BIOMIMICRY:

LOOKING TO NATURE FOR

DESIGN SOLUTIONS

Julie Goss
Department of Interior Design
In partial fulfillment of the requirement
For the Degree of Master of Art
Corcoran College of Art + Design
Washington, DC
Spring 2009

UMI Number: 1476728

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CORCORAN COLLEGE OF ART AND DESIGN

DECEMBER 2008

WE HEREBY RECOMMEND THAT THE THESIS PREPARED UNDER OUR SUPERVISION BY JULIE GOSS ENTITLED BIOMIMICRY: LOOKING TO NATURE FOR DESIGN SOLUTIONS, BE ACCEPTED AS FULFILLING, IN PART, REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ART IN INTERIOR DESIGN.

II

THESIS STATEMENT
This project explores and applies principles of Biomimicry in the design and development of a cultural arts
center along the Potomac River. The center features both a nineteenth-century historic canal tavern and a modern
pavilion addition that will overlook the river and be integrated into the natural landscape. The intervention of the
site merges the old with the new through Biomimicry.

ABSTRACT
Biomimicry and Sustainability: Biomimicry is a term coined by biologist Janine Benyus in her 1997 book,
Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature. It refers to a new scientific field that studies nature, its models, systems,
processes and elements, and then imitates or takes creative inspiration from them to solve human problems
sustainably. Natural processes such as photosynthesis, natural selection and self-maintaining ecosystems can be
studied to improve manufacturing, create new medicines, and harness energy. One recent example of Biomimicry
was Project TERMES. Here, a group of architects studied the ways in which termites are able to maintain constant
temperature, humidity and airflow inside their mounds, regardless of external conditions. These ideas were then
put into practice at Eastgate, a commercial development in Zimbabwe. Benyus advocates for a biologist at the
design table. Benyus is the recipient of many awards (including Time Magazines Environmental Hero of 2007,
along with fellow recipient Al Gore) and consults with many Fortune 500 companies.
Biomimicry focuses on natural processes or functions that humans can apply to the man-made world.
Natural forms are relevant in so far as they speak to or support the function of an organism or process. In this way,
Biomimicry is aligned with a fundamental principle of Modernism form follows function. Unlike the Modernists,
however, who emphasized new industrial materials and the virtues of mass production (early industrial designers),
Biomimicry is directed toward natural materials and natural processes.

The Design Concept -- Applying Ideas of Biomimicry: What natural process could serve as an underlying
concept and direction for the cultural arts center? The site is the Historic Great Falls Tavern, originally an 1831 inn
now visitors information center -- within the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal National Historical Park. The 177 yearold Tavern borders the Potomac River and the canal, and has neoclassical features. The new cultural arts center
features a modern pavilion addition to accommodate the new program for the center. The question emerged -what natural process would involve the harmonious relationship between older life forms and newer life forms that
were entirely unique to one another?

III

The new cultural arts center will be one entity with two entirely dierent forms emerging at dierent times (here, over the
course of two centuries). The natural process that approximates this idea is the metamorphosis of catepillar into butterfly. Like
the cultural arts center, the insect is a single organism, yet has two unique manifestations. A bridge connectig the two structures, over the canal below, functions literally and symbolically as a chrysalis, or transition, linking the two forms. The original
historic building shares the characteristics of the catepillar, also the older original form. Both are land-oriented and grounded.
The new building -- literally and figuratively a wing -- is air-oriented, like the butterfly. The new structure overlooks the Potomac River, taking advantage of the waterfront views (the Great Falls) and sense of expansiveness.

As such, the design is integrated with the site and informed by the existing landscape. The focus will be on
the human experience of interacting with the space how does it feel, function, perform? Since it exists in nature,
the structure will not be designed with the intent of experiencing as a drive by or in the car. It is a place that will
be approached on foot. Also central to the design concept is the integration of spaces intended to blur the line
between interior and exterior. Issues surrounding the manipulation and harnessing of natural light will be a central
concern. Natural elements such as wind and water are taken into account.
The element of time plays a role. The building will unfold temporally just as the organism itself evolves.
One enters through the original building (the caterpillar experience), progresses through the bridge (the chrysalis)
and finishes the journey climactically in the new wing (the butterfly).

The Site -- The prospective site is the Historic Great Falls Tavern in the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal National
Historical Park, located at 11710 MacArthur Boulevard in Potomac, Maryland, an auent Washington, DC suburb.
A brief history of the site will provide some context. The Taverns name refers to the presence of the
dramatic natural waterfalls that occur at that juncture in the Potomac River. At an awe-inspiring twenty feet, the
falls are the steepest and most spectacular among the eastern rivers. For the Native Americans who resided here
before the colonists, the falls were a natural feature that served as a gathering place. For George Washington,
however, the falls were seen as problematic and viewed more an impediment to trade. The Chesapeake and
Ohio canals were constructed to make the river navigable and intended to stimulate trade between the east and
the Ohio valley. The canal towpath today runs 184 miles from Georgetown in Washington, DC to Cumberland,
Maryland.
With the canals came the need for the lock tenders. The Tavern here began in 1828 as a lock tenders
residence. However, with the rapid increase in commercial activity and trac (the canal soon became a main
thoroughfare for the transport of coal, lumber, grain and other raw materials), the Tavern was expanded and
reopened in its current state in 1831 as an inn that oered shelter and meals on a fairly large scale. The site also
became a popular destination for city dwellers who came for weekend excursions to enjoy the falls.

IV

Soon, a community sprung up around the Tavern several houses, a post oce, a saloon, and various
shops. The Tavern, with its location of being on a main thoroughfare, became a natural town center. Sadly though,
after several floods, the site was sold to the Baltimore and Ohio Railroads, where it fell into a deteriorated state.
Presently the Tavern is owned by the National Park Service and functions as a visitor information center and small
museum.
At its apex, the Great Falls Tavern served as Potomacs original town center. Like many suburbs, Potomac
today is a sprawling car-centered community with no central gathering place apart from a mall and a strip mall
situated at the intersection of two main arteries. The context and role of the cultural arts center within its larger
community will also be addressed in the thesis.

Function and Programming -- The new cultural arts center encourages interaction with nature and the arts
in a non-competitive, restorative environment. The cultural center is re-envisioned as the town center it once was.
It has the distinctive architectural character, a sense of history and symbolism as a former town center. It is open
to the public and has promenades for walking and biking, and water frontage. Education and the exchange of ideas
are encouraged and promoted through visiting artists exhibitions, classes and dynamic arts programming.
The cultural arts center will include the following: exhibition space, artists studio space, performance
space (lectures, childrens theatre, films, concerts), meeting/conference space, library, class rooms, party spaces,
caf and gift shop.
The project will look to cultural arts centers in suburban or historical settings to help define the program.
It will also look to built examples that explore ideas of Biomimicry, and how elements in nature inspired form or
technical aspects of design.

The Project within its Larger Community -- The cultural arts center exists within the context of suburbia
and counterbalances some of the environmentally detrimental land use patterns associated with sprawl. The
sustainability goals inherent in Biomimicry are also aligned with the sustainability goals of Smart Growth and
historic preservation both of which are integrated into this project. Principles of New Urbanism, namely the
reintroduction of the town center, will also overlap.

Suburban Sprawl: Since the 1950s, more than 90 percent of growth in U.S. metropolitan areas has
occurred in the suburbs. Suburban living is characterized by certain patterns. Residents live in single family
houses and commute to work via car. Transportation options are few. Neighborhoods are not pedestrianfriendly. Residents emit more pollution per capita, are more likely to be obese and suer trac-related
fatalities than their city-dwelling counterparts. Population density is low.

Sprawl is associated with certain land-use patterns: (a) Single-use zoning where residential,
commercial and industrial areas are separated by distances requiring cars; (b) Low density land use in which
more land is used for fewer low-story buildings; and (c) car-dependent communities with few, if any, sidewalks
or public transportation options.
Suburbs are characterized by the presence of the following three types of buildings: (a) housing
subdivisions comprising of large tracts of land and newly built single family homes. These typically intersect
with large collector streets with high volume trac. (b) Strip malls which cater to daily use shopping, and (c)
large enclosed shopping malls that oer recreational shopping and function as de facto town centers. These
shopping mall-town centers oer only commercial activity, and omit entirely the other critical components
of traditional town centers such as municipal buildings, libraries, museums, civic spaces, theatres and other
public gathering places.

The Town Center: Absent in the vast suburban sprawl that characterizes modern life for most Americans
is the town center. It is this space that plays a critical role in the life of the community. It is the source of
vitality, history, identity, community pride. Here is where casual social interactions among neighbors are
fostered, where the ties of community are forged, the social fabric created. Traditionally town centers were the
commercial or geographic center. They would emerge naturally on the main thoroughfare where commercial
activities took place, a site of interaction. They were the transportation hubs where paths crossed. Here
typically is where the best examples of architecture were constructed, the main landmark buildings, statues,
plazas and parks. Here is where the towns museum, town hall, library and other public buildings would be

Smart Growth: Smart Growth looks to contain sprawl through planned growth by recycling existing
buildings and land, conserving historic downtowns, maintaining local character and promoting a sense of
community. Smart growth sees historic preservation as part of its mission. This project will further several of
the goals of Smart Growth.

New Urbanism: The trend of new urbanism recognizes what has been lost amidst the sprawl. Urban
planners are now looking to create new town centers developments around the country that contain more
mixed-use spaces. The idea here is to disaggregate the shopping mall and, to a certain extent, recreate the
open, pedestrian-friendly, outdoor spaces where suburban dwellers can congregate for dinner and a movie.
Some examples include: Belmar in Denver, Victoria Gardens in Southern California, Crocker Park in Cleveland,
and Rockville Town Center in suburban Washington, DC.

VI

These developments are dierent from the planned communities of Columbia, Maryland (developed
by James Rouse), for example, in that they attempt to evoke a sense of time and history by using mixed
materiality. (Columbia is reminiscent of the ancient Greek myth of Athena springing fully grown from the brow
of Zeus, her father she, like the place, emerged as a whole entity at one moment in time. There is no trace
of a project (or person) that developed over time with a sense of history). These new town centers simulate
the architectural and material layering of a place that has withstood the test of time, a place that has a past.
In a traditional town center, new buildings coexist with old ones, creating exciting juxtapositions and a kind
of communal mirror that reflects a past and reminds inhabitants where they came from. The importance
of this cannot be understated. This is a key part of a places identity, the thing that distinguishes it from the
homogenous strip malls and big box stores that are now, sadly, ubiquitous.
Town centers, in addition to being sites of commercial activity, also address aspects of life that extend
beyond ones role as consumer. Town centers speak to cultural life, civic life, political life. The role of historical
preservation also comes into play. Historical preservation provides an authentic sense of history and communal
identity. It is also increasingly seen as a step toward sustainability -- better to breathe life into an existing
structure and reduce overall consumption.

Conclusion -- The redevelopment of the Great Falls Tavern into a cultural arts center will symbolize a new,
more sustainable phase in the growth of the neighborhood. It will pay homage to the areas local history while
pointing to its future. The center will advocate for and impart an intellectual life. Most importantly, the Tavern
will encourage a greater sense of community and bring neighbors closer to art and nature by embodying those
principles in its design and purpose.

VII

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.

Introduction.................................................................................1

2.

Natural Modeling: Historical Precedents......................................2

3.

Early Voices: Nature + Design.......................................................3

4.

Modern Voices: The Conversation Today......................................6

5.

Biomimetic Projects: An Overview..............................................12

6.

a.

Industrial Products.........................................................15

b.

Transportation...............................................................21

c.

Energy Eciency and Carbon Sequestration...................25

d.

Architecture...................................................................27

The Project: The Great Falls Cultural Arts Center.........................31

a.

The Design Concept: Applying Biomimicry......................31

b.

Site Integration: Geographic and Cultural.......................32

c.

Site History.....................................................................33

d.

Function and Programming............................................36

e.

Typologies.....................................................................40

f.

Conclusion.....................................................................40

7.

Notes........................................................................................41

8.

Bibliography..............................................................................43

VIII

1. INTRODUCTION
The world will not evolve past its current state of crisis by using
the same thinking that created the situation.
Albert Einstein
Those who are inspired by a model other than Nature,
a mistress above all masters, are laboring in vain.
Leonardo Da Vinci
Biomimicry is a relatively new field of study in which biologists, ecologists and chemists team up with
designers of various areas -- industrial design, material design, architecture, interiors -- to study processes and
materials in nature, and then attempt to apply those natural models to the man-made or built environment. While
it is certainly true that man has always looked to nature as a rich source of inspiration and solutions to design
problems, this new iteration has a distinct purpose and orientation: Rather than exploit nature for mans purposes,
the focus here is to identify and integrate ideas that are fundamentally sustainable and adaptable to the earths
capacity. Biomimicry looks to follow natures examples, which by definition foster life processes, in an eort to
create a man-made world that can function similarly and achieve similar goals.
It is a concept at once appealing and intuitively simple to grasp. Let us reorient ourselves to emulate
a successful system nature -- that has proven itself through adaptation and evolution over 3.8 billion years.
The challenge is primarily one of discovery, rather than invention; these discoveries then become the basis for
imagining innovative ways of thinking about how we fashion our world. To be sure, we as a civilization are at
a cross-road. The industrial systems we have created in this last century have involved unsustainable levels of
consumption and resource depletion, and have brought about great environmental destruction. While several
voices have, for decades, called for reform, it has only been within the last ten years or so that a real awareness
of the magnitude and urgency of the situation has taken root within mainstream culture. Biomimicry is an idea
expressed at a time when people are actively looking for methodologies and approaches that address these
seemingly intractable problems.
At the same time, a critical mass of new information in the natural sciences has helped to expand
the appeal and popularity of Biomimicry. Every five years our fragmentary knowledge of biology doubles (the
sequencing of the human genome, for example), as does our ability to intensify our examination.1 The arrival
of unprecedentedly powerful scopes and satellites provide striking new visual technologies that oer graphic
presentation of molecular structures and the like. These are exciting developments that have inspired the
imaginations of scientists and designers alike. How does nature perform certain functions, adapt to certain
conditions or produce certain materials? Now we have the ability to take a closer, more intensified look. Natures
laws, strategies and principles are more readily observable and thus, more readily adaptable to architectural
structures.

While Biomimicry is still a fairly small area within the environmental movement, indications of its
expanding base abound. Architecture schools around the world have begun teaching courses on the topic;
Manufacturers are actively testing bio-inspired products; Ideas are being discussed at international conferences;
Consultants, such as the Biomimicry Guild in Montana, Integrative Design Collaborative in Massachusetts, MBDC
in Virginia, and Natural Logic in California, have sprung up to work with industry to begin moving concepts out
of research labs and into real world applications. In what could potentially be a significant step, HOK, one of the
largest architecture firms in the world, recently formed an alliance with the Biomimicry Guild to begin applying
biomimetic concepts to the design and development of building projects around the globe.

2. NATURAL MODELING: HISTORICAL PRECEDENTS

Human beings have always looked to nature, especially objects of living nature, as a design model and source
of inspiration. As Italian designer Carmelo Di Bartolo writes, It [nature] is the basis of many a religion: God created
the world with it plants, animals and man. What God created cannot be doubted, it is perfect. .2 Throughout
history, nature has consistently been seen as the source of human aesthetic evaluation. Its harmony of form and
functional economy has served as an essential criterion of beauty.3 Imitations of natural forms (including patterns,
shapes and structures) as ornament or decoration are ubiquitous in the history of design. The tree is the column.
The spiral of the shell is the ionic adornment, or perhaps a circular stair. The flower or starfish becomes the
underside of cathedral dome. The bee hive, the spider web, the dome of the moon, the pinecone these forms are
everywhere and too numerous to list.
Natural forms have also been imitated in so far as they support or enable specific functions. In this way, form
in nature is integral to function. Natural forms have served as design models in that they represent the balance
between environmental and functional forces exerted on a creature.4 In this way, natural forms and forms that
support specific functions have always been copied by man.
The concept of mimicking nature dates to prehistoric times. One can imagine early man fashioning weapons to
resemble the claws of some wild animal, or imitating their surroundings for the purposes of camouflage5 (an idea
appropriated and employed by the military today). The area of transportation design is full of similar examples.
The use of the fish form for a boat hull or a submarine and the form of a flying bird for the basic configuration of an
airplane are commonplace.6
While some trace the formalized ideas back to Plato or Democritus in 400 BC, many cite the works of Leonardo
Da Vinci (1452-1519) as among historys first and best documented examples. Most notable is his design of the
ornithopter, a flapping-wing aircraft patterned on his careful anatomical studies of birds.7 The Wright brothers

similarly created stabilizers for their airplanes by analyzing how turkey vultures use their bodies to reduce
turbulence.8 Ignazio and Igo Etrich built the first tailless glider based on their observations of the propagation of
anemophilous plants whose seeds are carried great distances by the wind.9 Max Kramer imitated the skin structure
of dolphins to create anti-turbulence linings for submarines.10
After studying the tapetum lucidum, the reflector cells in cats eyes that reflect even small amounts of light,
Percy Shaw in 1935 designed a type of reflector that is used today on roads to mark road margins and lane
dividers.11
Well known too is the example of Georges de Maestral, who studied the burdock burs that had adhered to his
jacket after a day out hunting. He imitated the interlocking system that connected the tiny hooks of the fruit and
the knots in the fabric to create Velcro, a new type of fastening that was later patented in 1951.12
One hundred years earlier, botanist Sir Joseph Paxton (1803-1865) saw the erection of his Crystal Palace
conservatory in Hyde Park, London, a revolutionary architectural form inspired by the unusual strength and
structure of the South American water lily, Victoria Regia. Having previously served as head gardener to the Duke
of Devonshire at Chatsworth, Paxton was familiar with these varieties whose leaves grow up to three meters
in diameter, float on the waters surface and can support a person weighing up to 90 kg (or 200 pounds). The
underside of the leaf carries a web-like structure of hollow ribs that give both strength and buoyancy. It was in
duplicating the same kind of geometric design with flexible ribs that Paxton came up with the structure of the
Crystal Palace.13 Nature was the engineer, he wrote. Nature has provided the leaf with horizontal and traverse
girders and supports that I, borrowing from it, have adopted in this building.14

3. EARLY VOICES: NATURE + DESIGN

FIG.1.1: ORNITHOPTER (1902).
COURTESY OF CENTENNIALOFFLIGHT.GOV

FIG.1.2: LEONARDO DA VINCI SKETCHES.

COURTESY OF GEOCATCHING.COM

FIG.1.3: PAXTONS CRYSTAL PALACE.

COURTESY OF RIC.EDU

FIG.1.4: VICTORIA REGIA WATER LILY.

COURTESY OF CNDP.FR

FIG.1.5: VELCRO.
COURTESY OF FLICKR.COM

FIG.1.6: CLOSEUP OF BURR.

COURTESY OF FLICKR.COM

Predating Biomimicry is the field of Bionics, a multi-disciplinary science that has been defined as the design
and planning of man-made systems based on the properties (e.g. structure, processes, functions, organization,
relationships, etc.) of biological systems.15 It was introduced in order to develop the use of biological analogies
for design. Like Biomimicry, bionics holds that nature has adapted for optimal survival by virtue of evolution.
Studying how such natural systems perform certain functions can help us discover ideas for solving human design
dilemmas.16 Nature is seen essentially as a library of prototypes, from which models are made and then further
interpreted by the design of a manmade system or object.
The term bionics was originally coined by Major John Steele of the Aerospace Division of the United States
Air Force in 1960 to describe what was then an emerging research approach connecting biology and technology.17
The aim at the time was to spur product development in the Air and Space Program through interdisciplinary
cooperation between the two fields. One project from this period was the development of surfaces for ships and
torpedoes based on dolphins. Dolphins benefit from a mechanism beneath their skin that consists of thin channels
of fluid that are capable of reducing the creation of whirls on their body surface it is this mechanism that allows
them to reach high speeds under water.18 The military also pursued research in the areas of information-processing
capabilities of living systems in terms of the man-machine interface and integration, which underlined their
interest in cybernetics and artificial intelligence.19
Where Biomimicry and bionics diverge is at the point of sustainability, which is inherent in the theoretical
principles and the driving force behind the former. Biomimicry sees nature as an answer to our pressing
environmental issues. Bionics sees nature as merely a prototype for man-made creations, whether they
be sustainable or not. It is indeed arguable that appropriations by the military are far afield from issues of
consumption and resource depletion. As biologist Janine Benyus writes, The last really famous biomimetic
invention was the airplane. We flew like a bird for the first time in 1903, and by 1914, we were dropping bombs
from the sky.20 It is perhaps a prophetic reminder that the purpose, intention and application of new knowledge
gained under this banner is in fact more germane than the knowledge itself. (It is interesting to note, however, that
the military remains one of the most active sponsors of research in this area.)
Europeans have also shown interest in the field of bionics. In Germany, the biologist Werner Nachtigall
(b 1934) has written extensively on the topic (300 articles, 30 books) and is widely considered a pioneer (or
bioneer) in the field. 21 Among his many contributions, Nachtigall put forth a summary of principles that natural
constructions incorporate, and that should serve as a foundation for the creation of good, optimized man-made
design.22 They are as follows:
1.
2.
3.

Optimization of totalities instead of maximization of singular parts

Multifunctional instead of mono-functional
Adjustment of the environment

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Energy saved instead of energy wasted

Direct and indirect use of solar energy
Limited lifetime instead of unnecessary durability
Total recirculation instead of piling garbage
Network creation instead of linearity
Development through trial and error

In Italy, Carmelo Di Bartolo emerged as a leading figure with the founding of the Instituto Europeo di Design in
the 1970s in Milan. Di Bartolo sees bionics as a methodology concerned with functionality rather than the natural
objects themselves. Bionics does not look to nature for specific suggestions. Rather, designers should use nature
to construct reference models for solutions. Design, he maintains, is primarily concerned with issues of protections
(i.e., barriers, wrapping, packaging). As such, these reference models need to focus on the dialogue between an
organic material or object and the aggressions of its particular environment; specifically, how it protects itself or
reasserts its balance with environmental forces.23
One of the most vocal advocates for socially and ecologically responsible design in the U.S. during the 1970s
was Austrian born Victor Papanek (1927-1999). In his seminal book, Design for the Real World (1972), Papanek
took the industrial design profession to task for the egregious practices of planned obsolescence and the annual
design change styling which made only superficial adjustments to an objects appearance but left its innards
untouched. It was these practices that led to vast overproduction and the alarming spread of pollution and
indestructible waste.24
Regarding technology, Papanek articulated many ideas that would become pillars of the mainstream
environmental platform today -- and that are essentially biomimetic in nature: the need to work within existing
conditions; the adherence to natures principle of least eort (doing the most with the least); consuming less;
using things longer; recycling materials;25 using local materials and local energy sources; and incorporating local
traditions.26 In this sense, Papanek was not anti-technology but rather a promoter of responsible or appropriate
technology.
R. Buckminster Fuller (1895-1983), a contemporary of Papanek who in fact wrote the preface to Design for the
Real World, was also a visionary designer who advocated applying the principles of science to design to help solve
social problems and alleviate environmental impact. Fuller was driven by the imperative of energy and material
conservation in industrial design and called for radical reform in industrial design to address the global eects of
unlimited production and pollution.27 His most famous design, the geodesic dome, employed new lightweight
construction principles that he maintained could lead to more ecient use of resources.28

4. MODERN VOICES: THE CONVERSATION TODAY

Janine Benyus is widely recognized as the founder of this new field of study when, in 1997, she coined
the term Biomimicry in her unique and profound book, Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature. She notes
that humankinds relationship with nature has been characterized as a desire to see ourselves as exempt from
natural laws and the idea of natural limits. We have sought not just autonomy from nature, but the need to control
nature and its impact on our activities and aspirations. In this way, human history can be seen as a progression
of increasing estrangement from nature, starting with agricultural revolution, to the scientific revolution, to
the industrial revolution, and where we currently find ourselves the petrochemical and genetic engineering
revolution. This failure to see ourselves as part of nature (part of an ecosystem, if you will), rather than independent
of nature, is at the very root of our planets perilous condition today.
Whereas during the industrial revolution when we looked at nature as either an obstacle to circumvent
or a resource to extract from (a kind of warehouse of materials) we now need to see nature as a treasure
trove of successful functional models, a library of ideas we can learn from. Nature should be viewed as a kind of
unparalleled R&D 3.8 billion years of evolution have exposed every design flaw. What has survived can teach us
powerful lessons about sustainable ways to procure food, water, space and shelter in a finite world. Over time,
natural organisms have had to adapt to their places and to each other, forming exquisitely cooperative ecosystems.
They have had to operate successfully under the same set of conditions and temperature ranges that man does.
And they do all this while simultaneously creating conditions that are conducive for life cleaning the air and water,
and building soil. Our challenge is to examine -- and mimic how this is accomplished. Nature should be regarded
as our model (source of inspiration), measure (of what works, what lasts, what is appropriate) and mentor.
Of all the areas of concern, manufacturing stands out as most problematic. Our materials manufacturing
is characterized as a process of heat-beat-treat. This means that new materials are made with very high
temperatures, very high pressures and strong chemical treatments a process that results in four percent product
and 96 percent waste, an approach completely at odds with natural models.29 There is no waste in nature. Life
cant put its factory on the edge of town, Benyus reminds us. Nature manufactures its materials within life-friendly
conditions -- in water, at room temperatures, and without harsh chemicals or high pressures. And it does so in ways
that far exceed mans knowledge or capacity. By way of example, Benyus examines in detail the way the abalone
makes an inner shell that is harder than any man-made ceramic; the spiders silk that is, ounce for ounce, five times
stronger than steel, in addition to being highly elastic; and the mussel which is able to make its adhesives under
water.
Among the ideas that Benyus refers to a natures masterpieces -- and prime candidates for our closer

observation -- are functions having to do with the following: photosynthesis, self-assembly, healing and resiliency,
sensing and responding, the power of shape, using CO2 as a feedstock, timed degradation (biodegradable
packaging), thirst quenching, harnessing energy and soil building. This fall, Benyus research arm, The Biomimicry
Institute with the help of twelve biologists -- unveiled the Design Portal an open source platform that catalogues
some 2100 biological strategies, organized by function, which can serve as a basis for design inspiration. The top
100 ideas have been culled into a new book, entitled, Natures 100 Best.
Benyus has also put forth a kind of checklist of Lifes Principles for the Design of Anything. Since it is
certainly possible to imitate a singular function or property of an organism without being sustainable (as the
military has done), these principles serve as a tool to keep the designer focused on the over arching goal of
sustainability. Adherence to these principles will help create the conditions that are conducive to life. The criteria
are summarized as follows:
1. Is the design locally attuned and responsive? Is it informed by local inhabitants
of all species? (Is it resourceful and connected to local feedback loops?
2. Does the design integrate cycles? Does it adapt to seasons, reuse materials,
maintain itself through turnover?
3. Is the design resilient? Can it withstand disturbance while maintaining function?
Does it heal after a disturbance?
4. Does the design optimize rather than maximize? Does it fit form to function?
Does it reuse materials or use recycled materials?
5. Does the design use benign manufacturing? Is the reaction done at standard
pressure and temperature?
6. Does the design leverage its interdependence in the system? Does it enhance
the systems capacity to support life long-term? Is its success based on whether it
contributes to the continuity of life?
Where the checklist leaves o, the work and ideas of William McDonough begin. With his 2002 book,
Cradle to Cradle, McDonough puts forth an idea that expands the interpretation of Biomimicry to a much larger
scale. While Benyus advocates examining nature -- organism by organism -- to learn individual functions and
processes that could be studied and applied, McDonough advocates basing our entire manufacturing system on
the very concept of a natural ecosystem where organisms regenerate and waste, conceptually and literally, does
not exist. The waste and pollution we are confronted with today are seen as the consequence of outdated and
unintelligent design.
What this means, practically, is a new, smarter industrial paradigm where manufactured objects, packaging
and systems are designed in such way that allows for disassemble and recycle. McDonough proposes creating

two types of nutrient flows: a biological metabolism where objects are biodegradable and reenter the cycles of
nature; and a technical metabolism where industrial materials stay in closed-loop cycles of perpetual or continuous
circulation. Where the objects are channeled determine the way they are designed. It means that the valuable
nutrients contained in the materials shape and determine the design: forms follow evolution, not just function.30
This new interpretation eectively does away with the familiar mantra of mainstream environmentalism
reduce, reuse and recycle which emerged as a response to our current industrial paradigm. Industrial
manufacturing today was originally predicated on the notion of nature as perpetually regenerative and a strict
linear business focus on making a product and getting it to the consumer, with little else considered. Under this
approach, growth is seen as bad since it is further depletive of the environment, and consumption is laced with
guilt -- even if you follow the 3Rs, you are just being less bad. Under the new, no-waste paradigm, growth is good
since it is founded on a system that is beneficial to both the environment and human beings.
McDonoughs favored metaphor is that of the cherry tree. He asks, Why cant I design a building like
a tree? A building that makes oxygen, fixed nitrogen, sequesters carbon, distils water, builds soil, accrues solar
energy as fuel, makes complex sugars and food, creates microclimates, changes colours with the seasons and self
replicates. This is using nature as a model and a mentor, not an inconvenience.31
This tree sets in motion several positive eects. The tree is not isolated entity cut o from the systems
around it: it is inextricably and productively engaged with them. This is a key dierence between growth of
industrial systems as they now stand and the growth of nature.32
This idea that a building, like a tree, should function as an interdependent part of a larger ecosystem
is the biomimetic contribution, and a true departure from previous thinking on the matter. The agenda of the
environmental movement over recent years has been to push architecture from an environmentally negative
position to one of environmental neutrality sustainability being interpreted as minimized or zero impact (best
case scenario). Here, architecture is envisioned as a positive force in nature, with regenerative capacity. Like a tree,
a building that simultaneously takes from nature and replenishes it just as all organisms function in a healthy
ecosystem.
This idea of a living architecture is echoed in the views of Richard Rogers in Architecture: A Modern
View.Buildings, the city and its citizens will be one inseparable organism sheltered by a perfectly fitting, everchanging framework. Posts, beams, panels and other structural elements will be replaced by a seamless continuity.
These mobile robots will possess many of the characteristics of living systems, interacting and self-regulating,
constantly adjusting through electronic and bio-technical self-programming. Man, shelter, food, work, and leisure
will be connected and mutually dependent so that an ecological symbiosis will be achieved.33
The problem with such a view, however, is that architecture is, in fact, not alive and can never be. In his
essay, Biomimicry versus Humanism, the science writer Joe Kaplinsky points out that architecture rather, is the

product of human ingenuity, a cultural process that works quite dierently than evolution. We say that a scuba
suit or an aeroplane [sic] are products of creativity because they have consciously been worked on, planned and
imagined through application of knowledge about the world.34
Evolution can only proceed in small steps, whereas human imagination can make great leaps. It can set to
work on a radically new set of design principles. In fact, human innovation is at its most brilliant precisely when it
moves beyond incrementalism, he writes.35
Living things, furthermore, have evolved under pressure to succeed at reproduction. Buildings, by contrast,
are free from the burden to reproduce and self-repair which, in itself, is quite liberating. This allows for great
simplicity and innovation. Buildings so conceived are thus able to express an idea, signify a meaning or a concept
beyond their basic function. Take for example the complex symbolism of church architecture. The transept and
nave are symbolically overlain by the crucified figure, the congregation as the body of Christ, with the priest at its
head. Today, biomorphic architecture more reflects the impoverishment of human meanings. The structures of
todays buildings refer to animal and plant forms.
The need for architecture to oer meaning is fundamental for Kaplinsky. The city transformed into jungle
is a powerful symbol of a collapsed and lost civilization, where nature has overgrown the human order. It is in this
dimension of providing significance and meaning to the way in which we understand our buildings that Biomimicry
is most deficient. We can learn much from nature about chemistry, materials, science, and even structural
engineering. But we cannot learn how to put together those elements into something greater.36
While it is true than Benyus mentions form in so far as to note that angularity is foreign to living things,37
(neither she nor McDonough advocate a new architectural vernacular based on natural forms. Nor do they wrestle
with the higher art factor in architecture in any way. Form is discussed only as an adjunct to function (which
is essentially a Modernist perspective). Their primary concern is one of function and process, not to dictate new
aesthetic or artistic directives. That part of the discussion, however, is picked up quite strenuously be James Wines
in his 2000 book, Green Architecture.
Wines argues strongly for the need for architecture to be both green technologically (incorporating several
of the biomimetic design solutions that Benyus and McDonough call for) and green aesthetically. A building that
is green functionally but not aesthetically will not be enduring. It will succeed only as the sum of its technological
functions, and will ultimately be boring. Without art, he writes, the whole idea of sustainability fails. People
will never want to keep an aesthetically inferior building around, no matter how well stocked it is with cutting-edge
thermal glass, photo voltaic cells, and zero-emissions carpeting.38
Like Kaplinsky, he sees architecture as playing a fundamental cultural role architects must interpret and
synthesize cultural messages to create new socially relevant meaning. Architects must make buildings that work as

statements of belief and values. In this way, they are artistic visionaries and leaders.
But what does it mean to be green aesthetically? While architecture began in the 20th century as
a celebration of the Age of Industry and Technology, we must now recognize ourselves to live in the Age of
Information and Ecology. Our collective unconscious and perception of the world has been molded by the
supremacy of television, cinema, mass media, and the computer.39 Whats more, we have come to realize that the
industrial dream embraced so thoroughly by the Modernists has morphed into a nightmare of global magnitude. It
is no longer appropriate to employ the stylistic idioms that emerged from this outdated time. Using such elements
as exposed structural systems, vast expanses of plate glass and steel trusses will only draw attention to the
industrial excesses that brought about the environmental realities we face today. Our challenge now is to reject
the industrially derived iconography and invent a new language reflective of and relevant to -- our time. In the
same way that the Modernists drew inspiration from industrial forms (the geometry of cubes, cones and spheres),
architects today must develop a language that is inspired by and symbolizes the 21st century ecological revolution.
Here follows Wines brilliant biomimetic analogy: Whereas Le Corbusier referred to the house as a
machine for living in acknowledging his debt to industrial sources there is a new generation of architects
who regard the earth itself as the ultimate machine and the human habitat as the extension of the concept of
Gaia, or the earth as a living organism.40 Just as Le Corbusier was inspired by the functions of the machine, so too
must architects today gain inspiration from the functions of the earth. This idea goes to the heart of Biomimicry,
but elevates it to the necessary (and heretofore missing) aesthetic level. If designers of the 1920s and 30s could
develop a persuasive architectural language out of the rather limited (by comparison to nature) inventions of
industry, imagine the wealth of ideas to be found in the complexities of terrestrial and cosmological phenomena.
Why, for example, arent the natural wonders of ecology, hydrology, geology, or the revelations of biophysics and
astrophysics, even more of an inspirational resource for the building arts than the structural geometry of a crane,
or some Cubist-derived design conventions?41
Does this then relegate us to architecture that celebrates the animal and plant forms that Kaplinsky
derides? Or, rather, does it open up the conversation to a reexamination of natural forms/processes/structures/
patterns, and how they relate to the human experience? Where and how --does man, with all his cultural
baggage, fit into this bigger schema?
So far, the majority of successful biomimetic examples have involved products or materials -- rather than
buildings -- which are far more limited in their regenerative capacity. According to Victoria University architecture
professor Maibritt Pedersen Zari, one of the barriers to a more widespread embrace among architects is the
absence of a clearly defined framework for understanding the dierent kinds of Biomimicry and the ways in which
it can be applied within the context of a design project. Toward that end, he has developed a useful methodology
for looking at how Biomimicry can function practically in the design process and, more importantly, clarify its

10

potential as a tool to increase the regenerative capacity of the built environment.42

Specifically, Pedersen Zari identifies three levels of mimicry: the organism, the behavior and the
ecosystem. The organism level refers to the copying of a specific plant or animal; the behavior level refers to
the copying of a behavior or how it relates to its larger context; the ecosystem level refers to copying a whole
ecosystem and the common principles that allow them to function successfully.43 Generally speaking, the more
closely a design project aligns itself with mimicking an ecosystem or its principles rather than organism or
behavior -- the greater potential for sustainability will exist. A building that is exhibiting form Biomimicry, which is
stylistically or aesthetically based on an organism, but is made and functions in an otherwise conventional way, is
unlikely to be more sustainable than a non-biomimetic building.44
Within each level are five further dimensions of mimicry: A design may be biomimetic in terms of form
(what it looks like), material (what it is made out of), construction (how it is made), process (how it works), or
function (what it is able to do). Here is Pedersen Zaris Framework for the Application of Biomimicry.

ORGANISM LEVEL
(Mimicry of a specific organism)

BEHAVIOR LEVEL
(Mimicry of how an organism behaves
or relates to its larger context)

FORM

The building looks like a termite.

MATERIAL

The building is made from the same material as a termite; a material that
mimics termite exoskeleton/skin for example.

CONSTRUCTION

The building is made in the same way as a termite; it goes through various
growth cycles for example.

PROCESS

The building works in the same way as an individual termite; it produces

hydrogen eciently through meta-genomics for example.

FUNCTION

The building functions like a termite in a larger context; it recycles cellulose

waste and creates soil for example.
The building looks like it was made by a termite; a replica of a termite mound
for example.

FORM
MATERIAL

The building is made from the same materials that a termite builds with;
using digested fine soil as the primary material for example.

CONSTRUCTION

The building is made in the same way that a termite would build in; piling
earth in certain places at certain times for example.

PROCESS

The building works in the same way as a termite mound would; by careful
orientation, shape, materials, selection and natural ventilation for example,
or it mimics how termites work together.

FUNCTION

The building functions in the same way that it would if made by termites;
internal conditions are regulated to be optimal and thermally stable for
example. It may function in the same way that a termite mound does in a
larger context.

ECOSYSTEM LEVEL

FORM

The building looks like an ecosystem (a termite would live in).

(Mimicry of an ecosystem)

MATERIAL

The building is made from the same kind of materials that (a termite)
ecosystem is made of; it uses naturally occurring common compounds, and
water as the primary chemical medium for example.

CONSTRUCTION

The building is assembled in the same way as a (termite) ecosystem;

principles of succession and increasing complexity over time are used for
example.

PROCESS

The building works in the same way as a (termite) ecosystem; it captures and
converts energy from the sun, and stores water for example.

FUNCTION

The building is able to function in the same way that a (termite) ecosystem
would and forms part of a complex system by utilizing the relationships
between processes; it is able to participate in the hydrological, carbon,
nitrogen cycles etc. in a similar way to an ecosystem for example.

11

In this way, Pedersen Zari is looking to Biomimicry as a solution to reduce our fossil fuel consumption
and alleviate or adapt to climate change. It is about emulating natural functions and strategies to become green
technologically not as Wines notes, to become green aesthetically. As such, copying natural forms are frowned on
as less relevant since it does little to increase sustainability.45
Bio-inspired design in not a style in the same way that modernism or postmodernism are for example,
writes Pedersen Zari. Ecosystem-based Biomimicry is concerned with replicating functions and processes that are
independent of a certain aesthetic. Biophilic architecture too is not easily recognizable as a distinct aesthetic style,
because the underlying concepts are interpreted in dierent ways by designers.46
Discussing biophilia, and the human psychological need for connection to nature, is as close as Pedersen
Zari will get to acknowledging a cognitive or emotional relationship that human beings have with their buildings.
Evidence has suggested the people feel less stressed, can concentrate better and heal more rapidly when they have
healthy connections with the living world.47 The goal for Pedersen Zari, then, is to establish mutualisms that will
improve the wellbeing of both the ecosystem and the people that inhabit the buildings.
How is that accomplished? People respond positively to structures that embody the organized complexity
(rather than simplification, a tenant of Modernism) and variability of a constantly changing natural environment.
The built environment should mimic the geometry or morphology of natural form. Research into biophilia
discusses increasing complexity of form, particularly fractal patterns as being attractive to humans, because they
mimic human cerebral organization. Fractal architecture, where similar forms repeat themselves at varying scales,
is of particular interest. Pedersen Zari cites such examples as Gothic and Hindu architecture, Rene Binets entrance
to the 1900 Paris World Exposition, Frank Lloyd Wrights Palmer House in Michigan (1950) and Steven Holls
Simmons Hall (2002) at MIT.48

5. BIOMIMETIC PROJECTS: AN OVERVIEW

The following chart is a compilation of biomimetic projects that have been, according to published sources,
either completed and brought to market, or are actively being investigated in laboratories (commercial and
academic). For the purposes of this paper, the projects are divided into four categories (a) Industrial Products,
(b) Transportation, (c) Energy Eciency/Carbon Sequestration (those projects designed to reduce our carbon
footprint and reliance on fossil fuels), and (d) Architecture. It should be noted, as well, that those projects relating
to transportation are also, by and large, aimed at increasing energy eciency.

12

CONCRETE ALTERNATIVE

CERAMICS

Lotus Leaf

Abalone Shell

Abalone Shell

NATURAL INSPIRATION

Micro-textured surface that allows for self-cleaning

Biomineralization process that stores carbon & creates durable, crack-resistant material

Manufacturing of super strong crystal structure of inner shell

BIOMIMETIC FEATURE

Sto AG

Rocky Mountain Institute

University of Arizona Materials Lab

DESIGNER OR MANUFACTURER

PROJECT

LOTUSAN PAINT

ICE AXE

FASTSKIN SWIMWEAR

CELL PHONE

ROBOTIC ARM

ECOWORX
Carpet Backing

SMART CLOTHING

GECKO TAPE

ANTI-BACTERIAL PRODUCT

OUTDOOR CLOTHING

GOATEK TRACTION
Sports Shoe

Plants

Butterfly

Butterfly

Bivalve Shellfish

Crustacean Exoskeleton

Natural Ecosystem

Natural Ecosystem

Woodpecker

Shark Skin

Lobster Exoskeleton

Elephant Trunk, Fish

Spine

Natural Ecosystem

Pinecone

Gecko

Gecko

Gecko

Delisea Pulchra Seaweed

Fur, Feathers, Skins

Mountain Goat

Reflector cells that reflect even small amounts of light

Imitate process of carbon sequestration by turning carbon dioxide into carbon-based polymers for plastics

Nanostructures and physical mechanisms that produce color

Color created through underlying structures that reflect light in certain ways: Color that is
based on perception, not pigment

Waterproof adhesion method used by shellfish to attach to stationary surfaces in the ocean

Lateral distribution of sockets with central energy source based on underbelly articulation

Closed loop, cradle-to-cradle recycling

Closed loop, cradle-to-cradle recycling

Chiseling ability, structural strength, light-weight construction, balance, percussion ecacy

Structure that increases hydrodynamic speed by reducing passive drag

Rugged, shock-resistance, weather-resistance of outer shells, achieved through layering of

hard and soft materials

Range of motion, movement flexibility, maneuverability

Closed loop, cradle-to-cradle recycling

Adapts to changes in temperature and moisture by changing shape

Adhesiveness from gecko paws that enables unique climbing ability

Adhesiveness from gecko paws that enables unique climbing ability

Plastic microfibers with electrodynamic adhesiveness that resemble hairs on gecko paw

Natural chemical in the seaweed that jams the cell-to-cell signals that enables bacteria to
grow; thereby blocking spread of infection

Materials that regulate temperature

All weather, all terrain traction

Organized chaos of mismatched patterns, randomness and disorder

Pigments that change color based on viewing angle

Percy Shaw

Novomer

Mesophotonics

Deepa Textiles

Columbia Forest Products

EP-Guppo VLM

Designtex (Steelcase)

Herman Miller

Franco Lodato for CAMP

Speedo

Franco Lodato for Motorola

Montedipe (plastics)

Shaw Industries

Centre for Biomimetic and

Natural Technologies

Stanford University

Bae Systems

Manchester University

Biosignal

Patagonia

Nike

Interface

Flex Products

industrIal products

OPTICAL VARIABLE PIGMENT

Counterfeit Pigments for Currency

Eects of Incident Light

(i.e., soap bubbles)
Riverbed stones and
fallen leaves

BIODEGRADABLE PLASTIC

Cats Eyes

PUREBOND
Formaldehyde-free Plywood Resin
NATURAL INTELLIGENCE
Iridescent Drapery Fabric
SILICON-BASED PHOTONICS
For Optical Devices

MULTI-PLUG ELECTRIC SOCKET

TASK SEATING
Embody, Celle, Mirra, Caper
CLIMATEX LIFECYCLE
Contract Fabric Line

SYNTHETIC GECKO
Adhesive Material
STICKBOT
Robot that Walks on Glass

ENTROPY CARPET

SAFETY ROAD REFLECTORS

13

PROJECT

Tropical Boxfish; Tree

Stress

NATURAL INSPIRATION

BIONIC CONCEPT CAR

Owl Feathers; Martin

Kingfisher Beak

transportatIon

SHINKANSEN 500 HIGH SPEED TRAIN

Turkey Vulture

Dolphin Skin

Seed of the Zanonia

macrocarpa plant

AUTOMOBILE ANTI-COLLISION SAFETY

African Locust
SENSORS
ZANONIA, FIRST TAILESS GLIDER
LAMIFLO
Submarine and Aircraft Skin
AIRPLANE STABILIZERS

Enzyme in Human Body

(Carbonic Anhydrase)

Sea Kelp Fronds

Shark and Tuna Fins

Natural photosynthesis

energy effIcIency and carbon sequestratIon

ARTIFICAL PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Solar Energy Harvesting System
BIOSTREAM TIDAL POWER SYSTEM
Sea Energy Power Generators
BIOWAVE POWER SYSTEM
Wave Energy Power Generators
CARBON SEQUESTRATION
archItecture

BIOMIMETIC FEATURE

(Fish) Streamlined, lightweight construction that is highly aerodynamic and energy ecient (very low drag coecient); (Tree) Distribution of structure material that achieves maximum strength with minimal materials (stress concentrations)
(1) Unique saw tooth feathers on owl wing block formation of speed vortices and inspired
technology of micro-vortex generation; (2) Long beak of Kingfisher inspired nose shape of
train to handle changes in air resistance when emerging from tunnels
Anti-collision sensors activated during swarms

Shape of seed wings enables excellent flight characteristics; stability in flight permitted from
way air flows o wing tips, allows wings to remain parallel to the free stream
Resilient skin structure that reduces turbulence, drag and friction, permitting great speed at
low sound levels
Use of form to reduce turbulence

Sunlight to energy conversion through development of synthetic molecule that mimics photo-initiated electron transfer process
Simulates streamlined propulsion of fast fish; Fixed device that harnesses energy of a moving
stream by oscillating with the flow
Simulates swaying movement of kelp fronds; Energy derived from oscillating motion caused
by passing waves and currents
Technology that imitates the human enzymes ability to convert carbon dioxide to bicarbonates

DESIGNER OR MANUFACTURER

DaimlerChrysler

Neumeister Design of Germany (for Hitachi)

Volvo

Ignazio and Igo Etrich

Max Kramer

The Wright Brothers

Tom and Anna Moore,

Arizona State University

BioPower Systems

BioPower Systems

CO2 Solutions

Mick Pearce

Termite Mound

Cooperative Evolution

Mick Pearce

EASTGATE COMPLEX

Grimshaw Architects

Termite Mound

Passive cooling and ventilation techniques where insects open and close holes according to
need
Passive cooling and ventilation techniques where insects open and close holes according to
need
Method of water capture used to design desalination facility

KSS Architects

CH2

Namibian Desert Beetle

Ability to capture water from fog without use of pumps or large amounts of energy

Michael Hopkins & Partners

Namibian Desert Beetle

TEATRO DEL AGUA

HYDROLOGICAL CENTER at UNIVERSITY OF NAMIBIA
LLOYD CROSSING PROJECT

Ecosystem

Turrets for air circulation and passive cooling, inspired by Eastgate Complex

Mithun Architects

KALUNDBORG PROJECT

Termite Mound

Nicholas Grimshaw

Preexisting Ecosystem

PORTCULLIS HOUSE

Flexible scale arrangement that can respond to changes in air pressure

Restore original ecosystem at the project site

Example of Industrial symbiosis and closed-loop manufacturing. Four industries (power
plant, oil refinery, plasterboard and biotech) + local municipality have collaboration where
the waste of one is the resource of another

WATERLOO INTERNATIONAL TERMNAL Pangolin

14

a. Industrial Products
As the chart illustrates, the greatest number of successful examples of Biomimicry have by far emerged
from the field of industrial design. This may be due from the fact that it is, in general, far less complicated and
expensive to design a singular object rather than a building. Also, Biomimicry as a field per se, is relatively new,
making the time horizon for innovation fairly truncated. And, as noted in the preceding discussion, the ideas
underpinning the direction of the movement have been evolving rapidly over recent years. This is a new, fluid area
with many ideas in the percolation phase.
In general, the industrial products listed are based on some property of either an organism or an
organisms behavior -- two of the three levels outlined by Pedersen Zari. I have included a small number of
ecosystem Biomimicry examples. However, it should be noted that William McDonoughs firm, MBDC, has
initiated its own Cradleto-Cradle certification program to recognize industrial products that use safe materials,
incorporate material reutilization, use renewable energy, ecient use of water and take into account a degree of
social responsibility. It could be argued that all products that receive such certification are mimicking the natural
ecosystem (predicated mainly on the idea of no waste, either as biodegradable or closed-loop technical nutrients).
To be sure, manufacturing methods that copy such general principles of nature and the ecosystem have the
greatest impact on sustainability. For the purposes of this paper, however, I have limited myself to examples based
on specific and deliberate biomimetic investigations.

A scientific analysis of the lotus flower emerging clean from swampy waters led to an innovative selfcleaning paint product from Sto called Lotusan.49 Developed by Wilhelm Barthlott, a professor at the
University of Bonn in Germany, the paint, when dry, mimics the surface structural characteristics of the
self-cleaning lotus leaf.50 The micro-textured surface is super hydrophobic, which causes water to bead up
and roll o. Because of the strong adhesion between dirt and water, the water carries the dirt away. The
company calls this the Lotus Eect.51

FROM LEFT TO RIGHT:

FIG. 5.1: LOTUS LEAF. COURTESY OF WASHINGTONSPACES.COM
FIG. 5.2 LOTUSAN PAINT HDROPHOBIC SURFACE. COURTESY OF WASHINGTONSPACES.COM
FIG. 5.3: LOTUS FLOWER. COURTESY OF DESIGNANDUNIVERSE.COM
FIG. 5.4: HYDROPHOBIC LOTUS SURFACE

15

When confronted with the challenge of creating an all-terrain, all-weather sports shoe, the researchers
at Nike turned to a newly arrived mountain goat at the local zoo. The animals hooves could handle hard
and soft surfaces, wet and dry climates,
mates, all while running, jumping and climbing. The study led them to the
development of Goatek Traction, a radically re
redesigned shoe sole that incorporates several of the hoofs
features -- a soft,
ft, fatty pad at the foot center (to absorb initial shock), a surrounding nail to dig into soft
surfaces,
animal to perform its vertiginous acrobatics.52
s, and an articulated toe that allows the anim

FROM LEFT TO RIGHT:

FIG. 5.5: NIKE GOATEK TRACTION. COURTESY OF WAY-NIFTY.COM
FIG. 5.6: GOAT HOOVES. COURTESY OF DIRTTIME.WS
FIG. 5.7: MOUNTAIN GOATS. COURTESY OF SHOTINTHEPARK.COM

Julian Vincent, professor of biomimetics at the University of Bath, looked to pinecones as a model for
developing his Smart Clothing. Pinecones respond to warmer temperatures by opening their scales to
disperse seeds. The Smart fabric responds similarly to changes in climate, opening up when it is warm
and shutting tight when it is cold. This product was one of the projects representing British science at the
World Expo 2005 in Japan.53

FROM LEFT TO RIGHT:

FIG. 5.8: SMART CLOTHING.
COURTESY OF UBERGIZMO.COM
FIG. 5.9: PINECONE.
COURTESY OF BURNINGEXPRESSIONS.COM

16

When Aussie Ian Thorpe won a gold medal at the 2000 Sydney Olympics, he was wearing a radically
dierent full body suit made of a product called Fastskin by Speedo. The material was inspired by the
hydrodynamic skin of sharks with ridges that mimic the animals V-shaped dermal denticles. These ridges
decrease drag and turbulence, thereby increasing speed in water.54

FIG. 5.11: CLOSEUP OF FASTSKIN.

COURTESY OF SPIFF.RIT.EDU

FIG. 5.9:
MICROSCOPIC VIEW OF SHARK SKIN.
COURTESY OF COACHSCI.SDSU.EDU

The attachment system of the gecko lizard a tiny creature than can support up to 90 pounds while
clinging to glass via a thicket of micro-filaments has always fascinated scientists.55 Manchester University
developed Gecko Tape in 2003 that features millions of plastic microfibers whose electrodynamic
adhesiveness resembles that of the hairs (called setae) on the gecko paw. Researchers at Bae Systems
created Synthetic Gecko. Stanford University built Stickbot, the first robot gecko that can walk on glass
and mirrors. 56 MIT is developing a waterproof adhesive bandage to join sutures and staples as a basic
operating room tool for patching up surgical wounds.

LEFT TO RIGHT: FIG. 5.12: MICROSCOPIC VIEW OF TINY HAIRS ON GECKO PAW;
FIG. 5.13: GECKO CLIMBING ON GLASS; FIG.5.14: GECKO PAW.
COURTESY OF NEW YORK TIMES

17

The bivalve mussel has attracted attention for its ability to attach itself to underwater structures by
producing a waterproof adhesive with remarkable holding properties. (The adhesive industry has been
struggling for years to develop a product that can work in moist conditions. As Benyus points out, the
market for such a product would be sizeable consider the fact that boats need to be dry docked for
repairs; stitches are required during surgery instead of glue; all the issues surrounding rust, water and
adhesion, to name a few.) Columbia Forest Products has developed a type of formaldehyde-free resin,
called PureBond that mimics the way the shellfish attach themselves to stationary surfaces in the ocean.
The resin is used in plywood and is completely waterproof and non-toxic.57

The perception of pigment as an optical property or the result of structures that reflect light in dierent
ways is also an area of great interest. Flex Products in California has created a product called Optical
Variable Pigment that simulates the eects of incident light, such as light that reflects o soap bubbles
or oil slicks. These pigments that change color based on the viewing angle are now being used as an anticounterfeiting measure on U.S. paper currency. 58 Mesophotonics in the United Kingdom is producing
silicon-based photonics to be used in optical devices. These are based on the nanostructures and physical
mechanisms that produce color in butterflies.59 Similarly, Deepa Textiles in California oers a line of
iridescent drapery fabric called Natural Intelligence, also based on butterflies, where color is created
through underlying structures that reflect light in certain ways.60 Tiny scales on butterfly wings bounce
light waves around which heightens the color. This is color that is based on perception, rather than a
chemical pigment.

FIG. 5.17: INCIDENT LIGHT ON

SOAP BUBBLE. COURTESY OF
GEOCITIES.COM

FIG. 5.15: DEEPA TEXTILE.

COURTESY OF NEOCON

FIG. 5.16: MORPHO BUTTERFLY.

COURTESY OF FLICKR.COM

18

Animal exoskeleton structures have served as an inspiration as designers look to specific constructions for
properties relating to strength, range of motion, and functional eciencies. In Italy, Carmelo Di Bartolo
designed a lateral socket multi-plug for EP/VLM Group based on a study of crustaceans and the mobility of
their underbelly articulations. He mimicked the concept of a central energy source that distributes power
laterally by tipping the sockets plane onto its lateral surface and putting the entry points along the sides,
much like the legs of the organism.61

Italian designers for Montepide looked to the skeletal constructions of fish spines and the musculature of
elephant proboscis to create a disarticulated arm that could expand maneuverability and articulation for
a robotic arm.62

The tough protective exoskeleton of lobsters and other crustaceans also served as a model for Franco
Lodato when he set out to design a new line of rugged, shock-resistant, weather-resistant phones for
Motorola. The outer shells of crustaceans are constructed of both hard and soft layers of chitin combined
with calcium carbonate. This layering provided a covering that protects the organisms internal organs. To
achieve a similar protective eect for the phones fragile inner workings, Lodato used hard and soft layers
of polymers (chemical compounds with long repeating chains of atoms) to cover the phones exterior
surface. These layers were made of rubberlike plastic materials such as Santoprene and
polycarbonate.63 (It worth noting here that this is an example
of using the principles of Biomimicry (copying an aspect of an
organism) without necessarily furthering the over arching
goal of increasing sustainability.)

FIG. 5.18: LOBSTER.

COURTESY OF DFG.
CA.GOV

When Lodato was asked to design an ice

axe for CAMP, an Italian sports equipment
manufacturer, he selected the woodpecker for
his natural model. The ice axe needed to be
multifunctional in a variety of positions. It needed
to be both lightweight (so as not to fatigue the
mountain climber) and have very high structural
strength in order to penetrate ice. It also needed to function under dicult conditions
at extreme temperatures and altitudes. The woodpecker has an extraordinary aptitude

19

for chiseling able to do 25 hits per second, with a force of impact

of 25km/mm2. Its body is designed for specifically for this type of
activity. Its tail functions as a spring, allowing it to take advantage of
its center of gravity. The configuration of its skull bones is designed to
absorb considerable impact. This overall design allows the bird to use
its whole body to increase the eciency of percussion. Moreover, its
weight is extremely light usually slightly over one pound. The ice axe
Lodato designed has an inner core of titanium which is inserted in an
adjustable aluminum point these two parts are hinged together like
two valves of a mollusk. The shape of the handle incorporates a slight
curve, similar to the body of the woodpecker, in order to improve the
eciency of the blow. The shaft is centered under the ax head, which
is pitched at a downward angle, like the birds beak. The handle is
FIG. 5.19: WOODPECKER
WITH CAMP ICE AXE.
COURTESY OF FASTCOMPANY.COM

lined with a layer of rigid polyester and covered with a layer of Rynite
to provide the grip a construction technique copied from the skin of
sharks rigid elements overlying a soft base.64

In Australia, researchers at Biosignal have developed antibacterial

products that copy a natural chemical found in a certain variety
of algae called Delisea Pulchra. This chemical eectively blocks
or interferes with communication between colonies of bacteria,
which in turn stops the spread of infection.65 This is potentially very
interesting to hospitals and other parties concerned with the overuse
of antibiotics and bacterial resistance.

20

b. Transportation
Designers have always looked to nature for ideas concerning mobility, particularly for increased speed
through water and air. The use of the fish form for a boat hull or submarine, and the form of a flying bird for the
airplane prototype are quite familiar. Such forms, notes Lodato, were conceived with very little, if any, scientific
knowledge of fluid dynamics the designers relied mainly on their conviction that the shapes of these living
machines were the forms best suited to perform in their particularly environment.66 Perhaps more than in any
other area, the functions of mobility and speed are enabled through form.

Such was the case for Ignazio and Igo Etrich of Austria who designed the first tailless glider based on
the shape of the seed from the Zanonia macrocarpa plant. This seed was observed to have particularly
excellent flight properties. The shape of the wings permitted air to flow o its wing tips in such a way that
allowed them to remain parallel to the free stream and thus quite stable. This in turn enabled the seed to
glide through the wind over considerable distances.67

CLOCKWISE: FIG. 5.20: ZANONIA MACROCARPA SEED.

COURTESY OF TRHK.EXBLOG.JP; FIG. 5.21: IGO ETRICH IN
HIS GLIDER, 1907. COURTESY OF CTIE.MONASH.EDU; FIG.
5.21: ETRICHS GLIDER, 1906. COURTESY OF NURICOM.DE

Max Kramer of Germany studied the unique properties of dolphin skin to create Lamiflo, a type of antiturbulence lining for submarines, torpedoes and aircraft that has been adopted by the military. The
animals unique skin structure reduces turbulence, drag and friction which in turn provides for greater
levels of speed with low sound levels.

21

Engineers at Volvo are actively studying the African locust in an eort to develop new crash-avoidance
technologies for automotive safety. The locusts are unique in their ability to migrate in incredibly dense
swarms as dense as 80 million adults per square kilometer without colliding into one another.
According to Volvo, there is no dierence between millions of swarming locusts and millions of
commuters. If the quick-reacting bugs can avoid hitting each other, why cant we? 68
According to the U.S. National Highway Trac Safety Administration, there are about 3.6 million
cars per year damaged as a result of rear-ending the car in front of them, swiping another care while lane
changing, or running o the road.69
Dr. Claire Rind at the University of Newcastle in England, who initiated the research, discovered
that the bugs visual input is transmitted directly to their wings, seemingly bypassing the brain. A large
neuron located behind their eyes, called the Locust Giant Movement Detector (LGMD), releases a burst
of energy whenever a locust is on a collision course with another locust or predatory bird. These spikes
of energy, called action potentials, prompt locusts to take evasive action. The entire process from motion
detection to reaction takes about 45 milliseconds, or 45 thousandths of a second.70
This very fast reaction time is predicated on a system based on a single integrated step that
combines visual optics with electronics, in the case of the car. A conventional way of doing this would
involve a two-step process: first a camera to capture an image of an impending collision, and second, a
digital process analyzing it. Volvos work is hinged on developing an algorithm that mimics the insects
ability to send visual stimuli directly to its wings -- its sensory input routing methodologies -- and apply it
to the cars computerized safety features.71
To date, the research team has built a locust-inspired robot and is developing comparable
circuitry for a prototype car. The system as envisioned would detect approaching danger before the driver
notices it, and sound an alarm. If the danger worsens, the system could apply the brakes, tension the
seatbelts and arm the airbags. In the future, the system may also deploy external airbags on the front
bumpers to protect pedestrians.

(LEFT): FIG. 5.22: AFRICAN LOCUST SWARM. COURTESY OF NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC;

(RIGHT): FIG.5.23: TRAFFIC JAM. COURTESY OF CARS.JUSTELITE.NET

22

Aquatic inspiration may provide the genesis for the next generation of high eciency small cars.
Researchers at DaimlerChrysler recently introduced the Mercedes Benz Bionic concept car, based on the
shape of the tropical boxfish (ostracion cubicus, native of the Indo Pacific region). The fish has a drag
coecient (Cd) of just 0.06, startling close to the aerodynamically ideal 0.04 of a water droplet. Like a
droplet, the fishs face is small in proportion to its overall length, and its structure appears almost skeletal
with streamlined surfaces encourage air to move over it without creating turbulence that increases drag.
The Mercedes Bionic 4-seat vehicle mimics this functional form, and has a drag coecient of 0.19 this
compares quite favorable to the Honda 2-seat Insight which has a Cd of 0.25. The Bionic car can reach
62 mph in 8.2 seconds, with a combined city/highway fuel economy of 70 mph, making it highly fuel
ecient.72 The chassis and structure of the car have been designed using a computer model based on how
trees are able to grow in ways that minimize stress concentration -- this stems from natures strategy of
achieving maximum strength with a minimum amount of materiality. Engineers were inspired to design a
car structure that itself appears skeletal, with material allocated only to places where it is most needed.73

CLOCKWISE FROM TOP: FIG.5.25: DAIMLERCHRYSLER PROTOTYPE BIONIC CAR; FIG.5.26: SKELETAL STRUCTURE; FIG.5.27: CLAY MODEL USED FOR AERODYNAMIC TESTS; FIG.5.28: TROPICAL
BOXFISH (OSTRACION MELEAGRIS). COURTESY OF BIODSIGN.WORDPRESS.COM

23

One of the most critical issues arising from Japans

bullet train Shinkansen 500 addressing the high
noise levels that accompany great speed was
resolved by adapting strategies from the bird world.
The saw-tooth plumage on owl wings (unique in
the bird world) function to create small vortexes
in the airflow that then serve to break up larger
noise-generating vortexes. This inspired the trains
designers to develop the technology of microvortex generation, which blocks the formation of
speed vortexes created by the trains speed. Also
inspirational was the aerodynamic shape of the
Martin kingfisher beak its long air piercing cone
design served as a model for the trains distinct
nose shape, enabling the train to deal successfully
FIG.5.26: OWL IN FLIGHT. COURTESY OF
RAYSWILDLIFE.COM; FIG.5.27: JAPANS
SHINKANSEN 500. COURTESY OF GARDKARLSEN.COM; FIG.5.28: MARTIN KINGFISHER, KNOWN FOR ITS LONG BEAK.
COURTESY OF DERBYSHIREOS.ORG.UK

with changes in air resistance as it traveled in and

out of tunnels.74

24

c. Energy Eciency and Carbon Sequestration

Eorts are underway to develop biomimetic technologies that seek to replace the use of fossil fuels as the primary
energy source (and in so doing, mitigate green house gas emissions).75 Others are looking to find biomimetic ways
to sequester, store or recycle carbon in the development of products or technologies that can be adopted by
industry.

Scientists at Arizona State University have made major advances in the area of artificial photosynthesis
that may eventually be applied to solar cell technology. The ramifications of this could be enormous
artificial photosynthesis could potentially replace fossil fuels, provide energy security and mitigate climate
change. Natural photosynthesis, it should be noted, is commonly referred to as the most important
biological process on earth, the fundamental process that enables all life forms.76 Currently on the market
are silicon photovoltaic cells which are large and costly. The goal for a viable artificial photosynthesis is to
create a reaction center that mimics the natural electron + energy transfer process. So far, researchers
have been successful in developing a synthetic molecule (called a pentad) that mimics the photo-initiated
electron transfer process. Photons, or particles of light, cause the molecule to become electrically charged
and that charge is maintained long enough -- that is the key new piece -- for it to be stored or fed into an
electric circuit. (Vaughan)77

BioPower Systems in Australia is actively developing sea and wave energy power generators o the
Australian coast that draw inspiration from oceanic life. The ocean power conversion systems are based
on the movement of shark and tuna fins and sea kelp fronds. The first, the BioStream Tidal Power System,
simulates the streamlined propulsion of fast swimmers like sharks and tunas. The fixed device harnesses
the energy of the moving stream by oscillating back and forth with the flow. This oscillating motion drives
the system against the resisting torque of an electrical generator. The BioWave Power System mimics the
swaying movements of sea kelp fronds. It derives its energy producing capacity from the oscillating motion
caused by the passing ocean waves. The generators rotate freely to orient themselves toward currents and
similarly can lie flat in storms to avoid getting damaged. Both systems are held in place by the BioBase, an
anchor that is also biologically inspired. Instead of relying on a single large piling, each system uses several
small roots that hold it down, thereby lessening damage to the sea bed. This also eliminates the need
for large drill rigs or other complicated installation. One promising application for this design could be oshore wind turbines. The absence of rotary motion makes a system much less dangerous for marine life as
well. The company plans to begin commercial sales in 2010. 78

25

FROM PREVIOUS PAGE: FIG.5.29: BIOWAVE POWER SYSTEM;

FIG.5.30: BIOSTREAM TIDAL POWER SYSTEM. COURTESY OF BIOPOWERSYSTEMS.COM

Natural processes that store, sequester or recycle carbon are serving as models for technologies now
being developed. In Canada, CO2 Solutions is developing a carbon sequestration technology that imitates
the function of an enzyme in the human body called carbonic anhydrase. This enzyme is able to convert
carbon dioxide to bicarbonates. The process created by CO2 creates environmentally benign bicarbonate
that can be stored or reused in a closed-loop industrial process in cement or paper mills.79

The Rocky Mountain Institute is working on developing an alternative material to concrete. This new
material mimics the abalone, which is able to grow a crack resistant shell that is harder than any manmade
ceramic, through a process of biomineralisation -- a carbon storing process.80

Novomer, a company formed out of research done at Cornell University, is developing biodegradable
plastics based on the carbon sequestration process in living organisms by turning carbon dioxide into
carbon-based polymers.81

26

d. Architecture
Although still very much in its infancy, biomimetic architecture has a far greater potential to positively
aect climate change than any single industrial product. International research suggests that the built environment
may be responsible for at least a third of global green house gas (GHG) emissions.82 The definition of sustainable
architecture is rapidly evolving. The goal of building neutral or zero impact architecture that has minimal negative
eect on the environment is being supplanted by the idea of creating restorative or regenerative architecture that
has a net positive eect. The idea is that buildings should function as ecosystems themselves, taking from the
environment but also giving back to the environment, as all organisms in a healthy ecosystem do. A model for this
concept might be an animal architect such as the North American Beaver who alters the landscape to create its
home but does so in a way that creates wetlands, increases plant and animal diversity and on the whole, makes the
ecosystem more resilient. It is an idea based on the concept of interdependence and integration.

FIG.5.31: DRAWING OF TERMITE MOUND SHOWING VENTILATION TUNNELS; FIG.5.32: TERMITE MOUND. COURTESY OF MIRAGESTUDIO7.COM; FIG.5.33: PHOTOGRAPH OF EASTGATE COMPLEX IN HARARE, ZIMBABWE. COURTESY OF PANORAMIO.COM

Perhaps the most well-known and successful example of biomimetic architecture to date is Mick Pearces
Eastgate Complex, located in Harare, Zimbabwe. Built in 1996, Eastgate is the largest mixed oce complex and
shopping mall in the country, covering half a city block (5,600 meters retail; 26,000 meters oce space). What
distinguishes the project is its unique ventilation and cooling system modeled on the termite mounds that dot the
Zimbabwean savannah.
The Zimbabwean termites farm their food inside their mounds. This food is a special kind of fungus that
requires a constant temperature of 87 degrees in order to grow. As the daily temperatures in Zimbabwe fluctuate
between 35 degrees at night and 104 degrees during the day, the termites are experts at controlling the climate
within their mounds. How do they do it? A kind of a breeze catcher is dug at the base of the mound which cools the
air by means of chambers carved out of the wet mud below, and then sends hot air through a flu at the top. The

27

termites constantly vary this construction by alternatively opening new tunnels or blocking others to regulate the
heat and humidity in the mound.
Pearce, who specializes in projects with low cost, low maintenance, and low environmental impact,
wanted to move away from the Modernist big glass block oce with its mechanically-based building
technologies typically used in the West. These buildings are expensive to maintain, requiring substantial heating
in the winter and cooling in the summer. They tend to recycle air, leading to higher levels of interior air pollution.
Such mechanical systems also involve high maintenance, and in Zimbabwe, all units and parts would need to be
imported, a considerable expense for a developing nation with limited resources. The ingenious solution lay in
adapting the termites passive cooling and ventilation system to suit the local conditions at hand.
Eastgates passive cooling works by storing the heat during the day and venting it at night at the
temperatures drop. It works like this: At the start of the day, the building is cool. During the day, machines and
people generate heat, along with the sun shining into the space. Heat is absorbed by the buildings heavy masonry
walls which has a high heat capacity (in addition to referencing the traditional stone masonry of Zimbabwe).
Fans suck air from the atrium and blow it upstairs through hollow spaces under the floors and into each oce
through baseboard vents. As it rises and warms, the air assisted by fans -- is drawn out through 45 round brick
chimneys. It also rises naturally since warm air is less dense than cool air. In the evening, as the temperature
drops, the bottom of the building draws in denser, cooler air. Big fans send the cool air through the building seven
times per hour to chill the hollow floors. During the day, smaller fans blow air two times per hour. The result is air
considerable fresher than air conditioning, which recycles 30 percent of its air.

Certain design rules were also established by Arup, Eastgates engineers, to ensure the success of the system:
No direct sunlight could fall on external walls.
The north faade (direction of the summer sun) window to wall ratio could not exceed 25 percent.
There had to be a balance between artificial and external light to minimize heat gain and energy
consumption.
All windows had to be sealed because of noise pollution, unpredictable wind pressure and temperatures.
Duct ventilation only.
Windows had to function as light filters, control glare, noise and security.
Blinds and deep overhangs were used to keep direct sun o the windows and wall.

The cost savings and environmental eciencies have been considerable. Passively cooled, Eastgate uses
only ten percent of the energy needed by a similar conventionally cooled building. In the first five years, the
building saved its owner $3.5 million in energy costs alone. Using less mechanical cooling translates to lower GHG
emissions.

28

The Portcullis House (2001) in London, opposite the Palace of Westminster, was inspired by Eastgate and
incorporates several turrets for air circulation and passive cooling. The distinctive (and visible) chimney system was
designed by Michael Hopkins & Partners to draw air through the building by exploiting natural convection flows.
In 2006, Pearce unveiled CH2, an oce building in Melbournes central business district that also integrates
techniques of passive ventilation and temperature regulation observed in the termite mounts. In CH2 (stands
for City of Melbournes Council House Number 2), water is mined and cleaned from sewers below the building,
and is used in a similar manner to the way termites use the proximity of aquifer water as an evaporative cooling
mechanism.83 CH2 cools the water passively underground and sends it through each floors concrete ceilings.

(LEFT TO RIGHT) FIG.5.34: PORTCULLIS HOUSE IN LONDON FEATURES VENTILATION CHIMNEYS. COURTESY OF LONDONARCHITECTURE.CO.UK; FIG.5.35: CH2 OFFICE BUILDING FACADE IN AUSTRALIA, DESIGNED BY MICK PEARCE;
FIG.5.36: CH2 ROOF WITH WIND TURBINES. COURTESY COMETETOCONSERVE.COM

The water capturing mechanism of the Namibian desert beetle, the stenocara, inspired the design of two
unusual projects overseas. This particular beetle lives in the desert with little rainfall, but is able to capture
moisture from the swift moving fog that passes over it by artfully tilting its body into the wind. Water condenses
on the surface of the beetles back because its shell is cooler than the air. Droplets form on the alternating
hydrophobic-hydrophilic rough surface and roll into the creatures mouth.
Grimshaw Architects, in collaboration with Seawater Greenhouse, used this process to design a unique
desalination plant called Teatro del Agua in the Canary Islands. The building will feature a series of evaporative grills
over which seawater will pass. As the sea breeze passes over them, some water evaporates and leaves salt behind.
Moist air continues until it hits pipes that hold cool seawater. As the warm moist air comes into contact with the
cool pipes (like the beetles back), condensation forms and fresh drinkable water trickles down to be collected for
use. The seawater pumps are powered by wind turbines using the same sea breeze.84

29

(TOP ROW) FIG.5.37: WATER HARVESTING TO MIMIC BACK OF BEETLE. COURTESY OF SANDIA.GOV; FIG.5.38:
NAMIBIAN DESERT BEETLE. COURTESY FLICKER.COM; FIG.5.39: SKETCH OF HYDROLOGICAL CENTER AT UNIVERSITY
OF NAMIBIA. COURTESY OF METROPOLISMAG.COM: (BOTTOM ROW): FIG.5.40-42: RENDERINGS OF TEATRO DEL
AGUA IN THE CANARY ISLANDS. COURTESY OF IGREENSPOT.COM

KSS Architects were also inspired by the Namibian desert beetle in their proposed fog-catcher design for
the Hydrological Center for the University of Namibia. In a low rainfall climate, part of the building is oriented to
capture water from the fog without use of pumps or large amounts of energy.85
Nicholas Grimshaw and Partners took the form and
process of the scaly pangolin as their inspiration in their
design for the Waterloo International Terminal in England.
The challenge was to create a terminal that could respond
to changes in air pressure as trains entered and departed.
The glass panels that comprise the structure mimic the
flexible scale arrangement of the pangolin which some say
resembles a pinecone so that they can move in response to
changes in air pressure.86

(TOP)FIG.5.43: PANGOLIN WITH SCALES. COURTESY OF CATEINJAPAN.BLOGSPOT.COM ; (BOTTOM)

FIG.5.44: WATERLOO INTERNATIONAL TERMINAL IN
LONDON. COURTESY OF ALANBROOKECONSULTANTS.
CO.UK

30

6. THE PROJECT: THE GREAT FALLS CULTURAL ARTS CENTER

The design project of this thesis is a cultural arts center overlooking the Potomac River that is informed
conceptually by the behavioral process of an organism; specifically, the metamorphosis of caterpillar to butterfly.
The arts center features a redeveloped historic canal tavern along with a new modern pavilion addition that will
take advantage of the sites primary asset, its waterfront location.

a. The Design Concept: Applying Biomimicry

What natural process might serve as the underlying concept and direction for the new cultural arts
center? The site is the historic Great Falls Tavern, originally built in 1831 as an inn and lock tender residence (more
detailed site history to follow). Currently the facility serves as a visitors information center within the Chesapeake
and Ohio Canal National Park.
Given the historic nature of the site, the answer must take into account the idea of change over time,
or transformation. The cultural arts center features two radically dierent forms, emerging at radically dierent
periods in history (two centuries apart in fact), yet it serves one essential function -- a public realm where users
can explore the arts. The idea of process, evolution and harmony between old and new forms is integral to the
design. The biomimetic concept that incorporates these fundamental ideas centers on the behavior or process of
a specific organism -- here, the transformation of caterpillar to butterfly. Like the cultural arts center, the insect
is a singular organism, yet has two unique manifestations. The original historic building shares the characteristics
of the caterpillar, also the older original form. Both are land-oriented and grounded. The new pavilion addition -literally and figuratively a wing -- is open and air-oriented, like the butterfly. This new structure sits on an island,
overlooking the Potomac River, taking advantage of the waterfront views (the Great Falls waterfalls) and sense
of expansiveness that the butterfly surely enjoys. A bridge connecting the two structures, over the canal below,
functions literally and metaphorically as a chrysalis, or transition linking the two forms.
The project incorporates a temporal component that relates to the biomimetic concept. The building
unfolds just as the organism itself evolves. One enters the original building (the caterpillar experience), progresses
over the bridge (the chrysalis experience), and culminates the journey climactically in the new wing (the
butterfly experience). Figure 6.1 provides a photograph of a conceptual model that describes the nature of the
transformation process and the relationship between the two forms.

31

b. Site Integration:
Geographic and Cultural
Integrating the site into the design is a primary focus.
Landscape informs all design decisions, as the plan takes
into account the canal, the adjoining river banks, the
river, and the island on which the pavilion addition is
situated. The focus will be on the human experience of
FIG.6.1: CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF PROJECT SHOWING
TRANSFORMATION OF CATERPILLAR TO BUTTERFLY
WITH CHRYSALIS. PREPARED BY AUTHOR.

interacting with the space -- how does it feel, function,

perform? The site exists in nature, removed from main

trac arteries and even parking lots. The structure will not be designed with the intent of being experienced as a drive
by or in the car. There will be no car noise impinging on the experience. This place is approached quietly on foot. The
natural setting invites a design that blurs the line between interior and exterior space. Canopies, terracing, cantilevers
or other forms that open up and integrate the outdoors are considered to bring the exterior in. Issues surrounding the
manipulation and harnessing of light, as well as wind and water (aesthetically and as possible energy sources) are also
taken into account.
Integration of site speaks to one of the key ideas behind Biomimicry of ecosystems in general. While this is
somewhat afield of the central butterfly concept, the principle of mimicking an ecosystem does speak to the larger goals
of applying biomimetic concepts. Copying an ecosystem, at its very core, relies on an assessment of local conditions -what types of external forces (environmental and otherwise) and relationships govern a particular place? It is this focus
that distinguishes it from, say, a Target -- the same big box gets built regardless of whether the location is the Florida
keys or the Montana mountains. This idea extends beyond mimicking characteristics of natural ecosystems to cultural
and economic characteristics of a particular place as well -- a kind of cultural ecosystem. This project asks what is right
for this place? at the core of the design.
The answer must take into account the larger suburban context (or cultural ecosystem) in which the site
finds itself. Adjacent to the park is the Washington, DC suburb of Potomac. Like many American suburbs, Potomac
is characterized by single-use zoning associated with environmentally and culturally detrimental land-use patterns
-- suburban sprawl and complete reliance on the automobile for transportation. Neighborhoods are not pedestrianfriendly. A strip mall caters to daily shopping and a large, enclosed mall oers more recreational shopping and functions
as an ex-ocio town center. Other critical components of traditional town centers such as municipal buildings,
museums, civic spaces, theatres and public gathering spaces (other than schools) have been decentralized and located

32

elsewhere. The net eect of such patterns has placed an a priori emphasis on the private realm.
Central public gathering spaces have always served a critical role in the life of the community. These are
vibrant and vital places that instill identity, a sense of history and, to a large extent, symbolize the community as a
whole. They function as social anchors. Here is where casual social interaction among neighbors occurs, where ties
of community are forged and social fabric is created. These are breeding grounds for relationships, essential to
any ecosystem. The new cultural arts center provides a non-commercial public space within the community that
addresses this vital missing component. This project serves as a cultural hub (an intellectual ecosystem, if you will),
a town center within the suburbs that will underpin a sense of community identity.

c. Site History
This is a fitting purpose for this site. The Great Falls Historic Tavern originally served as Potomacs town center
at its apex during the mid-1800s. Built in 1828 as a lock tenders residence, the Tavern was later expanded and
reopened in 1831 in its current state as an inn, oering dining and
entertainment to canal workers and city dwellers on weekend
excursion. The Taverns name refers to its proximity to the dramatic
waterfalls that occur at that juncture in the Potomac river. For
the Native Americans that pre-dated the colonists, the falls were
a natural gathering place. For George Washington, however, the
falls were a problematic impediment to trade and prosperity. The
Chesapeake and Ohio canals were constructed to make the river
navigable and stimulate trade between the east and the Ohio river
valley. The canal towpath, which today serves as a scenic river-front
path for cyclists and strollers, runs 184 miles from Georgetown in
Washington, DC to Cumberland, Maryland. The canals soon became
the main thoroughfare for the transport of coal, lumber and grain.
Commercial activity and trac increased rapidly. The Tavern, with
its location on a main artery, became a natural town center. Soon
a community sprang up around it -- several houses, a post oce,
a saloon and various shops. After a series of damaging and costly
floods, the site was sold to the Baltimore and Ohio Railroads, where
FIG.6.2: NARROW GORGE IN POTOMAC RIVER.
FIG.6.3: CANAL AND TOWPATH NEAR TAVERN.

it fell into further deterioration. presently, the Tavern is owned by

the National Park Service and functions as a visitor center.

33

O L M S T E A D

I S L A N D

CHESAPEAKE AND OHIO CANAL NATIONAL HISTORICAL PARK

POTOMAC RIVER
C&0 CANAL TOWPATH
C&O CANAL
PARKING
DAM

WALKWAY & TOWPATH

LANDSCAPE
WATER
PAVED WALKWAY
ROADS & PARKING
GREAT FALLS TAVERN

OLMSTEAD ISLAND
GREAT FALLS HISTORIC TAVERN
PROPOSED BUTTERFLY PAVILION
GREAT FALLS WATERFALLS

SITE PLAN

SCENIC WALKWAY

SCALE: 1/32=1

34

FIG.6.4: PHOTOGRAPH OF HISTORIC GREAT FALLS TAVERN FACADE AND APPROACH ALONG CANAL TOWPATH. FIG.6.5: PHOTOGRAPH OF REAR OF TAVERN. FIG.6.6: FLOOR PLAN OF FIRST FLOOR. FIG.6.7: FLOOR PLAN OF SECOND FLOOR. FIG.6.8: FLOOR
PLAN OF THIRD FLOOR. AUTOCAD DRAWING PROVIDED BY PARK SERVICE.

LEVEL ONE

LEVEL TWO

LEVEL THREE

SCALE: 1/32=1

SCALE: 1/32=1

SCALE: 1/32=1

35

d. Function and Programming

The new cultural arts center provides a public forum for the community to enjoy and participate in the
arts. The centers distinctive historical architecture -- and symbolism as a former town center -- help to position it
as a new, revitalized town center. Education and the exchange of ideas will be promoted through visiting artists
exhibitions, classes, and dynamic arts programming.
Specifically, the space will be programmed as follows: The first floor of the Tavern will house an exhibition
space and gift shop in the main hall, a kitchen, and a cafe with outdoor seating. The cafe will provide a place for
people watching along the canal towpath (an activity not readily available in the suburbs) and a bit of respite for
passersby. The second floor will contain classrooms, workshops, a meeting space and a library/resource area. The
third floor (only above the main hall) will oer studio space to artists-in-residence.
The new butterfly pavilion will be programmed with a theatre for concerts, lectures, films and other
performing arts. The space can also serve as a supplemental exhibition space, conference or retreat space.

Programming:
Entrance/Exhibition/Gift Shop
Kitchen
Cafe
Classrooms/Workshops
Library/Resource/Media
Meeting Space
Artists-in Residence Studio
Butterfly Pavilion

1,088 square feet

375 square feet
430 square feet
1,088 square feet
375 square feet
430 square feet
950 square feet
2,250 square feet

TOTAL

6,986 square feet

36

37

FIG.6.9: MODEL
IMAGES OF
PROPOSED BUTTERFLY
PAVILION.

38

FIG.6.10: TOP: FLOOR PLAN OF

PROPOSED PAVILION, SHOWING
BUILDING ORIENTATION, PARTIAL
BRIDGE ENTRANCE, SEATING
AND RAILINGS. POST AND BEAM
STRUCTURE INDICATED.
FIG.6.11: BOTTOM LEFT: TOP
VIEW OF GLASS CANOPIES. FOUR
PANEL SIZES TO BE USED: TWO
SQUARE PANELS AT ENTRANCE
AND OVER STAGE AT 16X18;
FOUR LARGE TAPERED PANELS AT
18-15X18; FOUR MEDIUM TAPERED PANELS AT 11-14X18;
SIX SMALL TAPERED PANELS AT
7-10X18. LARGE PANELS ARE
USED IN CENTER OF STRUCTURE,
MEDIUM PANELS USED TOWARD
ENDS, AND SMALL PANELS USED
AT VERY ENDS OF STRUCTURE.
FIG.6.12: BOTTOM RIGHT:
PAVILION STUDY MODEL

PAVILION FLOOR PLAN

SCALE: 1/16=1

TOP VIEW OF PAVILION

SCALE: 1/16=1

39

e. Typologies
Biomimetic typologies are discussed at length in the architectural section of Chapter Five. They are: The Eastgate
Complex, CH2, Teatro Del Agua, the Hydrological Center at the University of Namibia, the Lloyd Crossing Project,
the Kalundborg Project, the Portcullis House and the Waterloo International Terminal. Also noted is the Crystal
Palace in London. These are examples of projects that explore process, construction or functional biomimicry.
Otherwise, typologies have been divided into two categories -- functional examples of cultural arts centers
that share either a suburban setting or involve historic preservation; and conceptual examples of Biomimicry.
Functional examples would include the Lab at Belmar, the Viz Arts Center in Rockville, Wave Hill in Riverdale,
New York, Victoria Gardens in California, Sixth and I Historic Synagogue in Washington DC. Conceptual examples
would include (1) Calatravas Milwaukee Art Museum -- a modern museum addition on a waterfront that calls to
mind images of sails and birds; (2) Gehrys Serpentine Pavilion in London -- a modern amphitheater adjacent to a
neoclassical cultural building that features a network of overlapping glass panes (refracted light, planes likened to
wings); (3) Renzo Pianos California Academy of Sciences in San Francisco.

f. Conclusion
The primary aim of this project is the design and development of a cultural arts center based on the principles
of Biomimicry. In accomplishing this, the project provides a gateway for the community to more fully enjoy its
principle natural asset, its waterfront. The project provides a natural retreat from the ubiquitous automobile. In
conclusion, the redevelopment of the Great Falls Historic Tavern into a cultural arts center symbolizes a new, more
sustainable phase in the growth of the neighborhood. It pays homage to the areas local history while pointing to its
future. The center advocates for and imparts an intellectual life. Most importantly, the center encourages a greater
sense of community and bring neighbors closer to art and nature by embodying those principles in its design and
purpose.

40

NOTES
1. Introduction
1

Benyus, Biomimicry, 6.

2. Natural Modeling: Historical Precedents

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

Di Bartolo, On Nature, The Model, 50.

Ibid.
Lodato, The Nature of Design, 59.
Ibid, 57.
Ibid, 59.
Ibid, 57.
Ibid.
Ibid, 58.
Ibid.
Valli, 10 Product Designs, 2008.
Gulmanelli, Biomimicry, 36.
Ibid.
Lodato, The Nature of Design, 57.

3. Early Voices: Nature + Design

15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28

Yeang, Bionics: Biological Analogies, 48.

Ibid.
Ibid, 51.
Stokholm, Bionics, 11.
Yeang, Bionics: Biological Analogies, 51.
Benyus, Biomimicry, 8.
Stokholm, Bionics, 11.
Nachtigall, Form Creation & Bionics, 1994.
Di Bartolo, Dialogue between materials, 1994.
Hiesinger and Marcus, Landmarks of Twentieth-Century Design, 249.
Ibid, 251.
Raizman, History of Modern Design, 371.
Ibid, 351.
Ibid, 285.

4. Modern Voices: The Conversation Today

29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39

Benyus, Talk@TED, February 2005.

McDonough and Braungart, Cradle to Cradle, 104.
Pedersen Zari, Biomimetic Approaches to Architectural Design, 1.
McDonough and Baumgart, Cradle to Cradle, 78.
Kaplinsky, Biomimicry versus Humanism, 69.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid, 71.
Benyus, Biomimicry, 13.
Wines, Green Architecture, 9.
Ibid, 12.

41

40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48

Ibid, 9.
Ibid, 19.
Pedersen Zari, Biomimetic Approaches to Architectural Design, 3.
Ibid, 4.
Ibid, 8.
Pedersen Zari, Architectural Love of the Living, 7.
Ibid, 5.
Ibid, 3.
Ibid.

5. Biomimetic Projects: An Overview

49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75

Ibid, Biomimetic Approaches to Architectural Design, 3.

Valli, 10 Product Designs, 2.
Weber, Innovative by Nature, 49.
Katz, Design Evolution, 59.
Hooper, Ideas Stolen from Nature, 1.
Weber, Innovative by Nature, 49.
Katz, Design Evolution, 56.
Gulmanelli, Biomimicry, 36.
Vartan, Ultimate Flattery, 4.
Katz, Design Evolution, 56.
Hooper, Ideas Stolen from Nature, 2.
Vartan, Ultimate Flattery, 5.
Di Bartolo, On Nature, The Model, 53.
Ibid, 51.
Lodato, The Nature of Design, 61.
Ibid, 60.
Gulmanelli, Biomimicry, 36.
Lodato, The Nature of Design, 59.
Ibid, 58.

76

Gust, Kramer, Moore, Moore, Vermaas, Engineered and Artificial Photosynthesis, www.mrs.org.
Vaughan, Synthetic Molecule Mimics Photosynthesis, 1990.
Jacquot, BioPower Systems draws inspiration, 2008.

77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86

Squatriglia, Volvo Thinks Locusts, 2008.

Roach, Locusts Inspire Technology, 2004.

Ibid.
Squatriglia, Volvo Thinks Locusts, 2008.
Phenix, Mercedes Fish-Inspired Car, 2007.

Pedersen Zari, Bioinspired Architectural Design, 3.

Gulmanelli, Biomimicry, 36.
Pedersen Zari, Bioinspired Architectural Design, 1.

Pedersen Zari, Bioinspired Architectural Design, 4.

Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid, 1.
Pedersen Zari, Bioinspired Architectural Design, 3.
Ibid.
Ibid, 5.
Ibid, Biomimetic Approaches to Architectural Design, 5.

42

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44