English IV

Past Perfect Simple

The past perfect simple is used to talk about an action that happened
before another action or before another certain time in the past
Now
Action in past perfect

Action in past simple

PAST
Affirmative form:
Subject

We

Auxiliary HAD

Verb in past participle

had

watched the movie

We had watched the movie when she arrived

First we saw the movie and later she arrived
Negative form:
Subject

We

Auxiliary HAD+NOT

had not

Verb in past participle

watched the movie

Interrogative form:
Auxiliary HAD
participle?
Had

+
we

Subject

Verb in past

watched the movie?

As we want to explain one action happened before another action, we

use the words when and before to connect those two actions
They had not studied English before they went to London
I had read the books when I watched the movie

The action using the past perfect simple structure is the action that
happened FIRST in the past

Past Perfect Continuous

It is used to talk about actions or states that lasted for a period of time in
the past

NOW
Action in Past Perfect Continuous

Action in past simple

PAST

Affirmative form:
Subject

had

Auxiliary HAD

been

Been +

Verb-ing

waiting for an hour

I had been waiting for an hour before she arrived

Negative form:
Subject
I
for an hour

Auxiliary HAD+Not +

had not

Been +

Verb-ing

been

waiting

Been +

Verb-ing?

Interrogative form:
Auxiliary HAD

Had

Subject

+
been

waiting for an hour?

We use FOR when we want to specify for how long the action last
(period of time)
I had been waiting for an hour when she arrived

We use SINCE when we want to specify when the action started

happening

I had been waiting since 14.00 before she arrived

Zero Conditional
We use the zero conditional when we talk about a result that will always
happen, that is to say, when we talk about facts.
Structure:
If
+
Present

Subject + Verb in present ,

If

we

heat water

Subject
+
Verb in present
Verb in Present
Water

boils

Subject

it

If
if

Verb in

boils

Subject

we

heat it

When the If clause is at the beginning, we need to use a comma

When the If clause is at the end, we dont need to use a comma

First Conditional
We use the first conditional when we talk about possible things that can
happen in the future. The result sentences use will/going to or modal verbs
such as may/might
Structure:
If + Subject +
Verb in present
Future simple

If it
park

rains

If you
to hit you

Subject
present

Subject

wont go to the

say that again

Future Simple

Im

If

Subject

going

+ Verb in

wont go to the park

She

may fail the exam if

if

it
she

rains
doesnt study

Second Conditional
We use the second conditional to talk about unlikely events in the future.
Structure:
If + Subject
+ Verb in past simple
WOULD + Verb in present

If

won the lottery

buy a big house

Subject

+ Auxiliary

would

(Probably I will not win the lottery)

When we use the verb to be in the past, ALL SUBJECTS use the form WERE
If I were rich, I would travel all over the world
If she were president of the country, she would give people a bonus every month

The result sentence always uses a modal verb (would), but we can use
other modal verbs to express different things:
a) Would: To express certainty
b) Could: To express capability
c) Might: To express possibility (less possible)
d) May: To express possibility (more possible)

Third Conditional
We use the third conditional to talk about impossible things in the past. They
are impossible because we cant change them. It is used to describe a situation
that didnt happen and to imagine the result of this situation.
Structure:
If + Subject + Past Perfect Simple
participle

Subject + would have + Verb in past

If she
exam

had studied

she

would have

passed the

(She didnt study so she didnt pass)

If

hadnt eaten so much

wouldnt have

felt so bad

(I ate a lot and I felt bad)

Modals in past form

Should have
Should have is used to talk about expectations, assumptions or a nonaccomplished obligation in the past.
It can refer to something it was done even though it was incorrect or
something it wasnt done even though it was necessary.
Affirmative form:
Subject

Should have

Verb in past participle

should have

called Mary

Should not have

+ Verb in past participle

should not have

called Mary

Negative form:
Subject

Interrogative form:
Should
participle?

Should

Subject

Have +

Verb in past

have

called Mary?

Could have
It is used to talk about an action or fact that was possible in the past but
didnt happen or that was not possible
Affirmative form:
Subjec

Could have +

Verb in past participle

could have

done my homework yesterday

Could not have

Negative form:
Subject

could not have

Verb in past participle

done my homework yesterday

Interrogative form:
Could +

Subject

Could

have

Have +

Verb in past participle?

done my homework yesterday?

May/Might have
It is used to speculate or express opinions about possible event in the
past.
May > Might (may is more possible than might)

Affirmative form:
Subject

May/Might have

Verb in past participle

She

might have

been the thief

May/might not have

Negative form:
Subject

She

might not have

Verb in past participle

been the thief

Interrogative form:
May/Might have
participle?
Might

Subject

she

have

Have +

Verb in past

been the thief?

Must have:
It is used to express deductions about past actions. Logic is used.
Affirmative form:
Subject

It

Must have

must have

Verb in past participle

rained

Negative form:
Subject
participle

It

Must not have

must not have

Verb in past

rained

Interrogative form:
Must
participle?
Must

Subject

it

have

Have +

Verb in past

rained?

If we want to ask open questions (wh-questions) we need to add the wh-word

at the beginning of the sentence
When could I have done my homework?
Why should I have called Mary?
Where must it have rained?

Reported Speech
We use reported speech to report or say to someone what another person
said. If we report something, we do not use the speakers exact words (direct
speech) but reported (indirect) speech.
Some verbs that are used to report are: Say, Tell, Promise, Know, Believe,
Think, Claim
An important change we have to make when reporting something is backshift.
This is changing the tense to one tense back in the past.

Present Simple Past simple

Direct Speech: I like ice-cream

Indirect Speech: She said she liked icecream
Present Continuous Past Continuous
Direct Speech: I am studying
Indirect Speech: She told me she was
studying
Present Perfect Past Perfect
Direct Speech: I have watched TV
Indirect Speech: She said she had watched
TV
Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect
Direct Speech: I have been working
Continuous
Indirect Speech: He said he had been
working
Past Simple Past Perfect
Direct Speech: I cooked dinner
Indirect Speech: He said he had cooked
dinner
Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous Direct Speech: We were playing soccer
Indirect Speech: They said they had been
playing soccer
Past Perfect Past Perfect
Direct Speech: I had forgotten my keys
Indirect speech: He said he had forgotten
his keys
Past Perfect Continuous Past Perfect
Direct Speech: We had been preparing
Continuous
the party
Indirect Speech: They told me they had
been
preparing the party
Will Would
Direct Speech: I will make the cake
Indirect Speech: He said he would make the
cake
Would Would
Direct Speech: We would call her
Indirect Speech: They said they would call
her
Can Could
Direct Speech: I can make lunch
Indirect Speech: She said she could make
lunch
Could Could
Direct Speech: I could do my homework
Indirect Speech: He told me he could do his
homework
May Might
Direct Speech: I may go to the party
Indirect Speech: She said she might go to
the party
Might Might
Direct Speech: I might go the cinema
Indirect Speech: He told me he might go to
the
cinema
Should Should
Direct Speech: I should visit grandma
Indirect Speech: He said he should visit

grandma

When using Reported Speech we need to be careful with the changes that need to
be done.
Direct Speech
Alicia: I will go to the party tomorrow
Reported Speech:
Alicia said she would go to the party the next day
We should make all these changes if necessary:
1)
2)
3)
4)

Backshift
Pronoun
Time expressions
Place expressions

Time and place expressions also suffer changes:

Direct Speech
Today
Yesterday
Tomorrow
Next week/month/year
Last week/month/year
This
These
Here

Reported Speech
That day
The day before/The previous day
The next/following day
The following week/month/year
The previous week/month/year
That
Those
There

Direct Speech:
Mark: I will be here for two hours
John: I bought that shirt yesterday
Reported Speech:
Mark said he would be there for two hours
John said he had bought that shirt the day before

Relative Clauses
We use Relative Clauses to give more information about something without
starting another sentence. By combining two sentences with a relative clause,
language becomes more fluent and you can avoid repeating certain words.
In order to join two sentences we need to use a Relative Pronoun, which will be
the beginning of the Relative Clause

Relative Pronoun
Who

Use
Refer to People

Which

Refer to Things

That
When

Refer to People and

Things
Refers to time

Where

Refers to place

Example
I told you about the
woman who lives next
door
Do you that dog which is
running around?
I know the man that you
are talking about
I remember the day
when I met him
Paris is the city where I
will live

When we use Relative Clauses, we can distinguish two types: Defining Relative
Clauses and Non-Defining Relative Clauses.
A Defining Relative Clause is the one that adds essential information to the
sentence. For this reason it is not possible to take the Relative Clause out of
the sentence.
There is something that you should know
There is something (The sentence does not make sense)
A Non-Defining Relative Clause is the one that adds extra information to the
sentence. For this reason it is possible to take the Relative Clause out of the
sentence.
Every time there is a Non-Defining Relative Clause in the sentence it is
between commas.
Johns mother, who lives in Scotland, has 6 grandchildren Gives extra
information
Johns mother has 6 grandchildren The Relative Clause is not there but
we can understand anyway

Causatives and Permissive

Permissive form is used when we a person allows/let another person do
something. The verb that is used in this form is Let
She let her children sleep late
Causative form is used when a person forces or convinces another to do
something for them, because they cant do it, dont want to do it or dont
know how to do it. The verbs used in this form are have and get
Affirmative form:
Subject
present

Let/Have

Object

had

my boyfriend

She

will have

her mom

She

let

her children sleep late

Verb in

cook

call her sister

The tense of the verb is indicated in the let/have part, NOT in the verb

Negative form:
Subject
Present

Not Have

Object

didnt have

my boyfriend

She

wont have

her mom

She

doesnt let

her children sleep late

Verb in

cook

called her sister