2012/10/24

Second-Order Circuits
Introduction
Finding Initial and Final Values
The Source-Free Series RLC Circuit
The Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuit
Step Response of a Series RLC Circuit
Step Response of a Parallel RLC Circuit
General Second-Order Circuits
Duality
Applications

Introduction
A second-order circuit is characterized by a
second-order differential equation.
It consists of resistors and the equivalent of
two energy storage elements.

2012/10/24

Finding Initial and Final Values

v(0), i(0), dv(0)/dt, di(0)/dt, v(), and i()
Two key points:
v and i are defined according to the passive sign
convention.
i

_
+ v
Continuity properties:
Capacitor voltage: vC (0 ) vC (0 ) (VS-like)
Inductor current: iL (0 ) iL (0 ) (IS-like)

Example
Q : Find
(a) i(0 ), v(0 ),
(b) di(0 ) dt , dv(0 ) dt ,
(c) i(), v().

Sol : (a) Apply dc analysis for t 0.

12
i (0 )
2 A
4 2
v(0 ) 2i(0 ) 4 V

i(0 ) i(0 ) 2 A

v(0 ) v(0 ) 4 V

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Cont

d
Sol : (c)
Apply dc analysis
for t 0.
i () 0 A
v() 12 V

Cont

d
dv(0 )
:
dt
dv
dv iC
C
iC

dt
dt C
Since the inductor current cannot
Sol : (b) To find

change abruptly.
The inductor can be treated as
a current source in this case.
We can easily find
iC (0 ) i(0 ) 2 A
dv(0 ) iC (0 )

20 V/s
dt
C

2A

t=

0+

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Cont

d
di(0 )
:
dt
di
di v
L vL L
dt
dt L
Since the capacitor voltage
Sol : (b) To find

cannot change abruptly.

The capacitor can be treated as
a voltage source in this case.
To obtain vL (0 ), applying KVL gives
12 4i(0 ) vL (0 ) vC (0 ) 0
vL (0 ) 12 8 4 0
Thus we have
di(0 ) vL (0 )
0

0 A/s
dt
L
0.25

t = 0+

The Source-Free Series RLC Circuit

Assumed initial conditions :
i
0 I 0

1 0

idt V0
C

Applying KVL gives

(1a)
(1b)

di 1 t

idt 0
(2)

dt C
d 2i R di
i
2
0
(3)
dt
L dt LC
To solve (3), di(0) dt is required.
(1) and (2) gives
Ri L

di (0)
V0 0
dt
di(0)
1

RI 0 V0 (4)
dt
L
Ri (0) L

d 2i R di
i

0
2
dt
L dt LC
Initial conditions :
0 I 0
i

di (0) 1
RI 0 V0

L
dt

2012/10/24

Cont

d
d 2i R di
i

0
2
dt
L dt LC
Initial conditions :

R
R 1
s1
2L
2 L LC
2

R
R 1
s2
2L
2 L LC

0 I 0
i

di
(0) 1
RI 0 V0

L
dt
Let i Ae st : A and s are constants.
AR
A
As 2 e st se st e st 0
L
LC
1
R
Ae st s 2 s 0
LC
L
R
1
Characteristic
s 2 s 0
equation
L
LC

2
2

s1 0 Natural

2
2 frequencies

s2 0
R
Damping

factor

where 2 L
1 Resonant

LC frequency

(or undamped natural

frequency)

Summary
Characteristic equation :
s 2 2s 02 0

2 02
s1

2 02

s2
R

where 2 L
1

LC

Two solutions (if s1 s2 ) :

i1 A1e s1t , i2 A2e s2t
A general solution :
i (t ) A1e s1t A2e s2t
where A1 and A2 are determined from
the initial conditions.

Three cases discussed

Overdamped case (distinct real roots)
: > 0
Critically damped case (repeated real root) : = 0
Underdamped case (complex-conjugate roots): < 0

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Overdamped Case (> 0)

R
1
4L

C 2
2L
R
LC
Both s1 and s2 are negative and real.
i (t ) A1e s1t A2 e s2t

i(t)

e s1t

e s 2t
t

Critically damped Case (= 0)

Let C 4 L R 2
s1 s2 L 2 R
i (t ) A1e t A2 e t A3e t
Single constant can' t satisfy two initial
conditions!
Back to the original differential equation.
d 2i
di
2 2i 0
2
dt
dt
d di
di

i i 0
dt dt
dt

di
Let f i
dt
df

f 0 f A1e t
dt
di
i A1e t
dt
di
et eti A1
dt
d t

e i A1
dt
et i A1t A2

i(t )
A1t A2
e t

2012/10/24

Critically damped Case (Cont

d)
i (t )
A1t A2
e t
i(t)

e t

te t
1

Underdamped Case (< 0)

Let

C 4 L R 2

02 2 jd
s1

02 2 jd

s2
where d 02 2
i (t ) B1e (jd ) t B2 e (jd )t
e t ( B1e jd t B2 e jd t )

e t
B1
cos d t j sin d t
B2
cos d t j sin d t
B1 B2 cos d t j B1 B2 sin d t
e t

A B1 B2
i(t ) e t
A1 cos d t A2 sin d t where 1
B1 B2
A2 j

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Underdamped Case (Cont

d)
R
i (t )
A1 cos d t A2 sin d t
e t ,
2L

i(t)

e t
2
d

Finding The Constants A1,2

To determine A1 and A2 ,
we need i (0) and di (0) /dt.
1. i (0) I 0
2. KVL at t 0 gives
di (0)
L
RI 0 V0 0
dt
di (0)
1
or
( RI 0 V0 )
dt
L

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Conclusions
The concept of damping
The gradual loss of the initial stored energy
Due to the resistance R

Oscillatory response is possible.

The energy is transferred between L and C.
Ringing denotes the damped oscillation in the
underdamped case.

With the same initial conditions, the

overdamped case has the longest settling time.
The underdamped case has the fastest decay.
(If a constant 0 is assumed.)

Example
Find i(t).

(6+3)

t<0

t>0

2012/10/24

Example (Cont

d)

t<0

t>0

10
(a) i (0)
1 A, v (0) 6i (0) 6 V
4 6
R
1
1
(b) 9 , 0

10
2L
LC
0.01

Initial conditions :
i( 0 ) 1

di (0) 1
Ri (0) v(0)
dt
L

2
9(1) 6 6

s1,2 2 02 9 81 100
9 j 4.359
i (t ) e

9 t

A1 cos 4.359t A2 sin 4.359t

A 1
1
A2 0.6882

The Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuit

Assumed initial conditions :
1 0

i
0 I 0 v(t )dt

v 0 V0

(1a)
(1b)

Applying KCL gives

v 1 t
dv
vdt C
0 (2)

R L
dt
d 2v
1 dv
v
2
0 (3)
dt
RC dt LC
Let v (t ) Ae st , the characteristic
equation becomes
1
1
s 2 s 0
RC
LC

s1, 2 2 02
1

where 2 RC
1
0

LC

10

2012/10/24

Summary
Overdamped case

: > 0

v(t ) A1e s1t A2 e s2t

Critically damped case

v(t )
A1 A2t
e t

Underdamped case
s1, 2
jd

: = 0
: < 0

where d 02 2
v(t ) e t
A1 cos d t A2 sin d t

Finding The Constants A1,2

To determine A1 and A2 ,
we need v(0) and dv(0) /dt.
1. v(0) V0
2. KCL at t 0 gives
V0
dv(0)
I 0 C
0
R
dt
dv(0)
(V RI 0 )
or
0
dt
RC

11

2012/10/24

Comparisons
Series RLC Circuit

Parallel RLC Circuit

s1, 2 2 02

s1, 2
2 02

where 2 L
1

LC

Initial conditions :

where 2 RC
1
0

LC

Initial conditions :

i (0) I 0

di(0)

V RI 0
0

L
dt

v(0) V0

dv(0)

V RI 0
0

RC
dt

Example 1
Find v(t) for t > 0.
v(0) = 5 V, i(0) = 0
Consider three cases:
R = 1.923
R=5
R =6.25
Case 1 : R 1.923
1
1

26 , 0
10
2 RC
LC
s1,2 2 02 2, 50
v(t ) A1e 2t A2 e 50t

Initial conditions :
v (0) 5

dv(0) v(0) Ri (0) 260

RC
dt
A 0.2083
1
A2 5.208

12

2012/10/24

Example 1 (Cont

d)
Case 2 : R 5

Initial conditions :

1
1

10, 0
10
2 RC
LC

v (0) 5

dv(0) v(0) Ri (0) 100

RC
dt
A 5
1
A2 50

s1,2 2 02 10
v(t )
A1 A2t
e 10t
Case 3 : R 6.25

Initial conditions :

1
1

8, 0
10
2 RC
LC

v (0) 5

dv(0) v(0) Ri (0) 80

RC
dt
A 5
1
A2 6.667

s1,2 2 02 8 j 6
v(t )
A1 cos 6t A2 sin 6t
e 8t

Example 1 (Cont

d)

13

2012/10/24

Example 2
Find v(t).

Get x(0).

Get x(), dx(0)/dt, s1,2, A1,2.

t<0

t>0

Example 2 (Cont

d)

t>0
1

500

2 RC

0
354

LC

s1,2 2 02
854, 146
v(t ) A1e 854t A2 e 146t

t<0
From the initial conditions :
50

v(0)
(40) 25 V

30 50

i (0) 40 0.5 A

30 50

dv
(
0
)
v(0) Ri(0) 25 50 0.5

RC
50 20 10 6
dt
A1 5.156

A2 30.16

14

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Step Response of A Series RLC Circuit

Applying KVL for t 0,
di
v VS (1)
dt
dv
But i C
dt
2
d v R dv
v
V
2
S (2)
dt
L dt LC LC
Ri L

(2) has the same form as

in the source - free case.

v(t ) vt (t ) vss (t )
where
vt : the transient response

vss : the steady - state response

Characteristic Equation
d 2 v R dv v VS

0
dt 2 L dt
LC
Let v ' v VS ,
d 2 v ' R dv ' v '
2
0
dt
L dt LC
The characteristic equation becomes
R
1
s 2 s 0
L
LC
Same as in the source - free case.

15

2012/10/24

Summary
v(t ) vt (t ) vss (t )
vt () 0

where
vss () v() VS

A1e s1t A2 e s2t

(Overdamped)

A1 A2t
vt (t )
e t
(Critically damped)

A1 cos d t A2 sin d t
e t (Underdamped)

where A1, 2 are obtained from v(0) and dv(0) /dt.

Example
Find v(t), i(t) for t > 0.
Consider three cases:
R=5
R=4
R =1
Get x(0).

t<0

Get x(), dx(0)/dt, s1,2, A1,2.

t>0

16

2012/10/24

Case 1: R = 5

t>0

t<0
5
R

2.5

2 L 2(1)

0
2

LC

vss v() 24 V
Initial conditions:

s1,2 2 02
1, 4

v(t ) vss A1e t A2 e 4t

i (t ) C

dv
dt

24

i (0)
4 A , v(0) 1i (0) 4 V

5 1

i (0) C dv(0) dv(0) 4 16

dt
dt
C

A 64 3
1
A2 4 3

Case 2: R = 4
4
R

2

2 L 2(1)

0
2

LC

s1,2 2
v(t ) vss
A1 A2t
e 2t
i(t ) C

dv
dt

vss v() 24 V
Initial conditions :
24

i ( 0)
4.8 A , v(0) 1i (0) 4.8 V

4 1

dv(0)
dv(0) 4.8
i (0) C

19.2
dt
dt
C

A 19.2
1
A2 19.2

17

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Case 3: R = 1
1
R

0.5

2 L 2(1)

0
2

LC

s1,2 0.5 j1.936

A1 cos 1.936t 0.5t
v(t ) vss
e
A sin 1.936t

i (t ) C

vss v() 24
Initial conditions :
24

i ( 0)
12 A , v(0) 1i (0) 12 V

1 1

dv(0)
dv(0) 12

i (0) C

48
dt
dt
C

A 12
1
A2 21.694

dv
dt

Example (Cont

d)

18

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Step Response of A Parallel RLC Circuit

Applying KCL for t 0,
v
dv
i C
I S
(1)
R
dt
di
But v L
dt
2
d i
1 di
i
I
2
S (2)
dt
RC dt LC LC
(2) has the same form as
in the source - free case.

i(t ) it (t ) iss (t )
where
it : the transient response

iss : the steady - state response

Characteristic Equation
d 2i
1 di i I S

0
dt 2 RC dt
LC
Let i ' i I S ,
d 2i '
1 di '
i'
2
0
dt
RC dt LC
The characteristic equation becomes
1
1
s 2 s 0
RC
LC
Same as in the source - free case.

19

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Summary
i (t ) it (t ) iss (t )
it () 0

where
iss (t ) i () I S

(Overdamped)
A1e s1t A2e s2t

(Critically damped)
it (t )
A1 A2t
e t

A1 cos d t A2 sin d t
e t (Underdamped)

where A1, 2 are obtained from i (0) and di (0) /dt.

General Second-Order Circuits

Steps required to determine the step response.
Determine x(0), dx(0)/dt, and x().
Find the transient response xt(t).
Apply KCL and KVL to obtain the differential equation.
Determine the characteristic roots (s1,2).
Obtain xt(t) with two unknown constants (A1,2).

Obtain the steady-state response xss(t) = x().

Use x(t) = xt(t) + xss(t) to determine A1,2 from the
two initial conditions x(0) and dx(0)/dt.

20

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Example
Find v, i
for t > 0.

Get x(0).

Get x(), dx(0)/dt, s1,2, A1,2.

t<0

t>0

Example (Cont

d)

t<0

t>0

Initial conditions :

v(0 ) v(0 ) 12 V (1a)

i (0 ) i (0 ) 0
(1b)

Applying KCL at node a (t 0),

v (0 )
i (0 ) iC (0 )
2

iC (0 ) 6 A

dv (0 ) iC (0 )

12 V/s (1c)
dt
C
Final values for t :

12

i()
2 A

4 2

v() 2i () 4 V

21

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Example (Cont

d)
Applying KCL at node a gives
v 1 dv
i
(2)
2 2 dt
Applying KVL to the left mesh gives
di
4i 1 v 12
(3)
dt
Substituti ng (2) into (3) gives
dv 1 dv 1 d 2 v
2v 2

v 12
dt 2 dt 2 dt 2
d 2v
dv
2 5 6v 24 (4)
dt
dt
Characteristic equation :
s 5s 6 0
2

t>0
s 2, 3
v (t ) vss vt (t )
vss v() 4

where
vt (t ) A1e 2t A2e 3t

From (1a) and (1c) we obtain

A1 12, A2 8
i (t ) can be obtain by using (2)

Duality
Duality means the same characterizing equations with
dual quantities interchanged.
Table for dual pairs
Resistance R
Inductance L
Voltage v
Voltage source
Node
Series path
Open circuit
KVL
Thevenin

Conductance G
Capacitance C
Current i
Current source
Mesh
Parallel path
Short circuit
KCL
Norton

22

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A Case Study
i

i1

.
+ v1 -

+ v2 -

+ vn -

i2

in
.

v1 f1 (i )

i1 f1 (v)

v2 f 2 (i )

i2 f 2 (v)

vn f n (i )

in f n (v)

KVL : v1 v2 vn 0

+
v
_

KCL : i1 i2 in 0

Element Transformations
v Ri i Rv

(Conductance R)

i C

dv
di
v C
dt
dt

(Inductance C )

v L

di
dv
i L
dt
dt

(Capacitance L)

v VS

i VS

(Current VS )

i I S

v I S

(Voltage I S )

23

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Example 1
Series RLC Circuit

Parallel RLC Circuit

R
1
s 2 s 0
L
LC

R
1
s 2 s 0
L
LC

Example 2

24

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Application: Smoothing Circuits

Output
from a
D/A
converter

vs v0

25