The desire to distingulish those who have these innate characteristics and those

who do not led to a search for a single trait or cluster of traits that distinguishes
leaders from nonleaders.
IINTRACTIONAL THEORIES
Although the situational theories contributed some needed understanding of the
complexity of the work situation, they have a tendency to treat the situation as if
it were separate from the leader. Each one also identifies diffrent seats of
situational determinants. No theory has yet managed to pull together all the
influential factors from each of four elements of a leader manager situation
(the leader manager, coac tors, the work, and the environment) into one
coherent, integrate theory of leadership and management.
Many earlier theorists were aweare of the need to consider other variables but
omitted them when proposing their approaches. Theory Z, for example, is more
comprehensive then some of the earlier theories, yet it neglects some
apparantly influential situational factors, such as the nature of the work to be
done. It also assumes that all group members will respon positively to the same
approach.
Some theorists have moved in the direction of including the interactions of the
four elements of a leader manager situation. Four example described are
1. elements of a leader situation
2. leader group intractional
3. the work unit culture and the leader manager
4. complex man and organizations.
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP (BURN, BASS, AND AVOLIO)
Transformational leadership theory represents an intersting crosscurrent in
leadership and management theory. Transformational leadership is a response to
a contemporary search for meaning and to incresingly rapid and intense change.
It reconsiders the characteristics of the leader manager,reemphasizes the

vision that the leader manager shares with the group, and stersses the
importance of preparing people for change.
Despite years of reaserch, there was still a sense that something was missing
from these ever more complex models of leadership and management. This
missing element may have been the ability to respond to the rapidity of change
cycles and to instill in people a sense of mission that goes beyond their need for
positive working relationships or adequate rewards. Although transformational
leadership did not originate within the nursing discipline, it has struck a
responsive chord in many nurses (Barker, 1992: Marriner tomey, 1993: Porterogrady, 1992: smith, 1993).
Drawing on the work of burns (1978), bass and avolio (1993) have concentrated
on developing and testing the consept of transformational leadership. They
began their work in 1980 with interviews of 70 south african executive. Initiation
and consideration were not at all sufficiant, they found, to explain the full range
of leadership behaviors. They noted, for example, that passive leaders who tend
to react after a problem occurs are less effective than proactive leaders.
Bass and avolio focused on follower reactions to various types of leadership.
Along with their colleagues, they have been collecting descriptions of critical
incidents associated with effective and ineffective leadership from manager
across a wide range of organizations and nations.
The seven primary factors of their leadership model are divided into
transformational, transactional, and nonleadership categories. A quote from a
nurse manager will be used to illustrate each of these factors after it is defined.
Transformational factors
1. charisma
Charismatic leaders are highly respected by their followers, who view them with
a mixture of reverence, and awe (Bryman, 1992).
Example : we are going to find an innovative way to convince pregnant
teenagers that they need early prenatal care .
2. inspirational motivation

The leader manager shares a vision with the staff that appeals to both their
emotions and ideas.
Example : we will have healthier babies and moms if we solve this problem. We
can reduce the infant mortality rate by 2 percent in this county.
3. intellectual stimulation
The leader manager stimulates followers to quesion the status quo,to think
critically abouth what they are doing and way.
Example : what is wrong with the way we are persently trying to attract
pregnant teenagers to the clinical? When they do come, do we treat them in
such a way that they will want to return?.
4. individualized consideration
The leader manager take a facilitative approuch. The uniqueness of each
employee is recognized and assigmants are based on ability and needs.
Example : carol, youve had some succes with this group. Would you head the
task force on outreach.
Transactional factors
5. contingent reward
Reward match the employees achivements. The leader manager emphasizes
mutual agrement on goals.
Example : ed, that analysis was excellent. It will be reflected in your next merit
increase.
6. management by exception
Leader managers using management by exception react when a problem
occurs. They tend to use negative feedback more than positive feedback and are
relatively punitive rather than facilitative in their approuch to staff. The effective
leader manager, on the other hand, limits the number of times or she use
management by exception.

Example : jo, im removing you from the outreach task force. Your participation
has been minimal and i am disappointed in you .
Nonleadership factors
7. another negative characteristic, a laissez faire approuch can most simply be
descraibed as the absence of leadrship.
Example : our infant mortality rates arent any higher then the next countrys.
This is an insoluble problem. No one has been able to do anything about it.
EARLY MANAGEMENT THEORIES
Iin contrast to the early leadership theories focus on the person who was the
leader, the early management theories began with a concern about getting as
much work as pssible out of each employee. Most attention waas given to blue
collar workers on assembly lines, in construction gangs, and in similar job. There
are two particulary important branches of the early management theories: the
forerunners of present management science with its emphasis on quantitative
cost and productivity analyses and the behavioral approach to getting the best
out of an employee.
SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT (TAYLOR ET AL.)
Almost every management book mentions frederick taylor as the founder of
management secience. Taylor had an engineering background and experience as
a machine shop foreman. You can see the influence of the background in the
management principles that he developed in the 1890s and 1900s (lee, 1980,
locke, 1982)
Despite these questions about the foundations of his principles, the suggestion
of taylor and associates (such as gantt, whose famous charts you willsee in
chapter 7 onn planning) are still in us
In summary, the basic components of early scientific management include :
1.
2.
3.
4.

analysis and synthesis of the elements of operation

scientific selection of the worker
training of the worker
proper tools and equipment

5. proper incentives (kendall, 1914, p. 123)

some of the characteristic a follower of the management science school of
thought would look for in a first line manager include:
1. someone who knows the work that is being done in the departement very
well
2. someone who is a disciplinarian
3. someone who is able to get work throught and out of the departement
quickly

human relations (mayo et al.)

the human relation group called for a diffrent mix of managerial skills :
undersatnding human behaviou, counseling, motivating, leading, and
communicating with work ers.