Why is it important?

14

Uncertainty Principle
!

In Quantum Mechanics, particles are wave packets

!
!

Unlike a classical particle, wave packet has a length

The position cannot be determined more accurately than x

Momentum is related to the wavenumber by

p = !k
!

!=

h
2

Plancks constant = 6.63 1034 J s

This means
xp = !xk >

!
2

Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle

Summary
!

Defined Fourier integral

1
f (t )ei t dt

2
f(t) and F() represent a function in time/frequency domains
f (t ) = F ( )e i t d

F ( ) =

Analyzed pulses and wave packets

!

!
!
!

1
Time resolution t and bandwidth related by t >
2
! Proved for arbitrary waveform
Rate of information transmission bandwidth
Diracs (t) a limiting case of infinitely fast pulse
Connection with Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle in QM

15