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The electron has both intrinsic electric field and intrinsic magnetic field.
The electrons intrinsic electromagnetic field has both energy and angular momentum.
The electron spin is the electrons electromagnetic field angular momentum.
The electrons self-energy is the electrons electromagnetic field energy.
The electron has electromagnetic origin.
The electron is the smallest magnet, oriented in the same direction that the electron is
spinning. The electrons south pole has one unit positive magnetic charge g, the north
pole has one unit negative magnetic charge g.
The multiple of electric charge unit e and magnetic charge unit g equals Plancks
constant h.
What
is the
Electron
Spin?
Both the electrons electric charge and magnetic charge have the continuum spherical
distribution inside the electron.
The electron as whole has one unit negative electric charge e.
The electron as whole has zero magnetic charge.
All the particles that make up physical materials include electrons, protons and neutrons
BY GENGYUN LI
]|xHSKJREy397498zv*:+:!:+:!@
EAN
ISBN 0-9743974-9-0
Gengyun Li
By Gengyun Li
Chapter
Introduction
The electron has both an intrinsic electric field and an intrinsic magnetic field.
The electrons intrinsic electromagnetic field has both energy and angular momentum.
In our book, we have the assumption that the electron has the electromagnetic origin,
the electron spin is the electrons electromagnetic field angular momentum, and the
electrons self-energy is the electrons electromagnetic field energy.
The simplest model of electron spin is a spinning electrically charged ball,
similar to the earth rotating about its own axis. In this model, the electrons rest
energy equals the electrostatic potential energy of a sphere of charge e with radius r0 :
me c 2 =
e2
(1.1)
4 0 r0
me vr0 =
=
2
(1.2)
=
me r0
(1.3)
4 0 c 2 =
e2
(1.4)
And so:
v=
(1.5)
e2
(1.6)
4 0 =c
As we know:
1
137
(1.7)
Therefore:
v
137
c
(1.8)
Based on the above model of electron spin, the classical electron velocity is
much greater than the velocity of light! Why did the spinning electric charge ball
model fail for the electron spin? The basic assumption of the above electron spin
model is that the electrons mass originates from electric field energy.
In our book, we have an assumption that the electron has electromagnetic
origin. The electrons self-energy is the electrons electromagnetic field energy,
which mainly comes from electron magnetic field energy, in comparison to the
electrons magnetic field energy, the electrons electric field energy is much smaller.
This is one of the major reasons why the above electron spin model failed.
We no longer regard the electron as a point-like particle. Instead, we assume
that electrons have internal structure; inside the electron it has continuum spherical
distribution of both electric charge and magnetic charge. Based upon the charge
distribution, and also according to the Gauss Laws for electric field and magnetic
field, we calculate the electric field and magnetic field distribution inside the electron,
and then we calculate electromagnetic field energy and angular momentum of the
electron.
Then we make the assumption that both the electron mass and spin have
electromagnetic origin. Thus we obtain the electrons self-energy from the
electromagnetic field energy, and the electron spin from the electrons
electromagnetic field angular momentum.
Then we extend our electrons electromagnetic model to the proton and
neutron, the proton and neutron also have electromagnetic origin; and we continue our
electromagnetic model to the hydrogen and helium atoms in our book.
In our book, we also provide a possible solution for the hydrogen atom
spectrum, in which the hydrogen atom spectrum is regarded as the hydrogen
electromagnetic field stationary wave energy spectrum.
The particles that comprise all physical materials include electrons, protons
and neutrons; all of which have electromagnetic origin. Therefore, all materials have
electromagnetic origin.
6
Chapter
e ( r , ) =
r
e 1
exp( ) sin
2
ae
ae r
(2.1)
We use the spherical polar coordinates in our book, in which r is the radial
coordinate, is the polar angle, e is the electric charge of the electron, ae is the
electron radius constant.
By integrating the electric charge density equation (2.1), we can find the volume
electric charge:
Qe (r , ) = e (r , )dr 3
(2.2)
3
2
In which dr = 2r sin ddr , thus:
e 1
r
exp( ) sin 2r 2 sin ddr
2
ae r
ae
V
Qe (r , ) =
Qe (r , ) =
2e
2e
exp(
r
r
)d ( ) sin 2 d
ae
ae
(2.4)
r
r
r
Qe (r , ) = [ exp( )d ( )][ sin 2 d ]
ae
ae 0
0 ae
Qe ( r , ) = e[1 (1 +
(2.3)
r
r 1
1
) exp( )] ( sin 2 )
ae
ae
2
(2.5)
(2.6)
Qe (r , ) = e[1 (1 +
r
r
) exp( )]
ae
ae
(2.7)
(2.8)
Thus we can see that the electron as a whole has one unit negative electric charge e.
Chapter
m (r , ) =
g 1
r
exp( ) cos
2
ae r
ae
(3.1)
By integrating the magnetic charge density equation (3.1), we can get the volume
magnetic charge:
Qm (r , ) = m (r , )dr 3
(3.2)
In which dr
= 2 r 2 sin d dr thus
g 1
r
exp( ) cos 2r 2 sin ddr
2
ae
ae r
V
Qm (r , ) =
(3.3)
Therefore,
Qm (r , ) = 2 g
V
r
r
r
exp( )d ( ) cos sin d
ae
ae
ae
(3.4)
Thus:
r
r
r
r
Qm (r , ) = 2 g[ exp( )d ( )][ cos sin d ]
a
ae
ae 0
0 e
(3.5)
Consequently,
Qm (r , ) = g[1 (1 +
r
r 1
) exp( )] (1 cos 2 )
ae
ae 2
(3.6)
(3.7)
From equation (3.7), we learn that within the sphere of any radius r, the
magnetic charge total is always zero.
We find out that inside of the electron, within the sphere of any radius r, the
magnetic charge as a whole is always zero, even though magnetic charge distribution
exists inside of the electron.
When =
, thus:
r
r
Qm ( r , ) = g[1 (1 + ) exp( )]
ae
ae
2
(3.8)
The above equation (3.8) is the electron north pole area magnetic charge
distribution within the sphere of radius r, from which we can see the magnetic charge
distribution is also the cumulative gamma distribution [B].
When r thus:
Qm = g
(3.9)
Which shows us that the electron has one unit negative magnetic charge g in the
whole north pole area ( 0 < ).
2
Inside the electron, the whole area of the north pole, has one unit negative magnetic
charge g.
As we know, the electron has total zero magnetic charge, so the electron whole south
pole area ( < ) has one unit positive magnetic charge g.
2
Inside the electron, the whole area of south pole has one unit positive magnetic charge
g.
Reference
10
11
Chapter
As we know, the Gauss Law of Electric Field defines the relationship between electric
charge and electric field as follows:
G
E = e
(4.1)
G
In which E is the electric field strength, and e is the electric charge density.
If we combine the Gauss Law of Electric Field equation (4.1) and the electric charge
density distribution equation (2.1), we will obtain the follows electric field solution:
G
E=
r
1
exp( )(r sin cos )
ae
0 ae r
(4.2)
Below, we will prove that the above equation (4.2) satisfies the Gauss Law of Electric
Field.
As we know the gradient
= r
1
1
+
+
r r r sin
0 a e
2
r
r
1
1
[ exp( )] sin 2 exp( )
cos }
ae
ae
r r
r
(4.3)
1
r
r
1
[ exp( )] sin + 2 exp( ) sin }
ae
ae
r
(4.4)
Thus:
G
E =
G
E =
0 2 ae r r
e
0 2 a e
{[
r
r
r
1
1
1
exp( )
exp( )] sin + 2 exp( ) sin }
ae
ra e
ae
ae
r2
r
Therefore:
12
(4.5)
G
E =
0 a e
2
{[
r
r
r
1
1
1
exp( )
exp( )] sin + 2 exp( ) sin }
2
ae
ra e
ae
ae
r
r
(4.6)
And so:
G
E =
r
1
exp( ) sin
ae
0 a r
2
(4.7)
2
e
If we combine equation (4.7) and (2.1), then we will get the Gauss Law of Electric
Field.
G
E = e
Thus we have proved that the electric field equation (4.2) indeed satisfies the Gauss
Law of Electric Field.
13
Chapter
Similar to the electric field, the Gauss Law of Magnetic Field has defined the
relationship between magnetic charge and magnetic field. The Gauss Law of
Magnetic Field is:
G
H = m
(5.1)
G
In which H is the magnetic field strength, m is the magnetic charge density.
Combine the Gauss Law of Magnetic Field (5.1) and magnetic charge density
distribution equation (3.1), and we get the follows magnetic field strength solution:
G
H=
r
1
exp( )(r cos + sin )
0 ae r
ae
(5.2)
We will prove that the above equation (5.2) satisfies the Gauss Law of Magnetic Field.
As we know the gradient
in spherical coordinate is:
= r
1
1
+
+
r r r sin
0ae
r
r
1
1
[ exp( )] cos + 2 exp( ) sin ]}
r r
ae
a e
r
(5.3)
Therefore,
G
H =
0ae
{[
1
r
1
r
1
r
exp( )
exp( )] cos + 2 exp( ) cos ]}
2
ae
ra e
ae
ae
r
r
(5.4)
Thus:
G
H =
g 1
r
exp( ) cos
2
ae
0a r
(5.5)
G
H = m
Thus we have proved that the magnetic field solution equation (5.2) satisfied the
Gauss Law of Magnetic Field.
Reference
15
Chapter
As we know, the electromagnetic field has the properties of energy, momentum and
angular momentum. The electromagnetic field momentum density is:
G 1 G G
p = 2 EH
c
(6.1)
Based upon the electromagnetic field momentum, and then we can define the field
angular momentum density as follows:
=rp
(6.2)
Thus:
G
1 G G G
r (E H )
c2
(6.3)
Then integrating equation (6.3), we can get the field angular momentum:
G
1 G G G
L = 2 r ( E H )dr 3
c
(6.4)
2r
eg 1
exp( )
3 2
ae r
ae
(6.5)
For the cylindrical coordinate ( , , z), which has the follows relationship with the
spherical coordinate (r, , ):
= r sin
z = r cos
We can separate the angular momentum density into the z component and
component,
The z component of angular momentum density is:
16
z =
2r
eg 1
exp( ) sin
3 2
ae
ae r
(6.6)
2r
eg 1
exp( ) cos
3 2
ae
ae r
(6.7)
(6.8)
cos sin d = 0
=0
2r
eg 1
exp( ) sin 2r 2 sin ddr
3 2
ae
ae r
(6.9)
Thus:
Lz =
2eg
2r
r exp( )dr sin 2 d
2 2
ae
ae
Lz =
2eg
2r
r exp( )dr sin 2 d
2 2
ae
ae 0
0
(6.10)
(6.11)
Therefore:
Lz ( r , ) =
eg
2r
2r
1
[1 (1 + ) exp( )]( sin 2 )
2
ae
ae
2
4
(6.12)
2r
2r
eg
[1 (1 + ) exp( )]
4
ae
ae
(6.13)
17
The equation (6.13) is the angular momentum within the sphere of radius r of an
electron.
The angular momentum distribution is a kind of cumulative gamma distribution in
mathematics [B]
When r thus:
Lz=
eg
4
(6.14)
Lz =
=
2
(6.15)
eg = h
(6.16)
From equation (6.16), we found out that the multiple of electric charge unit e and
magnetic charge unit g equal the Plancks constant h.
Then, we can also calculate the ratio of magnetic charge g and electric charge e as
follows:
g h
=
e e2
(6.17)
Thus:
g 2 0 hc
=
e 2 0 ce 2
(6.18)
So:
g
1
=
e 2 0 c
(6.19)
18
Thus:
g
1
=
e 2
0
0
(6.20)
0
0
(6.21)
So we can see the ratio of magnetic charge unit g and electric charge unit e has the
unit of impedance.
Reference
Conservation of linear and angular momentum and the interaction of a moving charge
with a magnetic dipole
V. Hnizdo
Am. J. Phys. 60, 242 (1992)
Electromagnetic angular momentum for a rotating charged shell
Antonio S. de Castro
Am. J. Phys. 59, 180 (1991)
Angular momentum of a chargemonopole pair
K. R. Brownstein
Am. J. Phys. 57, 420 (1989)
Angular momentum in the field of an electron
Jack Higbie
Am. J. Phys. 56, 378 (1988)
Angular momentum in static electric and magnetic fields: A simple case
H. S. T. Driver
Am. J. Phys. 55, 755 (1987)
What is spin?
Hans C. Ohanian
Am. J. Phys. 54, 500 (1986)
Electromagnetic angular momentum
Robert H. Romer
Am. J. Phys. 53, 15 (1985)
Field angular momentum of an electric charge interacting with a magnetic dipole
A. C. Lawson
Am. J. Phys. 50, 946 (1982)
Angular momentum of a static electromagnetic field
E. Corinaldesi
Am. J. Phys. 48, 83 (1980)
The Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum
Ph. M. Kanarev
Journal of Theoretics Vol.4-4
Model of the Electron
Ph. M. Kanarev
APEIRON Vol. 7 Nr. 3-4, July-October, 2000
20
Chapter
1
0E2
2
(7.1)
Integrating energy density for the sphere of radius r, we can get the electric field
energy:
1
U e = 0 E 2 dr 3
2
(7.2)
With the electric field strength equation (4.2), then we can get:
Ue =
e2
1
2r
exp( )4r 2 dr
2
2 0 a r
ae
4
(7.3)
2
e
Thus:
U e (r ) =
e2
0 ae
3
[1 exp(
2r
)]
ae
(7.4)
Equation (7.4) is the electric energy distribution equation of electron. We find out that
the electric field energy has the spherical exponential distribution inside of the
electron.
When r , thus:
Ue =
e2
(7.5)
3 0 ae
21
Chapter
1
0 H 2
2
(8.1)
Integrating energy density to volume of the sphere of radius r, from the magnetic field
equation (5.2), then we can get the electron magnetic field energy
Um =
2g 2
2r
exp( )dr
2
0 ae
ae
(8.2)
Thus:
U m (r ) =
2r
g2
[1 exp( )]
0 ae
ae
(8.3)
The equation (8.3) is the magnetic field energy within the sphere of the radius r.
From equation (8.3), We find out that the magnetic field energy of electron has the
spherical exponential distribution.
When r , thus:
Um =
g2
0 ae
(8.4)
22
Chapter
1
1
0 E 2 + 0 H 2
2
2
(9.1)
(9.2)
(9.3)
Thus:
Ue
e2
= 2 20
Um g 0
(9.4)
As we know:
ge = h
(9.5)
And also:
e2
(9.6)
4 0 =c
c=
(9.7)
00
Thus:
Ue
2
= ( )2
Um
(9.8)
23
Thus:
g2
4 2
U=
(1 + 2 )
0 ae
(9.9)
Thus:
4 2
=c
(1 + 2 )
U=
ae
(9.10)
As we know, the electron mass is one of the basic properties of electrons. Where does
the electron mass come from? One of the most popular theories is the electromagnetic
origin of electron mass.
From the above equation (9.10), we get the electrons electromagnetic energy; let us
make an assumption here that the electrons mass origin is from the electromagnetic
field energy, thus:
U = me c 2
(9.11)
In which U is the electron electromagnetic field energy, and me is the electron mass,
then combine the equation (9.10) and (9.11), we can get
me c 2 =
4 2
=c
(1 + 2 )
ae
(9.12)
Thus:
4 2
=
ae =
(1 + 2 )
me c
(9.13)
a0 =
=
me c
(9.14)
Thus:
ae = a0 (1 +
4 2
(9.15)
1
137
(9.16)
24
Thus:
(
) 2 << 1
(9.17)
Thus:
a0 ae
(9.18)
Reference
Singularity-Free Electrodynamics for Point Charges and Dipoles: Classical Model for
Electron Self-Energy and Spin
S. M. Blinder
Eur. J. Phys. 24 (May 2003) 271-275
General relativistic models for the electron
S. M. Blinder
Rept.Math.Phys. 47 (2001) 279-285
About Zitterbewegung and Electron Structure
Waldyr A. Rodrigues, Jayme Vaz, Erasmo Recami, and Giovanni Salesi
Physics Letters B 318 (1993) 623-628
Zitterbewegung and the Electromagnetic Field of the Electron
J.Vaz Jr e W.A.Rodrigues Jr,
Physics Letters B, 319, 203-208, (1993).
Spin and Electron Structure
M.Pavsic, E.Recami, W.A.Rodrigues Jr, D.G.Maccarrone, F.Raciti e G.Salesi,
Physics Letters B, 318, 481-488, (1993).
Mass and Spin Renormalization in Lorentz Electrodynamics
Walter Appel, Michael K.-H. Kiessling
Annals Phys. 289 (2001) 24-83
An Elementary Account of the Factor of 4/3 in the Electromagnetic Mass
P. Moylan
Am. J. Phys. 63, 818-820 (1995).
The Electromagnetic Mass of a Charged Particle
V.A. Kuligin, G.A. Kuligina, M.V. Korneva
APEIRON Vol. 3 Nr. 1 January 1996
25
Chapter
10
G
G
As we know, the velocity V , the mass m, and the momentum P has the follows
relationship:
G
G P
V =
m
(10.1)
Let us make the assumption that the above relationship is also valid within the
electromagnetic field. As we know for the electromagnetic field, the momentum
density is:
G 1 G G
p = 2 EH
c
(10.2)
Per our assumption, the mass origin is from the electromagnetic field energy, so the
mass density inside the electromagnetic field is:
u
c2
(10.3)
1
1
0 E 2 + 0 H 2
2
2
(10.4)
(10.5)
Thus:
G
V=
G G
EH
1
1
( 0 E 2 + 0 H 2 )
2
2
(10.6)
26
As we know:
1
c=
00
Thus:
G
G
G
( 0 E) ( 0 H )
V
=
c 1
[( 0 E ) 2 + ( 0 H ) 2 ]
2
(10.7)
(10.8)
And
0 E = 0 H
(10.9)
Thus:
V =c
(10.10)
Combine the equations (4.2) and (5.2) into (10.7), then we can get the velocity of
electromagnetic field inside the electron as follows:
G
V=
c
2
1+ ( )
(10.11)
) 2 << 1
Thus:
27
G 4c
V
(10.12)
Reference
28
Chapter
11
The electric charge conservation is one of the basic conservation law in physics.
The electric charge conservation law is as follows:
G
e
+ ( eV ) = 0
t
(11.1)
G G
V E =
Ve 1
r
exp( )( sin + r cos )
0 ae r
ae
2
(11.2)
As we know:
1
1
+
+
r r r sin
(11.3)
G G
eV 1
r
(V E ) = 2 2 exp( ) sin
a
0 ae r
(11.4)
= r
Thus:
(11.5)
(11.6)
29
(11.7)
(11.8)
G G
[ (V E )] = 0
(11.9)
Thus:
G
e
+ ( eV ) = 0
t
(11.10)
Equation (11.10) is the electron electric charge conservation equation, which is also
called the electric charge continuity equation.
30
Chapter
12
Similar to the electric charge, the magnetic charge conservation law is as follows:
G
m
+ ( mV ) = 0
t
(12.1)
G G
Vg 1
r
exp( )( cos r sin )
V H =
0 ae r
ae
(12.2)
As we know:
1
1
+
+
r r r sin
(12.3)
G G
gV 1
r
(V H ) =
exp( ) cos
2
a
0 ae r
(12.4)
= r
Thus:
(12.5)
G
H
=0
t
(12.6)
31
(12.7)
G
G G
G
B
(V B ) = 2 B +
t
(12.8)
We can see there is much similarity between these two equations. We then call the
equation (12.7) as the hydromagnetic equation of electromagnetic field.
Because:
G G
[ (V H )] = 0
(12.9)
Thus:
G
m
+ ( mV ) = 0
t
(12.10)
Equation (12.10) is the electron magnetic charge conservation equation, which is also
called the magnetic charge continuity equation.
32
Chapter
13
From our electron model, we find out that the electromagnetic field has satisfied the 5
equations (4.1), (5.1), (10.7), (11.7), (12.7), here we rewrite each one of the equations
as follows:
The Gauss Law of Electric Field:
G
E = e
(13.1)
(13.2)
(13.3)
G
G G
G
E
0 (V E ) = eV + 0
t
(13.4)
(13.5)
Let us consider one special case based on the above 5 electromagnetic field equations,
the free charge electromagnetic field in vacuum, which satisfies the following four
conditions:
e = 0
(13.6)
33
m = 0
(13.7)
K G
EH = 0
(13.8)
0 E = 0 H
(13.9)
(13.10)
0V E = 0 0 cH
(13.11)
Thus:
G
0V E = H
(13.12)
And:
0V H = 0 0 cE
(13.13)
Thus:
G
0V H = E
(13.14)
Thus, we can get the following 5 equations of the electromagnetic field in vacuum of
free charge, which are:
G
E = 0
(13.15)
G
H =0
(13.16)
V=c
(13.17)
G
G
E
H = 0
t
(13.18)
G
G
H
E = 0
t
(13.19)
Then based on the above 5 equations, we can get the Maxwell Electromagnetic Wave
Equation in vacuum of free charge:
34
G
G 1 2E
E= 2 2
c t
(13.20)
G
2
G
1
H
2H = 2
c t 2
(13.21)
35
Chapter
14
The electric field and magnetic field can be expressed in complex form.
Let us define the electromagnetic charge density in complex form as:
+i e
0
0
(14.1)
(14.2)
And also:
G
G
G
* = 0 H i 0 E
(14.3)
1
1
0 E 2 + 0 H 2
2
2
(14.4)
Thus, we have:
u=
1 G G*
(14.5)
(14.6)
Thus, we have:
G
1 G G*
p=
i 2c
(14.7)
36
(14.8)
G c *
V =
i *
(14.9)
G
G
G
(V ) = V +
t
(14.10)
(14.11)
Thus:
G
G
G G
G
G
G
G
(V ) = ( )V (V ) + V ( V )
(14.12)
Thus the hydro-electromagnetic equation can be rewritten in the complex form as:
G
G
G
G
G
G G
= ( )V (V ) ( V )
t
(14.13)
+ (V ) + ( V ) = ( )V
t
(14.14)
(14.15)
(14.16)
e ( r , ) =
r
e 1
exp( ) sin
2
ae
ae r
(14.17)
And
37
g 1
r
exp( ) cos
2
ae r
ae
m (r , ) =
(14.18)
As we know:
g
e
0
1
=
0 2
(14.19)
Thus:
m ( r , ) =
0 e 1
r
exp( ) cos
2 2
ae
0 ae r
(14.20)
Let us define:
m
e
+i
2 0
0
(14.21)
Thus:
1
e 1
r
exp( + i )
2 2
2 0 ae r
ae
(14.22)
So:
g
1 1
r
exp( + i )
2
ae
0 ae r
(14.23)
Let us define:
G
G
G
= 0 H + i
0 E
2
(14.24)
As we know:
G
E=
r
1
exp( )(r sin cos )
ae
0 ae r
(14.25)
G
H=
1
r
exp( )(r cos + sin )
0 ae r
ae
(14.26)
Thus:
G
0 E =
1
r
exp( )(r sin cos )
ae
0 ae r
38
(14.27)
1
r
exp( )(r cos + sin )
ae
0 ae r
(14.28)
1
r
e
exp(
(14.29)
0 H =
0 H =
Thus:
G
e
1
r
=
exp( + i )(r i)
2
2 0 ae r
ae
(14.30)
Thus:
G
g
=
r
1
exp( + i )(r i)
ae
0 ae r
(14.31)
39
Chapter
15
The conservation of energy is one of the most basic physics laws, for the
electromagnetic field, the energy conservation equation is as follows:
G
+ ( V ) = 0
t
(15.1)
G
In which is the mass density, V is the field velocity.
The mass density and energy density have the following relationship:
u = c 2
In which u is the electromagnetic field energy density.
From equation (14.15) and (14.16), we have:
G
G
G G
G
G
G
E
+ (V ) E + E ( V ) = ( E )V
t
(15.2)
And
G
G
G G
G
G
G
H
+ (V ) H + H ( V ) = ( H )V
t
(15.3)
Thus:
G
G E G G
G
G
G G
G
E
+ E [(V ) E ] + E 2 ( V ) = E [( E )V ]
t
(15.4)
And
G
G H G
G
G
G
G
G
G
H
+ H [(V ) H ] + H 2 ( V ) = H [( H )V ]
t
Thus:
40
(15.5)
G
G G
G
1 E 2 1 G
+ [(V ) E 2 ] + E 2 ( V ) = E [( E )V ]
2 t
2
(15.6)
And
G
G
G
G
1 H 2 1 G
+ [(V ) H 2 ] + H 2 ( V ) = H [( H )V ]
2 t
2
(15.7)
(15.8)
(15.9)
Thus:
G
u G
+ V u + u ( V ) = 0
t
(15.10)
Thus, we have:
G
G G
G
G
G
G
u ( V ) = 0 E [( E )V ] + 0 H [( H )V ]
(15.11)
As we know:
ue =
1
0E2
2
(15.12)
um =
1
0 H 2
2
(15.13)
Let us define:
G
E = En e
(15.14)
G
H = Hn m
(15.15)
From the electromagnetic field energy conservation equation, then we can get the
following equation:
G 2u
G 2u
G
( V ) = e n e [(n e )V ] + m n m [(n m )V ]
u
u
41
(15.16)
(15.17)
G
H = m
(15.18)
G
G
G
( 0 E) ( 0 H )
V
=
c 1
[( 0 E ) 2 + ( 0 H ) 2 ]
2
(15.19)
G
G
G G
G
G
G
E
+ (V ) E + E ( V ) = ( E )V
t
(15.20)
G
G
G G
G
G
G
H
+ (V ) H + H ( V ) = ( H )V
t
(15.21)
G 2u
G 2u
G
V = e n e [(n e )V ] + m n h [(n h )V ]
u
u
(15.22)
42
Chapter
16
As we know the atom consisted of electrons and nucleus, and the nucleus
consists of protons and neutrons.
Both protons and neutrons have the half spin just like electrons do. But the
proton has one positive electric charge unit e and the neutron as a whole has zero
electric charge.
Comparing protons and electrons, the protons mass is much larger than the
electrons mass, but they have the same amount of electric charge (with different
signs), protons have positive electric charges, and the electrons have negative electric
charges, both the electrons and protons have the same value of half spin.
Let us make an assumption that the proton has a similar internal structure as
electrons, the difference is that the proton has one positive electric charge, and the
mass of the proton is much larger than that of the electron.
The electric charge density distribution inside the proton is as follows:
e (r , ) =
r
e 1
exp( ) sin
2
ap
ap r
(16.1)
m ( r , ) =
r
g 1
exp( ) cos
2
ap
a p r
(16.2)
Based on the above charge distribution equation, we can get the protons
electromagnetic field distribution equation as follows:
G
E=
1
r
exp( )(r sin cos )
ap
0a p r
G
H =
(16.3)
g 1
r
exp( )(r cos + sin )
0 a p r
ap
43
(16.4)
4 2
=c
(1 + 2 )
a p
(16.5)
Then, we make the assumption similar to the electron that the proton mass also has
electromagnetic origin, then we have:
mpc2 =
4 2
=c
(1 + 2 )
a p
(16.6)
4 2
=c
(1 + 2 )
a e
(16.7)
mp
me
ae
ap
(16.8)
As we know that:
ae = a0 [1 + (
)2 ]
(16.9)
Thus:
a p = a0 [1 + (
)2 ]
me
mp
(16.10)
44
Chapter
17
e =
1
1
r
r 1
exp( ) +
exp( )] sin
ae
ae
aP
aP r
(17.1)
m =
g
r
r 1
1
1
[ exp( ) +
exp( )] cos
2
ae
ae
aP
aP r
a
(17.2)
Qe = e[ exp(
1
r
r
r
r 1
)(1 + ) + exp( )(1 + )] ( sin 2 )
2
ae
ae
ap
ap
(17.3)
Qm = g[exp(
r
r
r
r 1
)(1 + ) exp( )(1 + )] (1 cos 2 )
ae
ae
ap
ap 2
(17.4)
G
E=
0
2
1
r
1
r 1
exp( )
exp( )] (r sin cos )
ae
ae
aP
aP r
(17.5)
45
(17.6)
Um =
2g 2
2a d
1
1
)
+
2ae 2a p ae a p
(17.7)
In which
1
1
1
= +
ad ae a p
(17.8)
Thus:
Um =
2g 2
1
1
2
+
)
2ae 2a p ( ae + a p )
(17.9)
1
1
2
+
)
2ae 2a p ( ae + a p )
(17.10)
1
1
4
)
+
ae a p (ae + a p )
(17.11)
Thus:
Um =
2g 2
Thus:
Um =
g2
Ue =
Ue =
2e 2
0
3
e2
0
3
1
1
2
)
+
2a e 2a p a e + a p
(17.12)
1
1
4
)
+
ae a p ae + a p
(17.13)
UH = Um +Ue
(17.14)
Thus:
46
ae
ae + a p
(17.15)
As we know
ap
ae
<< 1
(17.16)
Thus:
U H U proton 3U electron
(17.17)
Thus:
m H m p 3me
(17.18)
As we know:
G
E=
0
2
1
r
1
r 1
exp( )
exp( )] (r sin cos )
ae
ae
aP
aP r
G
g 1
r
r 1
1
H=
[ exp( )
exp( )] (r cos + sin )
0 a e
ae
aP
aP r
(17.19)
(17.20)
Thus:
K G
EH =
G 1
r
r
1
exp( ) exp( )]2
ae
ae
aP
aP
0 0 r
eg
(17.21)
G
1
r
r
eg G 1
exp( )]2
p = 3 2 [ exp( )
ae
ae
aP
aP
r
(17.22)
u=
1
1
0 E 2 + 0 H 2
2
2
e2
2 2 2 0
(17.23)
1
r
r
g2 1 1
) 2 [ exp( )
exp( )]2
0 r ae
ae
aP
aP
47
(17.24)
G 2c 2 eg
V =
G
2e
V =
g 0
1
(
2 0
(17.25)
G
1
2
e
(1 + 2 20 )
g 0
(17.26)
Thus:
G
V=
c
2
1+ ( )
(17.27)
We find out that inside the hydrogen atom, the velocity is the same as for the electron,
which has a constant speed value.
As we know the field angular momentum density is:
1 G G G
r (E H )
c2
(17.28)
eg G 1
r
r
1
= 3 [ exp( )
exp( )] 2
ae
aP
aP
r ae
G
(17.29)
Then, integrating equation (17.28), we can get the field angular momentum:
G
1 G G G
L = 2 r ( E H )dr 3
c
(17.30)
eg G 1
r
r 2
1
[
exp(
)
exp(
)]
ae
aP
aP
3 r ae
(17.31)
For the cylindrical coordinates ( , , z), which has the following relationship with
the spherical coordinate (r, , ):
= r sin
z = r cos
We can separate the angular momentum density into z component and component,
48
z =
1
eg 1 1
r
r
[ exp( ) exp( )]2 sin
3
r ae
ae
aP
aP
(17.32)
1
eg 1 1
r
r
[ exp( ) exp( )]2 cos
3
r ae
ae
aP
aP
(17.33)
(17.34)
cos sin d = 0
=0
(17.35)
1
eg 1 1
r
r
[ exp( ) exp( )]2 sin 2r 2 sin ddr
3
r ae
ae
aP
aP
(17.36)
Thus:
Lz =
2eg
r[ a
exp(
1
r
r
) exp( )]2 dr sin 2 d
ae
aP
aP
(17.37)
Thus:
2eg
1
1
r
r
Lz = 2 r[ exp( ) exp( )]2 dr sin 2 d
0 ae
ae
aP
aP
0
(17.38)
Thus:
Lz =
eg
r[ a
exp(
r
1
r
1
) exp( )]2 dr ( sin 2 )
ae
aP
aP
2
(17.39)
eg
r[ a
0
exp(
r
r
1
) exp( )]2 dr
ae
aP
aP
49
(17.40)
When r thus:
eg 1 1 2ad2
Lz = { +
}
4 4 ae a p
(17.41)
In which
1
1
1
= +
ad ae a p
(17.42)
Thus:
Lz =
eg
4a 2
{1 d }
ae a p
2
(17.43)
As we know eg= h
Thus:
4ad2
Lz = ={1
}
ae a p
(17.44)
Thus:
ad2
L = =(1 4
)
ae a p
(17.45)
Thus:
L = =(1 4
ae a p
( ae + a p ) 2
(17.46)
Thus:
L = =(1 4
(1 +
1
ap
ae
ap
)
ae
(17.47)
As we know
ap
ae
<< 1
(17.48)
50
Thus:
L=
(17.49)
Based on the equations (17.3) and (17.4), we can get the ratio of magnetic charge and
electric charge inside the hydrogen atom:
Qm ( r , )
g (1 cos 2 )
=
1
Qe ( r , )
2e
( sin 2 )
2
(17.50)
Thus:
Qm (r ,0
)
2 = 2g
e
Qe (r ,0 )
2
(17.51)
Thus:
Qm ( r ,
Qe ( r ,
)
)
2g
e
(17.52)
51
Chapter
18
The neutron as a whole has zero electric charge and zero magnetic charge, but
the neutron still has an intrinsic electric field and magnetic field.
The neutron in total has zero electric charge and magnetic charge, but similar
to the electron and proton, the neutron still has half spin.
Let us compare the neutron and hydrogen atoms, both as a total have zero
electric charge and zero magnetic charge, and both have intrinsic electric field and
magnetic field. The major difference is the neutron alone has half spin.
Let us assume that a neutron has a similar internal structure to a hydrogen
atom. Then we can make an assumption that the neutrons electric and magnetic
charge distribution equation is as follows:
e =
1
1
r
r 1
exp( ) exp( )] sin
a+
a+
a
a r
(18.1)
m =
1
g 1
r
r 1
[ exp( ) exp( )] cos
2
a+
a
a r
a a+
(18.2)
The neutron as whole has no electric charge, but has half spin. Here is the
model for the neutron, which has a similar electromagnetic structure as a hydrogen
atom. The difference is that the hydrogen atom has spin 1, but the neutron has half
spin.
Similar to the hydrogen atom spin formula, we can get the neutrons angular
momentum as follows:
a+
a
)
L = =(1 4
a
(1 + + ) 2
a
(18.3)
52
L=
=
2
(18.4)
Thus:
a+
= 3 2 2
a
(18.5)
Thus:
a
= 3+ 2 2
a+
(18.6)
Um =
2g 2
1
1
2
+
)
2a + 2a a + + a
(18.7)
Thus:
2 g 2 (2 + 2 )
Um =
0 2a+
(18.8)
Thus:
g 2 (2 + 2 )
Um =
0
a+
(18.9)
Thus:
g2 1
Um =
0 an
(18.10)
In which
an = a+ (1
2
)
2
(18.11)
Thus:
53
a+ = 2an (1 +
2
)
2
(18.12)
Ue =
2e 2
0
3
1
1
2
+
)
2a+ 2a a+ + a
(18.13)
Thus:
2e 2 ( 2 + 2 )
Ue = 3
0 2a+
(18.14)
Thus:
Ue =
e 2 (2 + 2 )
a+
3 0
(18.15)
Thus:
Ue =
e2
1
0 an
(18.16)
(18.17)
Thus:
U=
4 2
=c
(1 + 2 )
an
(18.18)
Thus:
U = mn c 2
(18.19)
4 2
=c
(1 + 2 )
an
(18.20)
Thus:
54
an =
4 2
=
(1 + 2 )
mn c
(18.21)
Thus:
a+ = an (2 + 2 )
(18.22)
4 2
=
(2 + 2 )(1 + 2 )
a+ =
mn c
(18.23)
As we know,
a
= 3+ 2 2
a+
(18.24)
Thus:
a =
4 2
=
(3 + 2 2 )(2 + 2 )(1 + 2 )
mn c
(18.25)
Thus:
a =
4 2
=
(10 + 7 2 )(1 + 2 )
mn c
(18.26)
(18.27)
Thus:
ae =
4 2
=
(1 + 2 )
me c
(18.28)
As we know,
a0 =
=
me c
(18.29)
Thus:
ae = a0 (1 +
4 2
(18.30)
55
Thus, we get the relationship between the electron mass, neutron mass and their
radius relationship:
m
a
= (10 + 7 2 ) e
ae
mn
(18.31)
m
a+
= (2 + 2 ) e
ae
mn
(18.32)
56
Chapter
19
The simplest helium atom consists of two protons and two electrons.
The helium atoms electric charge and magnetic charge density distribution is:
e =
r
r
r
r 1
1
1
1
1
exp( ) +
exp(
)
exp(
)
exp(
)] sin
ae1
ae1
ae 2
ae 2
a p2
aP2
a p1
a P1 r
(19.1)
g
r
r
r
r 1
1
1
1
1
[
exp(
)
exp(
)+
exp(
)
exp(
)] cos
2
a e1
ae2
ae2
a P1
a P1
aP2
aP2 r
2a a e1
(19.2)
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
1
1
)(1 +
) + exp(
)(1 +
) exp(
)(1 +
) exp(
)(1 +
)] ( sin 2 )
a e1
a e1
ae2
ae2
a p1
a p1
a p2
a p2
2
(19.3)
1
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
)(1 +
) exp(
)(1 +
) + exp(
)(1 +
) exp(
)(1 +
)] (1 cos 2 )
a e1
a e1
ae2
ae2
a p1
a p1
a p2
a p2 2
(19.4)
2 0 a e1
exp(
r
1
r
1
r
1
r 1
)+
exp(
)
exp(
)
exp(
)] (r sin cos )
a e1
ae2
ae2
a P1
a P1
aP2
aP2 r
(19.5)
(19.6)
Thus:
G G
EH =
eg
3 0 0 r 2
{[
r
r 2
r
r 2
1
1
1
1
exp( )
exp(
)] [
exp(
)
exp(
)] }
ae1
ae1
aP2
aP2
ae2
ae2
a P1
a P1
57
(19.7)
G G
1 G
H)
r
(
E
c2
(19.8)
Thus:
G
eg G 1
1
1
1
r
r 2
r
r 2
{[ exp( )
exp(
)] [
exp(
)
exp(
)] }
a e1
a e1
aP2
aP2
ae2
ae2
a P1
a P1
3r
(19.9)
For the cylindrical coordinates ( , , z), which has the following relationship with
the spherical coordinate (r, , ):
= r sin
z = r cos
eg 1
3 r
{[
1
1
1
1
r
r 2
r
r 2
exp( )
exp(
)] [
exp(
)
exp(
)] }sin
ae1
ae1 a P 2
aP2
ae 2
ae 2
a P1
a P1
(19.10)
eg 1
3 r
{[
r
r 2
r
r 2
1
1
1
1
exp( )
exp(
)] [
exp(
)
exp(
)] } cos
a e1
ae1
aP2
aP2
ae 2
ae 2
a P1
a P1
(19.11)
cos sin d = 0
=0
L = 0
(19.12)
eg 1
3 r
{[
1
r
1
r 2
1
r
1
r 2
exp( )
exp(
)] [
exp(
)
exp(
)] } sin 2r 2 sin ddr
ae1
a e1
aP2
aP2
ae 2
ae 2
a P1
a P1
(19.13)
Thus:
Lz =
2eg
r{[ a
e1
exp(
r
r 2
r
r 2
1
1
1
)
exp(
)] [
exp(
)
exp(
)] }dr sin 2 d
ae1
aP2
aP2
ae 2
ae 2
a P1
a P1
Thus:
58
(19.14)
Lz =
2eg
r{[ a
0
exp(
e1
1
1
1
r
r 2
r
r 2
)
exp(
)] [
exp(
)
exp(
)] }dr sin 2 d
ae1
aP2
aP2
ae 2
ae 2
a P1
a P1
0
(19.15)
r
1
r 2
1
r
1
r 2
1
)
exp(
)] [
exp(
)
exp(
)] }dr ( sin 2 )
a e1
a P2
a P2
ae2
ae2
a P1
a P1
2
(19.16)
Thus:
L z (r , ) =
eg
r{[ a
0
exp(
e1
eg
r{[ a
0
exp(
e1
r
1
r 2
1
r
1
r 2
)
exp(
)] [
exp(
)
exp(
)] }dr
ae1
aP2
aP2
ae 2
ae 2
a P1
a P1
(19.17)
When r , thus:
2
ae21 p 2
2eg ae 2 p1
Lz (, ) =
{
}
ae 2 a p1 ae1a p 2
(19.18)
In which
1
ae 2 p1
1
ae1 p 2
1
1
+
ae 2 a p1
(19.19)
1
1
+
ae1 a p 2
(19.20)
As we know, eg=h
Thus:
Lz (, ) = 4={
a p1
ae 2
(1 +
1
a p1
ae 2
a p2
ae1
(1 +
1
a p2
ae1
}
)
(19.21)
As we know:
a p1
ae 2
<< 1
(19.22)
<< 1
(19.23)
And
a p2
ae1
59
Thus:
Lz (, ) 0
(19.24)
60
Chapter
20
The electromagnetic
characteristic impedance
m h
( )
n e2
(20.1)
Qm
Qe
(20.2)
As we know, the electron is the smallest unit of electron gas, the e is the electric
charge unit of the electron, and g is the magnetic charge unit of an electron. Thus,
we have:
Qm = mg
(20.3)
And
Qe = ne
(20.4)
Then we have
Z=
m g
( )
n e
(20.5)
As we know:
ge = h
(20.6)
Thus, we have:
Z=
m h
( )
n e2
(20.7)
62
Chapter
21
There are two kinds wave within the electromagnetic field, one is the field
wave, and the other is the charge density wave.
According to the Gauss Law for both electric field and magnetic field, the electric
charge is the source of electric field, and the magnetic charge is the source of the
magnetic field.
When an electric current flows through a wire, it creates the electromagnetic
field both inside and outside the wire.
Outside the electric wire is a vacuum, both the electric charge density and
magnetic density in the vacuum is zero.
When the electric wire has ac current, there exists electromagnetic field wave
propagate along the wire.
Inside the electric wire, the electric charge density wave and magnetic charge
density charge wave is the source of the electromagnetic field wave.
Outside the wire is a vacuum, which has vacuum impedance. The
electromagnetic field wave in the vacuum has light speed.
The electric wire has characteristic electromagnetic impedance. Both the
charge density wave and field wave have the same wave velocity. The wave velocity
depends on the characteristic impedance of the transmission line. The higher the
impedance, the lower the velocity speed. The impedance of the transmission line and
velocity of the charge density wave have the reversion relationship:
v z0
=
c z
In which v is the velocity of charge density sound wave, c is the speed of light in
vacuum, z 0 is the impedance of the vacuum, and z is the impedance of the
transmission line.
The velocity factor is the ratio of the speed of waves in transmission line to the
speed of light in the vacuum.
63
The electromagnetic wave in a transmission line may reflect at the end. If the
load is smaller than the line impedance, a reflection will occur with a 180-degree
phase shift.
The forwarding wave and reflection of the incoming wave travels back and
forth along the wire, which can form a standing wave.
The charge density wave, which involves alternating compression and
expansions, similar to a sound wave in the air, is a kind of longitudinal wave.
The charge density wave is a kind of sound wave. The oscillation is in and
opposite to the direction of the wave propagation.
The electromagnetic field wave is a kind of transverse wave. The oscillation of
its electric field and magnetic field is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
the wave.
64
Chapter
22
The electric charge density wave and magnetic charge density wave are kinds
of sound waves. The wave speed has an inverse relationship with the characteristic of
electromagnetic impedance.
The characteristic electromagnetic impedance of a vacuum is a constant:
Z0 =
0
0
(22.1)
r
r
) exp( )]
ae
ae
(22.2)
The electric charge has the same distribution in both the north pole and south pole.
In the north pole area of sphere of radius r, the electric charge is:
Qe (r ,0
1
r
r
) = e[1 (1 + ) exp( )]
2
2
ae
ae
(22.3)
In the south pole area of the electron sphere of radius r, the electric charge is:
Qe (r ,
1
r
r
) = e[1 (1 + ) exp( )]
2
2
ae
ae
(22.4)
65
Based on the equation (3.7), the magnetic charge distribution in a sphere of radius r
is zero:
Q m ( r ,0 ) = 0
(22.5)
In the north pole area of sphere of radius r, the magnetic charge is:
r
r
Qm ( r , ) = g[1 (1 + ) exp( )]
ae
ae
2
(22.6)
The south pole area of sphere of radius r, the magnetic charge is:
Qm ( r ,
) = g[1 (1 +
r
r
) exp( )]
ae
ae
(22.7)
Thus, within the north pole area of a sphere of any radius r, the ratio of magnetic
charge and electric charge is:
Qm (r ,0
)
2 = 2g
e
Qe (r ,0 )
2
(22.8)
)
)
2g
e
(22.9)
Z=
2g
e
(22.10)
66
2h
e2
Z=
(22.11)
e2
2 0 hc
(22.12)
Thus:
Z=
(22.13)
0 c
Thus:
Z=
0
0
(22.14)
Thus:
Z0
=
Z
(22.15)
The ratio of vacuum impedance and electron impedance is the alpha fine
structure constant.
As we know, the electromagnetic wave velocity varies inversely with the wave
impedance, and we also know that the wave velocity in the vacuum is the speed of
light, and then we have following relationship:
Vwave Z 0
=
c
Z
(22.16)
Thus:
Vwave
=
c
(22.17)
Thus:
Vwave = c
(22.18)
67
As we know the velocity factor is the ratio of the speed of waves to the speed
of light in a vacuum, we find out that the velocity factor of an electron is the alpha
fine structure constant.
As we know, the ratio of magnetic charge unit and electric charge unit is as follows:
g h
=
e e2
(22.19)
h
is also the quantum hall resistance unit, which is also the
e2
ratio of the magnetic charge unit and electric charge unit.
As we can see, the value
68
Chapter
23
e =
1
r
1
r 1
exp( )
exp( )] sin
ae
ae
aP
aP r
(23.1)
m =
r
r 1
1
g 1
[ exp( )
exp( )] cos
2
ae
aP
aP r
a a e
(23.2)
G
e 1
r
1
r 1
E = 2 [ exp( ) exp( )] (r sin cos )
0 ae
ae aP
aP r
(23.3)
G
H=
(23.4)
g
2 0
1
1
r
r 1
exp( ) exp( )] (r cos + sin )
ae
ae
aP
aP r
nm
= RH (
1
1
2)
2
m
n
(23.5)
69
south pole. Thus we can derive the hydrogen atoms electromagnetic characteristic
impedance as follows:
Z = Z0
(23.6)
Outside the hydrogen atom is the vacuum. The vacuum impedance is:
Z0 =
0
.
0
(23.7)
As we know, the velocity has an inverse relationship with impedance, so the wave
velocity inside the hydrogen atom has the following relation with the speed of light.
V Z0
=
c
Z
(23.8)
(23.9)
The inside of the hydrogen atom has constant impedance and wave velocity.
Outside the hydrogen atom, exists a vacuum that has light speed as its wave velocity.
Inside of the hydrogen atom, there are both outgoing and incoming waves
along the radial direction, which form a standing wave.
Lets introduce a new function which we can temporally call the zetaexponential function [C] as follows:
g m ( x) =
n =0
xn
[2(n + m)]
n!
(23.10)
For m =1 thus:
g1 ( x) =
n =0
xn
[2(n + 1)]
n!
(23.11)
In which
[2(n + 1)] =
m =1
1
m
(23.12)
2n+ 2
The value of [2(n + 1)] is always larger than 1, with the increase of the integer n, the
value becomes more and more close to the number 1.
70
1 2
V 2 t 2
(23.13)
We can see both the following functions are the solution of the spherical wave
equation [D]:
1
1 1
r Vt
r Vt
) = 2 exp(i 2 )
g1 (i
k ae
ae
r
k =1 k r
(23.14)
And
1
1 1
r + Vt
r + Vt
) = 2 exp(i 2 )
g1 (i
r
ae
k ae
k =1 k r
(23.15)
1
r Vt
) is a kind of outgoing wave.
g1 (i
r
ae
1
r + Vt
) is a kind of incoming wave.
g1 (i
r
ae
Let us make an assumption that the hydrogen atom electric field with the stationary
wave function is as follows:
G
e 1
r
r + Vt
r Vt
1
r 1
E = 2 [ exp( )(1 + p Re[g1(i
) + g1(i
)] exp( )] (r sin cos )
0 ae
ae
ae
ae
aP
aP r
(23.16)
The hydrogen atom magnetic field equation with the stationary wave is as follows:
G
H=
g
1
r
r + Vt
r Vt
1
r 1
[ exp( )(1 + q Im[ g 1 (i
) g 1 (i
)])
exp( )] (r cos + sin )
2 0 a e
ae
ae
ae
aP
aP r
(23.17)
In which:
p=
4 2
B
1
+
2
me c 2 2
(23.18)
And
q=
B
4 2
1+ 2
2
me c
(23.19)
71
tan =
(23.20)
Thus:
4
1+
cos =
(23.21)
sin =
(23.22)
1+
(23.23)
me c 2 4 2
4 2 2
(1 + 2 )
Thus:
Uep = B
(23.24)
1+
Thus:
(23.25)
U e p = B cos
me c 2
4 2
(1 + 2 )
(23.26)
Thus:
(23.27)
U mq = B
1+
(23.28)
U m q = B sin
Thus:
G
E=
2 0
1
r
1
r + Vt
r Vt
1
r 1
exp( ){1 + p 2 [cos( 2 ) + cos( 2 )]} exp( )] (r sin cos )
ae
ae
k ae
k ae
aP
aP r
k =1 k
72
(23.29)
G
g 1
r
1
r + Vt
r Vt
1
r 1
H =
[ exp( ){1 + q 2 [sin( 2 ) sin( 2 )]} exp( )] (r cos + sin )
0 ae
ae
k
k
a
k
a
a
a
r
k =1
e
e
P
P
(23.30)
Thus:
G
E=
G
E=
2 0
e
0
2
r
r
Vt
r 1
1
2
1
exp( )[1 + p 2 cos( 2 ) cos( 2 )] exp( )} (r sin cos ))
ae
ae
k ae
k ae
aP
aP r
k =1 k
(23.31)
r
r
r 2
r
Vt 1
1
1
1
exp( ) exp( ) + p exp( ) 2 cos( 2 ) cos( 2 )} (r sin cos ))
ae
ae
aP
aP
ae
ae k =1 k
k ae
k ae r
(23.32)
G
g 1
1
1
1
r
r
r 2
r
Vt
{ exp( )
exp( ) + q
exp( ) 2 [cos( 2 ) sin( 2 )]} (r cos + sin )
H=
0 a e
ae
aP
aP
ae
a e k =1 k
r
k ae
k ae
(23.33)
1
1
r
r
exp( )
exp( )
ae
ae
aP
aP
(23.34)
Thus:
G
E=
0
2
{ f (r ) + p
1
r 2
r
Vt
1
exp( ) 2 cos( 2 ) cos( 2 )} (r sin cos ))
ae
ae k =1 k
k ae
k ae r
G
g
1
r
Vt
1
r 2
H=
{ f (r ) + q
exp( ) 2 cos( 2 ) sin( 2 )} (r cos + sin )
0
ae
a e k =1 k
k ae
k ae r
(23.35)
(23.36)
Ue =
e2
(23.37)
3 0 ae
(23.38)
Thus:
ue =
r
r
r 2
1 e2 1 1
1
1
r
Vt
{ exp( )
exp( ) + p exp( ) 2 cos( 2 ) cos( 2 )}2
4
2
ae
aP
aP
ae
a e k =1 k
2 0 r ae
k ae
k ae
(23.39)
ue =
r
Vt
1 e2 1
1
r 2
{
(
)
+
exp(
(23.40)
73
r 2
r
Vt
1 e2 1
1
2
f
r
f
r
p
{
(
)
+
2
(
)
exp(
) 2 cos( 2 ) cos( 2 ) +
4
2
ae
a e k =1 k
2 0 r
k ae
k ae
ue =
+ p2
ue =
r
r
Vt
Vt
1
2r 1
exp( )[ 2 2 cos( 2 ) cos( 2 ) cos( 2 ) cos( 2 )]2}
2
ae
ae m,n=1 m n
m ae
n ae
m ae
n ae
(23.42)
1
r 2
r
Vt
2
{
(
)
+
2
(
)
exp(
) 2 cos( 2 ) cos( 2 ) +
f
r
a
U
pf
r
U
e
e
e
2
2r
ae k =1 k
k ae
k ae
+4
ue =
(23.41)
r 2
r
Vt
1 e2 1
1
2
f
r
f
r
p
{
(
)
+
2
(
)
exp(
) 2 cos( 2 ) cos( 2 ) +
4
2
ae
ae k =1 k
k ae
k ae
2 0 r
+ 4 p2
ue =
1
2r 2
r
Vt
exp(
)[ 2 cos( 2 ) cos( 2 )] 2 }
2
a e k =1 k
ae
k ae
k ae
B2 1
r
r
Vt
Vt
2r 1
exp( )[ 2 2 cos( 2 ) cos( 2 ) cos( 2 ) cos( 2 )]2}
2
mec ae
ae m,n=1 m n
m ae
n ae
m ae
n ae
(23.43)
1
r 2
r
Vt
{ f (r)2 aeUe + 2Bf (r)cos exp( ) 2 cos( 2 )cos( 2 ) +
2
2r
ae k =1 k
k ae
k ae
+4
B2 1
r
r
Vt
Vt
2r 1
exp(
(23.44)
Um =
(23.45)
1
0 H 2
2
(23.46)
Thus:
um =
r 2
r
Vt
1 g2 1
1
{
(
)
+
exp(
um =
1 g2 1
1
r
Vt
r 2
2
{[
(
)]
+
2
(
)
exp(
) cos( 2 ) sin( 2 ) +
f
r
qf
r
2 2 0 r 2
ae
a e k =1 k 2
k ae
k ae
+ q2
1
2r 2
r
Vt
exp(
74
(23.47)
(23.48)
um =
1 g2 1
1
r 2
r
Vt
2
{[
(
)]
+
2
(
)
exp(
) 2 cos( 2 ) sin( 2 ) +
f
r
qf
r
2
2
2 0 r
ae
a e k =1 k
k ae
k ae
+ 4q 2
um =
1
2r
1
r
r
Vt
Vt
exp( ) 2 2 cos( 2 ) cos( 2 ) sin( 2 ) sin( 2 )}
2
ae m , n = 1 m n
ae
m ae
n ae
m ae
n ae
(23.49)
r 2
1
r
Vt
{[ f (r )] 2 a eU m + 2 f (r ) B sin exp( ) 2 cos( 2 ) sin( 2 ) +
2
a
2r
k ae
k ae
e k =1 k
+4
2r
1
B2 1
r
r
Vt
Vt
exp(
(23.50)
1
1
0 E 2 + 0 H 2
2
2
(23.51)
Thus:
u=
r 2
r
Vt
1
2
2
f
r
a
m
c
Bf
r
{
(
)
+
2
(
)
exp(
)
cos(
)
cos(
) +
e
e
ae k =1 k 2
k 2 ae
k 2 ae
2r 2
+4
2r
1
B2 1
r
r
Vt 1 1
exp(
(23.52)
From here we can see that the hydrogen atoms electromagnetic energy spectrum
frequency has the following format:
v mn =
1
V 1
( 2 2)
ae m
n
(23.53)
(23.54)
Thus:
v nm =
1
c 1
( 2 2)
ae m
n
(23.55)
nm
ae
1
1
2)
2
m
n
(23.56)
75
ae = a0 (1 +
4 2
(23.57)
Thus:
1
nm
1
1
1
( 2 2)
2
4
a0
m
n
(1 + 2 )
(23.58)
Compared with the hydrogen atom spectrum formula (23.5), we can get:
RH =
(23.59)
ae
Then:
RH =
a0 (1 +
4 2
(23.60)
)
Reference
76
77
Chapter
24
In our book, we make an assumption that all the particles, electrons, protons
and neutrons have electromagnetic origin.
We know all the material was made by the molecules, the molecule was
consisted of atoms, the atom consists of electrons, protons and neutrons, and so all
material has electromagnetic origin.
Electric charge and magnetic charge are the most basic properties of
electromagnetic field.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Based on the distribution of electric charge and magnetic charge in space, and
according the Gauss Law for electric field and magnetic field, we can get the electric
field and magnetic field distribution.
And then, based on the electric field and magnetic field space distributions, we
can get the electromagnetic field velocity, and then all of the electric and magnetic
charges will move according to the electromagnetic field velocity.
The electric charge and magnetic charge space distribution will keep changing,
then the electric field and magnetic field will keep changing, and then electromagnetic
field velocity will also keep changing.
However the change happened, the electric charge and magnetic charge will
keep conserved.
All the basic particles include electrons, protons and neutrons, they are no
longer regarded as point-like particles, but are instead considered to have a spherical
electromagnetic field with the continuum distribution of electric charge and magnetic
charge.
78
(24.1)
G
In which p is the electromagnetic field momentum density, and is the
electromagnetic field mass density.
As we know, the electromagnetic field velocity has the following relationship
with time-space:
V=
dr
dt
(24.2)
(24.3)
(24.4)
(24.5)
(24.6)
c2
Thus:
79
G
p=
0v
1 v
(24.7)
c2
The symmetrical part of the rest energy is the absolute time s, which is defined as:
c 2 ds 2 = c 2 dt 2 dr 2
(24.8)
Thus the time t and the absolute time s have following relationship:
dt =
ds
(24.9)
v2
1 2
c
The energy always has positive value, and the time is always one-directional.
Time flows from the past into the future along with the direction of field velocity, the
arrow of time is the direction of the field velocity.
80
Appendix A
The gamma distribution function:
f (r , k , a ) =
1
r
r
( ) k 1 exp( )
a(k ) a
a
In which k is the shape parameter, a is the scale parameter, is the gamma function
which has the formula:
(k ) = r k 1e r dr
0
81
Appendix B
The cumulative gamma distribution:
r h 1 r
f (r , h, a) = 1 exp( ) ( ) k
a k = 0 k! a
82
Appendix C
Zeta-exponential function
xn
exp( x) =
n = 0 n!
1
x
n =1 n
( x) =
Combine the exponential function and zeta function, and then we can have a new
function, which we temporally called the zeta-exponential function as follows:
g m ( x) =
n =0
xn
[2(n + m)]
n!
g m ( x) =
n =0
1
xn
2n+2m
n! k =1 k
Thus:
g m ( x) =
k =1
1
k
[
2m
n =0
xn 1
]
n! k 2 n
Thus:
g m ( x) =
k =1
1
k
1 x n
( 2) ]
n = 0 n! k
[
2m
Thus:
g m ( x) =
k =1
1
k
2m
exp(
x
)
k2
Thus, we have:
g m (ix) =
k =1
1
k
2m
exp(i
x
)
k2
The above equation is the Fourier serial of the complex zeta-exponential function.
83
Re[ g m (ix)] =
k =1
1
2m
Im[ g m (ix)] =
x
)
k2
sin(
x
)
k2
exp(
x
)
k2
2m
k =1
cos(
As we know:
[ g m ( x)]' =
k =1
1
k
2m+ 2
Thus:
[ g m ( x)]' = g m +1 ( x)
As we know for the exponential function, we have:
exp(ix) = cos x + i sin x
Re[exp(ix)] = cosx
Im[exp(ix)] = sinx
Similar to the exponential function, the complex zeta-exponential function has the
following relationship:
g m (ix) =
k =1
1
k
g m (ix) = [
k =1
2m
[cos(
cos(
k 2m
Re[ g m (ix)] =
k =1
1
k
Im[ g m (ix)] =
k =1
2m
1
k
for m =1 and x =
g1 (i
x
x
) + i sin( 2 )]
2
k
k
2m
1
x
x
)]
+
i
[
sin( 2 )]
2
2m
k
k
k =1 k
cos(
sin(
x
)
k2
x
)
k2
r vt
, thus we have
a
r vt
1
r vt
1
r vt
) = [ 2 cos( 2 )] + i[ 2 sin( 2 )]
a
k a
k a
k =1 k
k =1 k
84
for m =1 and x =
g1 (i
r + vt
, thus we have
a
r + vt
1
r + vt
1
r + vt
) = [ 2 cos( 2 )] + i[ 2 sin( 2 )]
a
k a
k a
k =1 k
k =1 k
85
Appendix D
Spherical wave equation:
is:
1
1
+
+
r r r sin
Where v is the speed of the wave which propagate through radial direction, for the
special case in which it has angular symmetry (not dependent on the , ), then we
will have the following wave equation:
1 2
2 2
=
+
r 2 r r v 2 t 2
Thus:
2
2 (r )
2 ( r )
=v
t 2
r 2
A
r vt
B
r + vt
exp(i
) + exp(i
)
r
a
r
a
Thus:
A
B
exp[i ( kr wt )] + exp[i ( kr + wt )]
r
r
In which
k=
1
a
v
a
Appendix E
The gradient
= r
1
1
+
+
r r r sin
87
Index
A
distribute, 61
distribution, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 17,
18, 21, 22, 43, 44, 45, 52, 57, 61, 65,
66, 69, 78, 79, 81, 82
dynamo equation, 32
E
electric charge, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 15, 18,
19, 20, 29, 30, 31, 43, 45, 51, 52, 57,
61, 63, 65, 66, 68, 69, 78
electric field, 5, 6, 12, 13, 14, 21, 29,
33, 36, 45, 46, 52, 54, 57, 63, 64, 69,
71, 72, 73, 78,
electric field strength, 12, 21,
electromagnetic field, 5, 6, 10, 16, 18,
19, 20, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 32,
33, 34, 36, 37, 40, 42, 43, 44, 54, 63,
64, 69, 75, 78, 79
electron, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 17,
18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29,
30, 31, 32, 33, 37, 43, 44, 45, 48, 49,
52, 55, 56, 57, 58, 61, 65, 66, 67, 68,
69, 72, 73, 74, 78
energy, 5, 6, 16, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25,
26, 36, 40, 41, 42, 44, 46, 47, 53, 54,
69, 72, 73, 74, 75, 78, 79, 80
expansions, 64
exponential, 21, 22, 70, 83, 84
B
Bohr radius, 24, 44
C
calculate, 6, 18, 65
characteristic impedance, 61, 63, 65,
66, 69, 70
charge density, 7, 9, 12, 14, 29, 31, 36,
43, 45, 52, 57, 63, 64, 65, 69
classical radius of the electron, 5
classical velocity for electron spin, 5
complex, 36, 37, 82, 83
component, 16, 17, 48, 49, 58, 59
compression, 64
conservation, 29, 30, 31, 32, 40, 42
continuity equation, 30, 32
continuum distribution, 7, 9, 79
coordinate axes, 84, 85
cumulative gamma distribution, 8, 9,
10, 18, 82
F
forwarding, 64
fourier, 82
fractional quantum hall effect, 61
frequency, 75, 85
H
helium, 6, 57, 60
hydroelectric equation, 30
hydro-electromagnetic equation, 37
hydrogen, 6, 45, 46, 47, 48, 51, 52, 69,
70, 71, 75, 76
88
hydromagnetic equation, 30
originates, 6
oscillation, 64
oscillator, 76
outgoing, 70, 71
I
impedance, 19, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67,
69, 70
incoming, 64, 70, 71
Integer Quantum Hall effect, 61, 62
intrinsic electric field, 5, 52
intrinsic magnetic field, 5
intrinsic electromagnetic field, 5
intrinsic angular momentum, 5
inverse, 65, 70
inversely, 67
P
particle, 6, 7, 9, 25, 28, 78
perpendicular, 61, 64
physical, 6
plancks constant, 18
point-like particle, 6, 7, 9, 78
polar coordinates, 7, 85, 86
polar angle, 7
pole, 10, 11, 51, 65, 66, 69
positive, 11, 43, 61, 71, 80
propagate, 63, 85
propagation, 64
properties, 16, 24, 78
proton, 6, 43, 44, 45, 52, 57, 78
L
longitudinal wave, 64
M
Q
quantised, 10
quantization, 11
quantum, 19, 61, 62, 65, 68, 76
R
radial, 7, 10, 70, 85
radius, 5, 7, 8, 10, 18, 21, 22, 24, 44,
56, 65, 66
ratio, 18, 19, 51, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67,
68, 69
reflect, 64
reflection, 64
resistance, 61, 68
rest energy, 5, 79
rest mass, 79
reversion, 63
Riemann zeta function, 76, 83
rotating, 5, 19, 20, 28, 76
rydberg constant, 69
N
negative, 8, 10, 43, 61,
neutrality, 45
neutron, 6, 43, 52, 53, 54, 56, 78
nonlinear, 28, 76
nucleus, 43
self-energy, 5, 6, 25
singularity, 10, 25
sound wave, 63, 64, 65
89
space, 7, 9, 78, 79
spectrum, 6, 69, 75, 76
speed, 27, 63, 65, 68, 70
sphere, 5, 8, 10, 18, 21, 22, 65, 66, 76
spherical, 6, 7, 12, 14, 16, 21, 22, 28,
48, 58, 71, 78, 85, 86
spin, 5, 6, 18, 20, 25, 43, 52, 60, 61, 65,
66, 76
spinning, 5, 6, 28
standing wave, 64, 69, 70
stationary wave, 6, 71
symmetrical, 79
symmetry, 11, 85
T
temperature, 61
time, 79, 80
time-space, 78, 79
transmission line, 63, 64
transverse wave, 64
travels, 64
two-dimensional, 61
V
vacuum, 19, 33, 34, 63, 65, 67, 68, 69,
70, 75
velocity, 5, 6, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 33, 40,
47, 48, 63, 67, 68, 70, 75, 77, 78, 79
W
wave, 6, 19, 34, 63, 64, 65, 67, 68, 69,
70, 71, 75, 76, 85
Z
zero, 10, 43, 45, 52, 60, 63, 66
Zeta, 83
zeta-exponential, 70, 83, 84
90
The electron has both intrinsic electric field and intrinsic magnetic field.
The electrons intrinsic electromagnetic field has both energy and angular momentum.
The electron spin is the electrons electromagnetic field angular momentum.
The electrons self-energy is the electrons electromagnetic field energy.
The electron has electromagnetic origin.
The electron is the smallest magnet, oriented in the same direction that the electron is
spinning. The electrons south pole has one unit positive magnetic charge g, the north
pole has one unit negative magnetic charge g.
The multiple of electric charge unit e and magnetic charge unit g equals Plancks
constant h.
What
is the
Electron
Spin?
Both the electrons electric charge and magnetic charge have the continuum spherical
distribution inside the electron.
The electron as whole has one unit negative electric charge e.
The electron as whole has zero magnetic charge.
All the particles that make up physical materials include electrons, protons and neutrons
BY GENGYUN LI
]|xHSKJREy397498zv*:+:!:+:!@
EAN
ISBN 0-9743974-9-0
Gengyun Li