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Foundationsofmathematics
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Foundationsofmathematicsisthestudyofthelogicalandphilosophicalbasisofmathematics,[1]or,ina
broadersense,themathematicalinvestigationofwhatunderliesthephilosophicaltheoriesconcerningthenature
ofmathematics.[2]Inthislattersense,thedistinctionbetweenfoundationsofmathematicsandphilosophyof
mathematicsturnsouttobequitevague.Foundationsofmathematicscanbeconceivedasthestudyofthebasic
mathematicalconcepts(number,geometricalfigure,set,function,etc.)andhowtheyformhierarchiesofmore
complexstructuresandconcepts,especiallythefundamentallyimportantstructuresthatformthelanguageof
mathematics(formulas,theoriesandtheirmodelsgivingameaningtoformulas,definitions,proofs,algorithms,
etc.)alsocalledmetamathematicalconcepts,withaneyetothephilosophicalaspectsandtheunityof
mathematics.Thesearchforfoundationsofmathematicsisacentralquestionofthephilosophyofmathematics
theabstractnatureofmathematicalobjectspresentsspecialphilosophicalchallenges.
Thefoundationsofmathematicsasawholedoesnotaimtocontainthefoundationsofeverymathematical
topic.Generally,thefoundationsofafieldofstudyreferstoamoreorlesssystematicanalysisofitsmostbasic
orfundamentalconcepts,itsconceptualunityanditsnaturalorderingorhierarchyofconcepts,whichmayhelp
toconnectitwiththerestofhumanknowledge.Thedevelopment,emergenceandclarificationofthe
foundationscancomelateinthehistoryofafield,andmaynotbeviewedbyeveryoneasitsmostinteresting
part.
Mathematicsalwaysplayedaspecialroleinscientificthought,servingsinceancienttimesasamodeloftruth
andrigorforrationalinquiry,andgivingtoolsorevenafoundationforothersciences(especiallyphysics).
Mathematics'manydevelopmentstowardshigherabstractionsinthe19thcenturybroughtnewchallengesand
paradoxes,urgingforadeeperandmoresystematicexaminationofthenatureandcriteriaofmathematical
truth,aswellasaunificationofthediversebranchesofmathematicsintoacoherentwhole.
Thesystematicsearchforthefoundationsofmathematicsstartedattheendofthe19thcenturyandformeda
newmathematicaldisciplinecalledmathematicallogic,withstronglinkstotheoreticalcomputerscience.It
wentthroughaseriesofcriseswithparadoxicalresults,untilthediscoveriesstabilizedduringthe20thcentury
asalargeandcoherentbodyofmathematicalknowledgewithseveralaspectsorcomponents(settheory,model
theory,prooftheory,etc.),whosedetailedpropertiesandpossiblevariantsarestillanactiveresearchfield.Its
highleveloftechnicalsophisticationinspiredmanyphilosopherstoconjecturethatitcanserveasamodelor
patternforthefoundationsofothersciences.

Contents
1 Historicalcontext
1.1 AncientGreekmathematics
1.2 Platonismasatraditionalphilosophyofmathematics
1.3 MiddleAgesandRenaissance
1.4 19thcentury
1.4.1 Realanalysis
1.4.2 Grouptheory
1.4.3 NonEuclideangeometries
1.4.4 Projectivegeometry
1.4.5 Booleanalgebraandlogic
1.4.6 Peanoarithmetic
2 Foundationalcrisis
2.1 Philosophicalviews
2.1.1 Formalism
2.1.2 Intuitionism
2.1.3 Logicism
2.1.4 SettheoreticPlatonism
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3
4
5
6
7

2.1.4 SettheoreticPlatonism
2.1.5 Indispensabilityargumentforrealism
2.1.6 Roughandreadyrealism
2.1.7 PhilosophicalconsequencesoftheGdel'scompletenesstheorem
2.2 Moreparadoxes
Partialresolutionofthecrisis
Seealso
Notes
References
Externallinks

Historicalcontext
AncientGreekmathematics
Whilethepracticeofmathematicshadpreviouslydevelopedinothercivilizations,specialinterestinits
theoreticalandfoundationalaspectswasclearlyevidentintheworkoftheAncientGreeks.
EarlyGreekphilosophersdisputedastowhichismorebasic,arithmeticorgeometry.ZenoofElea(490c.
430BC)producedfourparadoxesthatseemtoshowtheimpossibilityofchange.ThePythagoreanschoolof
mathematicsoriginallyinsistedthatonlynaturalandrationalnumbersexist.Thediscoveryoftheirrationality
of2,theratioofthediagonalofasquaretoitsside(around5thcenturyBC),wasashocktothemwhichthey
onlyreluctantlyaccepted.ThediscrepancybetweenrationalsandrealswasfinallyresolvedbyEudoxusof
Cnidus(408355BC),astudentofPlato,whoreducedthecomparisonofirrationalratiostocomparisonsof
multiples(rationalratios),thusanticipatingthedefinitionofrealnumbersbyRichardDedekind(18311916).
InthePosteriorAnalytics,Aristotle(384322BC)laiddowntheaxiomaticmethodfororganizingafieldof
knowledgelogicallybymeansofprimitiveconcepts,axioms,postulates,definitions,andtheorems.Aristotle
tookamajorityofhisexamplesforthisfromarithmeticandfromgeometry.Thismethodreacheditshighpoint
withEuclid'sElements(300BC),atreatiseonmathematicsstructuredwithveryhighstandardsofrigor:Euclid
justifieseachpropositionbyademonstrationintheformofchainsofsyllogisms(thoughtheydonotalways
conformstrictlytoAristoteliantemplates).Aristotle'ssyllogisticlogic,togetherwiththeaxiomaticmethod
exemplifiedbyEuclid'sElements,arerecognizedasscientificachievementsofancientGreece.

Platonismasatraditionalphilosophyofmathematics
Startingfromtheendofthe19thcentury,aPlatonistviewofmathematicsbecamecommonamongpracticing
mathematicians.
Theconceptsor,asPlatonistswouldhaveit,theobjectsofmathematicsareabstractandremotefromeveryday
perceptualexperience:geometricalfiguresareconceivedasidealitiestobedistinguishedfromeffective
drawingsandshapesofobjects,andnumbersarenotconfusedwiththecountingofconcreteobjects.Their
existenceandnaturepresentspecialphilosophicalchallenges:Howdomathematicalobjectsdifferfromtheir
concreterepresentation?Aretheylocatedintheirrepresentation,orinourminds,orsomewhereelse?Howcan
weknowthem?
TheancientGreekphilosopherstooksuchquestionsveryseriously.Indeed,manyoftheirgeneralphilosophical
discussionswerecarriedonwithextensivereferencetogeometryandarithmetic.Plato(424/423BC
348/347BC)insistedthatmathematicalobjects,likeotherplatonicIdeas(formsoressences),mustbeperfectly
abstractandhaveaseparate,nonmaterialkindofexistence,inaworldofmathematicalobjectsindependentof
humans.Hebelievedthatthetruthsabouttheseobjectsalsoexistindependentlyofthehumanmind,butis
discoveredbyhumans.IntheMenoPlato'steacherSocratesassertsthatitispossibletocometoknowthistruth
byaprocessakintomemoryretrieval.
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AbovethegatewaytoPlato'sacademyappearedafamousinscription:"Letnoonewhoisignorantofgeometry
enterhere".InthiswayPlatoindicatedhishighopinionofgeometry.Heregardedgeometryas"thefirst
essentialinthetrainingofphilosophers",becauseofitsabstractcharacter.
ThisphilosophyofPlatonistmathematicalrealismissharedbymanymathematicians.Itcanbearguedthat
Platonismsomehowcomesasanecessaryassumptionunderlyinganymathematicalwork.[3]
Inthisview,thelawsofnatureandthelawsofmathematicshaveasimilarstatus,andtheeffectivenessceases
tobeunreasonable.Notouraxioms,buttheveryrealworldofmathematicalobjectsformsthefoundation.
AristotledissectedandrejectedthisviewinhisMetaphysics.Thesequestionsprovidemuchfuelfor
philosophicalanalysisanddebate.

MiddleAgesandRenaissance
Forover2,000years,Euclid'sElementsstoodasaperfectlysolidfoundationformathematics,asits
methodologyofrationalexplorationguidedmathematicians,philosophers,andscientistswellintothe19th
century.
TheMiddleAgessawadisputeovertheontologicalstatusoftheuniversals(platonicIdeas):Realismasserted
theirexistenceindependentlyofperceptionconceptualismassertedtheirexistencewithinthemindonly
nominalism,deniedeither,onlyseeinguniversalsasnamesofcollectionsofindividualobjects(followingolder
speculationsthattheyarewords,"logos").
RenDescartespublishedLaGomtrie(1637),aimedatreducinggeometrytoalgebrabymeansofcoordinate
systems,givingalgebraamorefoundationalrole(whiletheGreeksembeddedarithmeticintogeometryby
identifyingwholenumberswithevenlyspacedpointsonaline).Descartes'bookbecamefamousafter1649and
pavedthewaytoinfinitesimalcalculus.
IsaacNewton(16421727)inEnglandandLeibniz(16461716)inGermanyindependentlydevelopedthe
infinitesimalcalculusbasedonheuristicmethodsgreatlyefficient,butdirelylackingrigorousjustifications.
Leibnizevenwentontoexplicitlydescribeinfinitesimalsasactualinfinitelysmallnumbers(closetozero).
Leibnizalsoworkedonformallogicbutmostofhiswritingsonitremainedunpublisheduntil1903.
TheProtestantphilosopherGeorgeBerkeley(16851753),inhiscampaignagainstthereligiousimplicationsof
Newtonianmechanics,wroteapamphletonthelackofrationaljustificationsofinfinitesimalcalculus:[4]"They
areneitherfinitequantities,norquantitiesinfinitelysmall,noryetnothing.Maywenotcallthemtheghostsof
departedquantities?"
Thenmathematicsdevelopedveryrapidlyandsuccessfullyinphysicalapplications,butwithlittleattentionto
logicalfoundations.

19thcentury
Inthe19thcentury,mathematicsbecameincreasinglyabstract.Concernsaboutlogicalgapsandinconsistencies
indifferentfieldsledtothedevelopmentofaxiomaticsystems.
Realanalysis
Cauchy(17891857)startedtheprojectofformulatingandprovingthetheoremsofinfinitesimalcalculusina
rigorousmanner,rejectingtheheuristicprincipleofthegeneralityofalgebraexploitedbyearlierauthors.Inhis
1821workCoursd'Analysehedefinesinfinitelysmallquantitiesintermsofdecreasingsequencesthat
convergeto0,whichhethenusedtodefinecontinuity.Buthedidnotformalizehisnotionofconvergence.

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Themodern(,)definitionoflimitandcontinuousfunctionswasfirstdevelopedbyBolzanoin1817,but
remainedrelativelyunknown.Itgivesarigorousfoundationofinfinitesimalcalculusbasedonthesetofreal
numbers,arguablyresolvingtheZenoparadoxesandBerkeley'sarguments.
MathematicianssuchasKarlWeierstrass(18151897)discoveredpathologicalfunctionssuchascontinuous,
nowheredifferentiablefunctions.Previousconceptionsofafunctionasaruleforcomputation,orasmooth
graph,werenolongeradequate.Weierstrassbegantoadvocatethearithmetizationofanalysis,toaxiomatize
analysisusingpropertiesofthenaturalnumbers.
In1858,Dedekindproposedadefinitionoftherealnumbersascutsofrationalnumbers.Thisreductionofreal
numbersandcontinuousfunctionsintermsofrationalnumbers,andthusofnaturalnumbers,waslater
integratedbyCantorinhissettheory,andaxiomatizedintermsofsecondorderarithmeticbyHilbertand
Bernays.
Grouptheory
Forthefirsttime,thelimitsofmathematicswereexplored.NielsHenrikAbel(18021829),aNorwegian,and
varisteGalois,(18111832)aFrenchman,investigatedthesolutionsofvariouspolynomialequations,and
provedthatthereisnogeneralalgebraicsolutiontoequationsofdegreegreaterthanfour(AbelRuffini
theorem).Withtheseconcepts,PierreWantzel(1837)provedthatstraightedgeandcompassalonecannottrisect
anarbitraryanglenordoubleacube.In1882,LindemannbuildingontheworkofHermiteshowedthata
straightedgeandcompassquadratureofthecircle(constructionofasquareequalinareatoagivencircle)was
alsoimpossiblebyprovingthatisatranscendentalnumber.Mathematicianshadvainlyattemptedtosolveall
oftheseproblemssincethetimeoftheancientGreeks.
AbelandGalois'sworksopenedthewayforthedevelopmentsofgrouptheory(whichwouldlaterbeusedto
studysymmetryinphysicsandotherfields),andabstractalgebra.Conceptsofvectorspacesemergedfromthe
conceptionofbarycentriccoordinatesbyMbiusin1827,tothemoderndefinitionofvectorspacesandlinear
mapsbyPeanoin1888.Geometrywasnomorelimitedtothreedimensions.Theseconceptsdidnotgeneralize
numbersbutcombinednotionsoffunctionsandsetswhichwerenotyetformalized,breakingawayfrom
familiarmathematicalobjects.
NonEuclideangeometries
Aftermanyfailedattemptstoderivetheparallelpostulatefromotheraxioms,thestudyofthestillhypothetical
hyperbolicgeometrybyJohannHeinrichLambert(17281777)ledhimtointroducethehyperbolicfunctions
andcomputetheareaofahyperbolictriangle(wherethesumofanglesislessthan180).ThentheRussian
mathematicianNikolaiLobachevsky(17921856)establishedin1826(andpublishedin1829)thecoherenceof
thisgeometry(thustheindependenceoftheparallelpostulate),inparallelwiththeHungarianmathematician
JnosBolyai(18021860)in1832,andwithGauss.Laterinthe19thcentury,theGermanmathematician
BernhardRiemanndevelopedEllipticgeometry,anothernonEuclideangeometrywherenoparallelcanbe
foundandthesumofanglesinatriangleismorethan180.Itwasprovedconsistentbydefiningpointtomean
apairofantipodalpointsonafixedsphereandlinetomeanagreatcircleonthesphere.Atthattime,themain
methodforprovingtheconsistencyofasetofaxiomswastoprovideamodelforit.
Projectivegeometry
Oneofthetrapsinadeductivesystemiscircularreasoning,aproblemthatseemedtobefallprojective
geometryuntilitwasresolvedbyKarlvonStaudt.AsexplainedbyRussianhistorians:[5]
Inthemidnineteenthcenturytherewasanacrimoniouscontroversybetweentheproponentsofsynthetic
andanalyticmethodsinprojectivegeometry,thetwosidesaccusingeachotherofmixingprojectiveand
metricconcepts.Indeedthebasicconceptthatisappliedinthesyntheticpresentationofprojective
geometry,thecrossratiooffourpointsofaline,wasintroducedthroughconsiderationofthelengthsof
intervals.
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ThepurelygeometricapproachofvonStaudtwasbasedonthecompletequadrilateraltoexpresstherelationof
projectiveharmonicconjugates.Thenhecreatedameansofexpressingthefamiliarnumericpropertieswithhis
AlgebraofThrows.Englishlanguageversionsofthisprocessofdeducingthepropertiesofafieldcanbefound
ineitherthebookbyOswaldVeblenandJohnYoung,ProjectiveGeometry(1938),ormorerecentlyinJohn
Stillwell'sFourPillarsofGeometry(2005).Stillwellwritesonpage120
...projectivegeometryissimplerthanalgebrainacertainsense,becauseweuseonlyfivegeometric
axiomstoderivetheninefieldaxioms.
Thealgebraofthrowsiscommonlyseenasafeatureofcrossratiossincestudentsordinarilyrelyuponnumbers
withoutworryabouttheirbasis.However,crossratiocalculationsusemetricfeaturesofgeometry,featuresnot
admittedbypurists.Forinstance,in1961CoxeterwroteIntroductiontoGeometrywithoutmentionofcross
ratio.
Booleanalgebraandlogic
AttemptsofformaltreatmentofmathematicshadstartedwithLeibnizandLambert(17281777),and
continuedwithworksbyalgebraistssuchasGeorgePeacock(17911858).Systematicmathematicaltreatments
oflogiccamewiththeBritishmathematicianGeorgeBoole(1847)whodevisedanalgebrathatsoonevolved
intowhatisnowcalledBooleanalgebra,inwhichtheonlynumberswere0and1andlogicalcombinations
(conjunction,disjunction,implicationandnegation)areoperationssimilartotheadditionandmultiplicationof
integers.AlsoDeMorganpublisheshislaws(1847).Logicbecomesabranchofmathematics.Booleanalgebra
isthestartingpointofmathematicallogicandhasimportantapplicationsincomputerscience.
CharlesSandersPeircebuiltupontheworkofBooletodevelopalogicalsystemforrelationsandquantifiers,
whichhepublishedinseveralpapersfrom1870to1885.
TheGermanmathematicianGottlobFrege(18481925)presentedanindependentdevelopmentoflogicwith
quantifiersinhisBegriffsschrift(formulalanguage)publishedin1879,aworkgenerallyconsideredasmarking
aturningpointinthehistoryoflogic.HeexposeddeficienciesinAristotle'sLogic,andpointedoutthethree
expectedpropertiesofamathematicaltheory
1.Consistency:impossibilitytoprovecontradictorystatements.
2.Completeness:anystatementiseitherprovableorrefutable(i.e.itsnegationisprovable).
3.Decidability:thereisadecisionproceduretotestanystatementinthetheory.
HethenshowedinGrundgesetzederArithmetik(BasicLawsofArithmetic)howarithmeticcouldbeformalised
inhisnewlogic.
Frege'sworkwaspopularizedbyBertrandRussellneartheturnofthecentury.ButFrege'stwodimensional
notationhadnosuccess.Popularnotationswere(x)foruniversaland(x)forexistentialquantifiers,coming
fromGiuseppePeanoandWilliamErnestJohnsonuntilthesymbolwasintroducedbyGerhardGentzenin
1935andbecamecanonicalinthe1960s.
From1890to1905,ErnstSchrderpublishedVorlesungenberdieAlgebraderLogikinthreevolumes.This
worksummarizedandextendedtheworkofBoole,DeMorgan,andPeirce,andwasacomprehensivereference
tosymboliclogicasitwasunderstoodattheendofthe19thcentury.
Peanoarithmetic
Theformalizationofarithmetic(thetheoryofnaturalnumbers)asanaxiomatictheorystartedwithPeircein
1881andcontinuedwithRichardDedekindandGiuseppePeanoin1888.Thiswasstillasecondorder
axiomatization(expressinginductionintermsofarbitrarysubsets,thuswithanimplicituseofsettheory)as
concernsforexpressingtheoriesinfirstorderlogicwerenotyetunderstood.InDedekind'swork,thisapproach
appearsascompletelycharacterizingnaturalnumbersandprovidingrecursivedefinitionsofadditionand
multiplicationfromthesuccessorfunctionandmathematicalinduction.
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Foundationalcrisis
Thefoundationalcrisisofmathematics(inGermanGrundlagenkrisederMathematik)wastheearly20th
century'stermforthesearchforproperfoundationsofmathematics.
Severalschoolsofthephilosophyofmathematicsranintodifficultiesoneaftertheotherinthe20thcentury,as
theassumptionthatmathematicshadanyfoundationthatcouldbeconsistentlystatedwithinmathematicsitself
washeavilychallengedbythediscoveryofvariousparadoxes(suchasRussell'sparadox).
Thename"paradox"shouldnotbeconfusedwithcontradiction.Acontradictioninaformaltheoryisaformal
proofofanabsurdityinsidethetheory(suchas2+2=5),showingthatthistheoryisinconsistentandmustbe
rejected.Butaparadoxmayeitherrefertoasurprisingbuttrueresultinagivenformaltheory,ortoaninformal
argumentleadingtoacontradiction,sothatacandidatetheory,ifitistobeformalized,mustdisallowatleast
oneofitsstepsinthiscasetheproblemistofindasatisfyingtheorywithoutcontradiction.Bothmeaningsmay
applyiftheformalizedversionoftheargumentformstheproofofasurprisingtruth.Forinstance,Russell's
paradoxmaybeexpressedas"thereisnosetofallsets"(exceptinsomemarginalaxiomaticsettheories).
Variousschoolsofthoughtwereopposingeachother.Theleadingschoolwasthatoftheformalistapproach,of
whichDavidHilbertwastheforemostproponent,culminatinginwhatisknownasHilbert'sprogram,which
thoughttogroundmathematicsonasmallbasisofalogicalsystemprovedsoundbymetamathematical
finitisticmeans.Themainopponentwastheintuitionistschool,ledbyL.E.J.Brouwer,whichresolutely
discardedformalismasameaninglessgamewithsymbols(vanDalen,2008).Thefightwasacrimonious.In
1920HilbertsucceededinhavingBrouwer,whomheconsideredathreattomathematics,removedfromthe
editorialboardofMathematischeAnnalen,theleadingmathematicaljournalofthetime.

Philosophicalviews
Atthebeginningofthe20thcentury,threeschoolsofphilosophyofmathematicswereopposingeachother:
Formalism,IntuitionismandLogicism.
Formalism
Ithasbeenclaimedthatformalists,suchasDavidHilbert(18621943),holdthatmathematicsisonlya
languageandaseriesofgames.Indeed,heusedthewords"formulagame"inhis1927responsetoL.E.J.
Brouwer'scriticisms:
"Andtowhatextenthastheformulagamethusmadepossiblebeensuccessful?Thisformulagame
enablesustoexpresstheentirethoughtcontentofthescienceofmathematicsinauniformmannerand
developitinsuchawaythat,atthesametime,theinterconnectionsbetweentheindividualpropositions
andfactsbecomeclear...TheformulagamethatBrouwersodeprecateshas,besidesitsmathematical
value,animportantgeneralphilosophicalsignificance.Forthisformulagameiscarriedoutaccordingto
certaindefiniterules,inwhichthetechniqueofourthinkingisexpressed.Theserulesformaclosed
systemthatcanbediscoveredanddefinitivelystated."[6]
ThusHilbertisinsistingthatmathematicsisnotanarbitrarygamewitharbitraryrulesratheritmustagree
withhowourthinking,andthenourspeakingandwriting,proceeds.[6]
"Wearenotspeakinghereofarbitrarinessinanysense.Mathematicsisnotlikeagamewhosetasksare
determinedbyarbitrarilystipulatedrules.Rather,itisaconceptualsystempossessinginternalnecessity
thatcanonlybesoandbynomeansotherwise."[7]
Thefoundationalphilosophyofformalism,asexemplifiedbyDavidHilbert,isaresponsetotheparadoxesof
settheory,andisbasedonformallogic.Virtuallyallmathematicaltheoremstodaycanbeformulatedas
theoremsofsettheory.Thetruthofamathematicalstatement,inthisview,isrepresentedbythefactthatthe
statementcanbederivedfromtheaxiomsofsettheoryusingtherulesofformallogic.
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Merelytheuseofformalismalonedoesnotexplainseveralissues:whyweshouldusetheaxiomswedoand
notsomeothers,whyweshouldemploythelogicalruleswedoandnotsomeothers,whydo"true"
mathematicalstatements(e.g.,thelawsofarithmetic)appeartobetrue,andsoon.HermannWeylwouldask
theseveryquestionsofHilbert:
"What"truth"orobjectivitycanbeascribedtothistheoreticconstructionoftheworld,whichpressesfar
beyondthegiven,isaprofoundphilosophicalproblem.Itiscloselyconnectedwiththefurtherquestion:
whatimpelsustotakeasabasispreciselytheparticularaxiomsystemdevelopedbyHilbert?
Consistencyisindeedanecessarybutnotasufficientcondition.Forthetimebeingweprobablycannot
answerthisquestion"[8]
Insomecasesthesequestionsmaybesufficientlyansweredthroughthestudyofformaltheories,indisciplines
suchasreversemathematicsandcomputationalcomplexitytheory.AsnotedbyWeyl,formallogicalsystems
alsoruntheriskofinconsistencyinPeanoarithmetic,thisarguablyhasalreadybeensettledwithseveralproofs
ofconsistency,butthereisdebateoverwhetherornottheyaresufficientlyfinitarytobemeaningful.Gdel's
secondincompletenesstheoremestablishesthatlogicalsystemsofarithmeticcannevercontainavalidproofof
theirownconsistency.WhatHilbertwantedtodowasprovealogicalsystemSwasconsistent,basedon
principlesPthatonlymadeupasmallpartofS.ButGdelprovedthattheprinciplesPcouldnotevenproveP
tobeconsistent,letaloneS.
Intuitionism
Intuitionists,suchasL.E.J.Brouwer(18821966),holdthatmathematicsisacreationofthehumanmind.
Numbers,likefairytalecharacters,aremerelymentalentities,whichwouldnotexistiftherewereneverany
humanmindstothinkaboutthem.
Thefoundationalphilosophyofintuitionismorconstructivism,asexemplifiedintheextremebyBrouwerand
morecoherentlybyStephenKleene,requiresproofstobe"constructive"innaturetheexistenceofanobject
mustbedemonstratedratherthaninferredfromademonstrationoftheimpossibilityofitsnonexistence.For
example,asaconsequenceofthistheformofproofknownasreductioadabsurdumissuspect.
Somemoderntheoriesinthephilosophyofmathematicsdenytheexistenceoffoundationsintheoriginalsense.
Sometheoriestendtofocusonmathematicalpractice,andaimtodescribeandanalyzetheactualworkingof
mathematiciansasasocialgroup.Otherstrytocreateacognitivescienceofmathematics,focusingonhuman
cognitionastheoriginofthereliabilityofmathematicswhenappliedtotherealworld.Thesetheorieswould
proposetofindfoundationsonlyinhumanthought,notinanyobjectiveoutsideconstruct.Thematterremains
controversial.
Logicism
Logicismisoneoftheschoolsofthoughtinthephilosophyofmathematics,puttingforththetheorythat
mathematicsisanextensionoflogicandthereforesomeorallmathematicsisreducibletologic.Bertrand
RussellandAlfredNorthWhiteheadchampionedthistheoryfatheredbyGottlobFrege.
SettheoreticPlatonism
ManyresearchersinaxiomaticsettheoryhavesubscribedtowhatisknownassettheoreticPlatonism,
exemplifiedbyKurtGdel.
Severalsettheoristsfollowedthisapproachandactivelysearchedforaxiomsthatmaybeconsideredastruefor
heuristicreasonsandthatwoulddecidethecontinuumhypothesis.Manylargecardinalaxiomswerestudied,
butthehypothesisalwaysremainedindependentfromthem.Othertypesofaxiomswereconsidered,butnone
ofthemhasreachedconsensusonthecontinuumhypothesisyet.RecentworkbyHamkinsproposesamore
flexiblealternative:asettheoreticmultiverseallowingfreepassagebetweensettheoreticuniversesthatsatisfy
thecontinuumhypothesisandotheruniversesthatdonot.
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Indispensabilityargumentforrealism
ThisargumentbyWillardQuineandHilaryPutnamsays(inPutnam'sshorterwords),
quantificationovermathematicalentitiesisindispensableforscience...thereforeweshouldacceptsuch
quantificationbutthiscommitsustoacceptingtheexistenceofthemathematicalentitiesinquestion.
HoweverPutnamwasnotaPlatonist.
Roughandreadyrealism
Fewmathematiciansaretypicallyconcernedonadaily,workingbasisoverlogicism,formalismoranyother
philosophicalposition.Instead,theirprimaryconcernisthatthemathematicalenterpriseasawholealways
remainsproductive.Typically,theyseethisasinsuredbyremainingopenminded,practicalandbusyas
potentiallythreatenedbybecomingoverlyideological,fanaticallyreductionisticorlazy.Suchaviewwas
expressedbythePhysicsNobelPrizelaureateRichardFeynman
Peoplesaytome,"Areyoulookingfortheultimatelawsofphysics?"No,I'mnotIfitturnsoutthere
isasimpleultimatelawwhichexplainseverything,sobeitthatwouldbeverynicetodiscover.Ifit
turnsoutit'slikeanonionwithmillionsoflayersthenthat'sthewayitis.Buteitherwaythere'sNature
andshe'sgoingtocomeoutthewaySheis.Sothereforewhenwegotoinvestigateweshouldn't
predecidewhatitiswe'relookingforonlytofindoutmoreaboutit.[9]
andalsoStevenWeinberg[10]
Theinsightsofphilosophershaveoccasionallybenefitedphysicists,butgenerallyinanegativefashion
byprotectingthemfromthepreconceptionsofotherphilosophers.(...)withoutsomeguidancefromour
preconceptionsonecoulddonothingatall.Itisjustthatphilosophicalprincipleshavenotgenerally
provideduswiththerightpreconceptions.
Hebelievedthatanyundecidabilityinmathematics,suchasthecontinuumhypothesis,couldbepotentially
resolveddespitetheincompletenesstheorem,byfindingsuitablefurtheraxiomstoaddtosettheory.
PhilosophicalconsequencesoftheGdel'scompletenesstheorem
Gdel'scompletenesstheoremestablishesanequivalenceinfirstorderlogicbetweentheformalprovabilityof
aformulaanditstruthinallpossiblemodels.Precisely,foranyconsistentfirstordertheoryitgivesan"explicit
construction"ofamodeldescribedbythetheorythismodelwillbecountableifthelanguageofthetheoryis
countable.Howeverthis"explicitconstruction"isnotalgorithmic.Itisbasedonaniterativeprocessof
completionofthetheory,whereeachstepoftheiterationconsistsinaddingaformulatotheaxiomsifitkeeps
thetheoryconsistentbutthisconsistencyquestionisonlysemidecidable(analgorithmisavailabletofindany
contradictionbutifthereisnonethisconsistencyfactcanremainunprovable).
ThiscanbeseenasagivingasortofjustificationtothePlatonistviewthattheobjectsofourmathematical
theoriesarereal.Moreprecisely,itshowsthatthemereassumptionoftheexistenceofthesetofnatural
numbersasatotality(anactualinfinity)sufficestoimplytheexistenceofamodel(aworldofobjects)ofany
consistenttheory.Howeverseveraldifficultiesremain:
Foranyconsistenttheorythisusuallydoesnotgivejustoneworldofobjects,butaninfinityofpossible
worldsthatthetheorymightequallydescribe,withapossiblediversityoftruthsbetweenthem.
Inthecaseofsettheory,noneofthemodelsobtainedbythisconstructionresembletheintendedmodel,
astheyarecountablewhilesettheoryintendstodescribeuncountableinfinities.Similarremarkscanbe
madeinmanyothercases.Forexample,withtheoriesthatincludearithmetic,suchconstructions
generallygivemodelsthatincludenonstandardnumbers,unlesstheconstructionmethodwas
specificallydesignedtoavoidthem.
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Asitgivesmodelstoallconsistenttheorieswithoutdistinction,itgivesnoreasontoacceptorrejectany
axiomaslongasthetheoryremainsconsistent,butregardsallconsistentaxiomatictheoriesasreferring
toequallyexistingworlds.Itgivesnoindicationonwhichaxiomaticsystemshouldbepreferredasa
foundationofmathematics.
Asclaimsofconsistencyareusuallyunprovable,theyremainamatterofbeliefornonrigorouskindsof
justifications.Hencetheexistenceofmodelsasgivenbythecompletenesstheoremneedsinfacttwo
philosophicalassumptions:theactualinfinityofnaturalnumbersandtheconsistencyofthetheory.
Anotherconsequenceofthecompletenesstheoremisthatitjustifiestheconceptionofinfinitesimalsasactual
infinitelysmallnonzeroquantities,basedontheexistenceofnonstandardmodelsasequallylegitimateto
standardones.ThisideawasformalizedbyAbrahamRobinsonintothetheoryofnonstandardanalysis.

Moreparadoxes
1920:ThoralfSkolemcorrectedLwenheim'sproofofwhatisnowcalledthedownwardLwenheimSkolem
theorem,leadingtoSkolem'sparadoxdiscussedin1922(theexistenceofcountablemodelsofZF,making
infinitecardinalitiesarelativeproperty).
1922:ProofbyAbrahamFraenkelthattheaxiomofchoicecannotbeprovedfromtheaxiomsofZermelo'sset
theorywithurelements.
1931:PublicationofGdel'sincompletenesstheorems,showingthatessentialaspectsofHilbert'sprogram
couldnotbeattained.Itshowedhowtoconstruct,foranysufficientlypowerfulandconsistentrecursively
axiomatizablesystemsuchasnecessarytoaxiomatizetheelementarytheoryofarithmeticonthe(infinite)set
ofnaturalnumbersastatementthatformallyexpressesitsownunprovability,whichhethenproved
equivalenttotheclaimofconsistencyofthetheorysothat(assumingtheconsistencyastrue),thesystemisnot
powerfulenoughforprovingitsownconsistency,letalonethatasimplersystemcoulddothejob.Itthus
becameclearthatthenotionofmathematicaltruthcannotbecompletelydeterminedandreducedtoapurely
formalsystemasenvisagedinHilbert'sprogram.ThisdealtafinalblowtotheheartofHilbert'sprogram,the
hopethatconsistencycouldbeestablishedbyfinitisticmeans(itwasnevermadeclearexactlywhataxioms
werethe"finitistic"ones,butwhateveraxiomaticsystemwasbeingreferredto,itwasa'weaker'systemthan
thesystemwhoseconsistencyitwassupposedtoprove).
1936:AlfredTarskiprovedhistruthundefinabilitytheorem.
1936:AlanTuringprovedthatageneralalgorithmtosolvethehaltingproblemforallpossibleprograminput
pairscannotexist.
1938:GdelprovedtheconsistencyoftheaxiomofchoiceandoftheGeneralizedContinuumHypothesis.
19361937:AlonzoChurchandAlanTuring,respectively,publishedindependentpapersshowingthata
generalsolutiontotheEntscheidungsproblemisimpossible:theuniversalvalidityofstatementsinfirstorder
logicisnotdecidable(itisonlysemidecidableasgivenbythecompletenesstheorem).
1955:PyotrNovikovshowedthatthereexistsafinitelypresentedgroupGsuchthatthewordproblemforGis
undecidable.
1963:PaulCohenshowedthattheContinuumHypothesisisunprovablefromZFC.Cohen'sproofdeveloped
themethodofforcing,whichisnowanimportanttoolforestablishingindependenceresultsinsettheory.
1964:Inspiredbythefundamentalrandomnessinphysics,GregoryChaitinstartspublishingresultson
AlgorithmicInformationtheory(measuringincompletenessandrandomnessinmathematics).[11]
1966:PaulCohenshowedthattheaxiomofchoiceisunprovableinZFevenwithouturelements.

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1970:Hilbert'stenthproblemisprovenunsolvable:thereisnorecursivesolutiontodecidewhethera
Diophantineequation(multivariablepolynomialequation)hasasolutioninintegers.
1971:Suslin'sproblemisproventobeindependentfromZFC.

Partialresolutionofthecrisis
Startingin1935,theBourbakigroupofFrenchmathematiciansstartedpublishingaseriesofbookstoformalize
manyareasofmathematicsonthenewfoundationofsettheory.
Theintuitionisticschooldidnotattractmanyadherentsamongworkingmathematicians,duetodifficultiesof
constructivemathematics.
OnemayconsiderthatHilbert'sprogramhasbeenpartiallycompleted,sothatthecrisisisessentiallyresolved,
satisfyingourselveswithlowerrequirementsthanHilbert'soriginalambitions.Hisambitionswereexpressedin
atimewhennothingwasclear:itwasnotclearwhethermathematicscouldhavearigorousfoundationatall.
Therearemanypossiblevariantsofsettheorywhichdifferinconsistencystrength,wherestrongerversions
(postulatinghighertypesofinfinities)containformalproofsoftheconsistencyofweakerversions,butnone
containsaformalproofofitsownconsistency.Thustheonlythingwedon'thaveisaformalproofof
consistencyofwhateverversionofsettheorywemayprefer,suchasZF.
Inpractice,mostmathematicianseitherdonotworkfromaxiomaticsystems,oriftheydo,donotdoubtthe
consistencyofZFC,generallytheirpreferredaxiomaticsystem.Inmostofmathematicsasitispracticed,the
incompletenessandparadoxesoftheunderlyingformaltheoriesneverplayedaroleanyway,andinthose
branchesinwhichtheydoorwhoseformalizationattemptswouldruntheriskofforminginconsistenttheories
(suchaslogicandcategorytheory),theymaybetreatedcarefully.
Thedevelopmentofcategorytheoryinthemiddleofthe20thcenturyshowedtheusefulnessofsettheories
largerthanZFC,suchasVonNeumannBernaysGdelsettheoryorTarskiGrothendiecksettheory.

Seealso
Mathematicallogic
BrouwerHilbertcontroversy
ChurchTuringthesis
ControversyoverCantor'stheory
Epistemology
Euclid'sElements
Hilbert'sproblems
Liarparadox
NewFoundations
Philosophyofmathematics
PrincipiaMathematica
Quasiempiricisminmathematics
MathematicalthoughtofCharlesPeirce

Notes
1.JoachimLambek(2007),"Foundationsofmathematics",Encyc.Britannica(http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/to
pic/369221/foundationsofmathematics)
2.LeonHorsten(2007,rev.2012),"PhilosophyofMathematics"SEP(http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philosophymath
ematics/#MatLogFouMat)
3.KarlisPodnieks,Platonism,intuitionandthenatureofmathematics:1.PlatonismthePhilosophyofWorking
Mathematicians(http://www.ltn.lv/~podnieks/gt1.html#BM1_1)
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4.TheAnalyst,ADiscourseAddressedtoanInfidelMathematician
5.Laptev,B.L.&B.A.Rozenfel'd(1996)Mathematicsofthe19thCentury:Geometry,page40,BirkhuserISBN3
764350482
6.Hilbert1927TheFoundationsofMathematicsinvanHeijenoort1967:475
7.p.14inHilbert,D.(191920),NaturundMathematischesErkennen:Vorlesungen,gehalten19191920inGttingen.
NachderAusarbeitungvonPaulBernays(EditedandwithanEnglishintroductionbyDavidE.Rowe),Basel,
Birkhauser(1992).
8.Weyl1927CommentsonHilbert'ssecondlectureonthefoundationsofmathematicsinvanHeijenoort1967:484.
AlthoughWeyltheintuitionistbelievedthat"Hilbert'sview"wouldultimatelyprevail,thiswouldcomewitha
significantlosstophilosophy:"Iseeinthisadecisivedefeatofthephilosophicalattitudeofpurephenomenology,
whichthusprovestobeinsufficientfortheunderstandingofcreativescienceevenintheareaofcognitionthatismost
primalandmostreadilyopentoevidencemathematics"(ibid).
9.RichardFeynman,ThePleasureofFindingThingsOutp.23
10.StevenWeinberg,chapterAgainstPhilosophy(http://libcom.org/library/unexpecteduselessnessphilosophy)in
Dreamsofafinaltheory
11.Chaitin,Gregory(2006),TheLimitsOfReason(PDF),retrieved20160222

References
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Seminarabhandlungen1,157177.Translated,"TheNewGroundingofMathematics.FirstReport",in
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StrongerTheories,7ConstructiveRecursiveMathematics,8Bishop'sConstructivism,9Concluding
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Weyl,H.(1921),"berdieneueGrundlagenkrisederMathematik",MathematischeZeitschrift10,39
79.Translated,"OntheNewFoundationalCrisisofMathematics",in(Mancosu1998).
Wilder,RaymondL.(1952),IntroductiontotheFoundationsofMathematics,JohnWileyandSons,New
York,NY.

Externallinks
LogicandMathematics(http://www.math.psu.edu/simpson/paper
Wikiquotehasquotations
s/philmath/)
relatedto:Foundationsof
FoundationsofMathematics:past,present,andfuture(http://web.
mathematics
archive.org/save/_embed/http://u.osu.edu/friedman.8/files/2014/0
1/fom12pt5.31.001jkl4df.pdf),May31,2000,8pages.
ACenturyofControversyovertheFoundationsofMathematics(http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/~chaitin/l
owell.html)byGregoryChaitin.
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