i ""'

' %

:aqudJCck,:und&bd h e br&s
..
,.

d&"hseY

th&:%#d

.:

thus determine rhc

>

>

geolciglc htstory at an area.

Some principles discussed in chapter 8 should help you interpret the way

'<k+$fr
'.
3
' $

structures develop in an area and the sequence. Recognition of unconforrnities as well as the principles of origlnal horizontality, superposition, and crosscutting relationships are as important to struccurd geology as they are to
determining relatrve ttme.
Subsequent chap~erswill require an understanding and knowledge of
structural geology as presented in this chapter. To understand earthquakes, for

instance, onc must know about faults. Appreciating hnw major mountain bcln
and rhc continents have evolved (chapter 5 ) d l s for a comprehension of huhing and folding. Understanding plate-tectonic theory as a whole (chapter 4)
also requires a knowledge nnf structural geology. (Plate-tectonic theory developed primarily to explain certain structural fcarures.) In areas of active tecton-

ics, the location of geologic strucrurcs is important in the selection of suitable

sites for schools, hospitals, dams, bridges, and nudear power hcilities.
Also, understanding structural geology can help us more fully appreciate
the problem of finding more of the earth's dwindling natural resources. Chapter 21 discusses the asociation of'certain geologic structures with petroleum
deposits and other valuable mources.

tyq

~ k%+!
e'Fw,"):Y

<3???5
Y
,:'..,'

'

Cigun 6.1
Fglded and faulted sedlmrntary beds expnaad in a road cut near Palmdalo, Calllornia.
Photo by C.C.Plumm~r

In a broad sense structural geolngy can be ~huutglltof as

architccrurc of rhc carth's crust, its defnrmatinnnl featl~rpg, a ~ heir
d mutual relations and origins, For
our purposes, structural genlngy can br: d e l i ~ r dus the

and are strained into wavc-likc folds that arc brokcn by faults,
'I'hc Inyrrs havc beet1 straiiled, yrubblLly by u huriwntd strw
that pushed or wmpnssed the layern tngether ~intilt h q wrt
shortened by buckling.

Lrv1ic11uf geulugy concancd wirh rhc shapes, arranEernent,

and interrclntinnships ol' LeJruh units .and the forccs thar

Thc relationship h a t w e s ~srress ud strvin CUI be illwmrcd by deforming o piece of Silly I'utq (figure 0.2). If the
Silly Putty is pushed together or squcczcd from opposirc dim=
tiana, we nay the f i t r ~ s sia c o m p m i m Clrmyressive stress b;
common along convergent plate bounduies and typically
Y ~ ~ LinJ r&
L V k i n g deformed by a shuflt~in~smk,
In figurc
6,2A, an elnn te piece nf Sill Pu rty rnny shorretl by Let~rliiig,
or folding, w crcu a ball o Silly Putty will shnrtcn in the
dirt.~tiunp d l e l to the campressivc strcss and clongarc or
stretch in the directinn perpendicular ro i t . Rucks subjected tu
camplrssivc scrcsscs, particularly along convergent pt ate
buut~durits,behave in the same way and arc rypicdly sham
encd in the hnri~nntnldirection alld eloi~grr~ed
i~rtlre vertid
dirccdon,
A t d o n d s t t m is caused by forces pullin8 away from
,ant another in nppnrite rlircsrians (figure 6.2B) uld results h
a sm~cbingor exteflsioad smitt, If we apply a tehsiand stress
nn n hall of SiIIy Puc~y,it will elunpte or stretch pard~clto thc
applied stress, If the tensinnal Rtrm ia applied rayidIy, [he SilIy
Putv will firsc strcrch and rhcn break aparr (hyrc &2@, 'lcnsional stresses art. quite rare in the crust: in kt,mosr srrcsscs
directly m c ~ s u r e din the F4nrrh nrr: compressive,

the study of the

caws
h
m

4-

Tectonic Forces at:Work

Stress and Strain in the Earth's Crust
Tectonic forccs move and defatm part? nf the earth's crust, particulvrIy Ellotlg plate margins. Whcn studying dcfbrmed rocks,
strueturd gmlngint~typically r e h iu stms, u furcr per unit
ma, Whclr srrcss can be meamred, it ifi expresw-J aa the force
per utlit ateu at r particular poinr. Howcvcr, ic is difficult to
meaburt stress in rncks that are a~rrenily buried. We can
observe thc cffccs of past #tress (caused by tectonic t'irrcm nnd
mnfit ~ i i ~pressure
g
frum burial) when bcdrock is cxposed after
uplifi and eroaian. l h m our nhscrv~tionswe 111uybe able to
i~lferthtr principal dirccrions of srress that prmiled. We atsn
can nh~erwin exposed Ledruck the efhct of forces on a rock
rhar was stressed. Strain in the: chitnge in s i a (vulunie) ur
shape, ur both, whilc an objccr is undergoing strefifi. In figure
(1.1, nriginnlly horisuatd ruck layers havc changcd in shape

Compressive stress

irl

I
Stnln L
Tensional stress

Sketching or extensional slmln

Pigum 6.4
Graph shows the behavior of rocks with increa~lngst~essand
strain. Elastic behavior occurs along the straight l~neportians
(shown in Mue) of the graph. At stresses greater than the elastlc
limit (red points), the rock will elther deform as a ductile material
or break, as shown in the deformed rock cylinders.

effects of compressknal and tonsi~nslstresses an Silly Putty.

Shear stress

Shsar stram

avior of Racks to Stress and Strain

If a deformed body recovers its original shape after the

stress is reduced or removed, the behavior is elastic, For example, if a tensional stress is applied to a rubber band it will
stretch as Iong as the stress is applied; but, once the stress is
removed the rubber band returns or recovers to its origin4
shape and its behavior is elasdc. Silly Putty will also behave
elastically if molded into a ball and bounced. Most rocks can
behave in an elastic way at very low stresses (a few kilobars),
however, once the stress applied exceeds the e l d c limit (figure 6.4) the rock will deform in a permanent way.
A ruck that behaves in a ductile or plastic manner will bend
while under stress and does not return to its original shape afcer
relaxation of the stress, Silly Putty behaves as a ductile material
unless the rate of strain is rapid. Rocks exposed to elevated pressure and temperature during regional metamorphism also behave
in a ductile manner. As shown in figure 6.4, material behaving in
a ductile manner does not require much of an increase in stress to
continue ro strain (relatively Aat curve). Ductile behavior results
in rocks that are permanently debrmed mainly by folding-nt
bending of rock layers (figure 6.1).
A rock exhibiting brittle behavior will break or fracture at
stresses higher than its elastic limit, much like a rubber band
will break if strerched too farc Rocks typically exhibit brittle
behavior at or near the earth's surface where prcssure and temperatures are low. Under these conditions, rocks favor braking
rather than bending. Faults and joints are examples of srructures that form by brittle behavior of the crust.
A sedimentary rock exposed at the earth's surface is brittle; it will fracture if you hit it with a hammer. How then do
sedimentary rocks, such as those shown in figure 6.1, become
bent (or deformed in a ductile way)?The answer is that either
stress increased very slowly or that the rock was deformed
under considerable confining pressure (buried under more
rock).

'B.

GcoI~gidlyr~pidmmrnent of rhc crust clrn Le u b x w d

in yuuag, developing mountain regiunu such as the C:al&rnia
Coabt l h g c s , which have been hrming throughout r
hGnumic Era (the lut 65 million years). In orher para uT the world,
huweva~,the continents and sea flwrs we shiking very dow1y
up and down as wll u i~lavinglaterally, Somc of these
porionr cur be de~ectednnly by precisc, rcprated surveying.

uctures as a Record

G e ~ l ~Past
gi~

-.,

.-.

umurw is df murr dun academic

mining induetria, far exaniplc,

logic Mapa and Field Methods

ideal situatim, a gcologkt studying stnictures would bc
the lncd and regional patterlis
ma [his is possible, but mare
the bedrock. Theteforc, gcolfmm a numbcr of individual
(sxyosilr~;sf b c k at h e s u r h ) in determining
crns of geologic structures, The chanctcrktiw d rock
outcrop in w1 area are platted on a map by m 1 s of
r i m symbols, With rhc data that call be cnllected, a

Flgw

i.@

Tilted eedimontary beds along the coast of northern California

near Pt. Arena. Here, the slrike ia tho llne formed by the
Intersection of the llltod sedimentary beds and the sand in the
foreground, The direotlon of dip ie toward the /aft,
Ptrr~toby Diane CarlsOn

tn the principle of ar@'mlhuA'au~ialr'gd i m e n tary rocks and sornc lava fluws a ~ l dash MLs arc deposircd as
horizonwl beds ur strata. Where these originally huriwunltd
rocks are fnund tilted, ir indica&s that tilting mmt have
occurred aficr deposition uld lithific~tinn(figure 6,6),Someone studying u geologic map of the arca would want tu know
the extent and direction of rilting. By coilveiltion, this is deter=
mined by plotting the raliltion~hipbetween a surface of m
inclined Led aid an imaginary horiwntal plane, You can
u~derstandthe relationship by luuking canfirlly at figure 6.7,
which rcprcscnts sedirnentilry be& cropping our alon~sidra
I& (the lake surfncc provides a convenient hurim~ltalplane
hr this discussion).
Stdw is the eornpss direction of a line hrmcd by the
intrrrrtzio~iof an inclined plane with a heriwnd plane, in

Accurdiag

mar &dsn, are intluded,

n a diffmnt rype of ~ p o -

be.7

! . .

, ,,,
,
,

h,
angle of dip, and dire~tionof dlp.

1..

' ..,
.:."

Llmeetone

P
A

Flaun 6.9
1

Geologist ddarmlnlng the etfike and dip of inclined beds In N d a .

Phata by C.E:. Plummr:r

-2

Kilometer

C l g u 8.6
~
A palogic map of an area wlth three rsdlmentary formations.
(Each formation may contaln many lndlvldual sedimentary layers,
aa explained In chapter 8,) Beds strlk northwest and dip 30'to
the mouthwest,

tliL exiamplc, thc inclincd plane is a bedding plane. You ~ c u see

l
frnm fig11re 6,7 t h t the beds are striking from north to bouth,
Customarily only the nnrthel-lydiraaiu~l(of the strikr line] ig
given, su we simply say rhac these beds strike nnrth.
Oh~crve~ l ~ vilir
t ~m& of dip is mcasurcd downward
from thc horimnd plane tn the heddi~gplui~e(m inclincd
plane), Note that the a n ~ l cof dip (30' in the figure) i s mcaduted within n vertical plbule that is perpendicular to borh the
bedding and the horimhtd plane#.
The W o n of dip is rhc compass direction in which
the angle of dip in mmsured. 11'yuu cuuld roll a ball down a
bedding surf&, the oornp- direction in whish the ball rolled
wnrild be die tlirectiun of dip.
The dip angle: i~always nleasured at a right anglc 10 rhc
strike,&at is, perpendicular to the strike line i ~ sdiowi~in fig

lire 6.7. Because the be& could dip away from the strike line in
cithct of two pn.ssihle:direcrio~ls,the gelherd cli~ctiunuf dip is
also spccificd-in rhis example, west,
nesides r m d n g strike and dip mcmurcmcnrs in a ficld
norebook, a pologist whn is mapping an are# draws sir& and
dip symbols on thc ficld map, such a9 Y or A birr each nutcmp
with dipping or ril~edbe&. The long line of thc symbol is
aligned wirh the mmpur dimtinn nf the arrike. The s ~ d lick,
l
which is always drawn pcrpcndicular ro the strike line, in put nn
rine side: or the other, depending on which of the rwo dirccrione
chc bcds actually dip. 'l'heangle nf dip is given as s n i u ~ t e r1 ~ x 1
LU the appropriate v b o l on chc map, Thus, "Y hdiwte~that
the bed is dipping 25' lwm the huriwntal (and is strikina;
norrhcasr, assuming that the tnp nf the page: is north), Figure 6.8
is a geulogiu mnp that s h m dl Fhc scdirnc~~taty
layers s t r i k i ~
northwest and slipping 30' to h e soudrwwt,
' On a map the intersection of the twn line# at rhc center of'
mch sirikr: crlrrl dip symbol represents ~ h loation
c
of the ow=
crop where the strike and dip of the bedroch were mwured. A
specially dcsigncd instrument called a Hruntnn pocket transit
(nrtcr the itlventor) is used by pologisw for rhis purpose (fig.
uw 6,B). 'l'he Brunton packer trclnsic mli~vinsrr compass, a
levcl, and a dcvicc for measuring angles of inclina tinn.

etion far line &Bon the geologic map in

Beds with vertid dip require a unique symbol because

dip neither to the left nor the right of the direction of
The symbol used is 71 ,which indicates that the beds are
t and that they are vertical.

nts a vertical slice through a

ike a roadcut (see figure 6.1)
hows the orientation of rock
dimension. Geologic cross

Figum 6.1 1
Folded rock, Calico Hills, California.
Photo by C. C. Plummer

e geologic map shown in

bends or wave-like features in layered rock. Folded

be compared m several layers of rugs or blankets that
n pushed into a series of arches and troughs. Oftends in rock can be seen in roadcuts or other exposures

are

and shatters when

and dso some metallic mineral deposits arc localized in folded

rods (see chapter 21). The geometry of folds is dfo important
in unraveling how a rock was strained and how it might be
related to rhe movement of tectonic plates. Folds are u s d y
associated with compressive stresses along convergent plate
boundaries, but arc also commonly formed where rock has
been sheared along a fault.
Bccawc folds are wave-like forms that usually form by
the shortening of rock layers, two basic fold geometries are
common-anticlines and synclints (figure 6.12).
An anticline is an upward arching fold. Usually the rock
layers dip away from rhe hinge Iine (ar m's)of rhc fold. The
downward-arching counterpart of an anticline ia a syncline,
a troughlike fald. The layered rock usually dips toward the
synclinc's hinge Line. In rhe series of folds shown in figure
6.12, two anticlines are separated by a syncline. Each anticline and adjacent syncline share a limb, Note the hin e
lines on the crests of the two antidines and boreom o f t e
syncline. Similar hinge lines could be located in the hinge
areas at the contacts between any two adjacent foldcd iaytra.
For each antidine and the syncIine, the hinge lines are contained within the shaded vertical planes. Each of these
planes is an axial p h e , a planc containing a11 of the hinge
lines of a fald.
It is important to remember that antidines are not necessarily relared to ridgts nor synclines to valleys, because valleys
and ridges are neuly always erosional features. In an arca that
has been eroded to a plain, the presence of underlying anticlines and synclines is determined by the direction of dipping

b c k was buried ac a moderate dcprh&rc

hid confining

re favors plastic behavior. Alternatively, folding could

akcn place closc to the surface under a very low rate of
(When we strike a rock with a hammer, the strain rate is
gh at the point of impact.)

metry of Folds

ining the geometry or shape of folds may have imporeconomic implications because many oil and p.deposits

Geologic S m m m

Axial blanes

Hinpe fine
bf plunging
antlcllne

Hinge line
of @~WifW

rvndlne

formaon
Anticline

Planes

Chum 1.14

Syncline

Plunging folds: antlcllne on left and right, syncllne in center. f he

hinge lines are at an angle to the block diagram, penetratingthe
surface and emerging from the front cross section.

Figure 6.1 2
Two anticlines and a syncline.

Hirig@llnr of sy?clino

'v'

Hinge line of anlicllne

beds in exposed bedrock, as shown in figure 6.13. (In the field,

of course, the cmw sections are nor exposed to view as hey arc
in rhe diagram.)
Figure 6.13 also illustrates how derermining the relative
ages of the rock layers, or beds, can tell us whether a structure
is an anticline or a syncline. Observe that the oldest exposed
rodcs are along the hinge line of the antidine. This is because
lower layers in the originally flat-lying sedimentary or volcanic
rock were moved upward and art now in the core of the antidine. The youngest rocks, on the other hand, which were originally in the upper layers, wcre folded downward and are now
exposed along the synclinal hinge lint.

The examples shown so far have been of folds with horizontal hinge lines. These are h e easiest to visualize. In nature,

are apr to be p l q i n g
folds-that is, folds in which the hinge lines are not hori-

'however, anticlines and synclines

Oldest rock unit

Figure 6.1 3
Folded rock.This view is a block diagram. Its top represents the
land surface and its two visible sldes are vertical cross sections.
The surface has been eroded to a nearly horizontal plain. Side
views are interpretations based on what the geologist notices on
the surface.

zontal. On a surface leveled by erosion, the patterns of

exposed strata (beds) raernble V's or horseshoes (figures

6.14 and 6.15) rather than the striped patterns of nonplunging folds. However, plunging anticlines and synclines are
distinguished from one another in the same way ap arc nonplunging folds-by directions of dip or by relative ages of
beds.
A plunging synche contains the youngest rocks in its center or core, and the V or horseshoe points in the direction
opposite of the plunge. Conversely, a plunging anticline contains the oldest rocks in its core and the V points in the same
direction as rhe plunge of the fold.

Sbr~rc~rctl
Domes and
Stmscmrad Bmim
A s t r u c t u d dome is a structure in which the
beds dip away from a central point. In cross

.,

.
.

Ing folds. Anticline in Utah plunging In the dlrsciion of the upper part of the

Domes and basins tend to,be fcarirres on a

grand scale (same are mare than' a hundred
kilometers acrbss), f p d ' b y uplift somewhat
grcarcr (for domes) or I c s (for basins) than
that of the rest of a region, Most of Michigan
and parts of adjoining states and Ontario are
on a luge structural basin (see map on the
inside front cover). h c s of & d a r size are
found in other parts of the,.Middle West.
Smdler domes are found in the Rocky Mountains (figure 6.17),

to by Frank M. Hanna

Figure 6.1 7
Dome near Casper, Wyoming. The ridges are sedimentary layers
that are resistant to erosion. Beds dip away from the center of the

dome.
Pholo by D. A Rahm, courtesy of Rahm Memorial Collection, Western
Washington University

A Strata before folding

b Open fokbhu t
w w a r n ahMH diemats ways that streaaea I
have been dletrlbutd to have caused h e kldi~.

C Isoclinal ("hairpin")folds

6e*a
Varioue types of folds. The length of the arrows in A through E is proportionalto the amount end direction of stresses that caused folding
(A) Strata before folding. (3)Open folds In Spain (they are plunging away from the people). (C) Isoclinal folds from the northern Sierra
h d a .
Plpto B by C.C.Plummer, photo C by Diane Cvlson

Interpreting Folds
Folds occur in many varieties and sizes. Some are studied
u dcr the microscope, while others can have adjacent hinge
lines tens of kilometers apart. Some folds are a kilometer or
more in height. Figure 6.18 shows several of the more cornman types of folds. Open folds (figure 6.188) have limbs

'that dip gently. All other factors being equal, the more OF
the fold, the Iess incense the stress involved. By contrast,
imodin$ fold, one in which limbs are parallel to 9
another, implies intense compressive or shear stress (fig1
6.18C).

P ' Overturned folds

E Recumbent folds

Racumbcnt folds (figure 6.18E) are overturned to such

ar the limbs are essentially horizontal. Recumbent
d in the cores of mountain ranges such as the
kits, Alps, and Himalaya and indicate compresear stresses were more intense in one direction
record shortening of the crusr associated with

Fractures in Rock
or if the strain rate is too great for deforrnaodatcd by phstic behavior, the rock fracre is some movement or displacement. If
acement occurs, a fracture or crack in
int. If the rock on either side of a fracture
A

143

Joint sets

Uplift

co~uatnu
and sheet

kina mE ermape, of fracture#

ibrm h m nontmnic sursstr and arc thcreforc s & r d

primary joints. In this chapter we arc mriechlcd with jt

that form not from coding or u d d i n g bur flam rcce
jd& huciimentwy mof t h ~ ~ l ~ P
rE
a ~
df ~W
~m e d
stmes.
In wponse to Wonlo L@IR d h e mgfon.
Jaincs arc anc of he m a r u s m o n l y obscrvtd strucf
Photo by F m k M. Henna
in ~ I C (fipre
S
6.191, Wlacrc joints are oriented app~
mately parallel to one another, a joint act can be dcfi
Joinrr arc imporrant beawe rhcy ofkn indlcatc the direc
of c o m p d w
o p a t i v c during thdr hmation.
mmplc,
in
figure
6.2M
hi# sets &fjointd have formc
M s , t h c ' k t h is djhbfm d&nd tarlict). Most rock at
m
p
n
w
ta
a
harimnd
campmsivc
mas. Vertical joint
or nm the s f f i e fb bd&, so ntarly dl e x p o d bedrock is
(figure
6204
rue
often
assodatcd
with
tectonic uplifr
jdind to some aim.
region,
Gmlqisrs samerim find raidmt & p i t s by m
Jbhms
ing a joint system. For cxmplc, pM-bcuing h+&u
Itq ,+ng
v o h o c s , we dmibed mlumtzur jainrin8 in
mlutirStb~m y mi te upward through a ~ e of
t joints
which hexagonal ccrlumns form as the mult of tcnsion and
&mat quutr an pld in the &.
h a r e infbm
t b h h a b n of a cooling, sblidifitd lava h.
Skpidng, a
h u t joints dm is i r n ~ ~inf thc
~ phudngand
t
wmmc
t p of joinang due w expansion ( k d rlong with d-of largd ongiadng projects, artidmly h s and m m
in chapter 12) la c a d by tension. The pmure X~IGISE If thc b h c k at a ploposcd Q U in~inscnstly joinlad,
&bhdof d y i q , rock ha^ the d k ofmating anp i b i l i t y of dam Mure ar mmir k&gc may makc
sionatstrcsrpet
~o the Iand
cite rm hazardw.

&.

Figure 6.21
Faul in Blg Horn Mountains,Wyoming is marked by broken, redstained rocks, and displaced rock layers.
Normal fault
A Dip-slip faults

Photo by Diane Carlson

Faults
Fadts were defined earlier as fractures in bedrock dong which
movement has taken place. The displacement may be only revull centimeten or may involve hundreds of kilometers. Fot
many geologists, an active fault is regarded as one along which
movement has taken place during the last 11,000 yeas. Most
faults, however, are no longer active.
The nature of past movcment ordinarily can be discerned
where a fault is exposed in an outcrop (figure 6.21).The geologist looks for dislocated beds or other features of the rock that
might show how much displacement has occurred and the relative direction of movement. In some faults h e contact
between the rwo displaced sides is a crack. In others the rock
has been broken or ground to a fractud or pulvcrM mass
sandwiched between the displaced sides.
Geologiso describe hulr movement in terms of direction
of slippage: dip-slip, strike-slip, or oblique-slip (figure 6.22).
In a dipslip fault, movement is parallel to the dip of the fault
surfice. A atriLDslip hult indicates borieontalrnotion p d e l
to the strike of thc hult surfice. An oblique-dip Wt has
borh strike-slip and dip-slip components.

Dip-sKp Fa&
Normal and reverse faults, the most common typu of dip-slip
faulrr, are distinguished from each other on the basis of the
relative movement of rhc fionunll bbck and the hunging-wdN
bhd. The f o o d is the underlying surface of an inclined
fault
whereas the overlying surface is the h.n+g mil
These old mining terms brought into geology u e illustrated

Chapter 6

2-

B Strike-slip kults

Flgun 6.22
Three types of faults Illustrated by diqlaced block. Heavier arrows
show direction in which black to the left moved. (A) Dip-slip movement. ( 8 )Strike-dip movement. (C) OMlque-slip movemsnt. Black
arrows show dip-slip and strike-slip components of movement.

in figure 6.23.If a miner is tunneling along the strike of a

fault, his feet arc on the footwall and his Lantern is hung on

the hanging wall.

-Direction

of
dip of faub

Sinke of fauh

In a normal f d t (figures6.24 and 6.25), the hanging-wall

block has moved downward relarive to the footwall block. The
relative movement is represented on a geological cross section
by a pair of arrows, because we cannot generally tell which
block actually moved. As shown in figure 6.24, a normal Fault
mults in a&nsion or lengthening ofYthe crust. When there is
extension of the crust, the hanging-wall block moves downward
along the fault to compensate for the pulling apart of the rocks.
Somerimes a block bounded by normal faults will drop down,
creating abrjben, as shown in figure 6.24C. ( G ~ b m
is the Gcrman word for *ditch.")Rifi are grabens associated with diverging plate boundaries, &her along mid-oceanic ridges or i n
continents (see chapters 3 and 4).

Dashed part eroded

away after faulting

p-.-r------~r.

B Eredad narmal fault

Diaoram shows the fautt before ermion and the geometric relatlonehlps of the fault. ( 6 )The same a r w after erosion.
A horst. Arrows In C and D indicate horizontal extension of the crust.

n "oil poor can exist: only under certain conditions.

Crude ui1 d m not fill caves underground as the
term poolmay suggest; rather, it simply occupies the
pore spaces of certain sedimentary rocks, such as poorly
cemented sandsrane, in which void space exists bemeen
grains. Natural gas (being lighter) often occupies the pore
space above the crude ojl, while water (being heavier) is
generalIy found saturating the rock below rhe oil pool (box

Resanrorr
rock

figure 1).
A murce rock, which is always a sedimentary rock, must

be present For oil ro farm. The sediment of rhe source rock

has to include remains af orgarbis burid during sedinientation. This organic matter partially decomposes into petroleum and namrd gas. Once formed, drc droplecs of
petroleum tend to migrate, fallowing k t u r e s and interconnecting pore spaces. Being lighter than the rock, the
petrolcum usually migrates upward, although horizontal
migration does occur.
If it is not blocked by irnperrncable rock, the oil may
migrate all the way to the surface, where it: is dissipated and
permanently lost for human use. Natural oil seeps, where
leakage of petroleum is taking place, exist both on land and
oflihore. Where impermeable rock blocks thc oil droplers'
path of migration, an oil pool may accumulate below the
rock, much Iike helium-filed balloons might collect under a
domed ceiling, For any significant amount of oil to collect,
the rock helow the impermeable rock must be porous as
well as permeable. Such a rock, when it: contains oil, is
caIled a reservoir rock
Another necessary condition is that the geologic structure must be one that favors the accurnuiarion and retenrion

Box 6.2 Figure I

(A) Oil and gae ere concentrated or frapped in hinge of
anticline. Gas and oil float on water in porous and permeable
reservoir rock (sandstone). (13) Eroded anticline farms trap in
Lander oil fisld, Wyoming.
Photo B by Diana Carlson

of petroleum. An "antidind trap" is one of rhe best structures for holding oil. As oil became a major energy source
and chc demand for it increased, most of the newly discovered wells penetrated antidinal traps. Geologists discovered

Impermeable rock

sufficienrly, it becomes 'a faulr-block mointai

range. (This is also called a bout, the opposite of
graben.) The Basin and Range province (descrihc
in ocher chapters) of Nevada and portions o
adjoining states is characterized by n
mountain ranges separated from adjoinin
by normal faults.

$iilgun 8.28
Normal faults with prominent horst block offsets volcanic ash layers in southern

bregon.
Photo by Dlane Carson

In a revem fault, the hanging-wall block hid

muved upward relative to the fwtuall block (figj
ures 6.26 and G.27).As shown in figure 6.26, horij
zontal compressive stresses cause reverse faults;
(The faults in figure 6.1 arc reverse faults.) Rweri
faults rend co shorten the crust.
A thrust fault is a reverse fault in which thq
dip of the fault plane is at a low angle to horizund
(figures 6.26C and 6.28). In some mountain
regions it is not uncommon for the upper plate (or
hawing-wall block) of a rhrust fault to have overridduen vrhe lower
(footwall block) for several
tens of kilometers. Thrust faults rypically move or
thrust older rocks on top of younger rocks (figure
6-28],and result in an extreme shortening of the
crust. Thrust faults commonly form at convergent
place boundaries to accommodate shortcning during collision.

Surface trace of fault

Figure 6.27

r
Fault

Reverse fault in volcanic ash beds, southern Oregon.

pholo by Diane Carlson

F i g ~ 6.m
r~
(A) A reverse fault. The fauM is unaffected by erosion. Arrows
indicate compressive stress. (8) Diagram shows area after
erosion; dashed lines indicate portion eroded away. (C) Thrust
fault due to horizontal compression.

Addltlonal Resourtss

*a

F*
4
{A) FWon&wbn d Calikrnia and M a k a ba they may laambeyt &for@faultins (8)Continuous opening of the Qutf of Calitornia
crmm mfldnabt-q~ha San Andmas fault
*x

After Tanya ktwatw, 1970, G~bb@cal

Saorely O b A M # BulMn.

-'

Large strike-slip faults, like the San Andreas hult in Caliia, typidly define a mne of fiddng that may be several
meters wide and hundreds of kilomttcrs long (see box
urface trace of an active strike-slip hult is usually
a prominent linear valley that has been more easily
rc the rack has been ground up dong the hulr
movement. The linear valley may contain lakes or sag
(figure 6.29) where the highly permeable fault rock
o w s ground water to freely flow to the surface. The trace of

the fault may also be marked by offset surface featur~such as

streams, fences, and roads or by distinctive rock units.
Strike-slip faults accommodate shearing stress along transform plate boundaries where plarcs slide past one another. Onc
of rhe most famous examples of a transform fault is rhe San
Andreas Fault. The San Andreas hdt is a right-lateral strikeslip fault that form h e boundary bctwten the North American and Pacific plates (see box 6.3 figure 4).

- -- -

-.
.
.
.
..

..

Rock layers u e folded into anticIznes and

pnclines and recumbent folds. If the hinge
line of a fold is not horizontal, the fotd
is plunging. Older beds exposed in the core
of a fold indicate an anticlinc, whereas
younger beds in the center of the structure
ihdicate a syncline. In
where folded
rock has been eroded to a plain, an anticline
can usually be distinguished from a
synclinc by whether the beds dip toward the
center (syncline) or away from the center
(anticline).
Fractures in rock are either _joints or
faults. A joint indicates that movement has
not occurred on either side of the fracture;
displaced rock along a fracture indicates a

nic fbrccl rerulr in deformation of the

s crust. Smss (farce per unit area) is a
ure of the tectonic force and confining
ure acting on bedrock. Stress can be
ive, tmriantld, or shedring Strained
d in size or shape) rock records past
uuaily a joints, faults, or folds.
geologic map shows the structud
cteristiw of a region. S h k e and dip
oh on geologic maps indicate the attiof indined surfaces such as bedding
.The strike and dip of a bedding sur~ndicarcJlc relationship between thc
ned plane and a horizontal plane.
If rock layers bend (plastic behavior)
er than break, they become folded.

hanging wall 141;

hinge line 133
isoclinal fold 142

joint 143
joint set 144
kfi-lateral fault 15 1

.- ..

-. - -

'

limb 139
normal fault 147
oblique-slip fault 146
open fold 142
overturned fold 143

plunging fold 140

cross swtion 139

recumbent fold 143

reservoir rock 148
m r s e fault 150

fault. Dipgkp huln are either n o w 1 ox

rrvcm, depending on the motion of the
hanging wall block relative to rhe f o o d 1
block A rcvcrse fault with a low angle of dip
for the fault plane is a t k w t f i u h Reverse
faults accommodate horizontal shortening of
the crust whereas n o d faults accommodate horimntal stretching or extension,
In a shdke-slip fault, which can be either
left-lareral or right-lateral, horizontal movement has occurred.
.
""

right-lateral ku1t 1 5 1
shear stress 135
source rock 148
strain 134
stress 194

strike 137

strike-slip fault 146, 151

structural basin 141
structural, dome 14 1
structural pology 134
syndinc 139
tensional srress 134
thrust hult 150

:
.
.
I

-:

- L

:
:
w

.-'__."

Testing Your Kilowlrtlge

Use the questions below t u preparc for exams based on this chapter.

1. Most anticlines have both li~llhsdipping away from their hinge

lines. For which kind of fold is this not the case?

2. What arc thc four main types of contacts and how would you
distinguish between them if you were a geologist doing field

work?
3. O n a geologic map,if no cross sections were available, how
could you distinguish an anticlinc from a syncline?
4. If you lucate a dip-slip Fault while doing field work, what kind
of evidence would you look for to detzrilline wl~rrherthe fault
is normal or rcvcrsc?

1
/
1
1
!

5. Name several geologic srruaurcs described in earlier chapters.

6. What is the difference between strike, direction of dip, and
angle of dip?

7. Draw a simple geologic map, wing strike and dip syrnhols br r

syncline plunging co the west.
8. How does a structural dome dffer from a plunging anticlinc?

9. Which of the sratements is true? (a) when forces are applied to

an object, the object is under stress (h) strain is the change in
s i x (volume) or shapc. or both, while an object is undergoing
stress (c) stresses can be rompressive, tensional or shear (d) all of
the above
1a. The compass direction of a line formed by the intersection of
an inclined ptane with a horizontal planc is calicd (a) strikc

11. Folds in a rock show thar h e rock khaved in a

way. (a) ductile (b) elastic (c) brittle (d) all of the above

12. An antidine is (a) any hld (b) overturned fold {c) an upward- r
arched fold (dl a downward-arched fold

13. A syncline is (a) an upward-arched fold Ib) wcrturncd fold

(c)a downward-archedfold (d) horizontal beds

14. A structure in which the beds dip away from a central point h
called a (a) basin (b)antidinc (c) structural dome (d) synclinc

15. Which is nor a rype of fold? (a1 open (b) isoclind (c) averturned

(d) recumbent (e)

thrust

16. Fractures in bedmck dong which movement has taken place ari
d e d (a) joints (b) faults (c) u a c h (d) crevasses

17. In a normal fadt, the hanpng-wall Mock has moved

relative to the footwall block. (a) upward
(b) downward (c) sideways
. .
'

18. Normal hult; accommodate what kind of strain? (a) shortening

(b) exrensiond (c) ductile
19. Faults that typically move older rock on ;op of younger rock uc
(a) normal faults (b) thrust faults (c) strike-slip Faults
. .
.
.

(b) direction of dip (c) angle c ~ dip

f

kxpandlng Your Knowledge

Can a fault always be distinguished

from an unconformity?
In what parts of North Arncrica would
you expect to find the most intensely

folded rock?
3. A subductionzone w n be regarded as a
very large cxamplc ofwhar cype of hult?

Davis, G. H., and S. J. Reynolds.

1996. Smcturdgcolo&y ofmck~
r
d
d wpom 2d ed. New York:John Wley
& Sons.
Watcher, R D. 1995. ShrcmcntlgeubRinciplcs, cconctpts, andproblems. 22d ed.
Englcwdod Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.

4. Why do some horizontal compressive

stresses cause thrust hdts while others
cause strike-slip faults?
5 . What features in sedimentary or
volcanic rock layers would you look for
to tell you that the rock was pare of the
overturned limb of a fold?

Kcller, E. A., and N. Pinter. 1935. Active

tectonics: Eartkglrr~kcs,xrplifi, mi
(anAcupes. Upper Saddle River, N.J .:
Prentice-Hall.

Lisle, R j. 1988. Gcobgicrllsmuhcm a d

m p 5 : Aprwcti~ul~ide.
New York:
Pcrgamon.

6. Can you identify and name the vuiaua

geologic structures shown in the figurn
in chapter B?

Marshak, S,, and G.Mitn, 1988. b i c

mathod of s m ~ c u r a l p L gEnglmod
Clih, N.J.:Prentice-Hall.
McClay, K. 1987. Tk mdpping afpbgic
stwmrrcr, Geological Wtty of London

Handbook. Open Univcroiry @rc34.

:
'

,J. L.1982.Indudutp m p h @

van der Pluijm, B, A*, and S. Matshak.

a n d m m . Oxford: Petgunon Press.

land,S. M.,and E. M.Duebendorfer.
94. Sm~nrrsrldm@ a d ynthejis. 2d d.
wn:Blackwell Scicn'tifichblicarions.
,J. 1985. Principh of s t m m r a l
Englewaod Cliffs, N.J.:Prenriw

1997. Earth s t t l r ~ w Dubuque,

.
Iowa:
WCBIMcGraw-Will.
hcrp:lf-#u.&adrJkun

wU261326.html
web& For structural geology course taught
by the Department of GmlogimI Sciences at

Structural geology site maintainea oy Kwin

J . Smart at University of Oklahoma contains
many link to on-line courses,computer
s o h a r e , bibliographies, and research
projecrs dealing with structural ~ 0 1 0 ~ .

http:l/cnron.geol,broCku.calag.hd

, R J., and E.M.Moores. 1932.

mlgobgy New York W. H.

Corndl University contains images showing

s t r u c d features and models of thrust-fault
movement.
Ca&n
Tectonics Frossp web site contains
structural grnlogy h a g s , computer software,
and a newsletter outlining dprojects.

.What wiablw xmine

m& will defar~ ;a d u a
brittle manner!

%# farum such as mrmd

Gotorhc&k&j4mm
dck on "Vicki Explains Bride an
Dude." Cite
af ducdlc,md
brittle behavior in die w+y
~bje~rq

'

b&.*What evidence of duetile

behavior in rocks can be mn oa the
mkrPmpie scdc?Qn h e scale ai
rnaumain ranges?