Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Published by
The American Association of Petroleum Geologists
Tulsa, Oklahoma, U.S.A.
Quantitative Geometry
of Thrust and Fold Belt Structures
Peter B. Jones
International Tectonic Consultants (ITC) Ltd.
Calgary, Alberta
Principles of step-faulting are simulated in computer-synthesized and balanced structural cross sections of faulted
and folded terranes. Isolation of geometry from mechanics and chronology allows a review of kinematics and chronology of deformation in layered rocks. Blind faults and duplex structures are geometric consequences of stepfaulting, and are responsible for disparities in crustal shortening between superposed tectonostratigraphic units.
These disparities are greatest in fold belts, which overlie belts of blind thrusts. Failure to recognize blind thrusts leads
to incorrect estimates of both timing and amount of deformation. Geometric modeling demonstrates the intuitive
nature of some widely accepted geologic assumptions. Geometric considerations alone suggest that faults and folds,
which can be represented as products of faulting, form in response to a balance between differential tangential and
vertical stresses. Where tangential stress provides the driving force, distribution of overburden load appears to control location of thrust ramps. Forward modeling by computer generates balanced cross sections at all stages of growth
of a given structure, and shows that purportedly balanced cross sections may include impossible intermediate stages.
Forward modeling also reveals geologic questions that must be answered before more sophisticated computer modeling programs can be written.
BIOGRAPHY
Following 25 years in petroleum and minerals exploration, Peter Jones founded International Tectonic Consultants Ltd. in 1980
as a geological consulting company specializing in exploration of areas of complex geological structure. Educated in Great Britain
and the U.S.A., Dr. Jones has worked on deformed belts in Europe, Asia and the Americas. Author of more than 25 papers on
structural geology and tectonics, he has given seminars in structural geology to oil company exploration staffs around the world,
and has recently returned from a lecture tour of Chinese universities and research institutes. For the past six years he has been
involved in the development of computer techniques for simulating the formation of geological structures.
most hand-balanced cross sections are geometric transforms in which a deformed stage is balanced with respect to
an originally undeformed stage. This can be done even
Exploration for petroleum requires much data, and the though it may be geometrically impossible to reach the
principles with which to interpret them. Because well and deformed state from the undeformed one along the fault
seismic data are extremely expensive in fold and thrust belts, paths specified. In contrast, forward modeling by computer
application of simple geometric principles can multiply the simulates progressive movement along fault planes, so that
effectiveness of geological and geophysical interpretation. each balanced cross section includes within it an infinite
Geometry of layered rocks, expressed by maps, cross sec- number of balanced cross sections of intermediate stages.
tions, and seismic profiles, is the basis for interpreting the
All balancing involves approximations. This follows
geological structure.
from the fundamental geometric fact that it is not possible
Rigorous geometric modeling can simulate many thrust to transform a plane figure with a given area and perimeter
and fold belt structures; but even where it cannot, hitherto into another figure with the same area and perimeter withunconsidered factors may be highlighted. For example, the out passing through intermediate stages in which one or
impossibility of synthesizing a balanced cross section to fit both parameters must change. Any balanced cross section
the data may lead to the recognition of posr-tectonic gravity must involve distortion of one or more of the following:
slides within a deformed belt.
area, bed length, or fault cutoff. In drawing a balanced
As more deep seismic-reflection data become available, cross section, a geologist judges (perhaps unwittingly)
the thin-skinned style of deformation is becoming more which distortions to accept.
important in interpreting geological structures on all scales.
In the models used in this paper, cross-sectional area is
In thin-skinned deformation, faults are listric, flattening constant. The computer program uses a grid containing a
into a basal decollement. Depending on the scale involved, specified number of cells (usually 150,000), like the squares
this base may be anything from an incompetent shale to the on a sheet of graph paper, and maintains that number durbase of the lithosphere. Geometric principles of thin- ing deformation so that the resultant cross section is areally
skinned deformation in layered sedimentary rocks are out- balanced. The logic might be called thepack-of-cards logic,
lined by Rich (1934), Douglas (1950), Fox (1959), with each card represented by a column of cells (Figure 2a).
Dahlstrom (1969a,b; 1970), Bally et al. (1966), Royse et al. Lines representing stratigraphic boundaries are drawn on
(1975), Elliott (1976), Boyer and Elliott (1982), Suppe the edge of the pack. Fault planes slice through the pack of
(1983), and Laubscher (1985). This paper owes much to cards along or oblique to the bases of layers representing
those authors.
stratigraphic units. The user specifies the positions of
Figure 1 is a sketch cross section through a typical thrust faults, and the amount and sense (compression or extenand fold belt. Structures include folds, thrusts, and listric sion) of movement (Figure 2b). Relative movement occurs
normal faults, rooted in a basal decollement or detachment along fault planes and, on a very much smaller scale,
zone, and overlain (in some cases) by an upper detachment between adjacent "cards" (which need not be vertical), like
zone, all of which can be simulated by the Thrustbelt sys- cleavage planes. The pack-of-cards model maintains contem, a computer program for forward modeling of bal- stant vertical thicknesses and cross-sectional area. Stratianced cross sections, developed by Helmut Linsser. Models graphic thicknesses in a dipping sequence are reduced in
generated by this program are described by Jones (1982, proportion to the cosine of the dip angle, while the bed
1984), and Jones and Linsser (1984). Charlesworth and length increases inversely with the cosine of the dip angle.
Gagnon (1985) describe what appears to be a similar model- The distortion is systematic and can be corrected manually
ing program. Most of the illustrations that follow were cre- if required.
ated by the Thrustbelt Program.
The program incorporates the following geologic criteria:
1. Thrust faults are emplaced in sequence from higher to
Balancing Cross Sections by Computer
lower, by progressive deformation of an undisturbed
footwall (Elliott, 1976). They cut up-section in their
direction of movement and may also follow bedding
Balancing is an essential process in constructing cross secplanes.
Normal faults cut down-section in their directions through folded and faulted terranes. A balanced cross
tion
of
movement,
or follow bedding planes.
section is not necessarily correct, but an unbalanced one is
2. Faults do not cut earlier faults but may merge with
wrong.
them and transfer their movement to them.
Cross-sectional area and bed length of each stratigraphic
These definitions are dependent on the dip of fault planes
unit, as well as fault offsets, are adjusted in balancing, so
that the deformed structure can be restored back to an relative to bedding, and are independent of the absolute dip
assumed undisturbed condition without gain or loss of of the fault planes. Sub-horizontal faults that cut steeply
material (cross-sectional area). Offsets of boundaries across dipping strata are often referred to as thrusts, but as Perry
a given fault should be consistent in all units. Balancing (1978) shows, they are extensional relative to the strata they
does not mean that shortening must be the same at all levels cut. Using the thrust-fault symbol to designate these extenor in all deformed stratigraphic units; indeed one of the con- sional faults on geologic maps causes many problems in
clusions of this paper is that equality and synchroneity of structural interpretation.
shortening are extremely unlikely.
Each computer run generates the entire cross section in a
Computer balancing of cross sections does nothing that higher-to-lower sequence of fault emplacement. A lowercannot be done manually using pencil and paper. However, to-higher sequence can be simulated by successive computer
INTRODUCTION
Figure 1. Typical thrust belt, showing thrust and listric normal faults, duplex structures, underthrust foreland margin. All these structures can be created by the forward modeling program described in the text.
runs in which each new fault is added behind the preceding
one. This is common operational practice. Because each
fault is deformed by its successor, it is easier to model the
last-formed fault first.
Folding of layered rocks involves a mixture of concentric,
similar, and kink-band styles. The pack-of-cards model generates quasi-similar folds in which flanks thin and bed
lengths extend. This is a workable approximation in most
cases and is systematic and reproducible. According to W.
B. Perry (personal communication, October, 1983), "The
idealized concentric fold with a constant radius of curvature
(to an inflection point) is almost never present." There are
many questions to be resolved with regard to geometry and
kinematics before more sophisticated modeling becomes
feasible.
a.
THRUST FAULTS
Effects of Spacing of Incipient Thrust Faults Relative
to Their Displacements
The profile in Figure 3b is typical of many thrust belts.
The surface geology features an irregular spacing and local
concentration of faults, which a geologist might interpret as
evidence for an underlying zone of weakness or basement
buttress. However, the irregular thrust spacing in this model
is due entirely to varied slipping of a uniformly spaced set of
incipient thrusts (3a). While basement warping and faulting
may have a significant influence in localized thrust ramping
(Wiltscho and Eastman, 1983), basement warping and
faulting may not be applicable to this style of thrusting,
which involves large numbers of faults having no immediate
connection with basement. In areas such as the southern
Alberta foothills, where this structural style predominates
(Ollerenshaw, 1978), it seems more likely that thrust ramping in the sedimentary cover is ultimately controlled by the
distribution of overburden in the hanging wall sequence
(Royse et al., 1975). This overburden may govern the distribution of high fluid pressure at the base of the overthrust
mass (Gretener, 1972). Controlling ramp location by differential overburden loading is a feature of thrust emplacement at the bases of deltas and submarine fans (Evamy et
al., 1978). Differential loading in those environments is
caused by sedimentation (Mandl and Crans, 1981), and is
unrelated to the underlying section. Although a more competent section may be involved in thrust and fold belt deformation, differential loading because of faulting is
potentially much greater.
Displacement Transfer (En Echelon Faults)
Closely spaced incipient thrusts interact with each other.
Figure 4 is a set of cross sections parallel to each other along
the strike of a thrust belt. Aggregate slip is the same in all
profiles and slip is progressively transferred from fault A to
fault B in successive profiles along strike. In Profile 1,
thrust A moves to create a ramp anticline. Along strike, as
fault B develops and A dies out, the ramp anticline and the
culmination of the surface structure reach maximum amplitude in Profile 4 where both A and B are only partly developed. At that stage, thrust A has a slip equal to the spacing
between it and thrust B, measured along a bedding plane.
This causes the leading edge of a given stratigraphic unit in
A,
CO
en
3
w *O
** **
c
3
*
C O
o E
'S
JO
'g cs
o CO
_c <D
"O **
cc
c .o
CO
10
^
0) CO
>. *
o
CO
CO
im
W
"O
O)
13
CD
_J
CO
3
**
M
c
o
+*
*"
^
O
i
1 V/lvfc'*'
i /
1 /I'Xi
K i'-*'*i X
C 3
> *-o
E n
3 Su
S
>- 2
ii E
< >=
o ^*a
<U o
Ml
J -^
S a g
o S
2 ofl
CD
HM
"5
_o>
o
Q.
X>
Tl
a
-4-J S
1 b
O
to E
e
-a
S S C
OB
C u 1)
T > T3
3 3 O
35 u C
C
1/1
b ' E
2 cC3 S
<^
nt ii
co^ .
Hi
iiv3|ft
fslip.(b).
aults befo
ont
egu
tfl
CO >
oo
2P
3
">
2
ii
w
5
3
o
<U t_
O
G
C
XI
w
ed
-C
t-
in
O - '
"
-O
i-
QJ
(2a o u
"3i?
^- 3 .22
>. "
&<5 c3
t3 3
*5
fl
-o
u
u
OH
3
>4=
"
a c c
3 c u
7- u C
S c -s
Leng
featu
a fact
Figu
final
cons
5c
3
movem
SLIP
80
75
60
20
40
40
20
60
75
80
TOTAL SLIP
80 UNITS
Figure 4. Parallel cross-sections, showing displacement transfer along strike between en echelon thrust faults A and B Total slip is constant. As A dies out, slip on B decreases. Fold caused by step-faulting has its greatest amplitude where both faults are 50% developed.
Figure 5. (a) Incipient step thrusts, regularly spaced, (b) After movement. Slip of each thrust equals spacing divided by three, (c) After
movement. Slip of each thrust equals spacing divided by two. Where slip matches spacing between incipient thrusts, separate ramp anticlines are stacked beneath each other.
the "A" sheet to lie directly above the leading edge of the
same unit in the underlying " B " sheet, thus enhancing the
earlier ramp anticline so that it has greater amplitude and
smaller wavelength.
Step Faults
Fault planes that are parallel or subparallel to bedding
surfaces for long distances (in the dip direction before cutting obliquely through other strata) have a stepped profile
consisting of ramps and flats. The different angles of fault
planes relative to bedding reflect variations in the competence and rigidity of the different stratigraphic units. Movement along fault planes, whether as thrusts or normal
faults, generates ramp anticlines or fault-bend folds
(Suppe, 1983). If the steps are widely spaced relative to the
slip of individual thrust faults, a series of discrete ramp anticlines is formed (Figure 5a). As the spacing decreases or slip
increases, the ramp anticlines merge. When slip equals spacing (Figure 5b,c), all ramp anticlines are stacked on top of
each other, each one increasing the amplitude of the anticline overlying it. When slip exceeds spacing, this stacking
relationship does not change significantly. Thus, given a
layered sequence that is varied enough to generate step
DUPLEX STRUCTURES
In the previous models, the deeper parts of thrust belts
were discussed and the shallower section removed by erosion was ignored. Do such thrusts reach the surface and
become erosion thrusts? Do they steepen upward and die
out in some shallower part of the section, as indicated by
Boyer and Elliott (1982)? If so, how is their slip accommodated? There is good evidence that thrust faults do not reach
the erosional surface, but are blind, merging with a preexisting, overlying bedding-plane thrust or upper detachment
^
-*r
^
*-"
r * "
-"*""
* '
-^ <S
'
_ _ **
Y/////////////////////////////////^^^^^
V//
Figure 6. Generation of folds above thrust duplex. Top figure, a, shows the sequence before thrusting; bottom figure, b, shows postthrust configuration. Faults are numbered in order of emplacement. Duplex requires a long sector of bedding plane slip for Fault 1,
although its slip may be small. Resultant slip equals initial slip of Fault 1 plus sum of the slips of 2, 3, 4, and 5.
Lewis thrust forms the upper detachment for the Sage Creek
duplex (Figure 7). Duplexes can stack on top of each other,
and one thrust or horizon of contortion may function both
as an upper and a lower detachment. Scale can vary greatly.
Cooper et al. (1983) describe a duplex that is a few meters in
thickness. Teal (1983) shows a number of duplexes stacked
on top of each other at the eastern edge of the Canadian
Cordillera, to a thickness of several thousand meters.
Theoretical models of duplex structures by Boyer and
Elliott (1982) and Charlesworth and Gagnon (1985) illustrate upper and lower detachments that are parallel to each
other after fault movement. Geometrically, this condition
demands a very precise and regularly recurring relationship
between thrust spacing and thrust slip. Where this requirement is not met, the roof thrust and its hanging wall are
folded by differential uplift. In practice, there are many
examples of undeformed roof thrusts. Fault duplexes
described by Dahlstrom (1970), Cooper et al. (1983), and
Fermor (1987) include upper and lower detachments that
are more or less parallel to each other. It appears that there is
a particular combination of load, rigidity, and other aspects
of the overlying sequence that prevents the thrusting within
the duplex from deforming the overlying sequence. The
same is true for fold duplexes in which the sequence above
the folded section is essentially undeformed (see "Ideal
Concentric Fold" in Figure 19).
Hanging Wall "Drag Fold"
The hanging walls of major overthrusts commonly
include large folds. In some tectonic environments, these
folds are a function of the slip and propagation rates of the
FLATHEAD
FAULT
PAC.-ATLANT.
FLATHtAD
Me. I
5000n
W^^TT^Tm^^^
\ / / A
PALEOZOIC
PC BELTIAN SEDIMENTS
TERTIARY
MESOZOIC
CLASTICS
PC
CARBONATES
SHIELD
Figure 7. Sage Creek duplex, Canadian Rockies. Lewis thrust forms the upper detachment. Flathead fault is a listric normal fault, downthrown to the west. Sediments in the half-graben are Eocene to Oligocene (from Bally et al., 1966).
Figure 8. Hanging wall fold formed by stacking of ramp anticlines within a duplex. Rhomb-shaped "horse" or "schuppen" between
thrusts 1 and 2 doubles the amplitude of the final ramp anticline. This geometry also produces the out-of-the-syncline thrust that typically lies in front of a hanging wall fold. Computer simulation shows geometry (a) before thrusting, with the positions of subsequent
thrust planes; (b) after the first thrusting event; (c) after movement of second thrust. Note the effect the horse has on the final configuration.
underlying thrust (Williams and Chapman, 1983). It is
important not to confuse folds formed in that manner with
hanging-wall folds formed as a result of duplex development. Figure 8 illustrates a method of generating such folds
through formation of a duplex, a process that may be more
relevant to the deformation of layered sedimentary rocks.
coincidence happens often enough to suggest that it is controlled by influences above, not below, the level of deformation.
Figure 9a is a cross section of the Livingstone thrust,
southern Alberta foothills, Canada (Douglas, 1950). Figure
9b is similar to the restoration of the Livingstone thrust by
Douglas (1950), except that the Gap fault has been included.
North of the line of cross section, the Gap fault is folded
Livingstone
thrust
Livingstone thrust
Gap fault
Figure 9. (a) The Livingstone thrust, Alberta foothills, (b) Reconstruction of the profile of the incipient Livingstone thrust. This reconstruction is modified from the original (Douglas, 1950) by inclusion of the Gap fault, which creates the Livingstone Range anticline.
rKlT~Tr!.TTMTTTTrNLllLai^ij:
LEGEND
Y//\
|
PennayUanlan
|
l-l'V;-;-]
||
1~^-|
Figure 10. Computer simulation of evolution of the Powell Valley anticline as a thrust duplex, (a) Undisturbed section before thrusting,
showing positions of future thrust faults, (b) After emplacement of Wallen Valley thrust, (c) After emplacement of (proto-) Pine Mountain thrust, (d) After emplacement of Bales thrust, showing present configuration after erosion. Present Pine Mountain thrust, where it
emerges northwest of the Middlesboro syncline, incorporates the combined displacements of the Wallen Valley, proto-Pine Mountain
and Bales thrusts of the Powell Valley duplex, giving a total slip of about 35 km. Modified from Harris and Milici, cross section F-F',
1977.
9
wall anticline that forms the Livingstone Range, something
that the original interpretation by Douglas (1950) failed to
do.
The same model can be applied to the Pine Mountain
overthrust and Powell Valley anticline in the Appalachians.
The Wallen Valley thrust (Figure 10) is analogous to the Gap
fault (Figure 9). In this interpretation, slip on the Pine
Mountain thrust west of the Middlesboro syncline is the
Absaroka
thrust
Figure 12. Computer-synthesized model of a fold belt overlying a thrust belt. Slip of thrusts is balanced by shallow back-thrust rooted in
the upper detachment. In a molasse sequence, the back-thrust may be difficult or impossible to detect. Estimates of crustal shortening on
the basis of fold shortening would be too low.
10
1982). Similar antithetic thrust faults also occur in the Kirthar and Sulaiman thrust belts of Pakistan, as well as in the
southern Taiwan thrust belt (Banks and Warburton, 1986).
If a fold belt is deeply eroded to the level of the underlying
thrust belt, the mountain-facing flank of a foreland syncline, or lower limb of a frontal monocline, is the only remnant of the original fold belt. This results in a characteristic
structure which Gordy et al. (1977) called a triangle zone;
Butler (1982) subsequently applied the term to a totally different type of structure. Triangle zones as Gordy described
them occur along the outer margins of fold and thrust belts
around the world, wherever there is a foreland syncline
this model, cumulative slip of the blind thrusts is accommodated by an antithetic thrust dipping in the opposite direction. It is easy to underestimate the slip of such antithetic
faults where they affect a molasse sequence in which fault
repetitions are hard to detect (Figure 13). According to W. J.
Hennessey (personal communication, September, 1985) the
section overlying the upper detachment in the west flank of
the foreland syncline in southern Alberta is much thicker
than the equivalent section in the east flank, thickened by
foreland-dipping antithetic thrusts similar to those in Figure
13. Antithetic thrust faults are well exposed in the Alberta
foothills in the Athabasca River valley (Irish, 1962; Jones,
5-26-57-6W6
Figure 13. Seismic profile through eastern margin of Canadian Cordillera, northern Alberta Foothills. Upper detachment is indicated by
the dashed line. It follows a shale unit which rarely outcrops. The east-dipping thrusts above it are almost impossible to identify from well
logs or outcrops. Without well control, this type of structure could easily be interpreted as a vertical uplift. Without seismic data, faults
penetrated by the well might be interpreted as rising almost to the surface.
KLIPPE
TERTIARY
JURASSIC-LOWER CRETACEOUS
V/A
JPPER CRETACEOUS
PALEOZOIC
K = ^ j undivided
J Cardium sandstone
| Undivided
0
Km
Figure 14. Grease Creek structure, a typical triangle zone or frontal fold at the east edge of the Canadian Cordillera. Faults are
exposed where erosion cuts below the upper detachment, giving
the impression that faults are confined to the anticlinal core. This
cross section is apparently unbalanced in the sense that there is
greater shortening due to thrusting than to folding. It is not known
whether there are east-dipping back-thrusts in the eastern part of
the profile.
Figure 15. Computer-synthesized model of a triangle zone. Compare with Figure 14. It is a duplex structure in which the hanging
wall of the upper detachment is autochthonous. The fold generated above the upper detachment migrates as it grows (from Jones,
1982).
11
(Jones, 1982). Because each thrust, at the time of its
emplacement, also marked the outer margin of the
deformed belt, remnants of triangle zones also occur within
deformed belts, although these remnants are less well preserved.
Figure 14 is a typical cross section through the triangle
zone at the east margin of the Alberta foothills. In this cross
section, as in the computer-synthesized model (Figure 15),
shortening of the faulted sequence is much greater than
shortening of the overlying folded sequence. In northeastern British Columbia, crustal shortening of the exposed section of folded Mesozoic rocks of the foothills belt is 10 km
less than shortening in the underlying thrust-faulted Paleozoic section (McMechan, 1985). MeMechan describes the
entire foothills belt as a "low-taper triangle zone." In some
deformed belts, this type of imbalance is accommodated at
least in part by back-thrusts rooted in the upper detachment
Foreland
syncline
Foreland
syncline
3.
Foreland
syncline
Foreland
syncline
Figure 16. (a) Fold belt overlying thrust belt, showing changes in structural style with different erosion levels. Diagrammatic (modified
from Jones, 1982).
(b) Level 1: Fold belt exposed, foreland syncline present. Examples: British Columbia foothills, Canada; southern Oman fold belt.
Level 2: Fold belt with narrow faulted anticlines (style "ejectif" of Dahlstrom, 1970). Examples: Folded Molasse, Switzerland-Germany,
Central Alberta foothills.
Level 3: Thrust Belt with underthrust foreland margin. Examples: Southern Alberta foothills (see also Fig. 19).
Level 4: Thrust belt with overthrust foreland margin, no foreland syncline. Example: Utah Wyoming overthrust belt, U.S.A.?.
12
STRUCTURAL EVOLUTION OF
DEFORMED BELTS
BY BLIND THRUSTING
The foreland margin of the southern Canadian Cordillera
is formed by blind thrusts merging with an upper detachment (Gordy and Frey, 1975; Jones, 1982). In the normal
higher-to-lower sequence of thrusting (Elliott, 1976), each
thrust, at the time of its emplacement, cuts undisturbed
foot wall at the leading edge of the thrust belt. There is no
obvious reason why intermediate leading edges of a
deformed belt should behave any differently from the final
one, which suggests that an entire thrust and fold belt can be
formed by this mechanism (Jones, 1982; 1984a;
CharlesworthandGagnon, 1985). In contrast, Butler (1985)
proposes that blind thrusting at a foreland margin marks
the "last gasp" of tectonic activity, and Morley (1986)
relates underthrusting to the rate of decrease of stress at the
end of the period of deformation.
Figure 17 shows that a large part of the southern Canadian Cordillera, comprising both the foothills and eastern
Rockies, can be modeled with blind thrusts beneath a continuous upper detachment at all stages. Strong evidence for
this model lies in the fact that the Belly River Formation,
which underlies the upper detachment zone at the outer edge
of the foothills, occurs in the footwalls of almost all thrusts
exposed in that part of the foothills as well as in the footwalls of the McConnell and Lewis thrusts of the eastern
Rockies, regardless of which formations comprise the hanging walls. This consistency shows that successive thrusts
emplaced at the outer edge of the foothills flattened along a
common upper detachment. The 14-km slip assigned to the
McConnell thrust in Figure 17 is the minimum required to
generate the model from the data in the original cross section (Gordy and Frey, 1975); the actual displacement is
about 40 km (Elliott, 1976).
The western extent and thickness of the Tertiary section
before thrusting is unknown. Upper Cretaceous sediments
occur in the southeastern Canadian Rockies, more than 50
km west of the leading edge of the McConnell thrust, and
may have been 150 km further west before thrusting
(Norris, 1964). The overlying Tertiary may also have
extended far to the west of the present edge of the Cordillera.
The Canadian Cordillera is not unique. If it evolved
through blind thrusting, the same mechanism may be applicable to thrust and fold belts elsewhere. If underthrusting is
observed only at the foreland margins of thrust belts, it is
because the margin is the only part of the thrust belt where
the upper detachment and overlying fold belt have not been
removed by erosion.
Perry and Sando (1982), among others, describe thrusts
that reach the surface and move along it (erosion thrusts),
but such thrusts may represent a small minority. Within a
thrust or fold belt generated by blind thrusts, the only faults
to reach the surface during movement are the upper detachment itself and antithetic thrusts (or back-thrusts) rooted in
it, which dip in the opposite direction to the underlying
blind thrusts.
The monocline resulting from blind thrusting can gener-
ate a steep dip slope with great topographic relief, both during and after its outward migration across the foreland
(Figure 17). This configuration, combined with a shallow
upper detachment zone, provides ideal conditions for epidermal gravity sliding similar to that described by Van Bemmelen (1954) and many others, most recently by Hauge
(1985) for the Heart Mountain detachment, and Schultz
(1986) in the Appalachians. Van Bemmelen attributed the
topographic relief to basement uplift, but topographic relief
generated by blind thrusting should be equally effective.
In western Canada, no special property of the craton, its
basement, or its stratigraphy, appears to set a limit to thrusting. Abundant seismic profiles of the Canadian Cordillera
(Bally et al., 1966) show that the basement surface has a relatively uniform westward tilt, unbroken by faulting. The
base of thrusting is relatively high in the Phanerozoic cover.
There are no abrupt lateral changes in stratigraphy. It
appears that the outer limit of thrusting marks the extent of
thrusting at the time when the applied stress fell below a critical level.
GENERATION OF FOLDS
Concentric Folds
Most folds in layered rocks can be described geometrically as the products of a finite number of faults. Flow of
incompetent rocks can be simulated in two dimensions by
modeling normal and thrust fault movement simultaneously (Figure 18). The style of folding depends upon the nature of the rocks involved. In the concentric style of folding
(Figure 19a), geometry demands the existence of both lower
and upper detachment zones (Dahlstrom, 1969a), each of
which is a fault duplex. If these detachments involve incompetent material such as evaporites, folding is accommodated by material flow from synclinal troughs to anticlinal
crests in the lower detachment, and from anticlinal crests to
synclinal troughs in the upper zone of detachment. Shortening in the folded sequence may match the shortening derived
from flow in the detachment zones. However, if the material
in the detachment zones is too competent to flow, then the
upper and lower detachment zones are filled by thrust
duplexes. In this case, the aggregate shortening in the thrust
duplexes is much greater than the shortening within the
folded sequence.
In Figure 19b, differential horizontal movement (horizontal distance X-X' between the uppermost and lowermost units is several times greater than the shortening of the
folded sequence. Each fold in this model resembles the
Grease Creek structure (Figure 14) or an inversion of it, and
each was built up in the same manner by step thrusting
between detachments. For this cross section to be balanced,
slip in the upper faulted section may occur in the manner
shown by Figure 12. Displacement in the lower fault duplex
may also be transferred to the upper fault duplex by lowangle thrusts within the middle folded sequence. Such
"
-5 -a
> c
>- o
! C
! ~ a!
! 13 "
cc
i 5 o
i-
3
O
3 H
> cj
I C
cS
-o
c
J-
(/I
*-^
<D OJ
^ r<U
DH
-a1 2
w
T 3 CS
CO *.
a *"^
c "
=
t
^v f 1
S3
,5 c t^ c
5I
"-&
cu o fc:
O r * )
3 =
O "^
3g d
j e S
00
cu
c o
CJ
Si
wl
X!
C
cu _c
o S3
w (U * ^
C -C i-T
(U w
o
o 9* oo
^ ? as
00 -~
, t o
J2
C} 'C
-
~G
_ a 5?
<
c ca
cj
43
<u
u. c/3
a
a
3
c/>
Ct-,
c^
'
t-
3
00
CD C
00
T3
CD
a! _J
i/1
o
<U '
c
_o
UH
oo c
o
U e
r~ c
o o
3*
0>
i/i
G X
C O aj
^ (/^
XI
a -1
ca
3
XI
3 o
o ,13 o i - i
ca * fcd
c ou o
u *E c
>1
Xi
odel
ompu
ure
14
Figure 18. Folds formed by flow of incompetent material, modeled by simultaneous movement of paired normal and thrust faults, (a)
represents beds in place before flow; (b) simulates fold belt formed above incompetent sequence.
thrusts could be very difficult to detect in the field. McMechan and Thompson (1985) remapped the northern Alberta
and northeastern British Columbia foothills showing that
many folds include previously unrecognized low-angle
thrusts. Because of the large amount of thrusting needed to
generate folds, crustal shortening in fold belts is seriously
underestimated if it is based on fold shortening alone.
McMechan (1985) describes a cross section through the British Columbia foothills where shortening of the shallow,
folded section is much less than that of the the underlying
thrust belt.
In the Fernie basin, southern Canadian Rockies, subhorizontal Cretaceous beds (no shortening) overlie tight anticlines in Paleozoic carbonates (moderate shortening), while
the intervening synclines are filled by thrust-repeated Jurassic shales (much shortening) in a pattern resembling the
upper half of Figure 19b (Dahlstrom, 1969a). Local and
regional imbalance of crustal shortening between different
structural levels is normal. Attempts to balance cross sections by assuming uniform shortening, especially short
cross sections such as those through the edges of Rocky
Mountain foreland uplifts, may introduce more problems
than they solve.
15
tx\\\\\\\\^^^^
a.
Zon* of dtachm*>>l
t M OtdtchW!H
mmm^^mm^mmmmn
^DIHerentle.1 movement^
between A 4 C
b.
Figure 19. (a) The ideal concentric fold. If spaces above and below Unit B are filled through flow of incompetent beds, relative movement
between A and C may equal shortening due to folding in B, as shown. However, if spaces are filled by thrust repetition of competent
material, differential horizontal movement may exceed shortening in unit B (from Dahlstrom, 1970).
(b) Folds with overlying and underlying thrust duplex. X-X' is the amount of differential horizontal movement required to generate the
folds in Unit B. Note large amount of thrust slip and relative movement between units A and C, very small amount of shortening in Unit
B. Low angle thrusts may carry slip of lower thrusts through Unit B into Unit C.
16
SHORTENING
Figure 22. Computer simulation of growing fault-bend fold. Numbers show crests at successive stages of growth.
17
a lower-to-higher sequence (Figure 25a) (Douglas, 1950;
Dahlstrom, 1970). Imbrications in the footwall of a major
thrust (Figure 25b), however, are believed to be emplaced in
a higher-to-lower sequence. Although intuitively it appears
that the hanging wall imbrications formed after emplacement of the basal thrust, there is no geometric basis for this
assumption. Figure 26 shows two computer-generated
models with the same hanging wall and footwall imbrications as in Figure 25. Both models in Figure 26 were generated in a left-to-right sequence by progressive faulting of an
undisturbed footwall (Figure 26c). The only difference
between them is that the sequence for hanging wall imbrications (Fig. 26a) was made by three minor faults followed by
a major one, and the footwall imbrications sequence (Fig.
26b) by one major fault followed by three minor ones.
If hanging wall imbrications formed in a sequence different from that for footwall imbrications, the normal transition along strike from major into minor faults and vice
versa (i.e., displacement transfer) would be impossible. If
both sets of imbrications are emplaced in the same
sequence, faults in Figure 25a can pass along strike into
those in Figure 25b through displacement transfer. The term
imbrication is itself misleading, since it implies the break up
of an originally unbroken thrust sheet following its
emplacement. The relationships shown in Figure 25 can be
modeled by a left-to-right (higher-to-lower) or a right-to-
interstratal slip
concentric folding
fractures
C. bedded
18
*- ^^K\^^m^
.^
c.
Figure 26. Computer generated models of "leading edge" (a) and
"trailing edge" (b) imbrications of a thrust sheet. Both models
were generated from (c) by a left-to-right sequence of thrust
emplacement. The difference between them is that (a) is formed by
three minor faults followed by a major one, (b) by a major fault
followed by three minor ones.
of its crest is unrelated to emplacement of either the forelimb or back-limb thrusts. Once formed, any thrust may
eventually be transported to a fore-limb or back-limb location that has no connection with its original position and
mode of emplacement. Thrust faults commonly pass along
strike from a back-limb position through a fore-limb position and return to a back-limb position. This would not be
possible if back-limb and fore-limb thrusts formed in opposite chronological sequences.
Minor sub-horizontal faults in the steep limbs of anticlines and foreland uplifts are sometimes incorrectly classified as fore-limb thrusts. However, they are actually
high-angle extensional faults with respect to the steep fold
limbs they cut (Perry, 1978). Many problems in structural
interpretation arise from miscorrelation of these extensional faults with thrusts.
Anomalous Structures
Not all structures can be modeled as the products of step
faulting. The overturned synclines found in the footwalls of
some thrusts cannot be formed through step-faulting (Butler, 1985). Similarly, although some hanging-wall drag folds
originate by duplex formation, it is clear that many owe
their origin to other kinematic processes (Williams and
Chapman, 1983), beyond the scope of this discussion.
Figure 27. (a) Map and cross section of a plunging step thrust. The
cross section is commonly illustrated but the surface configuration
is rarely shown on geological maps, (b) Structure commonly
shown on geological maps and interpreted on seismic profiles.
Although anomalous and difficult to relate to the step-fault in the
lower part of the cross section, faults are commonly shown dying
out upward or along strike in this manner.
19
of B. Each stage shown is equally probable, as well as the
infinite number of other intermediate stages not shown. The
geometry shown in Figure 28 occurs only at stage C during
the emplacement of Fault B. Although this is no more likely
to occur than at any other stage, it is very commonly illustrated, but the infinite number of other possible interpretations, including stages B, D, and E, are rarely illustrated.
Whereas there may be proven examples of Stage C geomeFigure 28. Frequently illustrated relationship between thrust try, it appears that it is an interpretation that is applied far
faults. Very precise adjustment of the slip of fault B with respect to more frequently than the probability of its occurrence sugthe spacing between it and fault A is necessary to model this rela- gests. If proven, this relationship may indicate that A is later
than B, but this interpretation should not be accepted withtionship in a normal sequence of thrust emplacement.
out other supporting evidence.
a fault is shown following the narrow zone of poor data
caused by interference between reflections from the horizontal beds and the adjacent dipping beds. Usually there is
no offset of seismic markers across the zone. It is impossible
to model this structure. If the lower part of the step fault is
modeled with the appropriate amount of offset of B, then
unit C in the hanging wall is offset by the same amount and
steeply tilted.
The plan shown in 27b is common on geologic maps.
Almost always, the position of the fault is known only
where it follows B, the competent unit, which outcrops. The
upper sector is invariably inferred, because C (being incompetent) provides no outcrop. Thus there is usually no geological basis for this type of interpretation, which is
geometrically impossible. It appears that such interpretations stem from the belief that thrust faults die out into
folds. One must ask how many plunging ramp anticlines
have been misinterpreted as faults passing along strike into
folds?
Figure 27a represents a model that is mechanically and
geometrically simple yet rarely illustrated, while 27b shows
commonly accepted surface and subsurface interpretations
that are mechanically difficult, geometrically impossible or,
at best, incomplete. These should not be accepted uncritically. Where such structures are proven (not interpreted),
they require further study to determine how the geology
appears to defy simple geometry.
The difference between the two interpretative styles is
very important in hydrocarbon exploration. It bears
directly on size, location, and correlation of faults, and
extent of overthrust reservoirs. Reinterpreting old geological and geophysical data in the light of these criteria can be a
significant first step in developing new plays in mature
exploration areas.
DISCUSSION
Factors Controlling the Development of Thrust Ramps
In thrust belts where faults are widely spaced, basement
influence may be an important factor in determining the
ramp locations (Wiltscho & Eastman, 1983), but it does not
seem appropriate in deformed belts where there are very
20
*Pm
^55S^^\\\\^^^^^
\^ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ ^ ^
^ ^ w ^ T ^ w ^ f ^ r ^ T m ^ g ^ g ^ r ^ T ^ w ^ ^ v ^ ^ ^ ^ v ^ ^\ W ^ ^ V W W W ^ ^ ^ W ^ W W ^ ^ V , S 1
Figure 29. Evolution of a pair of thrusts. Following its emplacement, thrust A is carried "piggy-back" in the hanging wall of thrust B
(Stage A). Stages B E are examples from a infinite number of profiles of successive growth stages of thrust B. Stage C (also illustrated in
Figure 28) is no more likely to occur than any other, but is it very often illustrated in interpretations of overthrust structures. Numbers
indicate relative amounts of slip of faults A and B. Development of a new thrust at X (stage E) would initiate duplex formation.
21
A
-**
i i i ' i i
^V.V"^ ^
N\\\V.
'
i'
i i ' i
i<*M<WMmW>M/AAIWMMIWMWMAMA>AIWWWW'UW
.
'- ' v*
safflH
Figure 30. Impossible relationship between thrust faults. If
restored to original, undisturbed condition, it will not fit, or "fill
the container."
"-"""""'
muuuuuuuuuuuuuuiww*
i i i i i i i i i i i i i i iii
^AAA;^AAA;^AAAA^AAAA'V^u^^^vvv^;v^;vv'VVV^;vvvv'v^;vv^A;vv^vvvv^vvA/vvvv^;vAA/vv^
AAAjwwwuuwuvvvw^vvvvvvwvvvwvwuwwvvvyvvyvvwwvvvvwuvu^'T^
22
of fold and thrust belts. If this is true, deformation in some
mountain belts may be much younger than ages presently
assigned to them. For mechanical reasons, the locus of an
upper detachment zone is commonly a marine shale. Perhaps this is why Kauffman (1984) correlates thrusting episodes with periods of marine shale deposition.
The geometrical feasibility of modeling a major part of
the Canadian Rockies through the process of blind thrusting suggests that other thrust and fold belts are formed in
the same way (Jones, 1984a; Charlesworth and Gagnon,
1985). Butler (1985) does not share this interpretation and
suggests that when blind thrusts wedge the foreland margin
upward beneath an upper detachment they form a phenomenon restricted to the "last gasp" of orogenic movement.
Morley (1986) suggests that the difference between overthrust and underthrust foreland margins reflects differences
in the rate of thrusting deceleration. However, no evidence
suggests that the last movement of the thrust belt should differ from preceding ones, and much evidence suggests that it
Sequence in Folding
is similar. In the case of the Canadian Cordillera this evidence is displayed not only at the final foreland margin, but
Most folds can be represented as the products of a finite at preceding ones. Also, the huge differences of shortening
number of faults. If those faults are emplaced in a chrono- between suprajacent structural-stratigraphic packages
logical order, the folds they generate are formed in the same described by McMechan (1985) and Thompson (1981) in the
order. Thrusting sequence has been discussed by many foothills of British Columbia show that blind thrusting
authors, and there is general agreement that thrusts are occurred throughout deformation, not merely at the final
emplaced in sequence from higher to lower, by progressive stage.
deformation of an undisturbed footwall (Elliott, 1976).
Blind normal faults may also be recognized as natural
Folds can be generated above thrusts by ramping and components of certain structural regimes. Gibbs (1984)
duplex formation involving large-scale differential horizon- describes duplex structures in extensional basins involving
tal movement. Folds formed in this way migrate during blind normal faults. Similar faults may also exist in fold and
growth. Fold formation by simple compression above a thrust belts. In the southern Canadian Rockies, the Flatbasal detachment is geometrically impossible, except where head and other listric normal faults cut the Paleozoic and
evaporite or similarly incompetent rock forms the basal Proterozoic along the east side of the Fernie basin.
detachment zone and fills the anticlinal core. The classical Although mapped as separate faults, they are in line with
compression-box method of simulating the formation of each other and extend up tobut not throughLower Crefolds and thrust faults is misleading in space and time. It taceous sandstones and coal measures, and terminate in
produces equal and simultaneous shortening at all levels Jurassic shales. There is no unconformity in the sequence,
above a basal detachment, where differential and sequential and the consistency of this relationship belies coincidence,
movement is more appropriate.
suggesting that these faults are different sectors of a single
Flathead fault (Jones, 1985) that flattens upward into the
Jurassic Fernie shale. This unit had previously been identiBlind Thrusts in Orogenic Belts
fied as the upper detachment for folds in that area (Dahlstrom, 1969a).
Recognition of blind thrusts beneath upper detachments
can change the interpretation of deformation age in fold
and thrust belts. The age of thrusting attributed to a Blind Thrusts and Mechanics of Thrusting
deformed belt bounded by a foreland syncline is incorrect
when the upper detachment zone is interpreted as an unconHubbert and Rubey (1959) applied Terzhagi's (1950) rock
formity. In the southern Alberta foothills, the upper detach- mechanics principles to the mechanics of overthrusting, and
ment zone follows an Upper Cretaceous marine shale. This demonstrated that an overthrust mass can be supported and
shale was thought to contain an unconformity (Douglas, lubricated by formation fluids confined under near1950; Elliott, 1976) dating the youngest thrusting as Late lithostatic pressures at its base. Gretener (1972) and others
Cretaceous. However, no section is missing. Recognition of point out that this model fails to account for the toe of the
the upper detachment relates folding of the Paleocene of the overthrust mass; that is, for the sector of the thrust sheet
foreland syncline to the underlying thrusting, which is of that moves up a ramp and reaches the syntectonic erosion
Eocene age (Bally et al., 1966). Similar errors in interpreta- surface, where it must lose its ability to retain the high fluid
tion may confuse the tectonic history of relatively unex- pressures that thrusting requires.
plored thrust belts, as well as others that were explored and
This problem is largely eliminated in a kinematic model
drilled for hydrocarbons long before folded faults, blind involving blind thrusts. In a blind thrust model, thrusting
thrusts, and duplexes were recognized as normal elements can occur within an envelope of high fluid pressure instead
of thickening with thinning, which can be represented by a
combination of thrusting and normal faulting, thickness
variation within a fold can represent a large amount of differential movement between competent beds. Dahlstrom
(1970) describes chevron folds in which interstratal fold and
fault duplex structures fill the thickened fold crests and
troughs.
If interstratal slip is a geometric requirement of concentric folding, it follows that concentric folding is possible
only in well-bedded rocks, whereas massive units are folded
in other styles and are more prone to fracturing during
deformation. This process of folding and fracturing can
generate hydrocarbon traps in which a thrusted reservoir
contains fracture permeability and porosity in massive
units, while thinly bedded and shalier units that represent
source and/or cap rocks fold through interstratal slip and
retain their ability to seal.
23
Syntectonic erosion surface
Figure 34. Fluid pressure regime in thrust belt with exposed upper
detachment. Shallow upper detachment may provide a gliding
horizon for epidermal gravity sliding down foreland-facing dip
slope.
24
Figure 35. (a) Profile of thrust duplex in the Canadian Rockies (Fermor, 1987). (b) Plan of strike-slip fault duplex, California (Dibblee,
1977).
and pull-apart basins (Crowell, 1974). It is interesting to
speculate that because thrusting (by stacking of lenticular
horses) almost inevitably causes arcuate structures (anticlines) in cross section which are convex upward, the horizontal juxtaposition of lenticular terranes by strike-slip
faults must also cause structures that are arcuate in plan. In
plan, Circum-Pacific strike-slip faulting combined with
subduction zones (analog of the upper detachment zone)
should generate arcuate structures that are convex oceanward.
Time
Although this discussion is concerned almost entirely
with the geometry of geological structures, formation of
such structures requires time. Duration of movement is the
principal difference between major and minor faults, and
between small-scale interstratal slip and major beddingplane thrusts.
The fold belt that is the British Columbia foothills passes
along strike into the thrust belt that is the Alberta foothills.
Each deformed belt has about the same width. If crustal
shortening is calculated on the basis of folding alone, it
appears that the British Columbia foothills have much less
shortening than the Alberta foothills. Does this mean that
(a) the duration of deformation in the British Columbia
foothills was less than in the Alberta foothills? (b) deformation was slower in the British Columbia foothills? or (c) the
deformation and crustal shortening are similar in both
areas, and the apparent differences are due to the differences in levels of erosion? The models shown in this paper
suggest that (c) is the most likely alternative. The work of
Thompson (1981) and McMechan (1985) for the British
Columbia foothills supports this suggestion.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Step faulting is a primary mechanism of folding in layered rocks.
2. Location of ramps in a thrust belt may be governed by
25
the most important process in the formation of thrust belts
and the fold belts that overlie them. Shallow upper detachment zones also provide an ideal setting for shallow, out-ofsequence gravity gliding down the face of the advancing
foreland monocline and down the trailing edge of a growing
mountain belt.
11. The blind thrusting model reduces problems inherent
in the classical theory of thrusting along zones of high fluid
pressure, because it involves an envelope of high pressures,
not just a basal zone.
Questions about rock deformation processes posed by
simple rigorous geometric models show how much is
assumed and how little is actually known. Before rock
mechanics can be used in computer models of thrust and
fold belts, more needs to be understood. Computer synthesis of the geometry of geological structures may solve
important problems in the delineation of hydrocarbonbearing structures in thrust and fold belts. In addition to
balanced cross sections (which can reduce the number of
possible interpretations), quantitative modeling stimulates
questions that might not otherwise be asked.
Computer modeling shows that bedding-plane movement
is an extremely important factor in the deformation of layered rocks, and demonstrates that the simple step-fault
model has applications that extend far beyond its original
geologic context. Rigorous computer synthesis of this
model shows the applications and defines the limitations of
the model. Clearly much more sophisticated programs are
necessary, but there are many problems to be overcome.
Development of steeply dipping and overturned beds and
faults requires a system of modeling concentric folds, but
how far up- and down-section should they go? Figures 20
and 21 show that the limits of this style of folding are not
geometrically predictable. It is not yet possible to model
more than one phase of deformation, mainly because it is
difficult to predict the path of a fault through material that
has already been deformed.
The direct applications of computer modeling to petroleum exploration in deformed belts are obvious. Less tangible, but perhaps more important, is the probability that
exposure to quantitative computer modeling will cause
earth scientists to develop a more critical and creative
approach to the interpretation of structural geological data.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writer is President of International Tectonic Consultants, Ltd.; 715-4th Street, NW; Calgary, Alberta, T2N 1P3;
Canada. Manuscript was received by the Association, July
3, 1986.
The writer thanks W. B. Hennessey and J. K. Lentin, for
reviewing early drafts of the manuscript. He also thanks W.
J. Perry, Jr., in particular who suggested many improvements to the manuscript originally submitted.
REFERENCES CITED
Bally, A. W., ed., 1983, Seismic expression of structural styles:
AAPG Studies in Geology, Vols. 1, 2, 3.
P. L. Gordy, and G. A. Stewart, 1966, Structure, seismic
26
Survey of Canada, Paper 52-10.
1956, Nordegg, Alberta: Geological Survey of Canada
Paper 55-34, 40p.
1958, Chungo Creek map-area, Alberta: Geological Survey
of Canada Paper 58-3, 45 p.
Elliott, D., 1976, The energy balance and deformation mechanisms of thrust sheets: Royal Society of London Philosophical
Transactions, A., v. 283, p. 289-312.
Erdman, O. A., 1950, Alexo and Saunders map-areas, Alberta:
Geological Survey Canada Memoir 254, 100 p.
Evamy, D. D., J. Haremboure, P. Kamerling, W. A. Knoap, F. A.
Molloy, and P. H. Rowlands, 1978, Hydrocarbon habitat of
Tertiary Niger Delta: AAPG Bulletin, v. 62, p. 1-39.
Fermor, P., 1987, Structure of the base of the Lewis thrust sheet
around the Cate Creek and Haig Brook windows, British
Columbia and Alberta: Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology (in press).
Fox, F. G., 1959, Structure and accumulation of hydrocarbons in
southern foothills, Alberta, Canada: AAPG Bulletin, v. 43, p.
992-1025.
Gibbs, A. D., 1984, Structural evolution of extensional basin margins: Journal of the Geological Society, v. 141, p. 609-620.
Gordy, P. L., and F. R. Frey, 1975, Geological cross-sections
through the foothills, in Foothills field trip guidebook: Calgary, Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists/Canadian
Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 64 p.
and D. K. Norris, 1977, Geological guide for the
C.S.P.G. and 1977 Waterton-Glacier Park field conference:
Calgary, Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists, 93 p.
Gretener, P. E., 1972, Thoughts on overthrust faulting in a layered
sequence: Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology, v. 20, p.
583-607.
Gwinn, V. E., 1970, Kinematic patterns and estimates of lateral
shortening, Valley and Ridge and Great Valley provinces, central Appalachians, south-central Pennsylvania, in G. W. Fisher,
F. J. Pettijohn, J. C. Reed, and K. N. Weaver, eds., Studies of
Appalachian geology, central and southern: New York, John
Wiley, p. 127-146.
Harris, L. D., and R. C. Milici, 1977, Characteristics of thinskinned style of deformation in the southern Appalachians,
and potential hydrocarbon traps: US Geological Survey Professional Paper 1018, 40 p.
Hauge, T. A., 1985, Gravity-spreading origin of the Heart Mountain allochthon, northwestern Wyoming: Geological Society of
America Bulletin, v. 96, p. 1440-1456.
Hubbert, M. K., and W. W. Rubey, 1959, Role of fluid pressure in
mechanics of overthrust faulting: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 70, p. 115-166.
Irish, E. J. W., 1965, Geology of the Rocky Mountain Foothills,
Alberta: Geological Survey of Canada, Memoir 334, 241 p.
Jones, P. B., 1982, Oil and gas beneath east-dipping underthrust
faults in the Alberta foothills, in R. B. Powers, ed., Geologic
studies of the Cordilleran thrust belt: Denver, Rocky Mountain
Association of Geologists, p. 61-74.
1984a, Hydrocarbons, blind thrust, and upper detachments
(abstract): AAPG Bulletin, v. 68, p. 493.
1984b, Sequence of formation of back-limb thrusts and
imbricationsimplications for the development of the IdahoWyoming thrust belt: AAPG Bulletin, v. 68, p. 816-818.
1985, Are blind faults exotic or normal features of fold and
thrust belts? (abstract): Geological Society of America
Abstracts with Programs, v. 17, p. 63.
and Helmut Linsser, 1984, Faster search for hidden geology: Resource Technology, v. 1, p. 8-9.
Kauffman, E. G., 1984, Dynamics of Cretaceous epicontinental
seas (abstract): AAPG Bulletin, v. 687, p. 1837.
McMechan, M. E., 1985, Low-taper triangle zone geometryan
interpretation of the Rocky Mountain foothills, Pine PassPeace River area, British Columbia: Bulletin of Canadian
Petroleum Geology, v. 33, p. 31-38.
and R. I. Thompson, 1985, Southeastern Monkman Pass
area, British Columbia: Geological Survey of Canada Open
File Report 1150.
Morley, C. K., 1986, A classification of thrust fronts: AAPG Bulletin, v. 70, p. 12-25.
Norris, D. K., 1964, The Lower Cretaceous of the south-eastern
Canadian cordillera: Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology,
v. 12, p. 512-535.
1971, Comparative study of the Castle River and other
folds in the eastern cordillera of Canada: Geological Survey of
Canada Bulletin 205, 58 p.
Ollerenshaw, N. J., 1978, Geology, Calgary, Alberta-British
Columbia: Geological Survey of Canada Map 1457A.
Perry, W. J., Jr., 1978, Sequential deformation in the central
Appalachians: American Journal of Science, v. 256, p. 518542.
and W. J. Sando, 1982, Sequential deformation in the
thrust belt of southwestern Montana, in R. B. Powers, ed.,
Geologic studies of the Cordilleran thrust belt: Denver, Rocky
Mountain Association of Geologists, p. 137-144.
Ramsay, J. M., 1962, The geometry and mechanics of "similar"
type folds: Journal of Geology, v. 70, p. 309-327.
Rich, J. L., 1934, Mechanics of low-angle overthrust faulting as
illustrated by Cumberland thrust block, Virginia, Kentucky,
and Tennessee: AAPG Bulletin, v. 18, p. 1584-1596.
Royse, F., M. A. Warner, and D. L. Reese, 1975, Thrust belt structural geometry and related stratigraphic problems, WyomingIdaho-Northern Utah, in D. W. Bolyard, ed., Deep drilling
frontiers of the central Rocky Mountains: Denver, Rocky
Mountain Association of Geologists, p. 41-54.
Schultz, A. P., 1986, Ancient, giant rockslides, Sinking Creek
Mountain, southern Appalachians, Virginia: Geology, v. 14, p.
11-14.
Suppe, J., 1983, Geometry and kinematics of fault bend folding:
American Journal of Science, v. 283, p. 684-721.
Teal, P. R., 1983, The Triangle Zone at Cabin Creek, Alberta, n A.
W. Bally, ed., Seismic Expression of Structural Styles: AAPG
Studies in Geology Series, 15, v. 3, p. 3.4.1-48.
Terzhaghi, K., 1950, Application of geology to engineering practice: Geological Society of America Berkey Volume, p. 83-123.
Thompson, R. I., 1981, The nature and significance of large
"blind" thrusts within the northern Rocky Mountains of Canada, in K. R. McClay and N. J. Price, eds., Thrust and nappe
tectonics: Geological Society of London Special Publication 9,
p. 449-462.
Van Bemmelsen, R. W., 1954, Mountain building: The Hague,
Martinus Nijhoff, 177 p.
Voight, B., and W. M. Cady, 1978, Transported rocks of the
Taconide zone, eastern North America, in B. Voight, ed., Rockslides and avalanches; 1. Natural phenomena: Developments in
Geotechnical Engineering 14A, New York, Elsevier, p. 505562.
Williams, Graham, and T. Chapman, 1983, Strains developed in
the hangingwalls of thrust due to their slip/propagation rate: a
dislocation model: Journal of Structural Geology, v. 5, p. 563571.
Wiltschko, D. V., and J. A. Dorr, 1983, Timing of deformation in
overthrust belt and foreland of Idaho, Wyoming, and Utah:
AAPG Bulletin, v. 67, p. 1304-1322.
and D. Eastman, 1983, Role of basement warps and faults
in localizing thrust fault ramps, in R. D. Hatcher, H. Williams,
and I. Zietz, eds., Contributions to the tectonics and geophysics
of mountain chains: Geological Society of America Memoir
158, p. 177-190.