Tundras are among Earth's coldest, harshest biomes.

Tundra ecosystems are treeless regions found in the

Arctic and on the tops of mountains, where the climate is
cold and windy and rainfall is scant. Tundra lands are
snow-covered for much of the year, until summer brings a
burst of wildflowers.
Mountain goats, sheep, marmots, and birds live in
mountain, or alpine, tundra and feed on the low-lying
plants and insects. Hardy flora like cushion plants
survive on these mountain plains by growing in rock
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depressions where it is warmer and they are sheltered

from the wind.
The Arctic tundra, where the average temperature is 10 to
20 degrees Fahrenheit (-12 -6 degrees Celsius), supports a
variety of animal species, including Arctic foxes, polar
bears, gray wolves, caribou, snow geese and musk-oxen.
The summer growing season is just 50 to 60 days,
when the sun shines 24 hours a day.
to The few plants and animals that live in the harsh
conditions of the tundra are essentially clinging to life.
They are highly vulnerable to environmental stresses like
reduced snow cover and warmer temperatures brought on
by global warming.
The Arctic tundra is changing dramatically due to
global warming. Already, more southern animals like the
red fox have moved onto the tundra

Taiga in Russia is the largest forest in the world. It

accounts for one fifth of the total forested area in the
world. It is one of the largest terrestrial ecosystems in
the world. It stands as an excellent example of how
nature strives through different weather conditions.
The Word Taiga means coniferous forest in Turkish
language. Taiga forests are the oldest, largest and snowiest
type of land terror. The width of Taiga reaches thousands
of kilometers. Most part of the forest is located in
Northern Russia, especially in Siberia. The temperatures
in this region vary significantly in winter and summer.
Winters last up to six months. Minus 50 degree Celsius is
normal here. The Taiga forest plays a vital role in
producing a large amount of oxygen in the world.

Temperate forests grow in regions that have a wide range

of climates, and despite the fact there are fewer plant and
animals species than in the rainforest, temperate forests
are one of the richest habitats on the planet. Temperate
forests contain numerous different animals that live within
them and even migratory animals like birds, nest in these
forests around the world.

There are two main types of temperate forest, which are

deciduous forests and evergreen forests.
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Deciduous forests can appear to be empty, lifeless places

in winter when there are no leaves on the trees but come
spring, these forests are bursting with life. Deciduous
forests tend to be found in the Northern Hemisphere, in
parts of Europe, Japan and North America.
Evergreen forests differ from deciduous forests as the
trees don't lose their leaves in the autumn. The evergreen
forests are generally seen in warmer climates in
southern Europe, South Africa, South America and
parts of southern Australia. Evergreen forests tend to
have a more varied range of wildlife than the deciduous
forests.
A wide variety of animals inhabit these regions of
temperate forests around the world including mammals,
reptiles, birds and numerous different species of insect.
Deer, squirrels and wild boars are the most commonly
seen mammals in the deciduous forests, along with birds
that nest in the trees. In the far eastern deciduous forests,
amphibians such as salamanders can be found in the leaflitter, and reptiles such as lizards are commonly spotted in
the trees.

The wildlife in the evergreen forests, differs greatly from

the wildlife in the deciduous forests, mainly due to the
fact that food is plentiful in evergreen forests all year
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round. Lizards and snakes are commonly spotted

inhabiting these forests, along with numerous
amphibians, birds and insects. In the Australian
evergreen forests, marsupials such as koalas and
possums can also be found.

shrubland ecosystems have been delegated

as second class environments (or worse)
when compared to forests or grasslands. In
the past, forests provided cover, grasslands a
place to hunt.
Forests can be lumbered, grasslands can be
grazed. But shrublands? With chains dragged
between tractors, abuse by fire, and the
application of herbicides, humans have
attempted to remove shrubs from the
landscape. Such shortsighted approaches to
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land management have usually resulted

in dire consequences for the natural
environment. It's time to rethink our
attitudes about the ecosystem in-between, an
ecosystem that provides incredibly diverse
habitats for the majority of animal life in
many regions. It's time to learn to appreciate
the value of the shrubs!

Grasslands are wide expanses of land filled

with low growing plants such as grasses and
wildflowers.
The amount of rain is not enough to grow tall
trees and produce a forest, but it is enough to
not form a desert. The temperate grasslands
have seasons including a hot summer and a
cold winter.
Grasslands are generally located between
deserts and forests.

The major temperate grasslands are located

in central North America in the United
States, in Ukraine Southeast South
America in Uruguay and Argentina, and in
Asia along the southern portion of
Russia and Mongolia.
Each major area of grasslands in the world has its own
characteristics and is often called by other names:
Prairie - Grasslands in North America are called the
prairies. They cover around 1.4 million square miles
of the central United States including some of
Canada and Mexico.
Steppes - The steppes are grasslands that cover
southern Russia all the way to Mongolia. The
steppes stretch over 4,000 miles of Asia including
much of the fabled Silk Road from China to
Europe.
Pampas - The grasslands in South America are often
called the pampas. They cover around 300,000 square
miles between the Andes Mountains and the
Atlantic Ocean.
Animals in the Grasslands

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A variety of animals live in the grasslands. These include

prairie dogs, wolves, turkeys, eagles, weasels, bobcats,
foxes, and geese. A lot of smaller animals hide down in
the grasses such as snakes, mice, and rabbits.
Bison , These large herbivores ruled the plains. It is
estimated there were millions of them before the
Europeans arrived and began slaughtering them in the
1800s. Although there are numerous bison in commercial
herds today, there are few in the wild.
Plants in the Grasslands
Different kinds of grass grow in different areas of the
grasslands. There are actually thousands of different kinds
of grasses that grow in this biome. Where they grow
usually depends on the amount of rain that area gets. In
wetter grasslands, there are tall grasses that can grow up
to six feet high. In dryer areas the grasses grow shorter,
maybe only a foot or two tall.
Types of grasses that grow here include buffalo grass,
blue grama grass, needle grass, big bluestem, and
switchgrass.
Other plants that grow here include sunflowers,
sagebrush, clover, asters, goldenrods, butterfly weed, and
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butterweed.

Fires
Wildfires can play an important role in the biodiversity of
the grasslands. Scientists believe that occasional fires
help to rid the land of old grasses and allow for new
grasses to grow, bringing new life to the area.
Farming and Food
The grassland biome plays an important role in human
farming and food. They are used to grow staple crops
such as wheat and corn. They are also good for grazing
livestock such as cattle.
The Shrinking Grasslands
Unfortunately, human farming and development has
caused the grassland biome to steadily shrink. There are
conservation efforts going on to try and save the
grasslands that are left as well as the endangered plants
and animals.
Facts about the Grassland Biome
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 Forbs are plants that grow in the grasslands that aren't

grasses. They are leafy and soft-stemmed plants such
as sunflowers.
Prairie dogs are rodents that live in burrows under the
prairies. They live in large groups called towns that
can sometimes cover hundreds of acres of land.
It is thought that there were over a billion prairie
dogs on the Great Plains at one point.
Other grassland animals need the prairie dog to
survive, but the population is declining.
Only around 2% of the original prairies of North
America still exist. Much of it has been turned into
farmland.
Fires on grasslands can move as fast as 600 feet per
minute.

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The savanna is a type of grasslands biome.

The savanna is sometimes called the tropical
grasslands.
Characteristics of the Savanna
Grasses and trees - The savanna is a rolling grassland
with scattered trees and shrubs.
Rainy and dry seasons - Savannas have two distinct
seasons in regards to precipitation. There is a rainy
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season in the summer with around 15 to 25 inches of

rain and a dry season in the winter when only a
couple of inches of rain may fall.
Large herds of animals - There are often large herds
of grazing animals on the savanna that thrive on the
abundance of grass and trees.
Warm - The savanna stays pretty warm all year. It
cools down some during the dry season, but stays
warm and humid during the rainy season.
Where are the major savanna biomes?
Savannas are generally found between the desert biome
and the rainforest biome. They are mostly located near
the equator.
The largest savanna is located in Africa. Nearly half of the
continent of Africa is covered with savanna grasslands.
Other major savannas are located in South America,
India, and northern Australia.

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Animals in the Savanna

One of the more spectacular sights in nature is the animals
of the African Savanna. Because the savanna is so rich in
grasses and tree life, many large herbivores (plant eaters)
live here and congregate in large herds. These include
zebras wildebeests, elephants, giraffes, ostriches,
gazelles, and buffalo. Of course, where you have lots of
herbivores, there must be predators., There are many
powerful predators roaming the savanna including lions,
hyenas, cheetahs, leopards, black mambas, and wild
dogs.
The plant eating animals have developed ways at avoiding
predators. Some animals like the gazelle and ostrich use
speed to try and outrun predators. The giraffe uses its
height to spot predators from far off and the elephant uses
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its shear size and strength to keep predators away.

At the same time predators of the savanna have adapted
their own special skills. The cheetah is the fastest land
animal and can run in bursts of 70 miles per hour to catch
its prey. Other animals, like lions and hyenas, hunt in
groups and trap the weaker animals away from the
protection of the herd.
One reason that so many different kinds of plant eating
animals can live on the savanna is that different species
have adapted to eat different plants. This may be a
different type of plant or even plants at different heights.
Some animals are built to eat low grass while others, like
giraffes, are designed to eat leaves high up in trees.
Plants in the Savanna
The majority of the savanna is covered in different types
of grasses including lemon grass, Rhodes grass, star grass,
and Bermuda grass. There are also lots of trees scattered
about the savanna. Some of these trees include the acacia
tree, the baobab tree, and the jackalberry tree.
The plants need to be able to survive the dry season and
drought in the savanna. Some store water and energy in
their roots, bulbs, or trunks. Others have roots that go
deep into the ground to reach the low water table.
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The baobab tree

Fires in the Savanna
Fires are an important part of the savanna. During the dry
season fires clear out old dead grass and make way for
new growth. Most of the plants will survive because they
have extensive root systems that allow them to grow back
quickly after a fire. The trees have thick bark which helps
them to survive. The animals generally can run to
escape the fire. Some animals burrow deep into the
ground to survive. Insects generally die by the millions in
a fire, but this provides a feast to many birds and animals.
Is the savanna in danger?
Overgrazing and farming has destroyed much of the
savanna. When overgrazing occurs, the grasses don't
grow back and the savanna can turn into desert. In Africa,
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the Sahara desert is expanding into the savanna at the

rate of 30 miles per year.
Facts About the Savanna
Many animals of the savanna are endangered due to
overhunting and loss of habitat.
The grassland in Australia is called the Bush.
Many animals migrate out of the savanna during the
dry season.
Some animals in the savanna, like vultures and
hyenas, are scavengers which eat other animal's kills.
The African savanna boasts the largest land animal,
the elephant, and the tallest land animal, the giraffe.
The baobab tree can live for thousands of years.
The savanna has the highest biodiversity of herbivore
animals of any biome.

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Deserts are primarily defined by their lack of rain. They

generally get 10 inches or less rain in a year. Deserts are
characterized in an overall lack of water. They have dry
soil, little to no surface water, and high evaporation. They
are so dry that sometimes rain evaporates before it can hit
the ground!
Hot in the Day, Cold at Night
Because deserts are so dry and their humidity is so low,
they have no "blanket" to help insulate the ground. As a
result, they may get very hot during the day with the sun
beating down, but don't hold the heat overnight. Many
deserts can quickly get cold once the sun sets. Some
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deserts can reach temperatures of well over 100 degrees F

during the day and then drop below freezing (32 degrees
F) during the night.
Where are the major hot and dry deserts?
The largest hot and dry desert in the world is the Sahara
Desert in Northern Africa. The Sahara is a sandy desert
with giant sand dunes. It covers over 3 million square
miles of Africa. Other major deserts include the Arabian
Desert in the Middle East, the Gobi Desert in Northern
China and Mongolia, and the Kalahari Desert in Africa.
Go here to learn more about the World's deserts.

How do animals survive in the desert?

Animals have adapted to survive in the desert despite its
extreme temperatures and lack of water. Many of the
animals are nocturnal. Meaning they sleep during the
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heat of the day and come out when it is cooler at night.

These same animals sleep in burrows, tunnels under the
ground, during the day in order to stay cool. Desert
animals include meerkats, camels, reptiles such as the
horned toad, scorpions, and grasshoppers.
Animals that live in the desert also have adapted to
needing little water. Many get all the water they need
from the food they eat. Other animals store up water that
they can use later. The camel stores up fat in its hump
while other animals store up reserves in their tails.
What plants can live here?
Only certain types of plants can survive the harsh
environment of the desert. These include cactus, grasses,
shrubs, and some short trees. You won't see a lot of tall
trees in the desert. Most of these plants have a way to
store water in their stems, leaves, or trunks so they can
survive a long time without water. They also tend to be
spread out from each other and have a large root system
so they can gather up all the water possible when it does
rain. Many desert plants are armed with sharp spines and
needles to help protect them from animals.

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Dust Storms
Because the desert is so dry, the wind will grind pebbles
and sand into dust. Occasionally a big wind storm will
gather up this dust into a huge storm. Dust storms can be
over 1 mile high and so thick with dust you can't breathe.
They can travel for over a thousand miles, too.
Expanding Deserts
Currently deserts cover around 20% of the world's land,
but they are growing. This is called desertification and is
caused by different factors including human activities.
The Sahara Desert is expanding at the rate of around 30
miles per year.
Facts about the Desert Biome
The giant saguaro cactus can grow 50 feet tall and
live for 200 years.
Plants that store water in their stems are called
succulents.
Some desert trees have deep taproots that grow up to
30 feet deep in order to find water.
The elf owl will sometimes live inside a cactus
during the day and then come out at night to hunt.
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 Camels can go without water for a week. A thirsty

camel can drink 30 gallons of water in less than 15
minutes.
Succession
It is a process by which communities of
animals and plants colonise an area and
then over time are replaced by other ,
more varied commuties.
Primary succession is the colonization of new sites by
communities of organisms. It often occurs after a
devastating event has wiped out the organisms that lived
in an area, or with the creation of a new habitat.
Examples of Primary Succession
Imagine a volcano erupting. Lava flows down the side of
the volcano destroying everything in its path, but when it
cools it forms new land. Initially, the new land will be
barren with nothing living in the area. But after some
time, simple organisms will begin to colonize the new
land. The organisms that engage in primary succession are
known as pioneer species or opportunists.
Typical pioneer species include simple lichens, algae,
mosses and fungi. These simple organisms begin breaking
down the resources in the environment and make it
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suitable for the later introduction of more complex

species, such as vascular plants. As these organisms carry
out their life processes they produce waste and some die.
This leads to the formation of the organic material that
will become soil.
Once a small layer of soil is in place on top of the lava
flow the variety of life will begin to increase much more
quickly. The pioneer plants will be crowded out by more
complex plants, such as grasses and small shrubs that are
able to live in the thin layer of newly formed soil. These
small plants will continue to increase the conditions of the
newly formed habitat and make way for larger species of
shrubs and small to medium sized trees.

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Lava from volcanic eruptions creates new land and paves

the way for primary succession.

Climax community

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In ecology, climax community, or climatic climax

community, is a historic term that expressed a biological
community of plants and animals and fungi which,
through the process of ecological succession the
development of vegetation in an area over time had
reached a steady state.
This equilibrium was thought to occur because the climax
community is composed of species best adapted to
average conditions in that area. .
The idea of a single climatic climax, which is defined in
relation to regional climate, originated with Frederic
Clements in the early 1900s. The 1st analysis of
succession as leading to something like a climax was
written by Henry Cowles in 1899, but it was Clements
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who used the term climax to describe the idealized

endpoint of succession.
Clements described the successional development of an
ecological community Clements suggested only
comparisons to very simple organisms. Later ecologists
developed this idea that the ecological community is a
superorganism and even sometimes claimed that
communities could be homologous to complex organisms.
because by definition climax vegetation is best-adapted
to the climate of a given area.
Though the views are sometimes attributed to him,
Clements never argued that climax communities must
always occur, or that the dominant cause of vegetation is
climate, or that the different species in an ecological
community are tightly integrated physiologically, or that
plant communities have sharp boundaries in time or
space.
Rather, he employed the idea of a climax community
it that one remaining constant over time.
There are good reasons to believe that the species best
adapted to some conditions might appear there, when
those conditions occur.
But much of Clementss work was devoted to
characterizing what happens when those ideal conditions
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dont occur. In those circumstances, vegetation other than

the ideal climax will often occur instead. But those
different kinds of vegetation can still be described as
deviations from the climax ideal.
Support among ecologists for the climax theory declined,
because they found the theory with its many coined terms
difficult to apply, because they were dissatisfied how it
compared to observed individual organisms, and because
better theories developed.
Many ecologists saw this as a major reason to stop using
the climax concept.
concept. Long-term vegetation dynamics are now more
often characterized as resulting from the action of
stochastic factors.
Despite the overall abandonment of climax theory, during
the 1990s use of climax concepts again became more
popular among some theoretical ecologists.
Many authors and nature-enthusiasts continue to use the
term climax in a diluted form to refer to what might
otherwise be called mature or old-growth communities.
. This concept borrows from Clements earliest
interpretation of climax as referring to an ecosystem that
is resistant to colonization by outside species.
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A final community which is partly the result of human

intervention is known as a plagioclimax.
Secondary succession

Secondary succession takes place following a

major disturbance, such as a fire or flood.
Farmland that has been abandoned also can
undergo secondary succession. The stages of
secondary succession are similar to those of
primary succession with one important
difference: primary succession always begins
on a barren surface, while secondary
succession begins in an area that already has
soil.
The main difference between primary and
secondary succession is that the latter occurs
on soil that already exists
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The time it takes from an area of bare earth to a climax

community is enormous . It depends on many different
factors including temperature , rain level and soil fertility.
The climax community formed will depend not only on
the climatic factors but also on the plants and animals that
are either within or are able to colonise in the area.
Questions
1. What is meant by the term ecological succession
2. Describe the difference between primary and
secondary succession.

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