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Calculus
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Calculus(fromLatincalculus,literally"smallpebbleusedforcounting")[1]isthemathematicalstudyof
change,inthesamewaythatgeometryisthestudyofshapeandalgebraisthestudyofoperationsandtheir
applicationtosolvingequations.Ithastwomajorbranches,differentialcalculus(concerningratesofchange
andslopesofcurves),[2]andintegralcalculus(concerningaccumulationofquantitiesandtheareasunderand
betweencurves)[3]thesetwobranchesarerelatedtoeachotherbythefundamentaltheoremofcalculus.Both
branchesmakeuseofthefundamentalnotionsofconvergenceofinfinitesequencesandinfiniteseriestoawell
definedlimit.Generally,moderncalculusisconsideredtohavebeendevelopedinthe17thcenturybyIsaac
NewtonandGottfriedLeibniz.Today,calculushaswidespreadusesinscience,engineeringandeconomics[4]
andcansolvemanyproblemsthatelementaryalgebraalonecannot.
Calculusisapartofmodernmathematicseducation.Acourseincalculusisagatewaytoother,moreadvanced
coursesinmathematicsdevotedtothestudyoffunctionsandlimits,broadlycalledmathematicalanalysis.
Calculushashistoricallybeencalled"thecalculusofinfinitesimals",or"infinitesimalcalculus".Calculus
(pluralcalculi)isalsousedfornamingsomemethodsofcalculationortheoriesofcomputation,suchas
propositionalcalculus,calculusofvariations,lambdacalculus,andprocesscalculus.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Ancient
1.2 Medieval
1.3 Modern
1.4 Foundations
1.5 Significance
2 Principles
2.1 Limitsandinfinitesimals
2.2 Differentialcalculus
2.3 Leibniznotation
2.4 Integralcalculus
2.5 Fundamentaltheorem
3 Applications
4 Varieties
4.1 Nonstandardcalculus
4.2 Smoothinfinitesimalanalysis
4.3 Constructiveanalysis
5 Seealso
5.1 Lists
5.2 Otherrelatedtopics
6 References
6.1 Notes
6.2 Books
7 Otherresources
7.1 Furtherreading
7.2 Onlinebooks
8 Externallinks

History
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Moderncalculuswasdevelopedin17thcenturyEuropebyIsaacNewtonandGottfriedWilhelmLeibniz,but
elementsofithaveappearedinancientIndia,Greece,China,medievalEurope,andtheMiddleEast.

Ancient
Theancientperiodintroducedsomeoftheideasthatledtointegralcalculus,butdoesnotseemtohave
developedtheseideasinarigorousandsystematicway.Calculationsofvolumeandarea,onegoalofintegral
calculus,canbefoundintheEgyptianMoscowpapyrus(c.1820BC),buttheformulasaresimpleinstructions,
withnoindicationastomethod,andsomeofthemlackmajorcomponents.[5]FromtheageofGreek
mathematics,Eudoxus(c.408355BC)usedthemethodofexhaustion,whichforeshadowstheconceptofthe
limit,tocalculateareasandvolumes,whileArchimedes(c.287212BC)developedthisideafurther,inventing
heuristicswhichresemblethemethodsofintegralcalculus.[6]Themethodofexhaustionwaslaterreinventedin
ChinabyLiuHuiinthe3rdcenturyADinordertofindtheareaofacircle.[7]Inthe5thcenturyAD,Zu
ChongzhiestablishedamethodthatwouldlaterbecalledCavalieri'sprincipletofindthevolumeofasphere.[8]

Medieval
Indianmathematiciansgaveasemirigorousmethodofdifferentiationofsometrigonometricfunctions.Inthe
MiddleEast,Alhazenderivedaformulaforthesumoffourthpowers.Heusedtheresultstocarryoutwhat
wouldnowbecalledanintegration,wheretheformulaeforthesumsofintegralsquaresandfourthpowers
allowedhimtocalculatethevolumeofaparaboloid.[9]Inthe14thcentury,IndianmathematicianMadhavaof
SangamagramaandtheKeralaschoolofastronomyandmathematicsstatedcomponentsofcalculussuchasthe
Taylorseriesandinfiniteseriesapproximations.[10]However,theywerenotableto"combinemanydiffering
ideasunderthetwounifyingthemesofthederivativeandtheintegral,showtheconnectionbetweenthetwo,
andturncalculusintothegreatproblemsolvingtoolwehavetoday".[9]

Modern
InEurope,thefoundationalworkwasa
"Thecalculuswasthefirstachievementofmodernmathematicsanditis
treatiseduetoBonaventuraCavalieri,who
difficulttooverestimateitsimportance.Ithinkitdefinesmore
unequivocallythananythingelsetheinceptionofmodernmathematics,
arguedthatvolumesandareasshouldbe
andthesystemofmathematicalanalysis,whichisitslogical
computedasthesumsofthevolumesand
development,stillconstitutesthegreatesttechnicaladvanceinexact
areasofinfinitesimallythincrosssections.
thinking."JohnvonNeumann[11]
TheideasweresimilartoArchimedes'inThe
Method,butthistreatiseisbelievedtohavebeenlostinthe13thcentury,andwasonlyrediscoveredintheearly
20thcentury,andsowouldhavebeenunknowntoCavalieri.Cavalieri'sworkwasnotwellrespectedsincehis
methodscouldleadtoerroneousresults,andtheinfinitesimalquantitiesheintroducedweredisreputableatfirst.
TheformalstudyofcalculusbroughttogetherCavalieri'sinfinitesimalswiththecalculusoffinitedifferences
developedinEuropeataroundthesametime.PierredeFermat,claimingthatheborrowedfromDiophantus,
introducedtheconceptofadequality,whichrepresentedequalityuptoaninfinitesimalerrorterm.[12]The
combinationwasachievedbyJohnWallis,IsaacBarrow,andJamesGregory,thelattertwoprovingthesecond
fundamentaltheoremofcalculusaround1670.
Theproductruleandchainrule,thenotionofhigherderivatives,Taylorseries,andanalyticalfunctionswere
introducedbyIsaacNewtoninanidiosyncraticnotationwhichheusedtosolveproblemsofmathematical
physics.[13]Inhisworks,Newtonrephrasedhisideastosuitthemathematicalidiomofthetime,replacing
calculationswithinfinitesimalsbyequivalentgeometricalargumentswhichwereconsideredbeyondreproach.
Heusedthemethodsofcalculustosolvetheproblemofplanetarymotion,theshapeofthesurfaceofarotating
fluid,theoblatenessoftheearth,themotionofaweightslidingonacycloid,andmanyotherproblems
discussedinhisPrincipiaMathematica(1687).Inotherwork,hedevelopedseriesexpansionsforfunctions,

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includingfractionalandirrationalpowers,anditwasclearthathe
understoodtheprinciplesoftheTaylorseries.Hedidnotpublishallthese
discoveries,andatthistimeinfinitesimalmethodswerestillconsidered
disreputable.

GottfriedWilhelmLeibnizwas
thefirsttopublishhisresultson
thedevelopmentofcalculus.

Theseideaswerearrangedintoatrue
calculusofinfinitesimalsbyGottfried
WilhelmLeibniz,whowasoriginally
accusedofplagiarismbyNewton.[14]
Heisnowregardedasanindependent
inventorofandcontributortocalculus.
Hiscontributionwastoprovideaclear
setofrulesforworkingwith
infinitesimalquantities,allowingthe
computationofsecondandhigher
derivatives,andprovidingtheproduct
IsaacNewtondevelopedtheuseof
ruleandchainrule,intheirdifferential
calculusinhislawsofmotionand
andintegralforms.UnlikeNewton,
gravitation.
Leibnizpaidalotofattentiontothe
formalism,oftenspendingdays
determiningappropriatesymbolsforconcepts.

LeibnizandNewtonareusuallybothcreditedwiththeinventionof
calculus.Newtonwasthefirsttoapplycalculustogeneralphysicsand
Leibnizdevelopedmuchofthenotationusedincalculustoday.ThebasicinsightsthatbothNewtonand
Leibnizprovidedwerethelawsofdifferentiationandintegration,secondandhigherderivatives,andthenotion
ofanapproximatingpolynomialseries.ByNewton'stime,thefundamentaltheoremofcalculuswasknown.
WhenNewtonandLeibnizfirstpublishedtheirresults,therewasgreatcontroversyoverwhichmathematician
(andthereforewhichcountry)deservedcredit.Newtonderivedhisresultsfirst(latertobepublishedinhis
MethodofFluxions),butLeibnizpublishedhisNovaMethodusproMaximisetMinimisfirst.Newtonclaimed
Leibnizstoleideasfromhisunpublishednotes,whichNewtonhadsharedwithafewmembersoftheRoyal
Society.ThiscontroversydividedEnglishspeakingmathematiciansfromcontinentalEuropeanmathematicians
formanyyears,tothedetrimentofEnglishmathematics.AcarefulexaminationofthepapersofLeibnizand
Newtonshowsthattheyarrivedattheirresultsindependently,withLeibnizstartingfirstwithintegrationand
Newtonwithdifferentiation.Today,bothNewtonandLeibnizaregivencreditfordevelopingcalculus
independently.ItisLeibniz,however,whogavethenewdisciplineitsname.Newtoncalledhiscalculus"the
scienceoffluxions".
SincethetimeofLeibnizandNewton,manymathematicianshavecontributedtothecontinuingdevelopment
ofcalculus.Oneofthefirstandmostcompleteworksonbothinfinitesimalandintegralcalculuswaswrittenin
1748byMariaGaetanaAgnesi.[15][16]

Foundations
Incalculus,foundationsreferstotherigorousdevelopmentofthesubjectfrom
axiomsanddefinitions.Inearlycalculustheuseofinfinitesimalquantitieswas
thoughtunrigorous,andwasfiercelycriticizedbyanumberofauthors,most
notablyMichelRolleandBishopBerkeley.Berkeleyfamouslydescribed
infinitesimalsastheghostsofdepartedquantitiesinhisbookTheAnalystin1734.
Workingoutarigorousfoundationforcalculusoccupiedmathematiciansformuch
ofthecenturyfollowingNewtonandLeibniz,andisstilltosomeextentanactive
areaofresearchtoday.

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Severalmathematicians,includingMaclaurin,triedtoprovethesoundnessofusinginfinitesimals,butitwould
notbeuntil150yearslaterwhen,duetotheworkofCauchyandWeierstrass,awaywasfinallyfoundtoavoid
mere"notions"ofinfinitelysmallquantities.[17]Thefoundationsofdifferentialandintegralcalculushadbeen
laid.InCauchy'sCoursd'Analyse,wefindabroadrangeoffoundationalapproaches,includingadefinitionof
continuityintermsofinfinitesimals,anda(somewhatimprecise)prototypeofan(,)definitionoflimitinthe
definitionofdifferentiation.InhisworkWeierstrassformalizedtheconceptoflimitandeliminated
infinitesimals.FollowingtheworkofWeierstrass,iteventuallybecamecommontobasecalculusonlimits
insteadofinfinitesimalquantities,thoughthesubjectisstilloccasionallycalled"infinitesimalcalculus".
BernhardRiemannusedtheseideastogiveaprecisedefinitionoftheintegral.Itwasalsoduringthisperiod
thattheideasofcalculusweregeneralizedtoEuclideanspaceandthecomplexplane.
Inmodernmathematics,thefoundationsofcalculusareincludedinthefieldofrealanalysis,whichcontains
fulldefinitionsandproofsofthetheoremsofcalculus.Thereachofcalculushasalsobeengreatlyextended.
HenriLebesgueinventedmeasuretheoryandusedittodefineintegralsofallbutthemostpathological
functions.LaurentSchwartzintroduceddistributions,whichcanbeusedtotakethederivativeofanyfunction
whatsoever.
Limitsarenottheonlyrigorousapproachtothefoundationofcalculus.AnotherwayistouseAbraham
Robinson'snonstandardanalysis.Robinson'sapproach,developedinthe1960s,usestechnicalmachineryfrom
mathematicallogictoaugmenttherealnumbersystemwithinfinitesimalandinfinitenumbers,asinthe
originalNewtonLeibnizconception.Theresultingnumbersarecalledhyperrealnumbers,andtheycanbeused
togiveaLeibnizlikedevelopmentoftheusualrulesofcalculus.

Significance
WhilemanyoftheideasofcalculushadbeendevelopedearlierinGreece,China,India,Iraq,Persia,andJapan,
theuseofcalculusbeganinEurope,duringthe17thcentury,whenIsaacNewtonandGottfriedWilhelm
Leibnizbuiltontheworkofearliermathematicianstointroduceitsbasicprinciples.Thedevelopmentof
calculuswasbuiltonearlierconceptsofinstantaneousmotionandareaunderneathcurves.
Applicationsofdifferentialcalculusincludecomputationsinvolvingvelocityandacceleration,theslopeofa
curve,andoptimization.Applicationsofintegralcalculusincludecomputationsinvolvingarea,volume,arc
length,centerofmass,work,andpressure.MoreadvancedapplicationsincludepowerseriesandFourierseries.
Calculusisalsousedtogainamorepreciseunderstandingofthenatureofspace,time,andmotion.For
centuries,mathematiciansandphilosopherswrestledwithparadoxesinvolvingdivisionbyzeroorsumsof
infinitelymanynumbers.Thesequestionsariseinthestudyofmotionandarea.TheancientGreekphilosopher
ZenoofEleagaveseveralfamousexamplesofsuchparadoxes.Calculusprovidestools,especiallythelimitand
theinfiniteseries,whichresolvetheparadoxes.

Principles
Limitsandinfinitesimals
Calculusisusuallydevelopedbyworkingwithverysmallquantities.Historically,thefirstmethodofdoingso
wasbyinfinitesimals.Theseareobjectswhichcanbetreatedlikerealnumbersbutwhichare,insomesense,
"infinitelysmall".Forexample,aninfinitesimalnumbercouldbegreaterthan0,butlessthananynumberin
thesequence1,1/2,1/3,...andthuslessthananypositiverealnumber.Fromthispointofview,calculusisa
collectionoftechniquesformanipulatinginfinitesimals.Thesymbolsdxanddyweretakentobeinfinitesimal,
andthederivative
wassimplytheirratio.
Theinfinitesimalapproachfelloutoffavorinthe19thcenturybecauseitwasdifficulttomakethenotionofan
infinitesimalprecise.However,theconceptwasrevivedinthe20thcenturywiththeintroductionofnon
standardanalysisandsmoothinfinitesimalanalysis,whichprovidedsolidfoundationsforthemanipulationof
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infinitesimals.
Inthe19thcentury,infinitesimalswerereplacedbytheepsilon,deltaapproachtolimits.Limitsdescribethe
valueofafunctionatacertaininputintermsofitsvaluesatanearbyinput.Theycapturesmallscalebehavior
inthecontextoftherealnumbersystem.Inthistreatment,calculusisacollectionoftechniquesfor
manipulatingcertainlimits.Infinitesimalsgetreplacedbyverysmallnumbers,andtheinfinitelysmallbehavior
ofthefunctionisfoundbytakingthelimitingbehaviorforsmallerandsmallernumbers.Limitswerethefirst
waytoproviderigorousfoundationsforcalculus,andforthisreasontheyarethestandardapproach.

Differentialcalculus
Differentialcalculusisthestudyofthedefinition,
properties,andapplicationsofthederivativeofafunction.
Theprocessoffindingthederivativeiscalled
differentiation.Givenafunctionandapointinthedomain,
thederivativeatthatpointisawayofencodingthesmall
scalebehaviorofthefunctionnearthatpoint.Byfinding
thederivativeofafunctionateverypointinitsdomain,itis
possibletoproduceanewfunction,calledthederivative
functionorjustthederivativeoftheoriginalfunction.In
mathematicaljargon,thederivativeisalinearoperator
whichinputsafunctionandoutputsasecondfunction.This
ismoreabstractthanmanyoftheprocessesstudiedin
Tangentlineat (x,f(x)).Thederivative f(x)ofa
elementaryalgebra,wherefunctionsusuallyinputanumber
curveatapointistheslope(riseoverrun)ofthe
andoutputanothernumber.Forexample,ifthedoubling
linetangenttothatcurveatthatpoint.
functionisgiventheinputthree,thenitoutputssix,andif
thesquaringfunctionisgiventheinputthree,thenit
outputsnine.Thederivative,however,cantakethesquaringfunctionasaninput.Thismeansthatthederivative
takesalltheinformationofthesquaringfunctionsuchasthattwoissenttofour,threeissenttonine,fouris
senttosixteen,andsoonandusesthisinformationtoproduceanotherfunction.(Thefunctionitproduces
turnsouttobethedoublingfunction.)
Themostcommonsymbolforaderivativeisanapostrophelikemarkcalledprime.Thus,thederivativeofthe
functionoffisf,pronounced"fprime."Forinstance,iff(x)=x2isthesquaringfunction,thenf(x)=2xis
itsderivative,thedoublingfunction.
Iftheinputofthefunctionrepresentstime,thenthederivativerepresentschangewithrespecttotime.For
example,iffisafunctionthattakesatimeasinputandgivesthepositionofaballatthattimeasoutput,then
thederivativeoffishowthepositionischangingintime,thatis,itisthevelocityoftheball.
Ifafunctionislinear(thatis,ifthegraphofthefunctionisastraightline),thenthefunctioncanbewrittenas
y=mx+b,wherexistheindependentvariable,yisthedependentvariable,bistheyintercept,and:

Thisgivesanexactvaluefortheslopeofastraightline.Ifthegraphofthefunctionisnotastraightline,
however,thenthechangeinydividedbythechangeinxvaries.Derivativesgiveanexactmeaningtothe
notionofchangeinoutputwithrespecttochangeininput.Tobeconcrete,letfbeafunction,andfixapointa
inthedomainoff.(a,f(a))isapointonthegraphofthefunction.Ifhisanumberclosetozero,thena+his
anumberclosetoa.Therefore,(a+h,f(a+h))iscloseto(a,f(a)).Theslopebetweenthesetwopointsis

Thisexpressioniscalledadifferencequotient.Alinethroughtwopointsonacurveiscalledasecantline,so5/14
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Thisexpressioniscalledadifferencequotient.Alinethroughtwopointsonacurveiscalledasecantline,som
istheslopeofthesecantlinebetween(a,f(a))and(a+h,f(a+h)).Thesecantlineisonlyan
approximationtothebehaviorofthefunctionatthepointabecauseitdoesnotaccountforwhathappens
betweenaanda+h.Itisnotpossibletodiscoverthebehavioratabysettinghtozerobecausethiswould
requiredividingbyzero,whichisundefined.Thederivativeisdefinedbytakingthelimitashtendstozero,
meaningthatitconsidersthebehavioroffforallsmallvaluesofhandextractsaconsistentvalueforthecase
whenhequalszero:

Geometrically,thederivativeistheslopeofthetangentlinetothegraphoffata.Thetangentlineisalimitof
secantlinesjustasthederivativeisalimitofdifferencequotients.Forthisreason,thederivativeissometimes
calledtheslopeofthefunctionf.
Hereisaparticularexample,thederivativeofthesquaringfunctionattheinput3.Letf(x)=x2bethe
squaringfunction.

Theslopeofthetangentlinetothesquaringfunctionatthe
point(3,9)is6,thatistosay,itisgoingupsixtimesasfast
asitisgoingtotheright.Thelimitprocessjustdescribed
canbeperformedforanypointinthedomainofthe
squaringfunction.Thisdefinesthederivativefunctionof
thesquaringfunction,orjustthederivativeofthesquaring
functionforshort.Asimilarcomputationtotheoneabove
showsthatthederivativeofthesquaringfunctionisthe
doublingfunction.

Leibniznotation
Acommonnotation,introducedbyLeibniz,forthe
derivativeintheexampleaboveis

Thederivative f(x)ofacurveatapointisthe
slopeofthelinetangenttothatcurveatthatpoint.
Thisslopeisdeterminedbyconsideringthelimiting
valueoftheslopesofsecantlines.Herethefunction
involved(drawninred)is f(x)=x3x.The
tangentline(ingreen)whichpassesthroughthe
point(3/2,15/8)hasaslopeof23/4.Notethat
theverticalandhorizontalscalesinthisimageare
different.

dy
Inanapproachbasedonlimits,thesymbol dx istobeinterpretednotasthequotientoftwonumbersbutasa
shorthandforthelimitcomputedabove.Leibniz,however,didintendittorepresentthequotientoftwo
infinitesimallysmallnumbers,dybeingtheinfinitesimallysmallchangeinycausedbyaninfinitesimallysmall
d
changedxappliedtox.Wecanalsothinkof dx asadifferentiationoperator,whichtakesafunctionasaninput
andgivesanotherfunction,thederivative,astheoutput.Forexample:
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Inthisusage,thedxinthedenominatorisreadas"withrespecttox".Evenwhencalculusisdevelopedusing
limitsratherthaninfinitesimals,itiscommontomanipulatesymbolslikedxanddyasiftheywerereal
numbersalthoughitispossibletoavoidsuchmanipulations,theyaresometimesnotationallyconvenientin
expressingoperationssuchasthetotalderivative.

Integralcalculus
Integralcalculusisthestudyofthedefinitions,properties,andapplicationsoftworelatedconcepts,the
indefiniteintegralandthedefiniteintegral.Theprocessoffindingthevalueofanintegraliscalledintegration.
Intechnicallanguage,integralcalculusstudiestworelatedlinearoperators.
Theindefiniteintegralistheantiderivative,theinverseoperationtothederivative.Fisanindefiniteintegralof
fwhenfisaderivativeofF.(Thisuseofloweranduppercaselettersforafunctionanditsindefiniteintegral
iscommonincalculus.)
Thedefiniteintegralinputsafunctionandoutputsanumber,whichgivesthealgebraicsumofareasbetween
thegraphoftheinputandthexaxis.Thetechnicaldefinitionofthedefiniteintegralinvolvesthelimitofasum
ofareasofrectangles,calledaRiemannsum.
Amotivatingexampleisthedistancestraveledinagiventime.

Ifthespeedisconstant,onlymultiplicationisneeded,butifthespeedchanges,amorepowerfulmethodof
findingthedistanceisnecessary.Onesuchmethodistoapproximatethedistancetraveledbybreakingupthe
timeintomanyshortintervalsoftime,thenmultiplyingthetimeelapsedineachintervalbyoneofthespeedsin
thatinterval,andthentakingthesum(aRiemannsum)oftheapproximatedistancetraveledineachinterval.
Thebasicideaisthatifonlyashorttimeelapses,thenthespeedwillstaymoreorlessthesame.However,a
Riemannsumonlygivesanapproximationofthedistancetraveled.WemusttakethelimitofallsuchRiemann
sumstofindtheexactdistancetraveled.
Whenvelocityis
constant,thetotal
distancetraveledover
thegiventimeinterval
canbecomputedby
multiplyingvelocityand
time.Forexample,
travellingasteady
50mphfor3hours
resultsinatotaldistance
ConstantVelocity
of150miles.Inthe
diagramontheleft,
whenconstantvelocityandtimearegraphed,thesetwovalues
formarectanglewithheightequaltothevelocityandwidth
Integrationcanbethoughtofasmeasuringthe
equaltothetimeelapsed.Therefore,theproductofvelocity
areaunderacurve,definedby f(x),between
andtimealsocalculatestherectangularareaunderthe
twopoints(here aand b).
(constant)velocitycurve.Thisconnectionbetweenthearea
underacurveanddistancetraveledcanbeextendedtoany
irregularlyshapedregionexhibitingafluctuatingvelocityoveragiventimeperiod.Iff(x)inthediagramon
therightrepresentsspeedasitvariesovertime,thedistancetraveled(betweenthetimesrepresentedbyaand
b)istheareaoftheshadedregions.

aandbintoa

Toapproximatethatarea,anintuitivemethodwouldbetodivideupthedistancebetween
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Toapproximatethatarea,anintuitivemethodwouldbetodivideupthedistancebetweenaandbintoa
numberofequalsegments,thelengthofeachsegmentrepresentedbythesymbolx.Foreachsmallsegment,
wecanchooseonevalueofthefunctionf(x).Callthatvalueh.Thentheareaoftherectanglewithbasexand
heighthgivesthedistance(timexmultipliedbyspeedh)traveledinthatsegment.Associatedwitheach
segmentistheaveragevalueofthefunctionaboveit,f(x)=h.Thesumofallsuchrectanglesgivesan
approximationoftheareabetweentheaxisandthecurve,whichisanapproximationofthetotaldistance
traveled.Asmallervalueforxwillgivemorerectanglesandinmostcasesabetterapproximation,butforan
exactanswerweneedtotakealimitasxapproacheszero.
Thesymbolofintegrationis

,anelongatedS(theSstandsfor"sum").Thedefiniteintegraliswrittenas:

andisread"theintegralfromatoboffofxwithrespecttox."TheLeibniznotationdxisintendedtosuggest
dividingtheareaunderthecurveintoaninfinitenumberofrectangles,sothattheirwidthxbecomesthe
infinitesimallysmalldx.Inaformulationofthecalculusbasedonlimits,thenotation

istobeunderstoodasanoperatorthattakesafunctionasaninputandgivesanumber,thearea,asanoutput.
Theterminatingdifferential,dx,isnotanumber,andisnotbeingmultipliedbyf(x),although,servingasa
reminderofthexlimitdefinition,itcanbetreatedassuchinsymbolicmanipulationsoftheintegral.
Formally,thedifferentialindicatesthevariableoverwhichthefunctionisintegratedandservesasaclosing
bracketfortheintegrationoperator.
Theindefiniteintegral,orantiderivative,iswritten:

Functionsdifferingbyonlyaconstanthavethesamederivative,anditcanbeshownthattheantiderivativeofa
givenfunctionisactuallyafamilyoffunctionsdifferingonlybyaconstant.Sincethederivativeofthefunction
y=x2+C,whereCisanyconstant,isy=2x,theantiderivativeofthelattergivenby:

TheunspecifiedconstantCpresentintheindefiniteintegralorantiderivativeisknownastheconstantof
integration.

Fundamentaltheorem
Thefundamentaltheoremofcalculusstatesthatdifferentiationandintegrationareinverseoperations.More
precisely,itrelatesthevaluesofantiderivativestodefiniteintegrals.Becauseitisusuallyeasiertocomputean
antiderivativethantoapplythedefinitionofadefiniteintegral,thefundamentaltheoremofcalculusprovidesa
practicalwayofcomputingdefiniteintegrals.Itcanalsobeinterpretedasaprecisestatementofthefactthat
differentiationistheinverseofintegration.
Thefundamentaltheoremofcalculusstates:Ifafunctionfiscontinuousontheinterval[a,b]andifFisa
functionwhosederivativeisfontheinterval(a,b),then

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Furthermore,foreveryxintheinterval(a,b),

Thisrealization,madebybothNewtonandLeibniz,whobasedtheirresultsonearlierworkbyIsaacBarrow,
waskeytotheproliferationofanalyticresultsaftertheirworkbecameknown.Thefundamentaltheorem
providesanalgebraicmethodofcomputingmanydefiniteintegralswithoutperforminglimitprocessesby
findingformulasforantiderivatives.Itisalsoaprototypesolutionofadifferentialequation.Differential
equationsrelateanunknownfunctiontoitsderivatives,andareubiquitousinthesciences.

Applications
Calculusisusedineverybranchofthephysicalsciences,actuarial
science,computerscience,statistics,engineering,economics,business,
medicine,demography,andinotherfieldswhereveraproblemcanbe
mathematicallymodeledandanoptimalsolutionisdesired.Itallows
onetogofrom(nonconstant)ratesofchangetothetotalchangeorvice
versa,andmanytimesinstudyingaproblemweknowoneandare
tryingtofindtheother.
Physicsmakesparticularuseofcalculusallconceptsinclassical
mechanicsandelectromagnetismarerelatedthroughcalculus.Themass
ThelogarithmicspiraloftheNautilus
ofanobjectofknowndensity,themomentofinertiaofobjects,aswell
shellisaclassicalimageusedto
asthetotalenergyofanobjectwithinaconservativefieldcanbefound
depictthegrowthandchangerelated
bytheuseofcalculus.Anexampleoftheuseofcalculusinmechanics
tocalculus
isNewton'ssecondlawofmotion:historicallystateditexpresslyuses
theterm"rateofchange"whichreferstothederivativesayingTherate
ofchangeofmomentumofabodyisequaltotheresultantforceactingonthebodyandisinthesamedirection.
CommonlyexpressedtodayasForce=Massacceleration,itinvolvesdifferentialcalculusbecause
accelerationisthetimederivativeofvelocityorsecondtimederivativeoftrajectoryorspatialposition.Starting
fromknowinghowanobjectisaccelerating,weusecalculustoderiveitspath.
Maxwell'stheoryofelectromagnetismandEinstein'stheoryofgeneralrelativityarealsoexpressedinthe
languageofdifferentialcalculus.Chemistryalsousescalculusindeterminingreactionratesandradioactive
decay.Inbiology,populationdynamicsstartswithreproductionanddeathratestomodelpopulationchanges.
Calculuscanbeusedinconjunctionwithothermathematicaldisciplines.Forexample,itcanbeusedwith
linearalgebratofindthe"bestfit"linearapproximationforasetofpointsinadomain.Oritcanbeusedin
probabilitytheorytodeterminetheprobabilityofacontinuousrandomvariablefromanassumeddensity
function.Inanalyticgeometry,thestudyofgraphsoffunctions,calculusisusedtofindhighpointsandlow
points(maximaandminima),slope,concavityandinflectionpoints.
Green'sTheorem,whichgivestherelationshipbetweenalineintegralaroundasimpleclosedcurveCanda
doubleintegralovertheplaneregionDboundedbyC,isappliedinaninstrumentknownasaplanimeter,
whichisusedtocalculatetheareaofaflatsurfaceonadrawing.Forexample,itcanbeusedtocalculatethe
amountofareatakenupbyanirregularlyshapedflowerbedorswimmingpoolwhendesigningthelayoutofa
pieceofproperty.
DiscreteGreen'sTheorem,whichgivestherelationshipbetweenadoubleintegralofafunctionaroundasimple
closedrectangularcurveCandalinearcombinationoftheantiderivative'svaluesatcornerpointsalongthe
edgeofthecurve,allowsfastcalculationofsumsofvaluesinrectangulardomains.Forexample,itcanbeused
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toefficientlycalculatesumsofrectangulardomainsinimages,inordertorapidlyextractfeaturesanddetect
objectanotheralgorithmthatcouldbeusedisthesummedareatable.
Intherealmofmedicine,calculuscanbeusedtofindtheoptimalbranchingangleofabloodvesselsoasto
maximizeflow.Fromthedecaylawsforaparticulardrug'seliminationfromthebody,itisusedtoderive
dosinglaws.Innuclearmedicine,itisusedtobuildmodelsofradiationtransportintargetedtumortherapies.
Ineconomics,calculusallowsforthedeterminationofmaximalprofitbyprovidingawaytoeasilycalculate
bothmarginalcostandmarginalrevenue.
Calculusisalsousedtofindapproximatesolutionstoequationsinpracticeitisthestandardwaytosolve
differentialequationsanddorootfindinginmostapplications.ExamplesaremethodssuchasNewton's
method,fixedpointiteration,andlinearapproximation.Forinstance,spacecraftuseavariationoftheEuler
methodtoapproximatecurvedcourseswithinzerogravityenvironments.

Varieties
Overtheyears,manyreformulationsofcalculushavebeeninvestigatedfordifferentpurposes.

Nonstandardcalculus
Imprecisecalculationswithinfinitesimalswerewidelyreplacedwiththerigorous(,)definitionoflimit
startinginthe1870s.Meanwhile,calculationswithinfinitesimalspersistedandoftenledtocorrectresults.This
ledAbrahamRobinsontoinvestigateifitwerepossibletodevelopanumbersystemwithinfinitesimal
quantitiesoverwhichthetheoremsofcalculuswerestillvalid.In1960,buildingupontheworkofEdwin
HewittandJerzyo,hesucceededindevelopingnonstandardanalysis.Thetheoryofnonstandardanalysisis
richenoughtobeappliedinmanybranchesofmathematics.Assuch,booksandarticlesdedicatedsolelytothe
traditionaltheoremsofcalculusoftengobythetitlenonstandardcalculus.

Smoothinfinitesimalanalysis
Thisisanotherreformulationofthecalculusintermsofinfinitesimals.BasedontheideasofF.W.Lawvereand
employingthemethodsofcategorytheory,itviewsallfunctionsasbeingcontinuousandincapableofbeing
expressedintermsofdiscreteentities.Oneaspectofthisformulationisthatthelawofexcludedmiddledoes
notholdinthisformulation.

Constructiveanalysis
Constructivemathematicsisabranchofmathematicsthatinsiststhatproofsoftheexistenceofanumber,
function,orothermathematicalobjectshouldgiveaconstructionoftheobject.Assuchconstructive
mathematicsalsorejectsthelawofexcludedmiddle.Reformulationsofcalculusinaconstructiveframework
aregenerallypartofthesubjectofconstructiveanalysis.

Seealso
Lists
Listofcalculustopics
Listofderivativesandintegralsinalternativecalculi
Listofdifferentiationidentities
Publicationsincalculus
Tableofintegrals

Otherrelatedtopics
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Calculusoffinitedifferences
Calculuswithpolynomials
Complexanalysis
Differentialequation
Differentialgeometry
ElementaryCalculus:AnInfinitesimalApproach
Fourierseries
Integralequation
Mathematicalanalysis
Multivariablecalculus
Nonclassicalanalysis
Nonstandardanalysis
Nonstandardcalculus
Precalculus(mathematicaleducation)
Productintegral
Stochasticcalculus
Taylorseries

References
Notes
1."Calculus".OxfordDictionaries.Retrieved18March2016.
2."DifferentialCalculusDefinitionofDifferentialcalculusbyMerriamWebster".
3."IntegralCalculusDefinitionofIntegralcalculusbyMerriamWebster".
4.Fisher,Irving(1897).Abriefintroductiontotheinfinitesimalcalculus.NewYork:TheMacmillanCompany.
5.MorrisKline,Mathematicalthoughtfromancienttomoderntimes,Vol.I
6.Archimedes,Method,inTheWorksofArchimedesISBN9780521661607
7.Dun,LiuFan,DainianCohen,RobertSonn(1966)."AcomparisonofArchimdes'andLiuHui'sstudiesofcircles".
Chinesestudiesinthehistoryandphilosophyofscienceandtechnology.130.Springer:279.ISBN079233463
9.,Chapter,p.279(https://books.google.com/books?id=jaQH6_8JuMC&pg=PA279)
8.Zill,DennisG.Wright,ScottWright,WarrenS.(2009).Calculus:EarlyTranscendentals(3ed.).Jones&Bartlett
Learning.p.xxvii.ISBN0763759953.Extractofpage27(https://books.google.com/books?id=R3Hk4Uhb1Z0C&p
g=PR27)
9.Katz,V.J.1995."IdeasofCalculusinIslamandIndia."MathematicsMagazine(MathematicalAssociationof
America),68(3):163174.
10."Indianmathematics".
11.vonNeumann,J.,"TheMathematician",inHeywood,R.B.,ed.,TheWorksoftheMind,UniversityofChicago
Press,1947,pp.180196.ReprintedinBrdy,F.,Vmos,T.,eds.,TheNeumannCompedium,WorldScientific
PublishingCo.Pte.Ltd.,1995,ISBN9810222017,pp.618626.
12.AndrWeil:Numbertheory.Anapproachthroughhistory.FromHammurapitoLegendre.BirkhauserBoston,Inc.,
Boston,MA,1984,ISBN0817645659,p.28.
13.DonaldAllen:Calculus,http://www.math.tamu.edu/~dallen/history/calc1/calc1.html
14.Leibniz,GottfriedWilhelm.TheEarlyMathematicalManuscriptsofLeibniz.Cosimo,Inc.,2008.Page228.Copy(h
ttps://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=7d8_4WPc9SMC&oi=fnd&pg=PA3&dq=Gottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz
+accused+of+plagiarism+by+Newton&ots=09h9BdTlbE&sig=hu5tNKpBJxHcpj8U3kR_T2bZqrY#v=onepage&q=pla
gairism&f=false%7COnline)
15.Allaire,PatriciaR.(2007).Foreword.ABiographyofMariaGaetanaAgnesi,anEighteenthcenturyWoman
Mathematician.ByCupillari,Antonella(illustrateded.).EdwinMellenPress.p.iii.ISBN9780773452268.
16.Unlu,Elif(April1995)."MariaGaetanaAgnesi".AgnesScottCollege.

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17.Russell,Bertrand(1946).HistoryofWesternPhilosophy.London:GeorgeAllen&UnwinLtd.p.857."Thegreat
mathematiciansoftheseventeenthcenturywereoptimisticandanxiousforquickresultsconsequentlytheyleftthe
foundationsofanalyticalgeometryandtheinfinitesimalcalculusinsecure.Leibnizbelievedinactualinfinitesimals,
butalthoughthisbeliefsuitedhismetaphysicsithadnosoundbasisinmathematics.Weierstrass,soonafterthe
middleofthenineteenthcentury,showedhowtoestablishthecalculuswithoutinfinitesimals,andthusatlastmadeit
logicallysecure.NextcameGeorgCantor,whodevelopedthetheoryofcontinuityandinfinitenumber."Continuity"
hadbeen,untilhedefinedit,avagueword,convenientforphilosopherslikeHegel,whowishedtointroduce
metaphysicalmuddlesintomathematics.Cantorgaveaprecisesignificancetotheword,andshowedthatcontinuity,
ashedefinedit,wastheconceptneededbymathematiciansandphysicists.Bythismeansagreatdealofmysticism,
suchasthatofBergson,wasrenderedantiquated."

Books
Larson,Ron,BruceH.Edwards(2010).Calculus,
9thed.,BrooksColeCengageLearning.ISBN9780
547167022
McQuarrie,DonaldA.(2003).MathematicalMethods
forScientistsandEngineers,UniversityScience
Books.ISBN9781891389245
Salas,SaturninoL.Hille,EinarEtgen,GarretJ.
(2007).Calculus:OneandSeveralVariables(10th
ed.).Wiley.ISBN9780471698043.

Stewart,James(2012).Calculus:Early
Transcendentals,7thed.,BrooksColeCengage
Learning.ISBN9780538497909
Thomas,GeorgeB.,MauriceD.Weir,JoelHass,
FrankR.Giordano(2008),Calculus,11thed.,
AddisonWesley.ISBN032148987X

Otherresources
Furtherreading
Boyer,CarlBenjamin(1949).TheHistoryofthe
CalculusanditsConceptualDevelopment(https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=KLQSHUW8FnUC&printse
c=frontcover).Hafner.Doveredition1959,ISBN0
486605094
Courant,RichardISBN9783540650584
Introductiontocalculusandanalysis1.
EdmundLandau.ISBN0821828304Differential
andIntegralCalculus,AmericanMathematical
Society.
RobertA.Adams.(1999).ISBN9780201396072
Calculus:Acompletecourse.
Albers,DonaldJ.RichardD.AndersonandDonO.
Loftsgaarden,ed.(1986)UndergraduateProgramsin
theMathematicsandComputerSciences:The1985
1986Survey,MathematicalAssociationofAmerica
No.7.
JohnLaneBell:APrimerofInfinitesimalAnalysis,
CambridgeUniversityPress,1998.ISBN9780521
624015.Usessyntheticdifferentialgeometryand
nilpotentinfinitesimals.
FlorianCajori,"TheHistoryofNotationsofthe
Calculus."AnnalsofMathematics,2ndSer.,Vol.25,
No.1(Sep.1923),pp.146.
LeonidP.LebedevandMichaelJ.Cloud:
"ApproximatingPerfection:aMathematician's
JourneyintotheWorldofMechanics,Ch.1:The
ToolsofCalculus",PrincetonUniv.Press,2004.
CliffPickover.(2003).ISBN9780471269878

CliffPickover.(2003).ISBN9780471269878
CalculusandPizza:AMathCookbookforthe
HungryMind.
MichaelSpivak.(September1994).ISBN9780
914098898Calculus.PublishorPerishpublishing.
TomM.Apostol.(1967).ISBN9780471000051
Calculus,Volume1,OneVariableCalculuswithan
IntroductiontoLinearAlgebra.Wiley.
TomM.Apostol.(1969).ISBN9780471000075
Calculus,Volume2,MultiVariableCalculusand
LinearAlgebrawithApplications.Wiley.
SilvanusP.ThompsonandMartinGardner.(1998).
ISBN9780312185480CalculusMadeEasy.
MathematicalAssociationofAmerica.(1988).
CalculusforaNewCenturyAPump,NotaFilter,
TheAssociation,StonyBrook,NY.ED300252.
Thomas/Finney.(1996).ISBN9780201531749
CalculusandAnalyticgeometry9th,AddisonWesley.
Weisstein,EricW."SecondFundamentalTheoremof
Calculus."(http://mathworld.wolfram.com/SecondFun
damentalTheoremofCalculus.html)FromMathWorld
AWolframWebResource.
HowardAnton,IrlBivens,Stephen
Davis:"Calculus",JohnWilleyandSonsPte.
Ltd.,2002.ISBN9788126512591

Onlinebooks
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Boelkins,M.(2012).ActiveCalculus:afree,open
Mauch,S.(2004)."Sean'sAppliedMathBook"(pdf).
text(PDF).Archivedfromtheoriginalon15July
CaliforniaInstituteofTechnology.Retrieved6May
2010.Retrieved1February2013.
2007from
Crowell,B.(2003)."Calculus".LightandMatter,
http://www.cacr.caltech.edu/~sean/applied_math.pdf
Fullerton.Retrieved6May2007from
(http://www.cacr.caltech.edu/~sean/applied_math.pdf)
http://www.lightandmatter.com/calc/calc.pdf
Sloughter,Dan(2000)."DifferenceEquationsto
Garrett,P.(2006)."Notesonfirstyearcalculus".
DifferentialEquations:Anintroductiontocalculus".
UniversityofMinnesota.Retrieved6May2007from
Retrieved17March2009from
http://www.math.umn.edu/~garrett/calculus/first_year/notes.pdf http://synechism.org/drupal/de2de/
(http://www.math.umn.edu/~garrett/calculus/first_yea
Stroyan,K.D.(2004)."Abriefintroductionto
r/notes.pdf)
infinitesimalcalculus".UniversityofIowa.Retrieved
Faraz,H.(2006)."UnderstandingCalculus".
6May2007from
Retrieved6May2007from
http://www.math.uiowa.edu/~stroyan/InfsmlCalculus/InfsmlC
UnderstandingCalculus.com,URL
(HTMLonly)
http://www.understandingcalculus.com(HTMLonly)
Strang,G.(1991)."Calculus"MassachusettsInstitute
Keisler,H.J.(2000)."ElementaryCalculus:An
ofTechnology.Retrieved6May2007from
ApproachUsingInfinitesimals".Retrieved29August
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/resources/Strang/strangtext.htm
2010from
Smith,WilliamV.(2001)."TheCalculus".Retrieved
http://www.math.wisc.edu/~keisler/calc.html(http://w
4July2008[1](http://www.math.byu.edu/~smithw/C
ww.math.wisc.edu/~keisler/calc.html)
alculus/)(HTMLonly).

Externallinks
Hazewinkel,Michiel,ed.(2001),"Calculus",EncyclopediaofMathematics,Springer,ISBN9781
556080104
Weisstein,EricW."Calculus".MathWorld.
TopicsonCalculus(http://planetmath.org/TopicsOnCalculus)atPlanetMath.org.
CalculusMadeEasy(1914)bySilvanusP.Thompson(http://djm.cc/library/Calculus_Made_Easy_Thom
pson.pdf)FulltextinPDF
Calculus(http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00mrfwq)onInOurTimeattheBBC.(listennow(http://
www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/b00mrfwq/In_Our_Time_Calculus))
Calculus.org:TheCalculuspage(http://www.calculus.org)atUniversityofCalifornia,Daviscontains
resourcesandlinkstoothersites
COW:CalculusontheWeb(http://cow.math.temple.edu/)atTempleUniversitycontainsresources
rangingfromprecalculusandassociatedalgebra
EarliestKnownUsesofSomeoftheWordsofMathematics:Calculus&Analysis(http://www.economic
s.soton.ac.uk/staff/aldrich/Calculus%20and%20Analysis%20Earliest%20Uses.htm)
OnlineIntegrator(WebMathematica)(http://integrals.wolfram.com/)fromWolframResearch
TheRoleofCalculusinCollegeMathematics(http://www.ericdigests.org/pre9217/calculus.htm)from
ERICDigests.org
OpenCourseWareCalculus(http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Mathematics/index.htm)fromthe
MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology
InfinitesimalCalculus(http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=Infinitesimal_calculus&oldi
d=18648)anarticleonitshistoricaldevelopment,inEncyclopediaofMathematics,ed.Michiel
Hazewinkel.
DanielKleitman,MIT."CalculusforBeginnersandArtists".
CalculusProblemsandSolutions(http://www.math.ucdavis.edu/~kouba/ProblemsList.html)byD.A.
Kouba
DonaldAllen'snotesoncalculus(http://www.math.tamu.edu/~dallen/history/calc1/calc1.html)
Calculustrainingmaterialsatimomath.com(http://www.imomath.com/index.php?options=277)
(English)(Arabic)TheExcursionofCalculus(http://www.wdl.org/en/item/4327/),1772
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Calculus&oldid=742967853"

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