Electrostatics

In electrostatics, we study the electromagnetic phenomena that occur when there are no moving
charges (After a static equilibrium has been established). Charges reach their equilibrium
positions rapidly because the electric force is extremely strong.
Electric Charge

All substances are made up of atoms, which consist of a nucleus (containing protons and
neutrons) and orbiting electrons. Protons are positively charged and electrons are negatively
charged. Neutrons are so named because they are neutral; they have no net electric charge.

In each atom of a material, the number of protons and electrons are equal. The positive
and negative charges cancel each other to a large extent and there is no net electrical
charges.

Electrons can be removed from atoms or added to atoms and the material is left with a net
charge, and electrical effects result. The study of these net stationary charges and their
effects on each other constitutes the subject of static electricity or electrostatics.

Atoms with net charges are called ions.

This is a familiar electric phenomenon in which friction transfers charged particles from one
body to another.
If two objects are rubbed together, especially if the objects are insulators and surrounding air is
dry, the objects acquire equal and opposite charges and an attractive force develops between
them. The object that loses electrons becomes positively charged, and the other that gains
electrons becomes negatively charged. The force is simply the attraction between charges of
opposite sign.
Each type of charge attracts the opposite type but repels the same type. This leads to the basic
law of electrostatics: Unlike charges attract, like charges repel.

SI unit of electric charge is the coulomb (C). It is a scalar quantity.

Every electron has a charge of -1.6 x 10-19 C, and every proton has a charge of +1.6 x 1019
C.

Examples:

When a piece of amber, plastic, polythene, or hard rubber is rubbed with fur, electrons are
transferred from fur to the other material. Fur acquires net positive charge, since it has fewer
electrons than protons. Similarly, the amber, plastic, or hard rubber acquires a net negative
charge since they have excess electrons.

Combing hair charges the comb in the same way.

Rubbing glass (perspex) with silk causes the glass to acquire a net positive charge.

By conduction(contact),

Procedure:

A metal sphere with an excess of negative charge is brought near to a neutral object.

Upon contact, electron move from the sphere to the object and spread about uniformly.

The metal sphere now has less excess negative charge and the object now has a negative
charge.

By induction,

Procedure:

When a negatively charged rod is brought near to a neutral metal sphere, it induces
positive charges on the side nearest to the rod and negative charges on the spheres far side,

The metal sphere is earthed.(by touching or an earthing wire) Sufficient electrons flow
down to the ground through the finger/earthing wire from the metal sphere.

When the finger/earthing wire is removed, only induced positive charges remained on the
sphere.

Finally, when the rod is removed, the remaining positive charges spread themselves out
evenly over the metal sphere.

By charging by high D.C.,

Earthing refers to the process of connecting the conductor to earth by a conducting wire.

The coulombs law states that the electrostatic force between two point charges is proportional to
the product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them.
F=Q1Q24or2F=Q1Q24or2
, where

Q is charge,

r is the distance between the two charge,

oo is the permittivity of free space

Like charges, repulsion occurs. F is positive.

Unlike charges, attraction occurs. F is negative.

The electric field strength at a point in an electric field is the electrostatic force per unit charge
experienced by a small positive test charge placed at that point.

Electric field strength is a vector and it is in the direction of the force experienced by the
positive test charge.

E=Q14or2E=Q14or2, Only valid for spherical objects or point charges

,where

Q is charge,

r is distance from the charge

F=EqoF=Eqo
,where

F is electrostatic force,

E is electric field strength,

q is charge of positive test charge

The electric field lines are parallel to the direction of force experienced by a positive test charge
placed at that point.
Basic conventions when drawing field lines

All field lines are continuous curves or lines without breaks

Field lines never cross each others path

Field lines in the same direction tend to stay as far apart as possible

Field lines in the opposite direction tend to cancel each other

When electric field strength E increases, the number of field lines increase

Field lines are always perpendicular from its source

Stronger field lines retain their shape better therefore are less distorted by other charges
around

When 2 or more charges are placed in the vicinity of each other, the resultant E-field shape
will be a combination of the individual E-field.

When both point charges are of the same magnitude, the shape will be symmetrical

When both point charges are of different magnitude, the shape will be asymmetrical

Almost uniform E-field can be obtained with oppositely charged parallel plates when the length
of the plates is much longer than the distance between them.

Note: What does it mean by uniform electric field?

An uniform electric field is defined as an electric field whose influence over a charge is constant
regardless of the point of the space taken into consideration.
An electric field generated by a point charge is not uniform because the electric field lines are
spaced further apart as the distance from the charge increases. (The electric field gets weaker.)
______________________________________________
Electric field strength due to double and multiple point charges in space:

Ey=E1y+E2yEy=E1y+E2y
Ex=E1x+E2xEx=E1x+E2x
E=E2x+E2yE=Ex2+Ey2
Procedure:

Resolve the electric field vectors into x and y components

The x and y components of the resultant electric field can be found using the first two
equations above
The resultant electric field is then computed using the third equation

Note: If you are familiar with vectors, the resultant electric field at a point is just the vector sum
of the two or more electric fields due to the charges.
When a charged particle is placed in an uniform electric field, in absence of all other forces, it
will experience an acceleration in the direction of the field lines.
F=maF=ma
qE=maqE=ma
a=qEma=qEm
All laws of Kinematics can be applied to the motion of the charged particle.

Electric Potential at a point in an electric field is the work done per unit charge by an external
agent in bringing a positive test charge from infinity to that particular point without acceleration.

E-field lines always point from region of high potential(+) to regions of low potential (-)

Unit: Volts (V)

Various equations for electric potential:

V=WqV=Wq
, where

V is electric potential,

W is work/energy,

q is charge

V=Q4orV=Q4or
, where

V is electric potential,

Q is charge,

r is distance from the charge

V=ErV=Er
, where

V is electric potential,

E is electric field,

r is distance from the charge

Electric potential of a positive charge decreases with increasing r.

Electric potential of a negative charge increases with increasing r.
An equipotential line is a line joining points having the same potential.

If an object is moved from one point on a line of equipotential to another point on the
same line, there is no change in its potential. Hence, no work is done.
Equipotential Lines are always perpendicular to electric field lines.

Distance between lines for equal increment of potential for electric field due to point charges is
always increasing.
Distance between lines for equal increment of potential for electric field due to parallel plate is
always the same.

A positive test charge will tend to move to a lower potential while a negative test charge will
tend to move to a higher potential.
The field strength at a point is numerically equal to the potential gradient at that point.
E=dVdrE=dVdr
E=VrE=Vr
, only applicable for parallel plates

Electric potential energy of a charge in an electric field is defined as the work done by an
external force in bringing the charge from infinity to that point a distance r away.
U=Q1Q24orU=Q1Q24or
, where

U is electric potential energy,

Q is charge,

r is distance between the two charges,

oo is the permittivity of free space

The electron volt is defined as energy that an electron (or proton) gains (or loses) when it is
accelerated (or decelerated) through a potential difference of 1 volt.
Charge of an electron, e = 1.602 x 10-19 C
DC circuits
The electric charges in motion are called electric current and it forms the basis of current
electricity. Static electricity, or electrostatics, on the other hand involves charges at rest.
Electric current (I) is the rate of flow of charges. (Q)

SI unit: Ampere (A)

Can be measured by an ammeter (must be connected in SERIES to the circuit)

I=QtI=Qt
A current of one ampere is a flow of charge at the rate of one coulomb per second.
For electric current in a metal conductor (a solid), the charge carriers are electrons. For historical
reasons, the direction of the conventional current is always treated as the opposite direction in
which electron effectively moves.

Current in gases and liquid generally consists of a flow of positive ions in one direction
together with a flow of negative ions in the opposite direction.

Electric current generates a magnetic field. The strength of the magnetic field depends on the
magnitude of the electric current.
Current electricity consists of any movement of electric charge carriers, such as subatomic
charged particles (e.g. electrons having negative charge, protons having positive charge), ions
(atoms that have lost or gained one or more electrons), or holes (electron deficiencies that may
be thought of as positive particles)

If the direction of the current (charge flow) is fixed, it is known as a direct current. If the
motion of the electric charges is periodically reversed; it is called an alternating current.

Analogy to river:
In order to help you understand the concept of current better, you can think of a river. Current in
an electric circuit is similar to water flowing through the river.
Examples:

An electric current in a wire involves the movement of

1. Electrons
2. atoms
3. molecules
Electromotive Force (e.m.f.) of a source is the energy converted from non-electrical to electrical
form when one coulomb of positive charge passes through the source.

SI unit: Volt (V)

E=WQE=WQ, where E = e.m.f., W = work done by source, Q = amount of positive charges

Potential difference between two points is defined as the energy converted from electrical to
other forms when a coulomb of positive charge passes between the two points.

SI unit: Volt (V)

V=WQV=WQ, where V = potential difference, W = work done in driving the charge between the
two points, Q = amount of positive charges
IMPORTANT: There can be e.m.f. without a closed circuit. BUT there cannot be a potential
difference without a closed circuit.
Analogy to waterfalls:
In order to help you understand the concept of potential difference better, you can think of a
waterfall. In the case of a waterfall, the water flows due to a height difference. In electric circuits,
current flows between two points due to the existence of potential difference between the two
points. No potential difference = no current.
When two or more sources are arranged so that the positive terminal of one is connected to the
negative terminal of the next, they are said to be in series and their e.m.f.s add up.
This arrangement gives increased e.m.f. because, the charge flowing round a circuit will pass
through more than one source and gains electrical potential energy from each of them.
Note:
Cells can also be arranged in parallel. In this, all the positive terminals are connected together
and all the negative terminals are connected together. The combined e.m.f. in parallel connection
will not increase like in the series connection. But the battery will last longer before going flat.

When a torch bulb is connected to a battery, the torch bulb gets lit. The battery converts chemical
energy into electrical energy and is therefore a source of electrical energy. The torch bulb
converts electrical energy into heat and light and is therefore a sink of electrical energy.

Dissipation of electrical energy between two points (e.g. across torch bulb) in an
electrical circuit causes potential difference (p.d.) between those two points.

The potential difference (p.d.) between two points in a closed circuit is defined as the energy
converted from electrical to other forms when a unit positive charge passes between the two
points.

SI unit of p.d. is the volt (V). It is the same as that of e.m.f.. (Both are measures of
electrical potential energy, e.m.f. is gained electrical energy while potential difference is lost
electrical energy.)
V=WQ

By increasing p.d. across the ends of a conductor, current flow can be increased. But the increase
in the amount of current flow depends on the conducting ability of the conductor. Some
conductors offer some resistance to current flow than others.
Resistance (R) of a conductor is defined as the ratio of potential difference (V), across the
conductor to the current (I), flowing through it.

SI unit of resistance is the ohm .

V = IR

Ohms law states that, the current flowing in a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference applied across its ends, provided that all other physical conditions, such as
temperature, are constant. Comparing with V=IR, thus, R must be constant for a metallic
conductor under steady physical conditions.
Besides temperature, experimental results shows that the resistance (R of a given conductor) also
depends on the composition and size.
Resistance, R is found to be:

directly proportional to its length, L

inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area

dependent on the type of material

From experimental results, we can show that:

R=LAR=LA
, where
R = resistance in ohm ()
A = cross-sectional area of conductor in metre2 (m2)
L = length of conductor in metre (m), and
= resistivity of material in ohm-metre (mm)
For the similar lengths and material,
Thinner wires have higher resistance than thicker wires.
For similar thickness and material,
Longer wires have higher resistance than shorter wires
In many situations, several electrical devices are connected to the same power supply. There are
two basic methods of connecting resistors or other devices together. They are called series and
parallel connections.
The derivation of the formula for effective resistance for series and parallel resistors can be
found at the end of this post.
Effective Resistance Of Resistors
Resistors In Series
If individual resistors are connected from end to end, the resistors are said to be connected in
series. The effective resistance, R, of three resistors of resistances R1, R2; and R3 connected in
series (shown in the figure) is given by:
R=R1+R2+R3R=R1+R2+R3
In general, if there are n resistors in series, the effective resistance R is given by:
R=R1+R2+.+RnR=R1+R2+.+Rn
Note: In a series connection, the effective resistance, R, is always larger than the largest of the
individual resistances.

Resistors In Parallel
If each end of individual resistors are connected together to one another as one, the resistors are
said to be connected in parallel.
The effective resistance, R, of three resistors of resistances R1, R2 and R3 connected in parallel is
given by:
1R=1R1+1R2+1R31R=1R1+1R2+1R3
In general, if there are n resistors in parallel, the effective resistance R is given by:
1R=1R1+1R2+.+1Rn1R=1R1+1R2+.+1Rn
Note: In a parallel connection, the effective resistance, R, is always smaller than the smallest of
the individual resistances.
Metallic conductors at constant temperature
The I-V graph of metallic conductor is a straight line pass through the origin. They obey Ohms
Law, having resistance that is independent of current. (Ohmic conductors)
Reason: Resistance in metal is the reduction of the drift velocity of electrons due to collision
with the lattice ions. If the temperature of the conductor is kept constant, the magnitude of the
vibration of the lattice ions remain the same, and hence its resistance would remain the same.

Filament lamp

From the I/V graph, the ratio V/I increases as current increases.

Resistance of the filament lamp increase with temperature.

Reason: As the potential difference across a filament lamp increases, the current increases and
the energy dissipated, as heat, increases, resulting in a higher temperature. As the temperature
increases, resistance of the filament increases. The collision between the free electrons and the
lattice ions increases due to more rigorous vibration of the lattice ions.

A direct current (DC) is a flow of charges around a circuit in the same direction all the time.

Batteries supply DC and most appliances need DC to function.

Alternating current (AC) is a flow of charges around a circuit that reverses its direction at
regular intervals, usually many times a second.

Household electrical power is supplied in the form of AC which usually needs to be

rectified to DC before use.

An electric circuit is a collection of electrical devices, called circuit elements connected by

conductors in a closed path (i.e., in a complete loop).
Circuit elements include, source of electrical energy (e.g. battery), sink of electrical energy (e.g.
light bulb), and switch to complete or break the circuit. Conductors (e.g., copper wires) are then
used to connect them together.

Electrical Symbols
Circuit diagrams are essential part of the study of current electricity and are often drawn
symbolically. In circuit diagrams, various circuit elements are represented by standard electric
symbols.

Circuit Diagrams

A simple circuit, with a cell (if a series of cells is used, it is called a battery) and a resistor or
bulb.

Circuit diagram showing the measurement of current in the circuit and potential difference across
a circuit element (e.g. the resistor).

An ammeter is used to measure the current flowing in the circuit and must be inserted in
series with the circuit element as shown.

A voltmeter measures the potential difference between two points in a circuit and must be
connected in parallel to the circuit element as shown.

Note that:

An ideal ammeter has zero resistance so that when inserted into a circuit, it does not
reduce the current that was previously flowing.

An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance so that it takes no current. A finite resistance
causes it to take current from the circuit, and to lower the potential difference between the
points to which it is connected.

________________

Variable resistor can be used as a rheostat to control current or as a potential divider to

control voltages.

The fuse is a short piece of thin wire which overheats and melts to break the circuit if
current of more than its rated value flows through it. A fuse is connected in series to protect
devices in the circuit.

Resistance of a thermistor (thermally sensistive resistor) decreases rapidly as its

surrounding temperature rises.

Resistance of light dependent resistor (LDR) decreases with increasing surrounding

light intensity.

A light emitting diode (LED) allows current to flow in only one direction. When current
is allowed to pass, it shines brightly with only a small voltage across it. LED is used as
on/off indicator in many electronic devices such as televisions, computers.

A earth connector is a conductor that connects directly to earth.

Series Circuits

Series circuits has the same current through each circuit components BUT different potential
difference across each circuit components.
Same Current

In a series circuit, the flow of charges has only one path to follow. The flow of charge
passes through each component in turn.
Therefore, in a series circuit, the current at every point is the same.
Adding a new component to the series circuit reduces the current flow throughout
because of the added resistance of the new component.

Different potential difference

Potential difference (p.d.) between two points in a circuit is caused by the energy
dissipation in the circuit elements connected between those two points. Energy is a scalar
quantity. It can be added to get the total energy dissipation in a circuit.

In a series circuit, the sum of the potential difference across the sinks (i.e. the bulbs) is
equal to the sum of the e.m.f.s across the sources (i.e. the battery).

In a series circuit, the sum of the potential difference across the bulbs is equal to the
potential difference across the battery.

In a series circuit, the highest potential difference occurs across a component with the
largest resistance. (Disregarding the potential difference across the battery)

The potential difference between the ends of any of the pieces of connecting wire is
effectively zero because there is almost no loss of potential energy.

Parallel Circuits
Parallel circuits has the different current through each branch (same current through the circuit
components within the branch) BUT same potential difference across each branch. (different
potential difference across the circuit components within the branch)
Different currents

Instead of wiring components in series, they can be connected in parallel. Parallel

connection offers different paths for the flow of charges, but the total flow of charges from
the source remains unchanged.

Therefore, in a parallel circuit, the current from the source is the sum of the currents in
the separate branches.

In the parallel circuit shown, if one lamp is removed, the others still light up. This is why
most household lighting circuits are connected in parallel.

In a parallel circuit, the largest current will pass through the branch with the smallest
effective resistance.

At a junction in a circuit, the total current entering a junction is equal to the total current
leaving the junction. This is the conservation of charge.

Same potential difference

In a parallel circuit, two or more components are connected between two points of the
circuit. The potential difference across a component is the potential difference between the
two points and is equal to the potential difference of any other component connected in
between.

Therefore, the potential difference across separate branches of a parallel circuit is the
same.

Electrical energy is easily converted to other forms of energy by operation of different electrical
appliances, but unsafe use of electricity causes electric fire and shock, that might lead to serious
injuries or even death to users.
Using fuses, circuit breakers, switches and earthing wires in electrical appliances are safety
features in preventing both electrical fire and shock.
Heating effect of electricity

Current flowing through a large resistor, converts electrical energy into heat (thermal)
energy. This is the heating effect of electric current.

This heating effect concept is used in all the heat-generating household appliances such
as electric kettle, ovens, heaters, iron, hair dryers, toasters and electric cookers etc.

These electrical appliances have a heating element which is made of high resistance, such
as nichrome wire. The amount of heating effect is controlled by varying the amount of
current flowing through the heating element.

Apart from heating effect, electric current also has effects in magnetic and chemical (as in
electrolysis) from.

The rate of heating effect is usually measured is power units, i.e., the kilowatt (kW), while the
amount of energy converted is usually measured in energy unit, i.e., the kilowatt-hour (kWh).

Power (P) of electrical appliances is given by:

P=I2R=V2R=VIP=I2R=V2R=VI
where,
V = voltage applied across appliance
I = current flowing through appliance
R = total resistance of appliance
SI unit for power is the kilowatt (kW)
1 W = 1 J s-1 => 1 kW = 1000 W = 1000 J s-1

Energy converted (E) of electrical appliances is given by

E=Pt=I2Rt=V2Rt=VItE=Pt=I2Rt=V2Rt=VIt
where,
V = voltage applied across appliance
I = current flowing through appliance
R = total resistance of appliance
t = total time taken
SI unit for energy conversion is the kilowatt-hour (kWh)
1 kWh = (1000 W) X (60 X 60 s) = 3 600 000J = 3600 kJ = 3.6 MJ
Appliances with high power rating consume more electrical energy per unit time.

Notes:
Many, if not all, electrical appliances are not 100% efficient. Some of the electrical energy are
converted to other forms of energy. e.g. light, sound and etc.

Cost of using electrical appliances

Domestic consumption of electrical energy is measured by electrical meters units of

kilowatt-hour (kWh).

Each consumed energy unit (kWh) is billed according to a fixed or variable rate. The total
cost of energy usage for a defined period is the product of number of consumed energy units
in kWh and the charge per energy unit.

At the beginning of each month, the electricity meter of the domestic household is read
and the total number of energy units consumed so far is recorded. The difference between
last months reading and this months reading is the current months consumption.

Most dangerous consequences of using electricity are electric shock and electric fire. They are
usually caused by damaged insulation, overheating of cables or damp conditions.

Damaged insulation

Rubber is used as insulation for the current-carrying conductors of most electrical

appliances.

Rubber insulation is prone to damage due to regular bending and twisting. (Common
appliances that bend/twist during usage: Hair dryer and Iron) The rubber insulation might
break apart and expose the wire.

This damaged insulation would result in

1.
2.

Electric shock resulting in serious injury or even death to users.

Short circuit in the current path by connecting exposed current-carrying
conductors together resulting in the wires heating up fire hazard.

Overheating of cables

Especially thin wire conductors, when very large currents are made to flow through these
conductors, these wire conductors will heat up and produce very high temperatures. Shortcircuit or overloading of cables are conditions that lead to such large currents.

This overheating of cables would result in melting of the insulation and catching fire.

Damp Condition

Effective body resistance drop drastically from 100 k to 100 under damp condition
(wet environment condition). Activities like sweating, bathing and etc lower the effective
resistance of our body.

This damp condition, coupled with unsafe usage of electrical appliances, would result in
large currents flowing through our body causing electrical shock and leading to serious
injury or even death.

Electricity is supplied to the households via the mains: (Note: The colours are different for
different countries)

Live wire (L): high voltage (240 V) wire or main wire that carries current into the house
circuit. (Typically coloured BROWN)

Neutral wire (N): Zero voltage wire or main wire that carries current out of the house
circuit. (Typically coloured BLUE)

Touching the live wire WILL give you an electric shock but touching the neutral wire SHOULD
be safe. (NOTE: Do NOT touch any wires that are connected to the mains, live or neutral! If
there is a wiring fault, the supposedly safe neutral wire will give you an electric shock!)

Consumer Distribution Box

Current is carried into the house by the live wire through a main fuse, an electricity meter, a
main switch and a consumer distribution unit and then returned from the house via the neutral
wire to the public power supply. This is considered to be the complete circuit.
Connecting an electrical appliance between a pair of live and neutral wires, form a complete
circuit. A voltage difference (240 ~ 0 V) is set up between the terminals of electrical appliance
resulting in a current flowing through the appliance resulting in a current flowing through the
appliance. The electrical energy is then converted in the appliance into other form of useful
energy.
In order to prevent excessive currents flowing into the home circuit, electrical appliances and its
cables, fuses and circuit breakers are wired into the live wire and used as safety devices.

A fuse is usually made up of a tin-coated copper wire. When current exceeds its design
rating value. The wire will overheat and melt, thus opening the electrical circuit. It will
prevent further damage to the appliance or user. It cannot be reused.

A circuit breaker is usually made up of a reusable spring-loaded type of switch. The

function of the circuit breaker is similar to that of the fuse. If current exceeds its breaking
setting, it will spring open and break the circuit as in a fuse. The device can be reused by
resetting the spring-loaded switch.

It is correct to fix the fuse or circuit breaker at the live wire before the appliance. When the
circuit is loaded with excessive current, the fuse or circuit breaker will break and open the
circuit. It will prevent overloading, burning or damaging the appliance.

Connecting the fuse or circuit breaker to the neutral wire is incorrect, i.e., even when the
circuit is opened due to excessive currents, the appliance may still be at live potential,
creating possibility of an electric shock.

The current limit through the fuse (fuse rating) can be controlled by varying the thickness of the
tin-coated copper wire. Thicker the wire, the larger the heating effect needed to melt the
connection, thus permitting larger current to flow.

Different fuse ratings and circuit breaker settings are used in different appliances
according to their power requirements. The rating limits used is normally slightly higher
than the normal current needed by the appliance.

Switch is used to open or close the electrical circuit.

Open the switch = NO current is flowing through the circuit.

Close the switch = Current can flow through the circuit.

The switch should be connected to the LIVE wire and not the neutral or earthing wire. If
you connect the switch to the neutral wire, even if the switch is opened, the appliance will
still be connected to the live wire. This increases the possibility of an electric shock.

The switch should be connected BEFORE the appliance. (Theres no way for you to
connect after the appliance.)

Earthing is the act of connecting the metal casing of the appliance to earth via a wired
connection to the bare ground. Earthing wires are usually have a green and yellow bands around
them. Why do you need earthing? Consider this scenario:

The live wire is frayed and touched the metal casing of the appliance. (Another phrase for
this is: The metal casing of the appliance becomes live.)

The appliance do not have an earthing cable.

YOU touched the metal casing of the appliance.

Your body would have completed the circuit electricity will pass through your body.

The current is not high enough to trigger the breaking of fuse in the power plug.

You get electrocuted.

If you have earthing (connecting the metal casing to the ground), the current will have two paths
to take to complete the circuit:
1.
2.

The low resistance earthing wire

Your body (Note that your body have very high electrical resistance (orders of magnitude
larger) when compared to the earthing wire)

From the theory for current flows in parallel circuits, the current through the low resistance
earthing wire will be orders of magnitude higher than the current flowing through your body
(which will be negligible). In effect, the situation can be summarised as the current flowing
through the low resistance earthing wire instead of your body.
Hence, the earthing will divert the current into the earth by providing an alternate path to the
large current flow via the earth wire, rather than through the users body.

Double Insulation
There are some appliances which do NOT have an earth wire. They have another way to protect
the user: double insulation. Double insulation protects the user of the appliance from an electrical
shock by preventing any possibility of the external casing becoming live (the live wire can not
touch the casing even if wires inside become loose), thus eliminating the need for an earth
connection. The two layers of insulation are:

First insulation: Insulating electrical cable from the internal component of the appliance.
Second insulation: Insulating internal metal part which could become live from the
external casing.

Note: If the external casing is plastic, theres no way the external casing can become live.
You can identify which appliances have an earth wire by checking the mains plug. If it is a 3-pin
plug (all three pins are made of metal), it would have an earthing wire.
Steps:

1.
2.

Remove a sufficient amount of outer insulation of the three core wires, Live (brown),
Neutral (blue) and Earth (green with yellow).
Open the mains plug with a screwdriver and take out the fuse.

3.

Remove about 5 mm of the insulation from three wires and twist the copper strands of
each wire together.

4.

Clamp the edge of the removed outer insulation by tightening the two screws that are
holding down the outer insulation wire.

5.
6.

Insert each wire to the correct terminal as shown and tighten each screw so that the wires
are fixed properly with the terminals.
Fix the fuse back to its position and close the covering of the plug.