Olivier Bettens

RENAISSANCE "JUST INTONATION"

Attainable Standard or Utopian Dream?
Outline of a model based on Zarlino's theory
The model presented here was ready, in its fundamental form, in 1992. In the fol
lowing years, many discussions on the rec.music.early newsgroup, in particular w
ith Margo Schulter regarding Pythagorean tuning and Pierre Funk regarding comma
adjustment, allowed me to refine and explain it better. But I would never have d
ared publish what follows without the providential meeting with Yves Ouvrard and
Jean-Pierre Vidal in the summer of 1998. They enthusiastically worked to develo
p the software tool of my dreams, one I would never have been able to create alo
ne. May they find here the expression of my gratitude.
Introduction
In the second part of his Istitutioni Harmoniche 1, Gioseffo Zarlino provided wh
at constitutes one of the first precise descriptions of a musical temperament 2.
At the end of this analysis, he devoted a chapter to vocal intonation, declarin
g in a manner which could not be more clear, that a cappella singers tend not to
use a particular temperament but rather intervals in their "true form" 3. This
assertion made him the prophet 4 of what later theoreticians have called "just i
ntonation" 5. Rather than a proof, which he hardly had the means to demonstrate,
it is a credo which he espouses. He posits an ideal 6, not necessarily achieved
, but nevertheless highly desirable. Careful to refer to his elders for support,
he identified the system he promoted with one of those proposed by Ptolemy in t
he second century. The name of this theoretician of antiquity was chosen to bala
nce that of Pythagoras, traditionally associated with the only accepted tuning s
ystem of medieval theory.
If one is interested in instrumental intonation, one can find invaluable instruc
tion as well as technical treatises on the instruments themselves, or representa
tive tables 7. However, Zarlino's profession of faith is, along with the controv
ersy it provoked (notably between Zarlino and his former student Vincenzo Galile
i 8), the only starting point available to us for approaching the intonation of
16th century singers.
Some have always considered just intonation to be a total fantasy. They see in i
t, perhaps with reason, a mathematician's whimsy lacking real musical content. N
evertheless this "illusion" has been the object of a quest for a long time, a qu
est which Haynes readily compares to that for the Grail 9. If there were a point
in space-time where this quest had a chance to bear fruit, it would have been i
n one of the high-level cappelle or camerate which flourished in 16th century It
aly, the microcosm which saw "all the practitioners, transformed by Zarlino's au
thority" 10 diligently in search of the best possible intonation. It was at this
time more than at any other that just intonation could have been the object of
a more or less conscious and reasoned practice.
Moreover, such an assertion would gather strength if just intonation were other
than a vague idea. Putting it into practice implies, in effect, choices which co
uld lead to very different outcomes. One can search in vain in early or modern w
ritings for procedures enabling its application to concrete musical examples. Wh
at we are attempting to describe here is certainly not a set of rigid instructio
ns, but above all a reference framework which we wish, although it is not absolu

tely essential, could be of practical use today. If Renaissance singers employed

a form of just intonation, what would have been their implicit or explicit stra
tegies, whether conscious or unconscious, for coming close to such an ideal? Thi
s then is the fundamental question which we are asking ourselves. We will thus b
e led to ask ourselves another, more burning question, especially in a time when
numerous vocal ensembles have dedicated themselves to Renaissance polyphony: In
what way should today's singers who want to adopt Zarlino's ideal proceed to at
tain it? We suggest that the two questions have the same answer, in that the ans
wer to the second is unnecessary if profound thought has already gone into answe
ring the first.
Chapter One: From Helmholtz to Barbour
Helmholtz and the "natural scale"
After having been rather forgotten, just intonation came back into fashion with
the naturalism of the Romantic era, in particular through the work of the great
physicist Helmholtz, who used a "just harmonium" for his experiments in tuning.
While promoting universal application of his "natural scale" by singers and viol
inists of his time, he considered it particularly appropriate for Renaissance mu
sic:
The characteristics of the natural scale are most evident in the early Itali
an music of Palestrina, Vittoria, Gabrieli, and their contemporaries. These work
s require very accurate consonance because they produce their delicate harmonic
effects only through chord inversions, the alternation of major and minor chords
, and the small number of dissonances caused by suspensions. When performed in a
tempered scale, they lose all meaning and expression. However, when played on t
he harmonium using the natural scale, they can produce a pleasing effect. 11
He also recognised that the singers he heard were, for the most part, incapable
of singing "in a way that gives the listener this total well-being which comes f
rom perfect harmony." This incapacity he attributed to the harmful influence of
the pianos with tempered tuning with which they practised. Things were quite dif
ferent in the past:
Until the seventeenth century, singers were taught by means of a monochord,
for which Zarlino, in the middle of the sixteenth century, had rediscovered the
true natural scale. 12
But what then is this "True Natural Scale" for which Zarlino really should, his
own views notwithstanding, assume the responsibility? Without entering into the
detail of Helmholtz's discussion, which is based on a very idiosyncratic modal n
omenclature, we can recognise what he called the "Major Scale." This he describe
s by the following frequency ratios 13 :
ut1 - re - mi - fa - sol - la - si - ut2
1 - 9:8 - 5:4 - 4:3 - 3:2 - 5:3 - 15:8 - 2
This scale, included ad infinitum in dozens of more or less recent theoretical w
orks, under various names such as Zarlino's Scale, the natural scale or the phys
icists' scale, has supported numerous definitive judgements, from those on just
intonation to those on Zarlino himself. What are we to think of it? Above all, t
hat we are involved here with a major anachronism. No matter what one might thin
k after superficial examination of a figure (Figure 1.1) appearing in his treati
se, Zarlino could in no way have "rediscovered the natural scale," for the simpl
e reason that the concept of scale and its corollary, of key or tonality, did no
t exist at the time of the Renaissance. However, that must not prevent us from p
ursuing the examination of what we will call from now on Helmholtz's scale, in o
rder to review some basic ideas on the calculation of musical intervals.
All the degrees of this scale form simple frequency ratios with its tonic ut, co

rresponding to what are called "pure" intervals 14: ut1-ut2 forms an octave with
a ratio of 2; ut1-sol a fifth with a ratio 3:2; ut1-fa a fourth with a ratio 4:
3; ut1-mi a major third with a ratio 5:4; ut1-re a tone with a ratio 9:8; la-ut2
a minor third with a ratio 6:5; si-ut2 a semitone (diatonic) with a ratio 16:15
.
Difficulties appear as soon as we calculate the intervals which appear between t
he intermediate degrees, and in particular the seconds, the fifths and the third
s. First of all, the seconds re-mi and sol-la have a ratio 10:9, leading to the
definition of a minor tone. This requires us to rename the traditional or Pythag
orean tone of 9:8 to major tone. Such a distinction between a minor tone and a m
ajor tone is missing from the principal systems of intonation prevalent historic
ally in music for keyboards (Pythagorean tuning, meantone, and equal temperament
). Moreover, the rules of counterpoint and later, of harmony, never took it into
account. Furthermore, with the fifth re-la we find the ratio of 40:27, an inter
val which if played would offend even the least delicate of ears. In comparison
with the fifth of 3:2, it is too small by a micro-interval, which comes to 81:80
, and which we call a syntonic comma (hereafter just a comma, for short). Lastly
, the minor third re-fa has a ratio of 32:27, which is in fact a Pythagorean min
or third. It will be noted that it is also the comma which makes the difference
between a major tone and a minor tone, as well as between a Pythagorean third an
d a pure third.
In order to mitigate the effect of these irregular intervals, due to the intrusi
on of an unavoidable "grain of sand" called a comma, Helmholtz introduced a seco
nd re in his scale, a comma lower than the first 15. This made it possible to re
store to their "natural" ratios the fifth re-la and the minor third re-fa, and w
ith this duplicated note, it became possible to create perfect chords within Hel
mholtz's scale. This cleared the way for tonality. But it is then reasonable to
wonder whether a scale which offers an optional degree is still a scale, and mor
eover how will it be able to function as a diatonic framework if one of its degr
ees is indeterminate? Which alternative re does one choose when ascending from u
t to mi? One also wonders how to leave this narrow domain of absolute "tonal pur
ity," because the least modulation would introduce other Helmholtz scales, each
one as indeterminate as the next. How would a singer be able to find pitch? And,
even admitting that he has succeeded, how does one imagine that, on the basis o
f such an anachronistic premise, he could get even slightly close to the frame o
f mind which prevailed in the Renaissance? It is with this impasse that we will
abandon the search for the "natural scale."
Barbour's Labyrinth
The Pythagorean diatonic system, as described by Boethius and medieval theory, i
s already a form of just intonation. It is built up solely on simple proportions
, utilising factors of 2 and 3. All the intervals which make it up are "untemper
ed" and can be reduced to combinations of octaves (ratio of 2:1) and fifths (rat
io of 3:2). Adopted by those who tuned keyboard instruments, it was arbitrarily
limited to a cycle of twelve fifths, the last of which, the famous wolf, too sma
ll by a Pythagorean comma, reflected the mathematical impossibility of finding a
n integral power of two equal to an integral power of three. This is equivalent
to the impossibility of making a given number of fifths coincide with a given nu
mber of octaves. In reality, if we reject arithmetical compromises, and also lea
ve the octaves out of consideration, a series of pure fifths will appear not as
a circle but as a spiral extending indefinitely in both directions. It is this s
piral which constitutes the kernel of any system of just intonation. Unrolled, i
t takes the following form 16 :
...Ebb-Bbb-Fb-Cb-Gb-Db-Ab-Eb-Bb-F-C-G-D-A-E-B-F#-C#-G#-D#-A#-E#-B#-F##-C##-G##-D
##-A##...
The principal limitation of this system is that it does not make it possible to

generate pure major thirds (5:4) or minor thirds (6:5), but only the Pythagorean
thirds of 81:64 and 32:27. We recall that the major Pythagorean third is a comm
a (a syntonic comma) greater than the pure major third; the minor Pythagorean th
ird is a comma smaller than its pure counterpart. The ingenious step, shown in p
articular by Barbour 17, is taken by adding, parallel to this primary series of
pure fifths, a second series "-1" shifted a comma lower. This makes it possible
to generate pure major thirds starting from each note of the first series. For e
xample, on a short length:
series "-1" :

...

D-1

A-1

E-1

B-1 F#-1 C#-1 G#-1 D#-1

...

primary series: ... Bb --- F --- C --- G --- D --- A --- E --- B --- F# ...
Starting from any note in the primary series (for example C) and moving diagonal
ly up to the right, we obtain the pure major third (E-1 is a comma below the E o
f the primary series). Going down again diagonally towards the right, we arrive
at G, a fifth from the starting note C. This completes the major triad. More gen
erally, having added a series "-1" of fifths, one can find, from each note of th
e primary series, the major third by going higher into the series "-1" and the m
inor third by going lower. (G to B-1, major third; G to E-1, minor third).
But all of our problems are not yet solved. In order to be able to generate, for
each note of the primary series, major thirds by going lower and minor thirds b
y going higher, it is now necessary to add a series of fifths "+1" to the system
, shifted a comma higher:
series "-1":

...

D-1

A-1

E-1

B-1 F#-1 C#-1 G#-1 D#-1

...

primary series: ... Bb --- F --- C --- G --- D --- A --- E --- B --- F# ...
\ /
series "+1":
... Db+1 Ab+1 Eb+1 Bb+1 F+1 C+1 G+1 D+1
...
By going down diagonally towards the right, and returning similarly, it is now p
ossible to obtain any minor triad. The combination of these three series of fift
hs thus makes it possible to generate, from each note of the primary series, a m
ajor triad and a minor triad. This may seem satisfactory, but what occurs if, st
arting from a note of one of the added series, one wishes to generate a new pure
third? One must then have recourse to an additional series of fifths, shifted b
y a further comma compared to the preceding one. This implies the possibility of
an infinite set of series, both upwards and downwards:
...
series "-3":

...

A#-3 E#-3 B#-3 F##-3 C##-3 G##-3

...

series "-2":

...

F#-2 C#-2 G#-2 D#-2 A#-2 E#-2 B#-2

...

series "-1":

...

D-1

A-1

E-1
/

B-1 F#-1 C#-1 G#-1 D#-1

...

primary series: ... Bb --- F --- C --- G --- D --- A --- E --- B --- F# ...
\ /
series "+1":
... Db+1 Ab+1 Eb+1 Bb+1 F+1 C+1 G+1 D+1
...
series "+2":

...

Fb+2 Cb+2 Gb+2 Db+2 Ab+2 Eb+2 Bb+2

...

series "+3":
...

...

Abb+3 Ebb+3 Bbb+3 Fb+3 Cb+3 Gb+3

...

This then is finally a "complete system for the generation of pure chords," to a
dopt the phrase of Asselin 18. This network represents all the frequencies it is
possible to reach while moving by combinations of pure fifths and thirds, start

ing from a fixed point (for example A at 440 Hz). It is impressive because it ex
tends indefinitely in four directions. Each series of fifths can extend to the l
eft and the right indefinitely, while it is also possible to add further series
of fifths both above and below the primary series (series -1; +1; etc.). If we a
lso remember that we left the octaves out of consideration in the first stage, w
e can now reintroduce them. Imagine that the whole complex two-dimensional diagr
am above is transposed by an octave. This new diagram can be placed on a new she
et of paper (or a new screen) parallel to and above the existing surface. This p
rocess can then be repeated indefinitely, both upwards and downwards in pitch, s
o as to give access to all the frequencies attainable by combinations of pure oc
taves, fifths, and thirds - in theory. (Theory is not limited by considerations
of human hearing or vocal range!) We can appreciate that such a structure was ab
le to induce a feeling of vertigo in some authors, such as D. Devie, who neverth
eless provided a very colourful description:
One can imagine an immense labyrinth formed by a building of many storeys. A
t each level a corridor in the form of a spiral unwinds to infinity in concentri
c circles towards the periphery. Every five metres we find a stairway leading up
to the next storey above, or down to the next storey below. These represent the
pure thirds. Consider that we represent the most trivial perfect interval withi
n this labyrinth, and we gain some idea of the absurd character of the system in
question. 19
This sense of vertigo comes primarily from the incredible richness of different
frequencies derivable from such a labyrinth, and the impossibility of conceiving
a keyboard capable of providing them. Attempts in this direction have led to ma
ny curiosities of instrument manufacture, which have never gone beyond the proto
type stage 20.
The myth of drifting pitch
Vertigo of a different kind attacks the singer who tries to enter the labyrinth
of Barbour. The voice, being extremely flexible, is not subject to the main weak
ness of keyboard instruments - a limited number of keys in each octave. If never
theless a singer loses his way, it is primarily because he does not know how to
move from one note to the next. In other words the labyrinth of Barbour only all
ows movement by thirds, fifths and octaves and is totally deficient as a diatoni
c framework. There is no way it can indicate how to move by degrees. The interva
l of a second, elementary link in all melodies, never appears directly.
Lacking a better solution, Barbour 21, well aware of the weaknesses of the Helmh
oltz scale and its inherent unsuitability as a diatonic framework, relied upon w
hat we might call the principle of the common note. He suggested that, where a n
ote is common to two consecutive chords, the pitch of that note must not change.
The result is that certain sequences of chords introduce a pitch instability 22
which, should the phenomenon repeat itself, can become a real drift. He took th
e following example:
Figure 1.2 : The opening of God save the King.
If we accept that the pitch of the A of the fourth chord must be the same as tha
t of the third, then the G major chord which ends this extract becomes a comma f
latter than the opening chord. If we repeat these first two bars of the famous a
nthem in a loop, we get a curious descent to the nether regions (Example 1.1) 23
. It is enough, it seems to us, to hear this just once in order to accept it as
unsatisfactory. No vocal group, whether modest or excellent, would wish to repro
duce such a "submersion," and even less to use it as a model.
Systematically applied, the principle of the common note, or any other analogous
principle, will produce drifting of pitch in many pieces, in exactly the same w

ay as in God save the King. Barbour used this observation to construct a fundame
ntal refutation of just intonation. In strict logic, it is only the principle of
the common note which this observation could have nullified. Strangely, that ha
s not been the case. The same principle has been revived since, in a more genera
l form, and precisely by those in favour of just intonation. Amongst the special
ised interpreters of vocal polyphony, it is not unusual to hear the opinion (in
our view far-fetched) expressed that if one sings "truly" just, then the pitch "
must" fluctuate. Such an opinion on this point is sufficiently accepted that one
finds it taken up again in recent theoretical papers 24. If we suggest, a trifl
e ironically, that it is certainly more gratifying for a group of singers to tel
l themselves that they sound out of tune because they sing "too" justly than to
admit that they sing badly or "not quite" justly, then we can better begin to un
derstand the growth of such a myth.
But what we are missing here, nevertheless, is that the principle of the common
note, and consequently the drift of pitch, are by no means unavoidable. There is
no reason why the tenor singing God save the King must inevitably take over his
A of the fourth chord from the A sung by the soprano in the third chord, thus f
orcing the other voices to follow him in dropping pitch. Why can we not expect t
he alto and the bass to move to the D already present in the initial chord (in t
onal terms, the dominant) while the soprano joins them by singing a descending p
ure third, A-F (the solution of the common note would require her to sing a Pyth
agorean third here)? In this case, the three voices would drive the tenor to tun
e his A a comma upwards from the one he anticipated. Is this second solution, on
paper, harder to believe than the first? It has the advantage of maintaining th
e pitch level as well as the vertical purity, and even if repeated in a loop, is
not distressing to the ear (Example 1.2) . How can it be justified that the fir
st solution, which "sounds false," is taken as representative of just intonation
, while the second, which "sounds true," is excluded from this definition?
How are we to advance in the face of all these questions? We need to examine Zar
lino and the theories of the sixteenth century.
| Summary | Introduction | Chap. 1 | Chap. 2 | Chap. 3 | Chap. 4 | Conclusion |
Bibliography |