Utilization of Coal and Bottom Ash For SCC

Journal of Cleaner Production 100 (2015) 59e76
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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro
Review
Utilization of coal- and biomass-red ash in the production

of self-consolidating concrete: a literature review
Gritsada Sua-Iam, Natt Makul*
Department of Building Technology, Faculty of Industrial Technology, Phranakhon Rajabhat University, Changwattana Road, Bangkhen, Bangkok 10220,
Thailand
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 8 September 2014
Received in revised form
3 March 2015
Accepted 12 March 2015
Available online 20 March 2015
Both coal e and biomass-red electric power plants have an enormous negative impact on the environments in which they are situated. However, there is potential to recycle waste such as coal ash and
biomass ash for the production of high-performance concrete, i.e., self-consolidating concrete (SCC). This
innovative high-performance concrete can ow and become compact under its own weight without
segregation. Thus, the need for tamping and vibratory compaction is eliminated, which improves the
production process and the performance of concrete structures. This article reviews SCC in terms of
several aspects, including its history, the processes through which it is produced, and the mix designs
used. The article also discusses the incorporation of four main by-productsdy ash (FA), bottom ash
(BA), rice husk ash (RHA), and sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA)dinto the production of SCC. Due to the rapid
expansion of industrial and agricultural operations, the disposal of by-products such as ash has become
the subject of increasing environmental concern, and their use in the production of SCC constitutes a new
material recycling and sustainability effort. The by-products act as ller materials and can participate in
the pozzolanic reaction associated with cement hydration, often resulting in improved SCC performance.
2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Fly ash (FA)
Bottom ash (BA)
Electric power plant
Rice husk ash (RHA)
Sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA)
Self-consolidating concrete (SCC)
1. Introduction
Coal and biomass fuels are used in electric power plants
worldwide, and the use of these fuels in this context is growing at a
high rate year by year. Although these fuels are relatively inexpensive and readily available, demand is outstripping supply for
both and prices are increasing. A sound fuel management strategy
designed to maintain the required output power level of power
plants means replacing the main fuels used (lignite, anthracite, and
bituminous fuels) with biomass fuels (rice husk and sugarcane
bagasse fuels). And, given the increasing demand for power, large
quantities of by-products (hereafter referred to as ash) are being
produced and must be properly collected and stored, disposed of, or
used (Khan et al., 2012). Nevertheless, given the limited reach of
environmental rules and regulations, ash is disposed of principally
by dumping it in landlls and reusing it in agriculture. Disposing of
ash in landlls means that heavy metals from the y ash may leach
into the ground, thus leading to a higher risk of contaminated
ground water (Pedersen et al., 2008). Similarly, when incinerated,
* Corresponding author. Tel./fax: 66 2 522 6637.

E-mail address: shinomomo7@gmail.com (N. Makul).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.03.038
0959-6526/ 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
rice husk produces a great quantity of ash. Each ton of rice produces
200 kg of rice husks, which on complete combustion produces
40 kg of rice husk ash (RHA). Hence, an adequate handling method
for disposal must be established in order to avoid a negative impact
on the environment (Zerbino et al., 2011). Otherwise, huge quantities of RHA will be wasted and will pose a great threat to the
environment because of the damage caused to the land and the
surrounding areas in which it is dumped (Khan et al., 2012).
Further, sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA) is also disposed of in landlls
(Chusilp et al., 2009a, 2009b; Sua-iam and Makul, 2013a). Ash obtained from power plants is a highly porous material that tends to
have low density. And, in high volume this material can contaminate adjacent soil and underground water. It can, therefore, cause
signicant health problems, which, in turn, give rise to serious
social and environmental problems (Fras et al., 2011). In order to
comprehensively address issues relating to sustainability and
environmental impact, the 3R key principles pertaining to ash
materials and the environment should be taken into consideration,
i.e., reduce, reuse, and recycle. This approach also encompasses (a)
reducing production costs in the electric power, cement, and concrete construction industries, (b) reserving an area for disposal,
thus allowing more land to be put to other uses, (c) realizing benets from the sale of by-products by offsetting processing and
60
G. Sua-Iam, N. Makul / Journal of Cleaner Production 100 (2015) 59e76
disposal costs, and (d) replacing some of the scarce and/or expensive natural resources used in the production of concrete
(Ahmaruzzaman, 2010).
Self-consolidating concrete (SCC) is used widely in many kinds
of construction projects and offers many advantages over standard
concrete mixtures. For example, SCC reduces construction time,
eliminates problems associated with the application of vibration,
and reduces the noise level at construction sites (Okamura and
Ouchi, 2003). According to a study by Zhu (2001), SCC is more
self-leveling in regard to vibration than standard concrete is. In
1996, many European countries adopted this technology and set
specications and standards for SCC. The US, which has also
established standards for the use of SCC, uses the material in areas
such as the precast concrete industry (Ouchi et al., 2003). Further,
the use of SCC, which is a high-performance concrete, entails a
lower vibration level than does the use of other concretes: SCC is
self-compactable and does not lead to either segregation or
excessive bleeding. It should also be noted that the production of
SCC consumes relatively little energy in the process of vibration.
It is widely accepted that the vibration used to compact fresh
concrete into casing releases excess air bubbles and that the extent
of the compaction has a direct inuence on the initial and longterm properties of the concrete. The effect of inadequate vibration on the strength and durability of concrete structures has been
studied by Hoffmann and Leemann (2003). Also, at present, in the
compaction process, the vibrator creates a pressure wave, which
controls the aggregate particles and thereby reduces and overcomes the friction between the cement paste and the aggregates.
This paper presents a literature review of SCC covering a discussion of applications for some important by-products produced
by other industrial processes. The materialsdprincipally y ash
(FA), bottom ash (BA), rice husk ash (RHA), and sugarcane bagasse
ash (SBA)dare used as ller materials and/or for the pozzolanic
reaction and hydration reaction in order to improve the mechanical
properties and durability of SCC.
2. Characteristics of self-consolidating concrete (SCC)
SCC has three main characteristics: (a) the ability to ow under
its own weight without vibration, (b) the ability to ow through
heavily congested reinforcement under its own weight, (c) and the
ability to become homogeneous without the aggregates becoming
segregated. The difference between conventional and selfconsolidating concrete lies in the much greater owability of the
latter. Conventional concrete has a high level of bleeding, which can
be seen from the slump test under ASTM C 143 (American Society
for Testing and Material, 2011a); i.e., the bleeding exceeds
200 mm. SCC has a slump ow under ASTM C 1611 (American
Society for Testing and Material, 2011b) that exceeds 600 mm,
which results in a high level of cohesion and means that the concrete can ow into casing without the application of vibration. In
addition, the viscosity of SCC is sufcient to overcome the friction
between coarse aggregates. This property helps prevent the aggregates from becoming segregated and obstructing ow of the
concrete when poured into the casing. The coarse aggregates and
mortar should not become segregated in SCC.
2.1. Filling ability
According to both the European Federation of National Associations Representing Producers and Applicators of Specialist Building Products for Concrete (EFNARC) (EFNARC, 2002) and the
American Concrete Institute (ACI) (ACI, 2007), SCC has the ability to
ow through heavily congested reinforcement under its own
weight and the ability to become homogeneous without the
aggregates becoming segregated (Skarendahl, 2000). Thus, fresh

SCC has the ability to both ow under its own weight and through
heavily congested reinforcement. Other important parameters
include the effect on deformability, which refers to the reduction of
internal friction between particles by reducing either the surface
tension via a superplasticizer and/or the volume of coarse and ne
aggregates, and by increasing the paste volume in order to improve
lling ability (Gaimster and Dixon, 2003; Khayat, 1999; Sonebi and
Bartos, 2002). Well-graded cement and powder can maintain a high
waterecement ratio, thereby reducing inter-particle friction and
rendering the paste less viscuous, both of which lead to less
segregation and mitigate against excessive bleeding (Sonebi and
et al.,
Bartos, 2002). Some of the resulting bleed water (Beaupre
1999) reaches the upper concrete surface, whereas some remains
in bleed channels and under various obstacles such as aggregate
and reinforcement. The effects of bleeding and the waterecement
ratio, the latter of which is very high in this case, relate to the
compressive strength and durability of concrete (Bartos, 1992).
Ensuring adequate stability is especially critical in deep structural
elements such as walls, where highly owable concrete is necessary for adequate lling to occur. Such stability can be ensured by
using a superplasticizer, which not only reduces the friction between particles but also maintains the concrete's deforming ability
mstro
m, 2002; Bjo
mstro
m and
and viscosity (Chandra and Bjo
Chandra, 2003). An increase in the waterecement ratio has a
greater effect on the rigid concrete property than the amount of
superplasticizer does.
The use of ne ller can enhance many aspects of cement-based
systems through physical or chemical effects. Some physical effects
are associated with the small size of the particles, which can
improve the packing density of powder and reduce interstitial
voids, thus decreasing the amount of entrapped water in the system. The use of a continuously graded skeleton of powder is reported to reduce the powder volume required to ensure that the
concrete has adequate deformability. However, excessive ne particles can result in a considerable increase in the specic surface
area of the powder, such that more water is needed to achieve the
required consistency (Yahia et al., 2005). The use of mineral additives is important in binary and ternary systems. The advantages of
a given material, however, can compensate for its disadvantages.
For example, although a material that causes a high waterabsorption effect negatively affects concrete, such a material
would also develop the compact strength and durability of the
concrete (Belaidi et al., 2012). The respective lling ability of each of
the samples is shown in Table 1.
2.2. Passing ability

The ability to ow through reinforced concreted in the mold
relates to the owability of concrete in restricted areas such as
complex reinforcement structures that are close together (Gaimster
and Dixon, 2003). The important parameters are the space and
arrangement of the reinforced structure, which must be considered
in order to select the size and shape of the coarse aggregates in and
the mortar volume of the concrete (Okamura and Ouchi, 2003). If
the arrangement of the reinforcement structures is very dense, the
amount of paste included in the concrete must be increased proportionally to the coarse aggregates. As dened by the Reunion
Internationale des Laboratoireset Experts des Materiaux, Systemes
de Construction et Ouvrages (RILEM) Technical Committee
(Skarendahl, 2000; EFNARC, 2002; ACI, 2007), owability refers to
the ability to ow through tight openings such as spaces between
steel reinforcing bars without segregation/blocking and the ability
to pass among various obstacles and narrow sections in formwork
61
Table 1
To achieve the lling and passing abilities and segregation resistance of SCC (Tangtermsirikul and Khayat, 2000).
Adequate lling ability
Increase the deformability of the paste
Superplasticizer admixture
Balanced waterepowder ratio
Suitable passing ability
Enhance cohesiveness to reduce aggregate segregation
Low waterepowder ratio
Viscosity agent
Adequate segregation resistance
Reduce separation of solid
Limited aggregate content
Reduce maximum size of aggregates
Viscosity agent
and closely spaced reinforcing bars without getting blocked by

aggregate particles and thus becoming interlocked.
The blocking mechanism can be explained simply by using a
two-dimensional illustrative model of concrete owing through an
opening. To ow through an opening, the aggregate particles
around it must change their ow path. As a result, the aggregate
particles collide and stick together, creating many contacts among
the aggregate particles in the vicinity of the opening. When the
concrete ows into a narrow space, the difference between the
velocity of the mortar and the coarse aggregates has a signicant
effect on the concrete's ability to ow into the obstructing structure. The coarse particles can become jammed in the reinforced
zone during the casting process when a high volume of large coarse
aggregates is used. Even with SCC, which has excellent lling ability
and segregation resistance, blockages occur with aggregate materials that are very large. In conclusion, as the number of particles
crossing the obstacles, their volume fraction, and the ratio between
the diameter of the particles and the contraction gap increase, the
probability of granular blocking with a suspension crossing a ow
contraction increases likewise (Roussel et al., 2009). Therefore,
increasing the volume of the paste for a given aggregate increases
passing ability by both reducing the volume of the aggregate that
must pass through the conned spaces and reducing inter-particle
friction between the aggregate materials (Girish et al., 2010).
Further, the extent to which plastic viscosity increases also depends
on the size of the coarse aggregates (Zerbino et al., 2009). Therefore, viscosity must be sufcient to prevent coarse aggregates from
accumulating, which would otherwise cause an obstruction. It
should also be noted that other powder mixtures, such as y ash,
can be added to the concrete in order to increase viscosity. A
mixture that has compact cement particles and is distributed well
can reduce the water demand, as shown in Table 1.
2.3. Segregation resistance
The main property of SCC is its ability to become homogeneous
without its aggregates becoming segregated (Skarendahl, 2000;
EFNARC, 2002). The basic characteristics of acceptable SCC are
high uidity and adequate stability. In regard to stability, (i) dynamic stability refers to the resistance of concrete to the separation
of constituents during transport, placement, and the casting process and (ii) static stability refers to the concrete's resistance to
bleeding, segregation, and settlement after casting while the concrete is still in a plastic state (Libre et al., 2010). For concrete at rest,
static segregation occurs when the yield stress of the suspending
matrix is insufcient to support the weight of the aggregate minus
its buoyancy (Tregger et al., 2012). The important characteristics of
segregation are (i) the bleeding of water, (ii) paste and aggregate
segregation, (iii) coarse aggregate segregation leading to blockages,
Reduction in inner-particle friction

Low coarse aggregate volume (high paste content)
Optimum graded powder relative to aggregates and cement used
Compatible clear spacing and coarse aggregate
Low coarse aggregates volume
Low maximum size of aggregates
Minimize bleeding (free water)
Low water content
Powders with high surface area
Viscosity agent
and (iv) non-uniformity in air-pore distribution (Tangtermsirikul

and Khayat, 2000). The problem of the segregation of the water
and aggregates can be solved by simply reducing either the water
content or the surface powder (Kismi et al., 2012). Fig. 1 shows that
in order to prevent bleeding it is necessary for the mixture to have
very little free water on its surface. The gure also shows that water
bleeding onto the concrete surface or accumulating under the
coarse aggregate and steel bar may have adverse effects on the
mechanical behavior of the hardened concrete, resulting in poor
compressive strength and limited durability.
The segregation resistance of concrete relates to how particles of
different sizes are distributed both horizontally and vertically.
Segregation resistance plays an important role in SCC because poor
segregation resistance can cause poor deformability, blocking
around reinforcements, and high drying shrinkage, as well as
nonuniform compressive strength (Bui et al., 2002). The use of
superplasticizer may reduce viscosity, thus increasing owability
and thereby adversely affecting the concrete's formability. However, the important factor in preventing the segregation of the
coarse aggregates is viscosity, as it causes the coarse aggregates
particles to stick together and thus reduces friction between them
(Safawi et al., 2004). The ways in which SCC is resistant to segregation are listed in Table 1.
2.4. Guidelines for fresh properties
Development of an acceptable SCC for each application starts
with trial mixtures. To effectively accomplish this task, test
methods that quantify lling ability, passing ability, and stability
should be used. The test methods currently under development in
many organizations, such as ACI, EFNARC, and JSCE, relate to the
three aforementioned characteristics. In contract with the conventional concept of concrete mix proportions, various mix proportions can achieve the same performance goal (Japan Society of
Civil Engineers (JSCE), 2007). Establishing the initial target value
for slump ow is the rst step in developing an SCC mixture (ACI,
2007). The slump-ow value describes the owability of a fresh
mix in unconned conditions. It is a sensitive test that will normally
be specied for all SCC, as the primary check that the consistency of
fresh concrete meets the specication. Visual observations during
the test and/or measurement of the T500 time and V-funnel ow
time can provide additional information pertaining to the segregation resistance and uniformity of each delivery (EFNARC, 2005),
as shown in Table 2.
3. Coal-combustion products
The coal-combustion products produced today at modern coalred power stations have extensive supply chain opportunities.
62
Fig. 1. Slump ow result for a (a) non-visibly segregated concrete and (b) visibly segregated concrete (Tregger et al., 2012).
Conventionally known as y ash (FA), the majority (80%e85%) of

the non-combustible materials remains in the furnace gases and is
captured by electrostatic precipitation at the boiler outlet. The
remaining 15%e20% of the coal ash produced in the boiler falls to
the bottom of the furnace (Heidrich et al., 2013). Heidrich classies
strategies for using coal-combustion products (CCP) into three
groups according to economic value and effectiveness: nonbenecial manufacturing (on site strategies at factories/repositories), simple transformative manufacturing (simple utilization strategies), and elaborate transformative manufacturing
(advanced utilization strategies). In addition, Heidrich presents the
implications for utilization pathways and the current CCP market as
well as for the incorporation of existing research and experience
into standards in order to pursue emerging pathways and new
markets. However, it is important to address issues pertaining to
the legal status of CCP in terms of supporting a sustainable powergeneration industry in order to ensure safety at plants, to safeguard
human health, and to protect the environmentdall of which are
considered essential to responsible manufacturing practices.
3.1. Fly ash (FA)
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) denes
y ash (FA) in the ASTM C 618 Standard specication for coal y ash
and raw or calcined natural pozzolan for use in concrete (American
Society for Testing and Materials, 2011c) as the nely divided
residue that results from the combustion of ground or powdered
coal. FA can be divided into two types depending on the coal's
origin: (i) high-quality coal such as anthracite or bituminous coal,
which produces ash with a high content of silica and alumina and a
low concentration of lime and has at least 10% but no more than
14% calcium oxide (CaO), and (ii) low-quality subbituminous coal or
lignite, which produces ash with a high content of lime and has CaO
content in the range of 15%e40%. The latter kind of coal not only
shows pozzolanic properties, but also has cementitious properties
due to its high lime content (Pederson et al., 2008). In addition,
according to the ASTM standard, Class F FA is composed of silicon
oxide (SiO2), aluminum oxide (Al2O3), and iron trioxide (Fe2O3) of
more than 70%, whereas Class C FA is composed of silicon oxide
(SiO2), aluminum oxide (Al2O3), and iron trioxide (Fe2O3) of more
than 50%. Most of the FA particles are solid spheres, although some
are hollow cenospheres. Also present are plerospheres, i.e., spheres
that contain smaller spheres. Ground materials, such as Portland
cement, have solid angular particles. The particle sizes in FA vary
from less than 1 mm (micrometer) to more than 100 mm, with the
typical particle size measuring less than 20 mm. Only 10e30% of the
particles by mass are larger than 45 mm. The surface area is typically
300e500 m2/kg, although FA can have a surface area as low as
200 m2/kg and as high as 700 m2/kg. For FA without close
compaction, the bulk density (the mass per unit volume including
the air between particles) can vary from 540 to 860 kg/m3, whereas
with close-packed storage or vibration, the range can vary from
1120 to 1500 kg/m3 (Kosmatka et al., 2003). However, a serious
weakness with the specication and ndings is that it is easy to
overlook the point that not all FA compositions can react with
Portland cement. In other words, in regard to chemical composition, the classes of FA used as a mineral admixture in Portland
cement concrete can be classied depending on the summation of
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3. This summation can only be calculated based
on a composition that reacts with cement or the effective
Table 2
Guidelines for fresh state properties of SCC.
Properties
Slump ow (mm)
500 mm ow time (s)
V funnel ow time (s)
American concrete
institute (ACI, 2007)
EFNARC (EFNARC, 2002)
550e650*
e
e
650e800
2e5
8e15
EFNARC (EFNARC, 2005)

SF1**
SF2**
550e650 660e750
2 and >2****
8 and 9 to 25****
Japan society of civil engineers (JSCE) (JSCE, 2007)

SF3**
Powder type
Viscosity type
Combination type
760e850
500e700***
3e20***
3e20***
500e700***
3e25***
3e25***
500e750***
3e20***
3e20***
Remarks.
* Based on the application.
** SF1: Unreinforced or slightly reinforced concrete structures.
** SF2: Normal applications.
** SF3: Applications in very congested structures, structures with complex shapes.
*** The rank of self-compactability, based on the application with a minimum clearance of 35 to >200 mm between reinforcing bars.
**** Based on the viscosity classes expressed by 50 cm ow time and V funnel ow time.
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3. In addition, other classes of FA have irregularshaped particles that have a negative effect on the workability of
high-performance concrete, which means that there is a case for
including a specication for particle shape in the required physical
properties standard (American Society for Testing and Materials,
2011).
The chemical composition of FA includes silicon dioxide (SiO2),
alumina oxide (Al2O3), calcium oxide (CaO), iron trioxide (Fe2O3),
magnesium oxide (MgO), titanium oxide (TiO2), sulde trioxide
(SO3), sodium oxide (Na2O), and potassium oxide (K2O). Also
included is carbon content, expressed in terms of loss on ignition
(LOI). Class C FA has a high ratio of CaO and MgO, whereas its ratio
of SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 is low compared with that of Class F FA. It
has been conrmed that carbon is the most important composition
of LOI. FA with an LOI of 3.60e9.34% by weight has a high LOI,
leading to a low elasticity modulus, which is attributed to a high
water demand and consequently reduced compressive strength
(Wesche, 1991). Thus, it would be worthwhile to more extensively
investigate the effects of the LOI threshold on cement and concrete,
e.g., on the characteristics of unburnt carbon when incorporated
into cement mixtures. The mineralogical composition of FA, which
depends on geological factors related to the formation and deposition of coal and its combustion conditions, can be established by
X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. The dominant mineral phases are
quartz, kaolinite, illite, and siderite. The less predominant minerals
in unreacted coals include calcite, pyrite, and hematite. Quartz and
mullite are the major crystalline constituents of low-calcium FA,
whereas high-calcium FA consists of quartz, tri-calcium aluminate
(3CaO,Al2O3), calcium silicate (CaO,SiO2), and tri-calcium alumino-silicate (4CaO,Al2O3,SO4) (Ahmaruzzaman, 2010). An
important focus of the present study contemporary technical review is the present technical feasibility of using FA in the cement
industry as a partial replacement for cement, as pozzolanic material
in the production of pozzolanic cement, and as a set retarder with
cement. Ahmaruzzaman's study establishes that using FA to replace
cement in concrete has a number of advantages such as effecting a
lower water demand and a lower waterecementitious materials
ratio, improving the packing of the particles, decreasing air content,
and increasing long-term strength development. Also, in terms of
toxicity, all the trace metals analyzed (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Se, As, and Zn)
fall well within the specied concentration levels in regard to
leaching from the FA (Zhang et al., 1999). However, the review does
not address how to use or enhance Class C FA in the production of
high-strength, high-performance concrete.
SCC generally contains a large amount of powder material and
superplasticizer supplemented by mineral admixtures. FA has often
been used successfully as a secondary raw material in SCC. The use
of FA also reduces the demand for cement and eliminates the need
for viscosity-enhancing chemical admixtures. Also, the use of FA
improves the rheological properties and durability of concrete
(Dinakar et al., 2008). Based on Dinakar's work, it would be effective to use a high volume of FA to produce SCC: for example, SCC of a
relatively low strength (20e30 MPa) can be prepared by replacing
FA at about 70e85% by weight. Also, high-volume SCC shows
remarkably less weight loss and less chloride ion diffusion than
lu et al. (2006) showed
does low-volume SCC. In addition, Felekog
that the superior workability of SCC as compared with that of
standard concrete can be explained in reference to the spherical
shape of FA particles, which allows the particles to easily roll over
one another thereby reducing the friction between them. The
spherical shape also minimizes the particles' surfaceevolume ratio,
lu's paper
resulting in low uid demands. Furthermore, Felekog
lu et al., 2006) offers important evidence for viscosity-loss
(Felekog
rates and durability properties. And, the next steps in extending his
research involve investigating the optimal content of limestone as a
63
ller material. For example, a further possibility to consider is that

of using FA incorporating limestone ller with the purpose of
improving the viscosity and compressive strength of SCC. It is selfevident that the workability of SCC depends on the amount of FA
included in its composition (Sahmaran and Yaman, 2007). A large
percentage of FA, for example, can signicantly reduce segregation
(Ravindrarajah et al., 2003). However, one issue worth considering
in this context is that of controlling the waterecementitious materials ratio. The present study does not consider this aspect beyond
a range of 0.35e0.44, which, however, is shown to negatively affect
the strength development of SCC. Additionally, the use of superplasticizer at 5.5 L per cubic meter of SCC can induce segregation,
leading, in turn, to setting problems. The next step in extending this
line of research would be to compare the effect of coarse FA with
that of ne FA on the workability of SCC mixtures.
According to Xie et al. (2002), very ne FA particles can increase
the viscosity of fresh concrete and the compressive strength of SCC
without decreasing owability. FA has a Blaine surface area of
about 500e600 m2/kg, a replacement content of 30%e40% of
powder materials, total cementitious materials of at least 500 kg/
m3, a water content of 175e185 kg/m3, and superplasticizer based
on sulfonated naphthalene formaldehyde of 1.0e1.6%. The
compressive strength of FA can be developed to 60e80 MPa at 28
days, and the concrete presents low permeability, good freezeethaw resistance, and low drying shrinkage. A strength of Xie
et al.s (2002) study is that it presents a step-by-step procedure
for optimizing the mix parameters of the production of highstrength SCC. However, the next step in extending this line of
research would be that of testing a number of mixtures that vary
in regard to (1) the neness and content of the FA, (2) the
cementitious materials content, (3) the superplasticizer content,
(4) the water content, and (5) the sand ratio. Siddique (2011)
carried out an investigation of the properties of SCC incorporating class F FA. The experiments focused on long-term
compressive strength development and were conducted on SCC
composed as follows: total powder content of 550 kg/m3,
replacement ratio of Portland cement by FA of 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%,
and 35% wt., ratio of waterecementitious materials of 0.41e0.44,
and superplasticizer-polycarboxylic ether in the range of 1.8e2.0%.
The SCC mixes developed 28-day compressive strength of
30e35 MPa and splitting tensile strength of 1.5e2.4 MPa. The
compressive strength developed continuously, especially at the
age of 90 days, and FA replacement at 15%e20% by weight indicated that compressive strength increased signicantly, as shown
in Table 3. Additionally, the carbonation depth increased with the
increase in age for all the SCC mixes. The maximum carbonation
depth was 1.67 mm at 90 days and 1.85 mm at 365 days for SCC
with 20% FA content. Also, the pH value of all the mixes was
greater than 11. The deicing salt surface scaling weight loss
increased with the increase in FA content except for the mix
containing 15% FA. According to ASTM C 672 (American Society for
Testing and Materials, 2012), the test for deicing salt surface
scaling resistance should be performed at 365 days and the results
should be as follows: the average cumulative scaled-off mass after
50 freezingethawing cycles along with the average visual surface
rating of SCC mixtures containing 15 to 35 replacement percentages of FA should vary between a rating of 0 (no scaling) and 1
(very slightly scaling). The mixes made with FA exhibited very low
chloride permeability resistance, i.e., less than 700 and 400 C at
the age of 90 and 365 days, respectively. However, the next steps
in extending this line of research would constitute considering the
effect of high-volume FA on the strength and long-term durability
of SCCdespecially in regard to the chemical and physical requirements of ASTM C 618 (American Society for Testing and
Materials, 2011c).
64
Table 3
Compressive and splitting tensile strength of SCC mixes (Siddique, 2011).
FA replacement (% wt.)
15
20
25
30
35
Compressive strength (MPa)
Splitting tensile strength (MPa)
7 days
28 days
90 days
365 days
28 days
90 days
365 days
29.55
27.99
25.52
23.98
22.78
35.19
33.15
31.47
30.66
29.62
58.99
52.86
43.77
41.96
40.88
61.24
54.60
46.67
44.84
43.73
2.40
2.12
1.83
1.76
1.55
2.68
2.33
2.12
1.97
1.76
2.96
2.61
2.33
2.26
2.12
The ability of concrete to resist re is a complicated matter

because not only is concrete a composite material in which the
compositions differ in terms of their respective thermal characteristics, its properties also depend on porosity and moisture. High
temperatures effect dramatic physical and chemical changes that
cause concrete to deteriorate. Thus, the behavior of SCC when
subjected to high temperatures should be evaluated. To this end,
Uyal et al. (2012) heated SCC to elevated temperatures of 200 C,
400 C, 600 C, and 800 C, reaching the desired temperature at a
rate of 1 C/min. Once the maximum temperature was reached, the
specimens were kept in a furnace for 3 h. The cement was replaced
in respective samples with FA at 15%, 25%, and 35%. The total
powder content was set at 550 kg/m3, the waterecementitious
materials ratio (w/p) at 0.33, and the polycarboxylate in the mixtures comprised 1.6% of the binder materials by weight. The results
showed that the increased FA ratios did not signicantly affect
weight loss but that the SCC mixtures showed a signicant loss of
compressive strength at temperatures greater than 400 C. A visual
inspection of the surface of the specimens after they had been
subjected to high temperatures revealed no visible cracking or
spalling in the samples in the 200 C400 C temperature range.
However, extensive hairline cracks appeared at approximately
600 C and continued to grow as the temperature increased up to
800 C. Yet, only a small amount of spalling was seen at the edges
and the corners of some of the specimens at 600 C, whereas all the
samples showed visible spalling at the edges and the corners at
800 C. The cracking became more extensive as the temperature
increased and decreased as the FA content increased. A positive
outcome of this research is that granulated blast furnace slag
(GBFS) can be used to produce SCC containing FA. However, additional work in this area is necessary such as that of performing
similar experiments in which a high volume of FA is mixed with FA
incorporating GBFS in order to produce SCC. Additionally, Pathak
and Siddique (2012) prepared Class F FA, which they used to
replace Portland cement at 0%, 30%, 40%, and 50% by weight. The
total powder content was set at 500 kg/m3, the waterecementitious materials ratio in the range of 0.38e0.42, and the
polycarboxylic ether base in the range of 1.72e2.0%. The variables
included the temperature effects at 20 C, 100 C, 200 C, and
300 C with the desired temperature reached at a rate of 1 C/min.
The samples were kept in a furnace for 1 h. The SCC mixes developed 28-day compressive strength in the range of 21.43e40.68 MPa
and splitting tensile strength in the range of 1.35e3.60 MPa. The
test results clearly show a small loss of strength at 20e200 C.
Further, at 200e300 C, the compressive strength of all the concrete
specimens slightly improved as compared to the strength of each at
100 C. This increase in strength could be attributable to a modication of the bonding properties of the cement paste hydrates, i.e.,
the rehydration of the paste due to the migration of water in the
pores. But there was little reduction in splitting tensile strength at
20 C300 C. Nor did increases in the percentage of FA have much
effect on splitting tensile strength. Compared with the SCC samples
without FA, those with a high volume of FA showed signicantly
lower chloride ion permeability. Pathak and Siddique (2012) also
presented the properties of SCC subjected to elevated temperature.

However, the study has a number of limitations. Firstly, the mix
proportions of SCC are not sufcient to draw general conclusions, as
y ash has an effect on the free water in the internal SCC structure.
Secondly, long-term durability should be taken into account.
In the 1980s, the Canada Centre for Mineral and Energy Technology, CANMET (CANMET, 1980) designed high volume y ash
(HVFA) concrete in which more than 50% of the cement was
replaced with FA, resulting in a concrete that is attractive for
environmental and sustainability reasons (Dinakar et al., 2008). In
^
order to extend the concept of HVFA concrete to SCC, Bouzoubaa
and Lachemi (2001) studied SCC mixtures. The content of the
cementitious materials was maintained at 400 kg/m3, and the
waterecementitious material ratios ranged from 0.35 to 0.45. In the
respective SCC mixtures, Class F FA was used to replace cement at
40%, 50%, and 60%. The results show that it is possible to design an
SCC incorporating a high volume of Class F FA. The temperature of
the SCC samples was at 5e10 C less than the control concrete did,
and the setting times of the SCC samples were 3e4 h longer than
those of the control concrete. The SCC samples developed
compressive strength in the range of 15e31 MPa and 26e48 MPa at
7 and 28 days, respectively. The most economical SCC, which was
made with FA replacing 50% of the cement and with a waterecementitious materials ratio of 0.45, achieved a 28-day
compressive strength of approximately 35 MPa. This SCC could be
used to replace the control concrete with similar 28-day
compressive strength (35 MPa) with no signicant extra cost. For
high-strength SCC, an economical SCC with strength in the range of
48e62 MPa at 28 days can be manufactured by replacing up to 55%
of the cement with Class C FA. A high amount of FA in concrete leads
to lower early-age strength than is the case for standard concrete
(Naik et al., 2012). However, a next step in this line of research
would be that of considering the durability aspects usually used to
determine the long-term performance of SCC. In addition, the
400 kg/m3 of powder material content used in the experiments is
lower than that of the required power content recommended by
European Federation of National Associations Representing Producers and Applicators of Specialist Building Products for Concrete,
EFNARC (EFNARC, 2002). In particular, the effects of the following
should be accounted for: (a) the power materials content incorporating additive materials, (b) the superplasticizer and viscosity
agents, (c) the proportion of ne and coarse aggregates, and (d) the
mixing procedure. Furthermore, the SCC's mix proportion, as suggested by Okamura (1997), could be (a) 50% of the solid volume
xed as coarse aggregate content, (b) 40% of the mortar fraction
volume used as ne aggregate, and (c) a waterecementitious materials ratio in the range of 0.9e1.0 by volume.
Khatib (2008) studied selected properties of SCC containing FA
at a constant waterecementitious materials ratio of 0.36. Total
powder content was maintained at 500 kg/m3, and Portland
cement was partially replaced with 0%e80% FA. A high percentage
of FA can be used to produce SCC with adequate strength. The use of
up to 60% FA as a replacement for Portland cement can produce SCC
with strength as high as 40 MPa. Although absorption increases
with increasing FA content, the absorption values of SCC containing

a high volume (80%) of FA is below 2% at 56 days of curing. Incorporating increasing amounts of FA in SCC reduces the drying
shrinkage, and using FA to replace 80% of the cement can reduce
shrinkage by two thirds. However, Khatib's study (2008) has the
serious drawback of not taking the long-term characteristics of SCC
into account. In addition, the waterecementitious materials ratio of
SCC was maintained at a 36% wt., leading to a negative effect on the
durability of the concrete. In fact, it is well-known that based on the
stoichiometry of cement-based material the optimal water content
in the concrete mix is at 0.38 %wt. Also, when FA is included in SCC,
water content at 36% wt. is not sufcient to react with FA. As a
result, at this low water-content level, the long-term properties of
SCC may be negatively affected.
It is possible to produce SCC in which 70% of the cement has
been replaced with both high-lime and low-lime FA. According to
Sahmaran et al. (2009), the use of a high volume of FA in SCC not
only improves the SCC's workability and transport properties (absorption, sorptivity, and rapid chloride permeability) but also
makes producing concrete with a compressive strength of
33e40 MPa at 28 days possible: SCC with a lower strength grade
(20e30 MPa) can be produced using an FA replacement of about
70%e85%, whereas higher-strength grades of about 60e90 MPa can
be produced with about 30%e50% FA replacement. These results
indicate that the SCC samples showed higher permeable voids and
water absorption than did standard vibrated concrete samples with
the same strength grade. However, in acid attack and chloride
diffusion studies, SCC samples with a high volume of FA lost
signicantly less weight and showed less chloride ion diffusion
than did SCC samples with a low volume of FA (Dinakar et al., 2008).
Liu (2010) investigated SCC concrete in which up to 80% of the
cement had been replaced by FA in the SCC mixes. The results show
that it is possible to produce effective SCC in which up to 80% of the
cement has been replaced by FA. To keep the lling ability constant
(65e80 cm), SCC in which cement has been replaced by FA to some
degree requires an increase in the waterecementitious materials
ratio and a reduction in the amount of superplasticizer used. The
results also show that FA has a negative effect on passing ability,
consistency retention, and hardened concrete properties such as
strength, as shown in Table 4. This research could lead to the use of
a higher volume of FA in SCC. The study conrms that it is possible
to use high-lime FA and low-lime FA as to replace 70% of the cement
in the production of SCC. In regard to using FA to replace cement at
a high level, decreasing the cement content negatively affects, i.e.,
decreases, the quantity of the calcium hydroxide content Ca(OH)2
produced. As a result low Ca(OH)2 content also negatively affects
the quality and quantity of the calcium-silicate-hydrate (CeSeH)
produced from the pozzolanic reaction of the FA.
3.2. Bottom ash (BA)
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA,
2014) denes bottom ash (BA) as agglomerated ash particles
formed in pulverized coal furnaces that are too large to be carried in
the ue gases and impinge on the furnace walls or fall through open
grates to an ash hopper at the bottom of the furnace. Physically, BA
is quite angular, has a porous surface structure, and is typically gray
to black in color. It can be incorporated into cement materials as a
binder to replace cement or as an aggregate, as a partial natural
sand replacement, according to the grain size distribution of the
material. Andrade et al. (2007) showed that BA has an effect on a
number of properties: (a) water demand, as a function of the percentage of ne particles, unburned material, and natural water
content, (b) the ller effect, with an improvement in the lling role;
and (c) the mechanical properties, due also to the pozzolanic effect
65
Table 4
Fresh and hardened properties of SCC mixes containing FA (Liu, 2010).
Properties
Fly ash replacement (% volume)

0
Fresh state
Slump ow (mm)
720
V-funnel time (s)
8.1
J-ring spread (mm)
665
Step height
11
of J-ring (mm)
Segregation index (%)
11
Hardened state
28 days
73.3
90 days
79.0
Splitting strength (MPa)
28 days
5.5
90 days
5.9
Ultrasonic pulse velocity (km/s)
28 days
4.91
90 days
4.93
Dynamic elastic modulus (GPa)
28 days
48
90 days
49
Sorptivity (kg/m2h0.5)
90 days
0.24
20
40
60
80
100
700
8.1
620
16
705
6.1
610
15
715
6.3
550
20
730
7.2
485
23
715
9.1
500
22
13
13
13
69.7
78.0
58.5
63.0
37.2
49.3
16.0
26.1
e
e
5.5
6.0
4.2
5.6
3.3
4.2
1.8
2.3
e
e
4.89
4.93
4.71
4.75
4.56
4.65
4.35
4.43
e
e
47
49
0.26
44
46
0.18
39
42
0.37
31
34
0.63
e
e
e
promoting the consumption of calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) for the

formation of calcium silicate hydrate, with a better lling of voids.
One of the limitations of this study is that the present paper does
not explain the effect of high water content in the range of 50%e
67% present in the as-received BA at the time of mixing on the
amount of superplasticizer and water required. That is, as a result of
the effect of high water content, moisture transport worsens such
that there is more water loss and more capillary absorption. BA that
is large in size (greater than 6 mm) can be used as a coarse
aggregate, whereas BA that is small in size (6 mm or smaller) can be
used as a ne aggregate. BA consists of large particles that have
numerous visible voids such that it is lightweight and particles that
have a smooth glass-like appearance. Although BA material with a
porous structure is light in weight, as a concrete aggregate it may
not be very durable when subjected to abrasion or to freezing and
thawing (Siddique, 2010). The next step in this line of research
would be to assess the long-term strength and durability of highvolume BA as a ne and a coarse lightweight aggregate.
In terms of its appearance and particle size distribution, BA is a
natural ne aggregate. (The physical properties of various ashes are
compared with those of the ne aggregate in Table 5). Because of
these properties, BA can be used to replace sand in concrete. In fact,
many research studies (Andrade, 2009; Singh and Siddique, 2013)
have shown that coal BA has the potential to be used to replace ne
aggregate (sand). The potential use of coal BA in concrete becomes
more signicant in view of the fact that sources of natural sand are
gradually becoming depleted. Therefore, it is a matter of some
importance to identify substitutes for sand (Singh and Siddique,
2013). Nonetheless, very limited research has been conducted on
coal BA as a ne aggregate. Thus, further studies to investigate the
methods in which coal BA as the aggregate in SCC affect the
rheological characteristics of fresh SCC and its mechanical action
and durability in the hardened state are required.
In regard to BA's effect on the properties of fresh concrete, BA
renders concrete at this stage susceptible to water loss by bleeding.
Further, Andrade et al. (2009) found that the higher the percentage
of BA used as a replacement for sand the lower the deformation
through plastic shrinkage. Moreover, Andrade et al. (2009) also
showed that BA has a negative effect on the setting time of concrete. The concept presented by the authors is intriguing in that the
66
Table 5
Physical properties of BA compared with physical properties of ne aggregate (sand).
Physical properties
Specic gravity
Water absorption (%)
Porosity (%)
Fineness modulus
Maximum size (mm)
a
Bai et al. (2005)
Andrade et al. (2007)
Kim and Lee (2011)
Singh and Siddique (2014)
Bottom ash
Sand
Bottom ash
Sand
Bottom ash
Sand
Bottom ash
Sand
1.5(SSD)
30.1(1eh)
e
e
e
2.72(SSD)
1.0(1eh)
e
e
e
1.67
e
e
1.6
2.4
2.63
e
e
2.5
2.4
1.87(SSD)
5.45
10.19
2.36
e
2.55(SSD)
0.08
1.22
2.34
e
1.39
31.58
e
1.37
17.19%a
2.60
2.46
e
1.97
5.24%a
Particles passing through a 150 mm sieve.
two ways they explore whereby BA is added to concrete mixes each

has a remarkable inuence on the fresh state and mechanical
properties of the concrete. For the fresh state, the presence of BA
increased the quantity of water loss by bleeding. Also, for the mechanical properties, the use of BA as a 0%e100% replacement for
sand effects signicant losses in compressive strength due to the
high waterecementitious materials ratio of the concrete.
In terms of the strength and drying shrinkage of concrete in
which sand has been replaced with furnace bottom ash (FBA), Bai
et al. (2005) showed that 30% of the sand can be benecially
replaced with FBA to produce concrete with compressive strength
in the range of 40e60 MPa without negatively affecting the drying
shrinkage property of the concrete. The authors accurately present
both the mechanical properties and the durability of SCC based on
two ways to use BA in concrete: (a) as a xed waterecementitious
materials ratio and (b) as a way to control slump. Kim and Lee
(2011) carried out a study to evaluate the use of BA as a ne
aggregate and as a coarse aggregate in high-strength concrete
with compressive strength of 60e80 MPa. They found that the
slump ow of fresh concrete decreased slightly from 530 to
420 mm when coarse BA replaced 100% of the standard coarse
aggregates, whereas ne BA used to the same extent had no effect
on slump ow. Moreover, the study also showed that ne and
coarse BA aggregate each had more inuence on the concrete's
exural strength than on its compressive strength. For microstructural properties, the study indicated that the CeSeH gel
structure was slightly less monolithic than that of the control
concrete and that the total intensity of ettringite did not change
when coal BA was added to the concrete (Singh and Siddique,
2014). From the research results, however, for the sample in
which sand was replaced with ne BA at 100% and for the sample
in which sand was replaced with coarse BA at 100%, the elastic
modulus of the concrete decreased dramatically down to 49%
when compared with that of the control concrete. It is evident that
BA strongly affects the elastic behavior of concrete because the
elastic behavior of BA particles is considerably lower than that of
sand particles. This effect requires signicant additional
investigation.
The present study also shows that it is possible to use BA as a
partial replacement for ne aggregate in the production of SCC.
And, Kasemchaisiri and Tangternsirikul (2008) studied the properties of SCC by using BA as a partial replacement for sand at 10%,
20%, and 30%. FA was used as a cementitious material (total powder
content 550 kg/m3) to replace Portland cement at 30%, and the
waterecementitious materials ratio was 0.31. According to the results, compared with standard concrete formulations, this sample
showed a reduction in compressive strength and the hardened
concrete was comparatively more porous. However, in the long
term, these properties were improved by pore renement due to
the pozzolanic reaction when BA was used to replace 10% of the
total ne aggregate and water curing was performed. Mainly due to
being more porous than the control SCC, all the SCC mixtures that
included BA with the exception of the mixture with 10% BA had
greater durability, chloride penetration, carbonation depth, and

drying shrinkage than did the control SCC. On the other hand, as the
BA content increased, the SCCs became more resistant to sodium
sulfate. Based on a consideration of the overall performance of the
tested SCC mixtures with BA, the optimum replacement percentage
of BA was found to be about 10% by weight of the total ne
aggregate. A comparison between SCC samples with various
amounts of FA (15e35%) and with various percentages (0e30%) of
ne aggregate BA used as a replacement for cement showed that
SCC strength increased as the waterecementitious materials ratio
decreased. BA can be used at up to 20%, although BA used to this
extent renders a decrease in concrete strength of about 15e20%.
Thus, the optimum FA percentage is 15e35% and a BA percentage of
up to 20% can produce compressive strength in the range of
40e32 MPa at 90 days (Siddique et al., 2012). However this study
does not consider mixes in which sand is replaced by BA at 100%.
Further, the authors draw the conclusion that the optimal BA
replacement is about 10% by weight of aggregate, which is a low
content of BA to use in the production of SCC. However, the study
does propose a new way to designate SCC mixes whereby the ratio
of the paste to the minimum void volume of the compacted
aggregate phase (g) is controlled as a main design parameter. The
authors also recommend that the g value be xed at 1.5 in the
production of SCC.
Siddique (2013) carried out a study on the properties of SCC in
which BA was incorporated. The mixes were prepared with coal
BA used to replace ne aggregate at percentages of 0%, 10%, 20%,
and 30%. The total powder content was 550 kg/m3, of which FA
comprised 15%, and the waterecementitious materials ratio was
kept at 0.41e0.44 by weight. The SCC mixes had a slump ow in
the range of 627e673 mm, a ow time of less than 6 s, a V-funnel
time in the range of 4e7.5 s, and an L-box ratio of greater than 0.8.
In addition, in regard to the height differences of the concrete in
the two U-box compartments, the mixes showed a range of
5e40 mm. The fresh concrete test results indicated that all the SCC
mixes met the allowable ow time requirements. Moreover, the
SCC mixes developed 28-day compressive strength of
25.8e35.2 MPa. The SCC mixes made with BA exhibited very low
chloride permeability resistance at both 90 and 365 days. The
abrasion resistance, water absorption, and sorptivity of the SCC
mixes increased as the BA content increased, but these decreased
with increased age, as shown in Table 6. An important strength of
Siddique's (2013) study is its investigation of cement replacement
by FA and also of replacing ne aggregate with BA. As a matter of
fact, BA has a potential use in SCC when considered in terms of the
optimal use of each of the main materials that constitute SCC. The
next steps in this line of research could comprise (a) replacing
100% of the cement with BA as a ne aggregate in order to
consider its effects on the long-term mechanical and durability
properties of concrete, (b) using powder materials with superplasticizer to maintain the properties of SCC in its fresh state, and
(c) including a consideration of variations in the chemical
composition and physical properties of BA.

Table 6
Hardened properties of SCC mixes containing BA (Siddique, 2013).
Properties
Bottom ash replacement (% volume)

0
10

28 days
35.2
35.1
90 days
59.0
46.5
365 days
61.2
48.8
Splitting tensile strength (MPa)
28 days
2.40
2.26
90 days
2.68
2.40
365 days
2.96
2.82
Chloride penetration resistance (Coulombs)
90 days
662
710
365 days
381
445
Abrasion resistance (mm)
91 days
2.05
2.32
365 days
1.80
2.06
20
30
28.9
39.5
45.3
2.12
2.26
2.54
748
509
2.50
2.27
25.8
36.2
41.8
1.90
2.05
2.26
830
573
2.70
2.42
4. Rice husk ash (RHA)

Globally, approximately 740 million tons of rice paddy were
produced in 2012. On average, 20% of the rice paddy produced is
husk, yielding an annual total production of 148 million tons (Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2014). In the
majority of rice-producing countries, much of the husk produced
through processing rice is either burned or dumped as a waste
product. The treatment of rice husk as a resource for energy production is a departure from the perception that husks present a
disposal problem. The concept of generating energy from rice husks
has great potential, particularly in countries that depend on imported oil for their energy needs. Rice husks are one of the most
plentiful and readily available biomass resources, and also the most
under-utilized. As such, they are an ideal fuel for generating electricity. Bronzeoak (2003) showed that when rice husks are burned
under controlled conditions, ash is produced in the form of partial
non-crystalline or amorphous silica with a cellular structure.
Bronzeoak's (2003) study makes the important contribution of
identifying the temperature range of the burning rice husk in which
amorphous RHA is formed as 550e800 C and establishes that
crystalline RHA forms at temperatures greater than 800 C.
RHA, which is rich in silica content, can be produced from rice
husks using an appropriate combustion technique and used in
concrete as a supplementary cementitious material. Zain et al.
(2011) found that the combustion period, chilling duration, and
grinding process and duration are important in producing RHA of
standard neness and quality. In addition, air ducts in the furnace
are very useful in terms of ensuring a sufcient air supply to
properly burn the husks. One important outcome of this research is
that the authors established the optimal conditions for the combustion of rice husk including a re duration of 30 min, an air
supply duration of 60 min, and a chilling duration of 2 days. The
authors also found that this optimal process can produce white
RHA with low carbon content or in terms of LOI less than the
maximum allowable amount as specied by ASTM C 618 (<10%
(max.) for class N pozzolan) (American Society for Testing and
Material, 2011c). When rice husks are subjected to controlled
incineration conditions, it is possible to produce RHA with a relatively high level of silica, with about 49e98% of the silica present in
the RHA's amorphous state (Mehta, 1978). In an experiment performed by Della et al. (2002), the relative amount of silica increased
after burning out the carbonaceous material at a range of times and
temperatures. A 95% silica powder could be produced after heattreating at 700 C for 6 h, and the specic surface area of the particles increased from 54 to 81 m2/g after wet milling. Muthadhi and
67
Kothandaraman (2010) established 500 C and 120 min as the

optimum incineration conditions for producing ash with maximum
density, maximum neness, maximum amorphous silica content,
and maximum pozzolanicity with the lowest use of energy. The
color of the RHA reveals the temperature conditions in which it was
produced. Ash that is fairly white in color was formed at a temperature of 350e500 C, whereas ash turns gray at a temperature of
600e800 C. At 800 C and under conditions of prolonged incineration, i.e., of more than 5 h, traces of pink are visible. In addition,
the duration and type of incineration are important parameters
that inuence the reactivity of RHA pozzolan. RHA with a low LOI
value and a high specic surface area can result in the production of
relatively high-strength pozzolan. And, even though unburnt carbon is rich in amorphous silica, its presence can adversely affect
reactivity (Nair et al., 2006). In regard to the effect of the thermal
decomposition of rice husks on the amorphous structure of silica
ash, the ash samples obtained by thermal decomposition of the
husks at temperatures in the range of 500e1150 C for one hour
were evaluated by X-ray diffraction. The ash prepared at comparatively low temperatures (500e600 C) still included amorphous
silica, whereas cristobalite was detected at 800 C, and both cristobalite and tridymit were detected at 1150 C (Hamad and Khattab,
1981). Moreover, the as-received ground RHA can be sintered in a
range of 800e1200 C for a short period of time by microwave
energy. The sintered ground RHAs (SgRHAs) are composed of SiO2cristolbalite and a-SiO2 as the major phases. The crystalline silica
phase increased after microwave treatment. And, hence, the
cementitious performance of RHA is enhanced, as the strength index at of the RHA paste subjected to 28 days of microwavesintering is 30% higher than that of RHA (Makul and Agrawal,
2010). An important consideration here is the effect of air content
and ow rate in the burning room during the combustion of RHA on
the production of amorphous silica material. The air content is the
principal parameter in determining the perfectibility of the
burning. In order to control the amorphous RHA, based on the
phase diagram of the SiO2, at temperatures of between 1470 C and
268 C, cristobalite is in a metastable form which RHA is possible to
form into an active phase and reacts with cement.
Rice husk is a hard ligneous layer of the cereal and has a high
silicate content (Sensale et al., 2008). In terms of microstructure, asreceived RHA particles have a porous cellular structure and particles that are irregular in shape (Chao-Lung et al., 2011; Van et al.,
2013). Highly amorphous ash has slightly corroded surface characteristics (Muthadhi and Kothandaraman, 2010), a high specic
surface (50e100 m2/g), and a high silica content (Sensale et al.,
2008). Grinding partly collapses the porous structure of RHA and
reduces its specic surface area (SSA). There is an optimum
grinding time/neness for RHA at which it reaches its maximum
compressive strength. Despite having a higher SSA than portlandite, RHA consumes less energy than portlandite does. Because
of its mesoporous structure, ground RHA can absorb a lot of the
aqueous phase, which decreases the ground RHA's effective water
content. Moreover, calcium ions have access to the internal surface
of RHA particles and thereby enhance the pozzolanic reactivity of
RHA (Chao-Lung et al., 2011; Van et al., 2013). The strength of Van
(Van et al., 2013) is that it identies the impact of the mesopores
(section diameters of 2e50 nm) on the pozzolanic reactivity of a
cement-based system. Depending on its relative neness, RHA has
differentiated effects on the chemical composition and physical
properties of SCC. One advantage of using ne RHA over coarse RHA
is that the former produces SCC with good strength and low
porosity. RHA with ne particles results in a strong and dense
mortar, which is due to the better dispersion and lling effect.
According to Rukzon et al. (2009), the mortar shows an increase in
the pozzolanic reaction as compared with that if conventional
68
mortars. In addition, the length of time RHA is subjected to grinding

in a vibratory mill is also a matter for consideration. The grinding
procedures can be used to increase the homogeneity and pozzolanic activity of RHA, which has LOI of about 12%. Rukzon et al.
(2009) also showed that a grinding time of 120 min is sufcient
to generate an ultrane ash with an average particle size of 6.8 mm,
a BET SSA of 33,670 m2/kg, a pozzolanic activity index of 109%, and
Chapelle activity of 736 mg/g. High-performance concretes were
produced with ultrane RHA replacing cement at 0%, 10%, 15%, and
20% by mass. Compared with the reference mixture, all the samples
in which some percentage of cement was replaced with ultra-ne
RHA achieved superior performance in the mechanical and durability tests. In particular, the strongest performance was that of the
sample in which ultra-ne RHA replaced 20% of the cement. The
workability of the concrete, however, decreased as the percentage
of the cement replaced by RHA increased (Cordeiro et al., 2009a).
However, the research does not take into account the effect of pore
size distribution in the ground RHA on the properties of concrete.
This is because pore size may play an important role in determining
the absorptivity of Ca2 in the RHA surface, which inuences the
mechanical development of cement-RHA mortars. Moreover, this
line of research could be extended by considering the characteristics of the interfacial transition zone between RHA and the cement
particles and the long-term mechanical properties and durability of
cement-RHA mortars.
The possibility of using RHA to produce ultra-high-performance
concrete was reported by Tuan et al. (2011). Via a normal curing
regime, UHPC incorporating RHA with a mean particle size of
3.6e9 mm can have compressive strength in excess of 150 MPa. The
interesting point is that compared with the effect of silica fume,
RHA has a greater effect on the development of UHPC's compressive
strength. In contrast, according to ASTM C 311 (American Society
for Testing and Materials, 2009), non-ground RHA can be used as
a pozzolanic material. Decreasing the average particle size of nonground RHA has a positive effect on the compressive strength of
mortar. And, Chao-Lung et al. (2011) showed that up to 20% of
ground RHA could be blended with cement without adversely
affecting the strength and durability properties of the concrete. It is
possible to incorporate natural RHA without grinding into concrete
by adapting the mixing process to optimize the particle size of the
ash. However, the results are highly dependent on the equipment
and mixing cycle adopted. Zerbino et al. (2011) have shown that
concrete without ash and concrete in which 15% of the cement has
been replaced by natural rice husk ash (NRHA) have similar mechanical and durability properties. Although Zerbino et al. (2011)
prove that it is possible to use residual RHA in the production of
concrete, difculties arise in terms of how to control the properties
of as-received RHA. Consequently, this research could be extended
by considering variations in the properties of RHA.
The chemical composition of RHA mainly consists of silicon dioxide (SiO2), at more than 80%. The partial portions of RHA are
composed of aluminum oxide (Al2O3), iron trioxide, (Fe2O3), manganese oxide (MnO), magnesium oxide (MgO), calcium oxide (CaO),
sodium oxide (Na2O), potassium oxide (K2O), sulfur trioxide (SO3),
phosphorus pentaoxide (P2O5), and Loss on Ignition (LOI). The
chemical composition of RHA depends on the temperature and
duration of burning, but the variations in the elements are not
signicant (Sensale et al., 2008). As they grow, rice plants absorb
silica from the soil such that the silica accumulates in their structures. This silica, which becomes concentrated when rice husks are
subjected to burning at a high temperature, is what makes the ash
valuable for concrete users. The chemical properties of ash arising
from rice husks are thought to vary according to region. These
theorized differences have been attributed to the conditions under
which the paddy is grown, such as climate, soil, and the use of
fertilizers (Bronzeoak, 2003), as shown in Table 7. It can be seen that

SiO2 is the major composition of RHA particles no matter the
conditions in which the RHA is produced.
The inuence of RHA on the properties of SCC has also been
investigated. For example, Memon et al. (2011) evaluated the use of
RHA as a viscosity-modifying agent in SCC and studied the relative
costs of the materials used in this type of concrete. RHA passing
through a 150 mm sieve was used as a viscosity-modifying agent at
5% and 10% by weight of the cement content (500 kg/m3). It was
found that a sample with 10% RHA with 4% superplasticizer by
weight of the cement content satised EFNARC (2002) requirements and that this sample was stronger than the control
concretes at every stage of testing. This increase in strength is due
to a reduced waterecementitious materials ratio, dense particle
packing, pore size renement, and grain size renement. A cost
analysis showed that the cost of the ingredients of this particular
SCC mix was 42.47% less than for the control concrete, as shown in
Table 8. One question that needs to be asked, however, is whether
RHA should be endorsed as a viscosity-modifying agent (VMA).
Also, the durability aspect should be subjected to investigation.
However, it is evident that the VMA could be optimized in regard to
the dosage of superplasticizer needed to produce SCC.
Sauddin et al. (2011) explored the owing ability of mortars
formulated from various SCC mixtures in which RHA is included.
They showed that the ow spread increased as the amount of
HRWR increased, which improved the deformability of the mortar
by HRWR's liquefying and dispersing actions. The mixture
composition affected the owing ability of the mortars. Specically,
the sand content and binder surface area greatly inuenced the
ow spread of the mortars by affecting the availability of free water
in the mortar mixture. That is, a larger sand content and lower
paste volume hindered the dispersion of sand particles and
increased the surface area and greatly reduced owing ability by
decreasing the amount of free water in the mortar. Thus, an RHA
content of greater than 15% was not suitable to achieve good
owing ability in SCC. Although Sauddin et al. (2011) concluded
that a 15% RHA content could be used to produce SCC with good
owing ability, it would be better if a superplasticizer dosage
incorporating RHA were used in order to prevent segregation.
Actually, RHA can absorb more water content if the water content in
the SCC has more absorptivity than the RHA does. In such cases, the
extra water content could induce more segregation.
According to Sauddin et al. (2012), the key properties of freshly
mixed SCC incorporating RHA are lling ability, passing ability,
segregation resistance, air content, and unit weight. Different types
of air-entrained SCC mixtures were designed based on the waterecementitious materials ratios of 0.30, 0.35, and 0.40 and the
replacement of cement with RHA at 0e30% by weight. In addition,
the optimum S/A ratio of 0.50 resulting in the maximum bulk
density of the aggregate blend was used to design the SCC mixtures.
The design air content (total air content) was 6% for all the airentrained concrete mixtures. The optimum RHA content was
10%e15% based on lling ability, passing ability, segregation resistance, unit weight, and air content. The optimum RHA content was
dependent on the waterecementitious materials ratio used in the
concrete. When used in concrete with a high waterecementitious
materials ratio, the optimum content of RHA increases, as shown in
Table 9. As the authors point out, the lling ability as indicated by
slump ow and air content can produce the required SCC. However,
very high RHA content brings about a higher demand for superplasticizer and air-entrained agent dosages.
Sauddin et al. (2010) performed both destructive and nondestructive tests in order to determine the hardened properties of
the SCC mixtures, which were designed based on the waterecementitious materials ratios of 0.30, 0.35, 0.40, and 0.50 and on
69
Table 7
Chemical compositions of RHA by country.
Composition (%)
USA
(Sensale et al., 2008)
India
(Ganesan et al., 2007)
Brazil
(Cordeiro et al., 2009a)
Vietnam
(Van et al., 2013)
Thailand
(Sua-iam and Makul, 2014)
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
SO3
LOI
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3
88.00
e
0.10
0.80
0.20
e
8.10
88.10
87.32
0.22
0.28
0.48
0.28
e
2.10
87.82
82.60
0.40
0.50
0.80
0.70
e
11.90
83.50
87.40
0.40
0.30
0.90
0.60
0.40
4.60
88.10
93.44
0.21
0.18
0.76
0.43
0.16
1.27
94.72
Table 8
Comparison of the cost analyses of SCC mixes (Memon et al., 2011).
Materials
Control concrete (m3)
Unit cost (USD)
Cement (kg)
Coarse aggregate (kg)
Sand (kg)
Superplasticizer, Sikament NM (L)
Superplasticizer, Viscocretee1 (L)
RHA hauling cost**
Total
Percentage reduction in cost ~37
0.0495
0.0061
0.0050
0.6429
3.2143
e
SCC with RHA at 10% (m3)
Quantity
Cost (USD)*
Quantity
Cost (USD)*
500
750
875
17.5
10
e
24.75
4.575
4.375
11.25
32.14
500
750
875
22
e
0.50
24.75
4.575
4.375
14.14
0.50
48.34
77.09
*USD/PKR 0.00989, **assuming 10 km haul.
the replacement of cement by RHA at 0e30% by weight. The cement

and RHA acted as the total binder for the concretes. In addition, the
optimum S/A ratio of 0.50 leading to a maximum bulk density
(minimum void content) in the aggregate blend was used for all the
concrete mixtures. A total air content of 6% was used in the design.
The concrete mixtures were designed to obtain a slump ow in the
range of 600e800 mm, which results in excellent lling ability. The
hardened property of the concrete samples was enhanced with a
ratio lower than that of the waterecementitious materials ratio due
to the improved paste densication resulting from a greater
amount of hydration products in the presence of a higher binder
content. Further, the hardened property of the concrete samples
progressively improved with increasing percentages of RHA
because of its microlling and pozzolanic effects, which improve
the microstructure and pore structure of the concrete in the bulk
paste matrix and the transition zone. The total porosity of the
concrete samples decreased as the waterecementitious materials
ratio and RHA content both increased. The reduction in total

porosity increased the compressive strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity, and electrical resistivity of the concrete but decreased its
water absorption. The strongest hardened properties were achieved at 15% RHA, which also provided the required slump ow and
air content with a relatively low percentage of both HRWR and AEA.
Conventional SCC, which is developed through the uncontrolled
burning of RHA as a partial replacement for cement and by
including ne aggregate, is designed to maintain the satisfactory
properties of SCC. Rahman et al. (2014) showed that RHA obtained
through uncontrolled burning was put through a 75 mm sieve in
order to remove large particles and was then ground in order to
obtain a ne powder. The RHA was limited to 0%, 20%, 30%, and 40%
by mass of the total cementitious material (500 kg/m3) in the
concrete. The experiment results indicate that concrete blended
with RHA obtained from uncontrolled burning can produce
normal-strength self-compacting concrete with up to 40% RHA
Table 9
Fresh properties of SCC mixes containing RHA (Sauddin et al., 2012).
RHA* (%)
0
15
20
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0
15
20
W/c**
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.35
0.35
0.35
0.35
0.35
0.35
0.35
0.40
0.40
0.40
Filling ability
Passing ability
Segregation resistance
Inverted slump ow
Inverted slump J-ring ow
Rating
Flow spread
(mm)
Flow
time (s)
Flow spread
(mm)
Different ow
(mm)
Stability
VSI***
680
715
725
655
660
675
690
680
700
710
615
650
660
3.8
5.1
6.2
2.9
3.2
3.6
3.9
5.1
5.4
5.8
2.3
2.6
2.8
660
700
710
640
645
655
665
660
670
675
595
630
645
20
15
15
15
15
20
25
20
30
35
20
20
15
Highly stable
Unstable
Highly unstable
Highly stable
Highly stable
Stable
Unstable
Unstable
Highly unstable
Highly unstable
Highly stable
Stable
Stable
0
2
3
0
0
1
2
2
3
3
0
1
1
* cement replacement by weight, **waterecementitious materials ratio, *** Visual stability index.
Air content (%)
Unit weight (kg/m3)
5.7
5.3
5.7
5.3
5.5
5.1
5.1
5.0
5.6
5.2
6.1
5.2
5.3
2325
2280
2260
2315
2310
2310
2290
2280
2255
2255
2275
2280
2260
70
the possibility of using a high volume of untreated (unground) RHA

to replace ne aggregate at 0%, 10%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100% by
volume in the production of SCC. The cement content was 550 kg/
m3 and the coarse aggregate content was 708 kg/m3 in all the
mixtures. The controlled slump ow diameter was maintained at
70 2.5 cm. Effective mixing was critical to concrete performance,
and the addition of superplasticizer was delayed until 1e2 min
after the water had been added, resulting in a more owable
mixture. In order to meet workability targets, SCC incorporating
high volumes of untreated RHA as a ne aggregate required large
amounts of water, mainly because of the increased volume fraction
and surface area of the binder in the presence of RHA. In particular,
the RHA-induced increase in the binder surface area was substantial, and it was necessary for the RHA content to be greater than 20%
in order to satisfy EFNARC (2002) requirements. The unit weight of
the SCC decreased with increasing RHA content, and the
compressive strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity decreased at
higher waterecementitious materials ratios and increased RHA
content, as shown in Table 11. Although Sua-iam and Makul's
(2013b) study constitutes a comprehensive investigation of the
potential of unprocessed RHA in the production of SCC, the study
does have a serious weakness inasmuch as the high content of RHA
as a ne aggregate replacement can induce segregation in the SCC.
This line of research could be extended by considering the durability of SCC containing RHA.
Sua-iam and Makul (2014) investigated as-received RHA in
regard to particle size and LOI. The powder content was 550 kg/
m3 and the coarse aggregate content was 708 kg/m3 in all the
mixtures. A high volume of untreated RHA was used to replace
the ne aggregate at levels of 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%. The
mixtures were designed based on a slump ow diameter of
70 2.5 cm. Increasing the RHA content beyond a certain level
reduced the compressive strength and increased the water
requirement of the SCC mixtures. RHA could comprise up to 25%
of the SCC, which still satises EFNARC (2002) criteria for workability and produces acceptable compressive strength according
to Building Code Requirements (ACI, 2008). The range of design
strengths is typically equivalent to an fc0 of 28e35 MPa. However,
substituting RHA for ne aggregate does not reduce the cost of
concrete as much as using ne aggregate would because the latter
is the cheapest material used in the production of concrete.
Moreover, it may be possible to extend the RHA volume used in
SCC by incorporating a ne ller material. The use of ller may
improve the properties of the SCC without increasing the cost,
and the elimination of the grinding cost, the highest cost when
RHA is used as a raw material in SCC, would make using RHA in
concrete production more feasible, particularly for small contractors and projects near rice production zones (Sua-iam and
Makul, 2013b, 2014). The key problem with this high volume of
RHA is the combination of the gradation of the RHA and the ne
aggregate and the porosity of the RHA particles. It should be
noted that the high porosity of RHA has a negative effect on the
required extra water content and dosage of superplasticizer
needed to produce SCC. Thus, the surface characteristics of RHA
and its absorption value should be subjected to extensive
research.
without compromising the fresh state properties. Compressive

strength and splitting tensile strength decreased with increasing
use of RHA. This is because the amount of RHA present in the mix is
higher than the amount required and because extra silica has
leached out. The extra silica partially replaces the cementitious
material and does not contribute to compressive strength. In
addition, the water-absorption level increased with increasing RHA
content. A serious weakness of Rahman et al.s (2014) study, however, pertains to the proper curing of this concrete: that is, poor
curing strongly affected the termeterm strength and durability of
the concrete mixes studied to a greater extent than for normal
concrete of similar strength.
The durability property of SCC that contains ne RHA particles
was evaluated by Kannan and Ganesan (2014). The mix design was
formulated to produce SCC that would not segregate or bleed, and
the target mean compressive strength was 38.5 MPa at 28 days. The
respective SCC mixtures contained RHA at 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%,
25%, and 30% by cement weight. For all the mixtures, the total
powder content was 400 kg/m3 and the waterecementitious materials ratio was 0.55. In summary, with the exception of the 30%
RHA mixes, all the mixes exhibited satisfactory fresh state properties according to EFNARC (2002) criteria. The compressive strength
of the SCC with 15% RHA was higher than that of the normal SCC.
However, the compressive strength of the SCC decreased when the
quantity of RHA was greater than 20%. These results may be due to
the decreasing workability of the SCC blended with RHA arising
from the higher surface area of RHA and its relatively high water
demand. In regard to the permeability properties of water absorption, sorptivity, and chloride penetration, the SCC blended with
15% RHA showed the strongest water absorption performance.
Further, sorptivity progressively decreased and the total charges
passed values were rated as very low for chloride ion penetration,
as shown in Table 10. In their comprehensive investigation, Kannan
and Ganesan (2014) found silica ratio (SR) to be a key to determining the resistance of SCC to acid. Further, they showed a good
synergistic inuence between RHA incorporating metakaolin and
the properties of SCC.
In addition, Sauddin et al. (2006) conducted a study in which
RHA increased the demand for an air-entraining admixture for a
given air content, but in which RHA did not affect the overall airvoid stability in fresh SCC. In fact, the study showed that the airvoid stability of fresh SCC is signicantly more important for
freezeethaw durability than for strength when SCC is intended for
use in cold-region countries. The air-void stability in various fresh
SCC samples was not affected by post-mixing and agitation, as the
air content did not differ signicantly. The owing ability of various
SCC samples had no effect on air-void stability, as the slump and
slump ow of the concrete samples were kept consistent at all test
stages. The split addition of the saturation dosage of HRWR maintained consistent owing ability, but it did not affect the air-void
stability of the SCC (Sauddin et al., 2006).
One question that needs to be asked, however, is whether RHA
signicantly increases the demand for an air-entraining admixture
and superplasticizer due to the high porosity of RHA.
As-received residual RHA, i.e., RHA that has been ground, can be
used in the production of SCC. Sua-iam and Makul (2013b) studied
Table 10
Permeability properties of SCC mixes containing RHA (Kannan and Ganesan, 2014).
Permeability properties
Water absorption (%)

Sorptivity 106 (m/s1/2)
Chloride penetration (Coulombs)
Cement replacement (% weight)

0
10
15
20
25
30
4.54
3.56
1486
4.53
3.64
438
4.1
3.43
389
3.93
3.31
306
3.92
4.06
876
4.47
6.41
904
4.92
9.20
1089
71
Table 11
Fresh and hardened properties of high volume y ash of SCC mixes containing unground RHA as a replacement for ne aggregate (Sua-iam and Makul, 2013b).
Properties
Fresh properties
Slump ow (cm)
Slump ow time (s)
Blocking assessmenta
V-funnel ow time (s)
Hardened properties
28 days
91 days
Ultrasonic pulse velocity (km/s)
28 days
91 days
Fine aggregate replacement (% volume)

0
10
20
40
60
80
100
70
6
No
7
69
6
No
9
70
6
Minimal
11
70
7
Minimal
14
70
8
Extreme
n/a
60
15
Extreme
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
65
82.8
54.8
72.6
28.0
39.6
19.1
26.4
10.4
14.8
4.1
5.7
2.0
2.6
4.4
5.2
4.2
5.0
3.5
4.2
2.2
3.0
1.8
2.6
0.9
1.3
0.7
1.0
a
The blocking assessment criteria conformed to ASTM C1621 (2011), in which 0e25 mm is dened as no visible blocking, 25e50 mm is dened as minimal to noticeable
blocking, and greater than 50 mm is dened as noticeable to extreme blocking (n/a indicates not measurable).
5. Sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA)

Sugarcane plays a major role in the current world economy as an
important international commodity. In 2012, the total worldwide
production of sugarcane was approximately 1842 million tons
(Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2014).
The process used to produce this commodity by the sugar and
ethanol agro-industry generates bagasse as a waste product.
However, this bagasse is used as a fuel to stoke boilers that produce
steam for electricity cogeneration. The nal product of this burning
is residual sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA) (Fras, 2011), of which the
resulting SBA represents approximately 0.62% of the sugarcane
weight (Cordeiro et al., 2004) or more than 11 million tons per
annum worldwide. In general, BA is disposed of in landlls such
that it is becoming an environmental burden (Chusilp et al., 2009a),
due to the effect of atmospheric conditions, the contamination of
adjacent soils, and underground water and health problems (Fras,
2011). However, SBA can partially replace clinker in cement
productionda use that would reduce the emission of CO2 into the
atmosphere. Based on a case study presented by Fairbairn et al.
(2010), the use of an SBA blend in cement production at the industry scale could result in an emissions reduction of 519.3 kilotons
of CO2 per year, as estimated using methodology established by the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC).
SBA has the potential to partially replace cement as a pozzolanic
additive in the manufacture of concrete (Loh et al., 2013). Asreceived SBA has large tubular-shaped particles with highly irregular shapes and high porosity. After grinding, the particles become
smaller. And though the particles remain highly irregular in shape,
the ground bagasse ash becomes more dense (Chusilp et al.,
2009b). SBA can be classied as a pozzolanic material, but its
pozzolanic activity depends to a signicant extent on the size and
neness of its particles (Cordeiro et al., 2008). One question that
needs to be asked, however, is whether a standard could be
established for the use of pozzolanic materials as a replacement for
cement or aggregate materials. Although, at present, ASTM C 618
(American Society for Testing and Material, 2011c) classies
pozzolanic materials, it only has criteria for class N material (raw
and calcined natural pozzolan). Pozzolan could be designated as a
sub-class N material of low quality that can be used as an aggregate
replacement material.
In general, grinding to values of D80 (80% passing size) below
about 60 mm and Blaine SSAs above 300 m2/kg result in products
that can be classied as a pozzolanic material. Particle size, characterized by 80% passing size, and Blaine SSA have been found to
correlate well with the pozzolanic activity index (Cordeiro et al.,

2009b). In contrast, SBA does not act like a reactive pozzolan,
mainly due to the presence of unburned material and carbon
ndez et al., 1998). However, this pozzolan could be consid(Herna
ered by using physical properties as well. For the production of SBA
with pozzolanic activity, the temperature at which calcination occurs is an important parameter. The high pozzolanicity of SBA with
air calcination at 600 C for 3 h (following 3 h at 350 C) with a
heating rate of 10 C/min can produce amorphous silica, a low
carbon content, and a high SSA. At this temperature, it is possible to
generate an ash that is predominantly amorphous with a pozzolanic activity index (PAI) of 77% and an LOI of 5.7% (Cordeiro et al.,
2009c). The SBA produced via industrial processes, however, presents various chemical and mineralogical compositions. In terms of
its mineralogical composition, the ash is formed with quartz as the
main crystalline compound (Fras, 2011). The various chemical
compositions of SBA are presented in Table 12. In addition, in terms
of the effect of LOI on the chemical compositions of the materials,
SiO2 decreased as LOI increased. CaO, however, increased with
increasing LOI. Nonetheless, ground BA with an LOI of less than 10%
is an excellent pozzolanic material and could be used to partially
replace Portland cement in concrete (Chusilp et al., 2009b). In their
thorough study, Chusilp et al. concluded that the cement replacement fraction of 20% wt. SBA is optimum for producing concrete.
Further, this line of research could be extended by addressing the
effect of LOI on the strength and durability properties of concrete.
The hydration of SBA blended with Portland cement has been
studied with blended cement mixtures prepared by mixing Portland cement with SBA at 10%, 20%, and 30% by weight. It was found
that in the presence of SBA, the setting times increased and the
percentage of free lime decreased. The compressive strength values
increased with hydration time in the presence of SBA, whereas
permeability decreased (Singh et al., 2000). However, the paper
appears overambitious in its claims. Cordeiro et al. (2008) found a
direct relationship between the compressive strength of mortar
containing SBA and the Blaine neness of the ash. On the other
hand, the compressive strength of mortar containing SBA is
inversely proportional to the SBA's particle size: the nest SBA
produced mortar with the highest packing density, which generated higher compressive strength and more pozzolanic activity. In
addition, SBA ground to an ultrane consistency can be used in
high-performance concrete with the same mechanical response as
a replacement for Portland cement at up to 20%. SBA used in this
way and to this extent also resulted in improvements in the
rheology of concrete in its fresh state and resistance to the penetration of chloride-ions (Cordeiro et al., 2009c). In a detailed
72
Table 12
Chemical composition of sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA) by country.
Composition (%)
India
(Singh et al., 2000)
Brazil
(Cordeiro et al., 2009)
Pakistan
(Akram et al., 2009)
Mexico
nez-Quero et al., 2013)
(Jime
Thailand
(Sua-iam and Makul, 2013a)
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
SO3
LOI
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3
63.16
9.70
5.40
8.40
2.90
2.87
6.90
78.26
78.34
8.55
3.61
2.15
1.65
e
0.42
90.50
62.44
6.74
5.77
6.16
2.97
0.72
2.58
74.95
56.37
14.61
5.04
2.36
1.43
e
10.53
76.02
65.26
6.91
3.65
4.01
1.10
0.21
15.34
75.82
investigation into pozzolanic activity, Cordeiro found that SBA can

be classied as a pozzolanic material and that the extent to which it
is pozzolanic depends on the SBA particles' size and neness.
However, it is not clear if these enhancements are associated with
chemical and/or with physical effects. Moreover, the shape and size
of the particles in mixes with SBA produced more viscous and
plastic pastes and mortars than did the mixes without SBA. The
inclusion of sieved SBA in mortar mixes increased both the yield
stress and viscosity, thereby causing a lower percentage of uidity
and a greater consumption of SP than in the mortar without SBA
nez-Quero, 2013). The results shows that depending on the
(Jime
dosage sieved SBA can produce an increase in the yield stress and
viscosity of pastes. The study also shows that the rheological
characteristics of the pastes can be evaluated by using a mini-slump
cone test. However, the rheological characteristics of mortars
cannot be established using a ow table test. In terms of the effect
of LOI, concrete mixed with low LOI ground SBA had a slightly
higher compressive strength than the mixture with high LOI
ground SBA. Compared with concrete without SBA, ground SBA as a
cement replacement with low and high LOI at 30% and 20% by
weight, respectively, resulted in higher compressive strength at 28
days. And, the temperature of SBA concrete can be reduced by
13e37%, depending on the extent to which ground SBA with low
LOI is used to replace cement (Montakarntiwong et al., 2013).
However, the effect of high LOI SBA on the long-term durability of
concrete should also be subjected to investigation.
Chusilp et al. (2009a) studied concrete containing ground SBA.
The chemical compositions of as-received sugarcane bagasse ash
and ground bagasse ash that differ in regard to LOI are shown in
Table 13. SBA from a sugar factory was ground using a ball mill
until the particles retained a No. 325 sieve were less than 5% by
weight. They were then used to replace Portland cement (350 kg/
m3) at 10%, 20%, and 30% by the weight of the binder. The
waterecementitious materials ratio of the concrete was held
constant at 0.50. As the cement replacement fraction by ground
SBA increased, the corresponding temperature increase in the
concrete became smaller. It was found that 20% ground SBA is the
optimum cement replacement fraction to produce compressive
strength of 40.5 MPa at 28 days. A higher replacement proportion
(at 30% by weight) resulted in concrete with less water permeability and lower compressive strength. In addition, the neness of
SBA was found to contribute to a ner pore structure, resulting in
additional improvements in strength and reduced chloride
permeation and diffusion. Further, Ganesan et al.s (2007)
comprehensive study of SBA, it can be concluded that SBA can
be utilized as an effective mineral admixture in the design of
durable concrete structures. According to Rukzon and
Chindaprasirt (2012), it is possible to produce high-strength concrete that includes nely ground BA. The incorporation of 30% SBA
decreases chloride penetration and makes the concrete stronger.
The concrete samples containing up to 30% SBA exhibit
compressive strength in the range of 65.6e68.6 MPa at 28 days,
which is higher than that of the control concrete (101e105%). In

conclusion, the incorporation of SBA signicantly improves concrete's resistance to chloride penetration by increasing the
pozzolanic reaction, enhancing the precipitation sites of the hydration products, and reducing the percentage of Ca(OH)2 in the
concrete. Further, Amin (2011) showed that high-strength Portland cement can be optimally replaced with well-burnt SBA at up
to 20% without any adverse effect on the desirable properties of
concrete. The specic advantages of such replacement are the
development of high early strength, a reduction in water permeability, and an appreciable resistance to chloride permeation and
diffusion. Nonetheless, Sales and Lima (2010) showed that SBA can
be used to partially replace sand at 0%, 30%, and 50% in concrete
made with slag-modied Portland cement. The cement consumption was held constant at 425 kg/m3. Thus, the authors
challenge the widely held view that SBA can be used as a partial
replacement for sand at up to 50% for design strength of up to
30 MPa in concrete made with slag-modied Portland.
There is potential to develop low-cost SCC using SBA. Specifically, low-cost SCC can be made by incorporating some percentage
of SBA along with the main ingredients of concrete (cement, ne
aggregate, and coarse aggregate) and superplasticizer for owability. In a study by Akram et al. (2009), SBA was added to the SCC
mixtures at 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% by weight of cement (500 kg/m3),
the waterecementitious materials ratio was maintained at 0.45,
and the superplasticizer-modied napthalene formaldehyde sulfonate at 2.0e4.0%. The results show that for the properties of fresh
SCC, the slump ow was 333e815 mm and some of the mixes
exceeded both the minimum and maximum ranges. The results
pertaining to the slump ow show that the ow increased with
increases in the amount of the superplasticizer used for owability.
Proportionally, the ow decreased with increased amounts of SBA.
For compressive strength higher than that of the control, the
mixtures with SBA at 15% and 20% and with 2% superplasticizer had
39.59 and 37.93 MPa, respectively. These respective increases in
strength were due to a reduced waterecementitious materials ratio, dense particle packing, pore-size renement, and grain-size
Table 13
Chemical composition of as-received SBA and ground SBA with different LOI
(Chusilp et al., 2009b).
Composition (%)
Bagasse
ash (%)
Ground sugarcane bagasse ash (%)

LOI-5
LOI-10
LOI-15
LOI-20
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
Cao
MgO
SO3
LOI
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3
54.10
5.69
3.54
15.37
1.41
0.03
19.36
63.33
77.37
3.59
4.66
7.81
1.32
0.15
5.08
85.62
70.64
3.68
4.06
10.68
1.41
0.15
9.29
78.38
60.67
4.30
4.02
15.85
1.46
0.09
13.59
68.99
54.45
6.06
3.23
15.41
1.37
0.04
19.39
63.74
renement. On the other hand, the lowest compressive strength

was shown by the mixture containing SBA at 20% with 4% superplasticizer: this mixture had 19.03 MPa at 28 days even though it
had a reduced waterecementitious materials ratio. A cost analysis
showed that the cost of ingredients of a specic SCC mix was 35.63%
less than that of the control concrete, both having compressive
strength of above 34 MPa, as shown in Table 14. Although Akram
et al. (2009) developed low-cost SCC prepared using bagasse ash,
more information is needed pertaining to the durability of the SCC
produced before conclusions in this regard can be drawn with any
condence.
The increasingly high volumes of SBA waste produced by the
sugar industry were used as ne aggregate replacement materials
in the production of high-performance SCC in a study by Sua-iam
and Makul (2013a). The goal was to maximize the amount of unprocessed or as-received SBA content used as a ne aggregate.
Mixtures were designed to yield a slump ow diameter of
70 2.5 cm. A Type 1 Portland cement content of 550 kg/m3 was
maintained in all the mixtures. The ne aggregate was replaced
with 10%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, or 100% unprocessed or as-received
SBA by volume. The waterecementitious materials ratio was
minimized by adding superplasticizer at a concentration of 2.0% by
weight of cement in order to provide the desired uidity. The use of
SBA as a ne aggregate replacement required large amounts of
water to achieve the desired slump ow diameter. Compared to the
control SCC, the SCC containing SBA required higher water content
in accord with the percentage of BA replacement in the ne
aggregate. This high water requirement was due to the large particle size and high surface area of the SBA particles. The addition of
large amounts of water has negative effects on the properties of
fresh concrete, leading to segregation, bleeding, and blockage when
owing through narrow spaces between reinforcements. In addition, a high percentage replacement of SBA in ne aggregate (>40%
by volume) can lead to blocking when the SCC ows though obstructions, such as congested reinforcements, when compared to
the control SCC. Moreover, this high water content led to decreased
compressive strength and decreased density in the SCC, as illustrated by the UPV results presented in Table 15. But an important
advantage is that the unit weight of SCC containing SBA was lower
than that of the control SCC, which would reduce the long-term
repair and maintenance costs when this SCC is employed in concrete buildings. The next steps in this line of research would be to
consider the binary and ternary effects of using the stated materials
in the stated percentages as both a replacement for and an addition
to cement. It can be inferred that these additive powder materials
can be used to improve the SCC in the fresh state when superplacticizer is also used. In addition to a consideration of the effect of
these materials on concrete in its fresh state, the long-term mechanical and durability properties of concrete thus produced must
be determined.
73
6. Environmental acceptability
Cementitious materials initially act as a mechanical barrier
preventing activated water ow through the waste for a long
period, and thus contributing to the retardation of dissolved radionuclides via a combination of physical and chemical interactions
(El-Dakroury and Gasser, 2008). The disposal of metal-laden FA,
though, is a problem. This substance can be incorporated into a
cementitious mixture to a great extent without risking an unacceptable delay to the cement setting or excess heavy metals
leaching from the solidied products. When used in concrete, FA
reacts chemically with cement and reduces any leaching effect
(Ahmaruzzaman, 2010). It is possible to prepare mortars with 10%
metal-laden FA that are as strong as or even stronger than cement
alone. Leachates from xed metal-laden FA, obtained by using both
the ASTM and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency extraction
procedure (USEPA-EP) leaching tests, exhibit metal concentrations
lower than those specied in the drinking water standards set by
the World Health Organization (WHO) (Weng and Huang, 1994).
Table 16 shows the results of the TCLP analysis. The TCLP concentrations that leached from the cement paste samples in which class
C y ash had been used as a 50% substitution for cement, lead to a
solidication with the cement-y ash mixture, which showed
slightly less leaching compared to the cement binder. The average
efciency for immobilizing lead contained waste by a cement-only
binder system was 98% (for lead nitrate concentrations of up to
10%). In treating similar waste, the addition of y ash in cementbased S/S slightly increased the efciency (Wang and
Vipulanandan, 1996). In addition, the leachability of heavy metals
from solidied wastes using reactive RHA-blended cement as solidication metal-containing wastes was investigated by Asavapisit
and Ruengrit (2005). Metal leaching from the solidied waste
samples was assessed using the toxicity characteristic leaching
procedure (TCLP) as set out by the US EPA (United States
Environmental Protection Agency, 1992) on samples cured for 28
days. When OPC was replaced with RHA, the acid neutralization
capacity of cement-based solidied wastes was reduced. The concentration of heavy metals in the TCLP leachates was very low due
to the high resultant leachate pHs, and the plating sludge can be
loaded at 30% wt. to the cement blended with 10% wt. It was
observed that the leachability of heavy metals increased as the
waste loading increased. The concentration of heavy metals,
especially of chromium, in leachates does not exceed the TCLP
limits (5 mg/L). RHA resulted in either the minimum acceptable 28day strength or the maximum level of metal leaching allowed for
landlling.
The cumulative fractional release (CFR) data show a decrease in
the Cs leachability of a cement formulation concomitant with RHA.
The addition of RHA tends to result in mixes that can immobilize
the Cs. As RHA is known to have a sorption capacity for anions, the
Table 14
Comparison of the cost analyses of SCC mixes (Akram et al., 2009).
Materials
Cement (kg)
Coarse aggregate (kg)
Sand (kg)
Superplasticizer, Sikament NM (L)
Superplasticizer, Viscocrete (L)
Bagasse ash (kg)
Total
Percentage reduction in cost ~36
*USD/PKR 0.00989.
Unit cost (USD)
0.0593
0.0019
0.0010
0.6824
2.4453
Free of cost
Control concrete (m3)
SCC with SBA at 15% (m3)
Quantity
Cost (USD)
Quantity
Cost (USD)
500
750
875
12.5
10
e
29.65
1.425
0.875
8.530
24.45
500
750
875
14.375
e
75
29.65
1.425
0.875
9.810
64.93
41.76
74
Table 15
Compressive strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity of SCC mixes containing unground SBA as a replacement for ne aggregate (Sua-iam and Makul, 2013a).
Properties
Fresh properties
Slump ow (cm)
Slump ow time (s)
Blocking assessmenta
V-funnel ow time (s)
28 days
91 days
Ultrasonic pulse velocity (km/h)
28 days
91 days
Fine aggregate replacement (% volume)

0
10
20
40
60
80
100
70
6
No
8
69
7
No
9
70
8
Minimal
14
70
7
Minimal
22
70
6
Extreme
31
68
5
Extreme
40
68
4
Extreme
52
65.0
82.8
49.4
62.2
35.0
49.1
28.3
41.3
23.2
31.6
12.7
18.1
n/a
n/a
15,840
18,720
13,248
15,120
12,348
14,112
10,872
13,032
9540
10,944
7272
8676
n/a
n/a
a
The blocking assessment criteria conformed to ASTM C1621 (2011), in which 0e25 mm is dened as no visible blocking, 25e50 mm is dened as minimal to noticeable
blocking, and greater than 50 mm is dened as noticeable to extreme blocking (n/a indicates not measurable).
Table 16
Heavy metal concentrations in TCLP leachates of cement formulation concomitant with y ash and rice husk ash.
Cement substitution (%)
Concentration (mg/L) at 7 days
Cement substitution (%)
Pb
Fly ash (Wang and Vipulanandan, 1996)
0FA 0.5%Pb
0.55
0FA 2.0%Pb
2.5
0FA 10.0%Pb
30
50FA 0.5%Pb
0.45
50FA 2.0%Pb
2.0
50FA 10.0%Pb
25
Concentration (mg/L) at 28 days

Cr
Rice husk ash (Asavapisit and Ruengrit, 2005)

0R 20 PS
0.5
20R 20 PS
0.5
30R 20 PS
0.5
0R 30 PS
0.5
20R 30 PS
0.5
30R 30 PS
0.5
Fe
Zn
1.3
2.2
2.6
3.7
4.1
4.4
3.6
3.2
2.5
3.7
2.8
2.2
Remark: FA y ash, Pb lead nitrate, R rice husk ash, Cr chromium hydroxide, Fe ferric hydroxide, and Zn zinc hydroxide, and PS plating sludge.
reduction in leachability may be due (i) to physical effects, i.e., the

blocking of cement pores with ne particles of (RHA), and (ii) to the
chemical effect through the modication of the cement microstructure through the spaces, which were originally occupied by
water and would not be completely lled with the hydration
products of cement (El-Dakroury and Gasser, 2008). Further,
Tantawy et al., 2012 recommended blended cement containing
15e20% SBA as effective for immobilizing concentrated waste
Cr(VI) solutions (~13,000 ppm Cr(VI)) after being mixed with this
blended cement in a waterecementitious materials ratio of about
30%. Overall, there is growing interest in the environmental impact
of cement-based materials, especially for materials in which industrial by-products are incorporated. Organic components in
cement and in concrete admixtures, such as y ash, rice husk ash
and sugarcane bagasse ash, are at a very low level because they
have been burned away during their formation processes (Yu et al.,
2005). The main aspect in respect of the environmental impact of
cement-based materials, therefore, is the leaching of inorganic
compounds when in contact with environmental waters. And,
another concern is how to prevent or reduce the release of these
compounds into the environment. The recycling of y ash, rice husk
ash, and sugarcane bagasse ash would not result in further environmental pollution.
7. Conclusions and perspectives
The by-products FA, BA, RHA, and SBA have been widely used in
applications for many years. These materials have the potential to
be included in SCC because this kind of concrete requires a high
volume of powder materials and superplasticizer in order to
improve its properties. Further, SCC is more expensive than conventional concrete. These limitations can be addressed by using the
stated by-products either in combination or alone. In combination,
there is the additional benet that the disadvantages of one kind of
by-product will be compensated for by the advantages of another

kind of by-product included in the mix. Thus, the properties of
concrete can be improved and the use of cement reduced, resulting
in less expensive concrete than is currently available. Industrial
material development and more research and development in
general on these materials are necessary to apply them most
effectively and to ensure that they are used in an environmentally
friendly way.
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Utilization of Coal and Bottom Ash For SCC

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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

Utilization of coal- and biomass-red ash in the production

* Corresponding author. Tel./fax: 66 2 522 6637.

G. Sua-Iam, N. Makul / Journal of Cleaner Production 100 (2015) 59e76

aggregates becoming segregated (Skarendahl, 2000). Thus, fresh

2.2. Passing ability

G. Sua-Iam, N. Makul / Journal of Cleaner Production 100 (2015) 59e76

and closely spaced reinforcing bars without getting blocked by

Reduction in inner-particle friction

and (iv) non-uniformity in air-pore distribution (Tangtermsirikul

G. Sua-Iam, N. Makul / Journal of Cleaner Production 100 (2015) 59e76

Conventionally known as y ash (FA), the majority (80%e85%) of

EFNARC (EFNARC, 2002)

EFNARC (EFNARC, 2005)

Japan society of civil engineers (JSCE) (JSCE, 2007)

G. Sua-Iam, N. Makul / Journal of Cleaner Production 100 (2015) 59e76

ller material. For example, a further possibility to consider is that

G. Sua-Iam, N. Makul / Journal of Cleaner Production 100 (2015) 59e76

Compressive strength (MPa)

Splitting tensile strength (MPa)

The ability of concrete to resist re is a complicated matter

presented the properties of SCC subjected to elevated temperature.

G. Sua-Iam, N. Makul / Journal of Cleaner Production 100 (2015) 59e76

with increasing FA content, the absorption values of SCC containing

Fly ash replacement (% volume)

promoting the consumption of calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) for the

G. Sua-Iam, N. Makul / Journal of Cleaner Production 100 (2015) 59e76

Bai et al. (2005)

Andrade et al. (2007)

Kim and Lee (2011)

Singh and Siddique (2014)

Particles passing through a 150 mm sieve.

two ways they explore whereby BA is added to concrete mixes each

greater durability, chloride penetration, carbonation depth, and

G. Sua-Iam, N. Makul / Journal of Cleaner Production 100 (2015) 59e76

Bottom ash replacement (% volume)

Compressive strength (MPa)

4. Rice husk ash (RHA)

Kothandaraman (2010) established 500 C and 120 min as the

G. Sua-Iam, N. Makul / Journal of Cleaner Production 100 (2015) 59e76

mortars. In addition, the length of time RHA is subjected to grinding

fertilizers (Bronzeoak, 2003), as shown in Table 7. It can be seen that

G. Sua-Iam, N. Makul / Journal of Cleaner Production 100 (2015) 59e76

Control concrete (m3)

Unit cost (USD)

SCC with RHA at 10% (m3)

*USD/PKR 0.00989, **assuming 10 km haul.

the replacement of cement by RHA at 0e30% by weight. The cement

ratio and RHA content both increased. The reduction in total

Inverted slump J-ring ow

Air content (%)

Unit weight (kg/m3)

G. Sua-Iam, N. Makul / Journal of Cleaner Production 100 (2015) 59e76

the possibility of using a high volume of untreated (unground) RHA

without compromising the fresh state properties. Compressive

Water absorption (%)

Cement replacement (% weight)

G. Sua-Iam, N. Makul / Journal of Cleaner Production 100 (2015) 59e76

Fine aggregate replacement (% volume)

5. Sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA)

correlate well with the pozzolanic activity index (Cordeiro et al.,