The New Spirit of Capitalism

The New Spirit of Capitalism
Author(s): Luc Boltanski and Eve Chiapello

Source: International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society, Vol. 18, No. 3/4, The New
Sociological Imagination (Spring - Summer, 2005), pp. 161-188
Published by: Springer
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(2005) 18:161-188
10767-006-9006-9
Int J Polit Cult Soc

10.1007/s
DOI
The New
Luc Boltanski
online:
Published
?
of Capitalism
Spirit
Eve Chiapello
7 December
2006
+ Business Media,
LLC
Science
Springer
2006
The contrast between the France of 1968-1978

draw
but
were
of which
the
earlier
doings
in the allocation
changes
of
The
attention.
and the France of 1985-1995
marked
by
of
and
legislation);
at
active
lesser
time,
trade
(as did
wage-earners
same
the
cannot help
movements
social
aggressive
an
extremely
the working
class);
of value
added which
benefited
social
security-enhancing
was
decade
product
all
(not
unionism;
the adoption
and
quality
lower productivity gains, due at least in part to employers' and corporate leaders' inability
to control
The
labour.
was
later decade
marked
by
the quasi-absence
aid being their only real manifestation);

than
proactive;
in
disparity
favourable
and
turnover;
was
How
employment
an
and
to capital;
in the number
reduction
staff
an
incomes
the
of
that was
relationship
allocation
re-subjugation
and
strikes
of
social
of
of
social
the
a
increasingly
value
labour
conflicts
that
added
force
(humanitarian
a greater
precarious;
once
became
again
a drop
by a significant
in absenteeism
and in
a short
lapse
undermined
and by
of higher
quality
goods.
to occur
in such
change
the manufacturing
for so much
it possible
movements
disoriented unions who had become reactive rather
of
time without
running into any real resistance? A book entitled Le Nouvel Esprit du Capitalisme ('The
New Spirit of Capitalism," Boltanski & Chiapello, 1999) attempts to answer this historical
by
enigma
Our
out
carrying
an
in this
involvement
investigative
enquiry.
on the
centres
issue
concept
of
the
spirit
describe how this spirit has changed over the past three decades.
easy
to
trace
and
observe
ideology-related
transformations.
This
of
capitalism.
We
In truth, it is relatively
can
be
achieved
by
analysing published works, amuch easier option than studying the changes in practices that
Paper
to be published
in the volume
of Hans
Speier Lecture
Series presentations,
July 2001.
L. Boltanski
Ecole des Hautes Etudes
e-mail: boltansk@ehess.fr
E. Chiapello
(M)
Ecole des Hautes Etudes
e-mail:
en Sciences
Commerciales,
Sociales,
Paris, France
Paris, France
Eve.Chiapello@wanadoo.fr
4y Springer
162
can be disparate
of
We
that the historical
believe nevertheless
texts
in such
recommended
be measured
over
viewed
as
both
that are applied
of varying
magnitude,
in all sectors.
and dispersed,
all sizes and
of
companies
same
the
the modus
is much
higher
period
of
operandi
their
statistical
are best
These
influential
that are being

such
representation
and
avant-garde,
can
which
practices
largest multinationals?firms
the world's
by
an
of
the organisation
affect
importance of the practices
than
time.1
can
and which
whose
also
as
on
impact
18:161-188
(2005)
it can
as
in fact
be
the practices
the economic
sphere is much higher than suggested by the proportion of private sector workers (versus
the total number of workers) who are directly employed by them.
This study of changes in the spirit of capitalism has revealed a major re-organisation in
value
dominant
In our
systems.
a very
this provides
opinion,
interesting
for
explanation
the
absence of any critical resistance throughout the 1980s, and at least until the mid-1990s,
If we
the
sphere.
capitalist
to have
that are deemed
a value
system
that
consider
been betrayed
as a justification
serving
are usually
criticisms
by
the capitalist
a capitalist
for
in the name
made
to
of values
of
transformation
any major
at least temporarily,
process,
world
to
is apt,
disorient critical activities.

To tell the story of the way in which capitalism (mainly apprehended in the present
article through the organisation of work), the spirit of capitalism and the criticism of
capitalism have all changed over the past 30 years in France, the present article develops a
more
with
model
have
built
on
the
the development
basis
have
of
The Concept
other
the
for
example
the
Of
we
are
the world,
nor
course,
rest
of
French
cause
example
that
to believe
that our model

historical
countries'
per
possess
relatively
that have accompanied
of ideologies
on
spotlight
overview.
general
good
countries?and
industrialised
a
is an
we
Nevertheless,
cast
of
in France
occurred
not
that
se
being
circumstances.
tested
that what
has
which
we
the models
universal
any
similar
validity.
have
processes
capitalism's
merits
saying
redeployment
marked
in other
it can
to see whether
help
of the Spirit of Capitalism
We have labelled as a "spirit of capitalism" the ideology that justifies people's commitment
2
to capitalism,
renders
and which
an absurd
wage-earners
system:
other
of ever working
any hope
this
have
than
commitment
attractive.
In many
lost ownership
of the fruits
as someone
else's
subordinate.
of
ways,
their
As
for
capitalism
as well
labour
capitalists,
is
as
they
chained to a never-ending and insatiable process. For both of these

protagonists, being part of the process of capitalism is remarkably lacking in justification.
find
themselves
1
We have for example evaluated that the systems which the new spirit of capitalism praises affect, in France,
the largest ones (Boltanski & Chiapello,
around 20% of all establishments?including
1999, pp. 292-300).
2
is characterised by:
Capitalism
(a)
is cut off
accumulation
format stressing the need for unlimited
by pacific means. Capital
and
reinvestment
and can only be increased
material
forms of wealth
through continuous
of the
to the perpetuation
it with a clearly abstract quality that contributes
circulation. This endows
accumulation
process.
threatened by the actions of competing
Each capitalistic
being
entity is constantly
Competition.
state of concern. Self-preservation
is thus a very strong
create a perpetual
entities. Such dynamics
A minimal
from
(b)
(c)
is a never-ending
motivation
for capitalists?it
process.
catalyst for the accumulation
Many of those who hold little or no capital make money from the sale of their labour rather
Wage-earning.
and therefore depend
than from the sale of the fruit of their labour. They owns no means of production,
upon the decisions of those who do own them.
Springer
from many
commitment
requires
a substantial
will
be
profit. Many
accumulation
Capitalistic
real chances
163
18:161-188
(2005)
of making
people,
few
although
scarcely
have
to get
tempted
any
involved
in this system, and might even develop decidedly adverse feelings. This is an especially
thorny problem inmodem economies that require a high level of commitment from their
employees
from managers.
particularly
on
not
only
depends
that derive
advantages
The
economic
of
concept
from
The
will
capitalism
of
spirit
be
the
to be
us
that one
the commitment
on
able
allows
capitalism
of
quality
but also
stimuli,
possibility
can
that
the
one
and
expect
collective
enhanced.
to combine
within
same
the
dynamic the changes in capitalism as well as the criticisms which it has faced. Indeed, we
affirm that criticism is a catalyst for changes in the spirit of capitalism. It is impossible for
to avoid
capitalism
as
good,
being
it is this
at least
which
somewhat
oriented
that
not otherwise have to acknowledge.

its detractors,
than
committed
the common
of
to its process.
the
needs
capitalism
war
are the people
it. These
who
provide
against
it to incorporate
and who
enable
justice-enhancing
robust
the attainment
Yet
people
on
of
cannot
be
spirit
capitalism
solely
predicated
to offer,
that is, only
alone
is able
the capacity
for accumulation.
So
a strong dislike
to wage
its enemies,
who
have
for it and who want
people
striving
means
amorality
capitalism's
what
capitalism
more
towards
to become
motivates
it with
the moral
foundations
mechanisms
whose
that
it lacks,
it would
relevancy
The capitalist system has turned out to be infinitely

with
starting
ever
had
Marx,
Yet
imagined.
this
is also
it has discovered a road to salvation in the criticisms it has faced. Is it not true, for
because
that along with

fascism
and communism,
the new
order
that rose out of
capitalist
a
to
the Second World
War
attributes
the
role
for a
State,
significant
allowing
amount
certain
of State
in the economic
In
intervention
it
is
fact,
sphere?
probably
some of the criticisms
to survive
it faces,
that
capitalism's
amazing
ability
by endogenising
example,
the ashes
of
has helped in recent times to disarm the forces of anticapitalism, giving way to a triumphant
of
version
We
capitalism.
insist on the fact that the spirit of capitalism, far from being a simple adornment or
"superstructure"
accumulation
that
(as Marxist
it serves
to the process
of capitalistic
it), is central
to this process.
constraints
to take
If one were
would
ideology
because
it applies
have
these explanations to their logical conclusion,

enrichment
fair,
nor
all
accumulation
internalisation
of a particular
on
of accumulation.
the process
spirit
A
then not all profit would be legitimate, nor all
(however
of capitalism
spirit
thus
and
significant
rapid)
serves
in the real world
of capitalism
approach
Actors'
legal.
as a constraint
a justification
thus provides
both for capitalism and for the criticisms that denounce the gap between the actual forms of
accumulation
First
and
and
the normative
a spirit
foremost,
stems
most of which have been shaped by economic

one
finds
in economics
are
too
general
social
of
conceptions
of capitalism
from
order.
a
relatively
stable
set of arguments,
theory.3 Yet some of the explanations
in nature,
and
too
static
over
time.
They
do
that
not
impel ordinary persons to take up a particular type of lifestyle (i.e., type of profession), nor
do they provide people with the argumentative resources thatwill enable them to cope with
the circumstantial
denunciations
and
capitalism will only be consolidated
There
(a)
(b)
(c)
are essentially
personal
criticisms
they may
have
if its justifications are concretised,
three types of arguments.
Their
to face.
spirit
of
that is, if itmakes
logic stresses:
from the current state of technology or the economy

type of progress that cannot be dissociated
The efficiency
and effectiveness
of competition-driven
production
The fact that capitalism
is supposed to be an auspicious
regime for individual liberties (which can be
economic
and also political
in nature).
4y Springer
164
Int J Polit Cult
more
aware
it is addressing
of the issues
to use.
that they will
be able
actually
the persons
action
models
Three
dimensions
a particularly
play
that are really
18:161-188
(2005)
at stake,
and
offers
a concrete
in providing
role
important
Soc
them
expression
for the spirit of capitalism.

The first dimension indicates what is "exciting" about an involvement with capitalism?
(a)
in other
how
words,
enthusiasm.
This
"liberation"
that
this
can
system
"excitement"
help
are
(c)
invokes
demonstration)
a sense
with
themselves
the notion
of justice,
and
it can
how
generate
to the different
related
forms
of
and
the forms of security that is offered to those

and
for
their
(and one
of fairness,
how
children.
important for our
that is especially
how
explaining
to the common
it contributes
is coherent
capitalism
good.
seen in this light, the spirit of capitalism can be said to have undergone a number
When
of historical
(a)
for
a third set of arguments
Finally,
least
both
involved,
is usually
offers.
capitalism
(b) A second set of arguments emphasises

who
to blossom,
people
dimension
From
changes.
three
the
that have
"spirits"
on
literature
one
appeared,
the
evolution
after
form
the respect
by
revolve
essentially
around
in Galbraith's
e.g.,
main
incarnation
such
mechanisms
and
the
is
rise
of
career
whose
and
development
state. Fairness
certification
can
the nineteenth
is the entrepreneurial
an
entrepreneurial
In this instance,
at
sketch
century.
takes
The
bourgeois.
its
spirit;
fairness
security
mechanisms
assistance.
of which were
on
focuses
work)
the
salaried
director.
a welfare
skills
incorporates
as
by
for bourgeois
morality.
and personal
charity
second "spirit" (descriptions
1960s,
incarnation
is manifested
dimension
dimension
(b) A
Its main
of capitalism.
"excitement"
one
capitalism,
since
Sombart, corresponds to a predominantly
The first, described amongst others by W

domestic
of
the other,
the 1930s and the
found between
the
idea
the
of
is
Security
large,
to be
by the link between

on a very meritocratic
involves
the
of
awarding
firm.
integrated
achieved
Its
through
private
capitalism
in that
form
it
credentials.
(c) A third form of capitalism began to manifest itself during the 1980s. Our book is
mainly devoted to the construction of an ideal-type for this third variety of the spirit of
capitalism.
to the Former One
the New Spirit of Capitalism
Comparing
In order to describe the way inwhich the spirit of capitalism changed between the 1960s
and 1990s, we based our efforts (asWeber and Sombart had done previously) on texts that
moral
provide
on business
education
For
practices.
our
era,
this meant
two
bodies
of work
from the field of management studies: one from the 1960s, and one from the 1990s (each
representing around 500 pages and 50 texts). For the 1960s, we included texts published
between 1959 and 1969; for the 1990s, we used texts published between 1989 and 1994.
Consultants
we
writings
wrote
the
used.
These
vast
"professional"
(as opposed
been
from
translated
an overall
to provide
teristics
of
the new
were
of
majority
all articles
to academic)
the American.
picture
corporate
of
The
the "new"
hero,
these
management
extracts we
world
nowadays
been
written
reviews.
are
chose
in which
commonly
especially
in French
and
the
1990s
drawn
from
Some
articles
texts,
management
that had
we
are
called
of
these
those where
as well
living,
a "manager"
the authors
had
tried
as the charac
in French
4y Springer
(this
term
been
having
dominated
having
on new
corporate
Each
only
165
introduced
recently
during
the
analysis
seeking
in the French
Above
1960s).
all,
and
forms,
organisational
of work
has been
body
thematic
18:161-188
(2005)
processed
to answer
certain
these
on managers'
in two ways.
questions.
language,
focus on
texts
work
First,
How
or directeur
cadre
with
of work,
the organisation
environment.
itwas
subjected
the authors
have
to a standard
the
formulated
issues at stake? Which problems have they identified? Which answers and solutions have
they provided? Which parts of the current situation have they rejected? Table 1 summarises
the ways inwhich both bodies of work answer each of these questions. Appendix 1 offers
several
elements
We
to the
belonging
subsequently processed
the number
counting
of
1990s
a given
that
times
analyses.
our findings according
to basic
lexicographical methods,
or category
of names
up.
cropped
that a new representation
of the firm has emerged,
name
has lead us to conclude

analysis
an
that is very flexible;
featuring
organisation
organised
by projects;
a
features
few hierarchical
of transversal
flows
levels; where
logic
new
etc.
contrasts
hierarchical
This
one,
representation
specifically
This
presentation
of
the firm,
one
that had
focused
on hierarchical
in a network;
works
has
a more
replaced
a former
re
with
organisation,
and
integrated
geared towards the internal realisation of activities (vertical integration). This had been a
dominant form during the 1960s, praised at the time, but subsequently decried (by the 1990s
1 Comparing
Table
the two bodies
of work.
During
The problems that have been
identified (the issues that
have
caught
the authors'
attention)
the 1960s
Unsatisfied
During
"managers" (excessively
roles that lack in
technical
solutions
Decentralisation
Management
by objectives
cadres and/or directeurs,

and executives,
i.e., managers
selected on the basis of personal
merits
demonstrated
during
entire career spent working
single firm.
Hierarchical
rejected
sphere
organisations
and other visionaries
(capable of managing
people who
are autonomous
and creative)
Coaches, managers
(the new French
word for managers),
experts
control by the client,
Self-control,
trust
(personal
nepotism, promotions
loyalty as opposed to
allegiances
Leaders
innovative
flexible,
an
judgements,
through
or by projects;
for a
control
The private
merit,
of all wage-earners
as was
(and not only of managers
the case during the 1960s)
and permanent change
Competition
Lean companies,
in
organised
reengineering;
and competent
Competent
is being
as a form of
"Liberation"
networks
Meritocracy
What
of hierarchy
Rejection
domination
autonomy; criticisms of company

directors' power; decrials of the
negative side effects of
bureaucracy).
problems associated with
Managerial
firms' gigantic size (the threat of
for liberty)
bureaucracy
The
the 1990s
and privileges)
Cadres
(the old French
name
for
managers)
Bureaucracy
Separation between one's private
and professional
lives
4y Springer
166
Int J Polit Cult
its excessive
for
authors)
a new
In addition,
"bureaucracy."
domain?one
in the economic
promised
that
the new
suits
of
type
Soc
18:161-188
(2005)
commitment
has
been
of capitalism.
spirit
As opposed to the type of job security that was on offer during the 1960s, involving a
meritocratic
approach
now viewed
that was
that a person
"employability"
on
based
as he
develops
of negotiated
the achievement
as a series of fulfilled projects.

or
she
gains
careers
targets,
is now predicated
Job security
are
on the
experience.
Management literature during the 1990s offered ideals, propositions for the organisation
of people, and modes for structuring objects and forms of security?all of which were so
different in nature from thatwhich had been on offer during the 1960s that it is difficult not
to conclude that capitalism has broadly changed its spirit in the past 30 years.
Table
The
summarises
transformations
the changes
of
the
on
the
of
spirit
have
last decades
2 Three
the
accompanied
a fair work
in the definition
of what
change
comprises
as compared
some
to
The
others.
following
employees
nature
of this change.
Table
over
capitalism
been
by
and
situation,
last century.
a relatively
radical
a fair treatment
of
us
allows
section
to
identify
the
spirits of capitalism.
First spirit
End of nineteenth
Third
Second
spirit
1940-1970
spirit
1980s
Since
Century
Forms
of the
capital
accumulation
process
Small
family
firms
Managerial
Network
firms
firms
Big
Bourgeois
capitalism
States
Excitement
Freedom
from
Internet and biotech
industrial
companies
Mass production
economic
Global
finance
Varying
and differentiated
policy
Career opportunities
Power positions
productions
No more authoritarian
Effectiveness
Fuzzy
chiefs
local
communities
Progress
organisations
in
possible
"freedom
countries"
Innovation
and creativity
Permanent
Fairness
A mix
of domestic
and market
Meritocracy
valuing
effectiveness
fairness
Management
Security
Personal
property,
by
objectives
term planning
Long
New
change
form of meritocracy
ability
mobility,
network...
valuing
to nourish a
to
Each project is an opportunity
one's
develop
employability
and the adaptable
For the mobile
personal
relationships
Charity,
Careers
paternalism
Welfare
state
Companies
resources
will
To manage
oneself
provide
Springer
self-help
The
of a New
Emergence
to identify
we
To be able
texts we
18:161-188
(2005)
Value
the exact
System
nature
of the notion
a theoretical
used
studied,
167
as depicted
Boltanski
had
in the management
of fairness
construct
that Luc
together
developed
with Laurent Th?venot in an earlier publication (Boltanski & Th?venot, 1991): the "jus
tificatory regime" model (Cit? in the French). This construct had initially been designed
with a view towards highlighting the conditions that make it possible to say whether an
evaluation or distribution of goods was being done in a fair and legitimate manner.
These situations are characterised by the fact thatwhatever judgement people ultimately
make,
a certain
face
they
Boltanski
criticism,
amount
of criticism.
to remain
Refusing
within
the confines
of
the
that is usually drawn between the sociology of consensus and the sociology of
opposition
and Th?venot
as well
agreement
that
argued
criticism.
as to support
these
these
can be used
orders"
"legitimate
called
They
constructs
thus
Cit?s,
to reach
referring
to classical political philosophies whose object had been to design a legitimate order based
on a principle of justice. However, as opposed to political philosophies that had
usually
attempted to anchor this social order in a single principle (utopianism), they argued that in
modern
several
can coexist
within
the same
social
societies,
justificatory
regimes
their relevance
in accordance
with
the situation's
character
may
vary
though
or symbolic
the material
nature
of the objects
involved.
unlike
the
istics,
i.e., with
Finally,
an idealistic
and in order
to avoid
on
construction
that is overly
reliant
rum,"
"linguistic
complex
even
space,
verbal argumentation, Boltanski

confronted
with
the real world,
and Th?venot considered that people's

hence
pass
a series
of more
or
less
claims had to be
standardised
procedures
they called tests (?preuve in the French). In the end, it is the outcome of these tests that
lends substance to the judgements people make. This is what provides them with the
that
strength
to stand
need
they
up
to challenges.
The authors identified six justificatory regimes:

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
The Inspirational Cit?

The Domestic Cit?
The Cit? of Renown
The Civic Cit?
The Market Cit?
The Industrial Cit?.
Each of these justificatory regimes is based upon a different principle of evaluation.

Each approach views humans through the filter of its own choice; it excludes any other type
of categorisation;
and
its own
offers
specific
ordering
of
the populations
it studies.
This
has
been entitled the "equivalency principle" since it entails a form of general equivalency
without
standard)
which
evaluations
comparative
become
that in terms of a given standard (for example, efficiency

test
can
results
society).
standard,
vary
person's
was
called
(and
thus
worth,
his/her
their
specific?for
assessed
through
example
a
legitimate
impossible.
We
can
therefore
(a
say
in the Industrial Cit?), people's

industrial?value
and
process
for
in terms
the
of
rest
a
of
given
"greatness."
In the Inspirational Cit? (a), greatness is defined as being akin to a saint who has reached
a state of grace (or else to an inspired artist). This
quality appears after a period of ascetic
preparation,
and
creativity,
an artistic
hierarchical
position
is
expressed
sense,
mostly
through
manifestations
In the Domestic
authenticity,
etc.).
in a chain of personal
interdependencies
of
inspiration
(sainthood,
(b), people
rely on their
in order
to achieve
greatness.
Cit?
The political ties that unite people spring from a model of subordination which
is based on
4y Springer
168
Int J Polit Cult
a domestic
whom
respect
of Renown
Cit?
18:161-188
(2005)
of generational
ties that
of as a generalisation
thought
to
is
the
father
The
one"
the
the
ancestor,
elder,
proximity.
"great
are due, and who
In the
in turn grants protection
and support.
and allegiance
on other
i.e., on the number
only depends
opinions,
(c), greatness
people's
ties
These
pattern.
tradition
combine
Soc
are
and
of persons who will grant credit and esteem. The "great one" in the Civic Cit? (d) is the
of
representative
the one who
the group,
coveted
in a
goods
Cit?
(e),
and
in the Industrial Cit?
knows
who
to
when
seize
the
right
is based on efficiency
(f), greatness
and
a scale
determines
abilities.
of professional
are
described
using
regimes
Justificatory
(a)
In the Market
will.
a fortune for him or herself by offering highly
marketplace,
competitive
Finally,
opportunities.
its collective
expresses
the "great" person is the one who makes
An
equivalency
that
"grammar"
an
to which
reference
(in
principle
a basic
specifies:
can
evaluation
be made
of
all
actions, things and persons for that particular Cit?)

(b)
state
of greatness,
the state
and
values,
a "great
one"
a person
being
as
defined
of smallness,
who
lack
the Cit?'s
embodies
strongly
of greatness
(c) A definition ofthat which is important to each world in terms of categories of objects
(the directory of objects and devices), human beings (the directory of subjects), and
verbs {natural relationships between beings) signaling relationships that are specific
to each
form
(d) A greatness
small,
of greatness
the way
especially
are of use
good,
because
persons,
"great"
to "small"
the great and the
the nature of relationships between
ratio specifying
to
contribute
they
the
common
persons
(e) A format of investment, this being amajor pre-condition for each Cit?'s stability since,
by linking greatness to sacrifice (which takes a specific form in each Cit?), it ensures
that all rights are offset by responsibilities
(f)
(g)
test which,
paradigmatic
greatness
A harmonious
figure
for
of natural
each
order,
conveying
best
regime,
justificatory
the
that
ideal-types
there has been a fair distribution
the universes within which
a person's
reveals
to
correspond
of
of the quality
greatness
We analysed the two bodies of work through the filter of this analytical grid. It seems
that the six justificatory regimes identified by Boltanski and Th?venot (1991) cannot fully
describe all of the types of justification that can be found in the 1990s texts that we have
studied. We think that a new and increasingly influential justificatory logic has cropped up,
one
that
emphasises
and
availability,
mobility,
the variety
of
one's
contacts.
personal
To
stress its novelty and specificity, we have encoded this logic as a seventh justificatory
a
regime, a Projects-oriented Cit?. This refers to a form of fairness that is appropriate in
world which is organised by networks (still described as being connexionist and reticular in
nature). Table 3 offers a brief look at the characteristics of this latest Cit?.
the emerging of a new Cit? where the relevant tests deal with the
Hypothesizing
establishment of connection does not imply that forming networks is something drastically
as
new,
some
however
Nations.
large,
But,
recent
are not
studies
network
any
newer
seem
to suggest.
Our
was when
stand
Adam
the market
is different.
Smith
Networks,
wrote
Wealth
of
it seems that it was not until the last third of the twentieth century that
art of connecting
mediating?the
set apart
became
autonomous,
than
and making
from
other
use
activities
of
the most
behind
diverse
which
and
it had
furthest
until
Springer
then
ties?
been
3 The grammar
Table
Seventh
justificatory
Equivalency
169
18:161-188
(2005)
of the project-oriented
regime.
justificatory
regime
principle
Activity;
(general standard)
A state of smallness
to get
Inability
remote
initiation;
project
involved,
links between
to trust in others,
to communicate;
close-mindedness,
prejudice, authoritarianism,
on one's roots, rigidity,
stability, over-reliance
A
state of greatness
of subjects
of objects
Directory
Computer
devices
units,
Natural
Format
(sub-contracting,
franchises,
ratio
Ready
an
test
(paradigmatic)
of
natural
order
figure
and was
hidden,
trustworthy;
to sacrifice
lifelong
Standard
New
organisational
autonomous
outsourcing,
to communicate;
ability
adaptability
"Great" persons enhance "small" persons' employability

in return
for their trust and enthusiasm
for project work,
i.e., their ability
to take part in another project
of investment
Harmonious
flexibility,
etc.)
Trusting and being

to others' needs
relationship
Greatness
innovators
coaches,
and information technologies;
Managers,
intolerance,
etc.
flexibility, polyvalence;
sincerity in face-to-face
ability to spread the benefits of social connections,
enthusiasm and to increase teammates' employability
Adaptability,
encounters;
to generate
Directory
people
important
Ability
Where
and valued
identified
plans
to move
the world's
in itself.
all that could curtail one's
availability,
up
giving
from one project to another

natural form resembles
that of a network
This
we
process,
believe,
is what
constitutes
novelty.
In the Project-oriented Cit? the general standard, with respect to which all persons' and
is evaluated,
greatness
things'
where
means
activity
"work"
position"?in
the Project-oriented
and no-work,
steady
that which
assessed
in terms
some
looking
forward
Cit?,
paid
can be measured
of accountable
when
valuable
pursuing
being
and unsteady,
between
the more
is activity.
and
different
to what
in the Industrial
Cit??
Contrary
happens
a steady
active means
and wage-earning
"holding
overcomes
the oppositions
work
between
activity
and unpaid,
Life
performances.
one
from
never
of activity,
and
to,
for,
preparing
sort
and volunteer
profit-sharing
something
What
a
to be without
as a series
is conceived
another.
along
is relevant
is
and
work,
in terms of productivity and that which
cannot be
of projects,
all
to be always
to be always
without
ideas,
project,
with
other persons
encounter
whose
is the result of being always driven by the impulse of activity.

When starting on a new project, all participants know that itwill be short-lived, that it
not
only
but
may
and desirable
enthusiasm
that
they
increasing
of
are
will
surely
end
the participants.
transitory
number
of
forms:
ties
up
new
day
possibilities,
come
to an end.
in the very
Projects
are well
The
perspective
involvement,
adapted
of
without
to networking
the succession
resulting
a.
Cit?,
In the Project-oriented
able to move
from
polyvalent,
is also active
and autonomous.
open
one
is encapsulated
of projects
by multiplying
in the expansion
of networks.
for
an unavoidable
curtailing
the very
and
connections,
the
reason
an
one" must
be adaptable
and flexible.
He or she is
or the use of one tool, to another. A
activity,
"great one"
He or she will
new people,
take risks, make
contact
with
"great
one
seek
out
useful
sources
of
information,
and
thus
avoid
repetition.
Springer
170
these
Still,
they
course
towards
his/her
given
one"
"great
could
cannot
to define
suffice
the state of "being
great"
an
a strictly
to pursue
in
selfish
way,
implemented
opportunistic
a "great"
in our model
take advantage
of
will
person
By contrast,
a
to the common
In the Project-oriented
to contribute
Cit?,
good.
by
be
themselves
also
generates
qualities
because
18:161-188
(2005)
also
success.
qualities
therefore
trust.
of
feeling
or
He
she
not
does
in an
lead
authoritarian way, as did the hierarchical chief. He or she manages his/her team by listening
to others
them
with
the
hence
manager
As
each
he
all his/her
increases
to analyse
software
redistributes
networks.
between
a project
Such
teammates'
is
regime
justificatory
lexicographic
or she
He
their differences.
and by respecting
or she has
secured
when
exploring
tolerance
connections
the
employability.
a
with
specific
vocabulary,
that are associated
with
of names
we
associated
lists
used
each
regime,
and then tried to find out which Cit?s cropped up most frequently in both bodies of work.
The presence of a Cit? ismeasured here as the number of times that the category which had
been created to represent that justificatory regime appeared in a given body of work (cf.
Table 4.)
first
Our
an unsurprising
observation,
one
that
given
the
aim
our
of both
two
samples
was to improve the organisation of work, is that the Industrial logic dominated during both
references to this logic having been generally positive during the 1960s, yet
periods?with
often
critical
times
in each
it occurred
The
1990s.
the
during
of
predominance
an
less so in the 1990s. Note
during the 1960s, but much
and
sample,
the number
of
Industrial
was
logic
the ratio between
times
each
decade's
clear-cut
the number of
second-place
logic
occurs. In the 1990s, the Industrial logic's relative importance is diminished by the many
of
representatives
the
Cit?
Project-oriented
Network
(a.k.a.
were
who
logic),
as
twice
in the 1990s as the second-place logic had been during the 1960s.
The rising power of the second-place Network logic is definitely one of the major
numerous
of
our
between
changes
oriented
we
Cit?,
eras.
two
have
texts
the management
This
being
logic?no
makes
and which
competition,
all employees
There
clients.
have
has
sense
for
a
been
also
the
our
that with
that have
logics
pressures
of
strengthening
of
rise
the
the new
also
discursive
based
emanating
logic,
on
increased
at ensuring
that
a firm's
from
aimed
Inspirational
aspects
their presence
increased
a worldview
of
reorganisations
and demands
of a Projects
construct
theoretical
some
at least
the
surprise
given
room
for corporate
the Market
include
means
in crystallising
studied.
Other
succeeded
which
should
be
seen in light of the emphasis that was placed during the 1990s on innovation, risk, the
permanent
Domestic
Industrial
4 The
Table
search
logic
new
for
and Civic
has
solutions,
logics,
lost ground
presence
in each of the bodies
Industrial
2,033
logic
Marketlogic
1,841
774
logic
logic
two bodies
of work
are more
479
logic4,972
Network
logic3,996
Market
logic 2,207
Domestic
Civic
1,216
logic
Network
1,114
logic
for
logic 1,404
Inspirational
793
logic
Civic
Renown
or less comprised
of the same number
logic 1,366
logic 768
of names
in absolute
Springer
the
that the
of work.2
Industrial
6,764
logic
Domestic
a
The
As
the same way
1990s
1960s
Inspirational
Renown
etc.
qualities,
in much
weakened.
also
seven worlds'
personalised
highly
they have
terms.
in France's
Changes
accompanied
and
171
of
re-ordering
for
legitimate
the
and
systems
assessment
the
the 1960s and
between
capitalistic process
a major
by
relevant
18:161-188
(2005)
of
values
people,
1990s have been
are
that
to be
considered
and
things
More
situations.
specifically, there have been changes in the mechanisms that are intended to ensure the
fairness of work. Not only have firms altered the types of organisation they propose, but
have
they
also
sources of
behavioural
changed
their justification.
transformation
of
systems.
This
fairness
into
the
can
sort
is because
also
are none
the world
be
Proposition of a Theoretical
in which Norms Change
as a change
in standard
and
actions,
the
or
tests
in testing
the principles
of
it is to inscribe
whose
systems
goal
tests themselves.
other
and bad
of good
the language of a Cit? model,
using
interpreted
concrete
those
the definition
norms,
Reformulated
than
Framework
for Analysing
the Way
Tests of Strength and Legitimate Tests

We make a distinction between two different test modes:
force); and legitimate tests {?preuves l?gitimes).
Of
as
a test
course,
as
long
a test of
is always
are
being
strengths
a test can be
Yet
strength.
measured
tests of strength {?preuves de
to the
according
tenets
to be
considered
of
the particular
legitimate
Cit? model
within which it falls. An overriding requirement is the obligation to specify the type of
strength that is involved in a specific test and to arrange a testing device that does not call
upon the use of any other kind of strength. All in all, a legitimate test must always test
that has
something
of
industrial
been
efficiency,
presenting
market
opportunism,
school system offers many
respect
examples) Latin or sociology.
it focuses
which
upon
strengths
as a test of
for
something:
for domestic
duties,
itself
defined,
must
a process
undergo
If a test is to be legitimate, the
of qualification
By contrast, it is acceptable in a test of strength tomobilise

is specified
test, on
Nothing
legitimate
beforehand.
the other
as
goes,
Anything
hand,
everything
If a legitimate test relates to the work world,
as
long
is not
a test
example,
or even
(the
and
categorisation.
any and all kinds of strength.

it is crowned
success.
with
In a
possible.
itmay ultimately end up adding to the
constraints
that impede
the process
of capitalist
In other words,
accumulation.
the spirit of
as one of its components
insofar
is an awareness
of fairness,
acts as a constraint
capitalism,
on the economic
it is because
of the existence
of this constraint
that the
process.
Indeed,
is legitimised. We could even say that the price to pay, if people are to consider
corporate activities and the organisational models they inspire to be legitimate, is the
process
implementation
are
We
of
going
that act as a constraint
systems
testing
to
one
take
of
example
constrained by references to that which

the
common
i.e.,
good,
the
using
firms'
upon
the way
in which
the
general
management.
can
accumulation
be
is being required of a firm (expressed in terms of

of
vocabulary
the
article
present
in
terms
of
the
justificatory regime). In aMarket Cit?, the validity of profits (and of the societal order that
results
from
profit)
depends
equality
the
of
of
attractiveness
power.
the
Amongst
the goods
seize
and
the many
the market
can
success
that
to
ability
these
between
on whether
chances?so
to
example,
confrontation
entirely
be
different
test
fully
the
opportunities
on offer)
services
constraints,
note
first
and
attributed
that
rather
who
people
satisfies
fully
to merit
the market
than
foremost
are
also
constraints
alone
offers,
(in
seeking
such as
a
the
the present
and/or
to
the
to any
the
balance
of
pre-existing
assurance
that any given
&.
Springer
172
Int J Polit Cult
situation
will
a competitive
and
cartels),
be
and
agreements
certain
an absence
of dominant
previous
by
positions,
it is only under
As
will
be transparent.
such,
test can be
to be
that a market
said
legitimate.
conditions
the fulfillment of all of these conditions fails to provide,

to the creation
contribution
specific
At a broader
(attempts
them
"fairer")
and
author;
inspired
pay
not
do
you
etc. Victory
cousin,
by
no
for
extended
cannot
You
situation.
literary
a chief
become
any means
is not
that
of
who
people
possess
that tend to be displaced, confused,

the
than
so
critic
for
opportunities
reason
other
the tests are formulated
in which
the ways
to restrict
tend
diversified yet poorly defined set of strengths?forces

exchanged,
in and of itself, any
it can be a serious
the contrary,
Quite
is because
This
is diminished.
to make
of profit.
handicap.
to the same constraints
in a society
is subjected
where
much
testing
of society's
in our definition
of a "legitimate
test," the strength
stronger
level,
that feature
members
18:161-188
(2005)
(marked
information
that
restrictive
extremely
Moreover,
as those
one
Soc
staff
simply
because
as
you
recognise
are
you
of
necessities
strategic
s/he will
given
a great
and
the minister's
possible.
And yet, tests of strength and legitimate tests should not be construed as standalone
exist
entities
that
leading
to a situation
out
find
always
it is that
how
without
performances
an
action
examiners
between
or less fair. Moreover,

as being more
a test's underlying
stems
from
which
the
two,
we
can
seen
is recognised
situation
socioeconomic
are
is a continuum
There
another.
tests
legitimacy. One example is the way
detracts from its avowed

child's
to one
in opposition
in which
having
as something
nowadays
done
that affects
scholastic
it.
about
explicit
anything
strengths
the handicap of a
in which
Each of these two types of tests (the test of strength and the legitimate test) corresponds
to a
of
mode
specific
We
action.
the
call
first
"mode
of
an
because
categorisation"
individual's actions are publicly judged by other people. Here, judgement is based upon
certain explicit and acknowledged principles of equivalency, many of which are legally
As
a result,
validity
as well
enforced.
based
The
does
not
not
refer
can
be
type
that are
conventions
of
i.e.,
externality,
independently
envisaged
a "displacement
This
mode."
on
it infers change
depending
In this instance,
the test
encounter.
we
second
resistance
a certain
of
of
the
a broad
with
imbued
a form
transcendence.
situations
in which
of
the actions
out.
the forces
and
refers
as with
conventions
such
Consequently,
they are acted
to social
this mode
they
a judgement.
and assumes
to make
anyone
require
to social
conventions,
is always
displacement
and
eventful,
local,
the orientation
is because
call
which
circumstances
local
and/or
is a test of
the degree
of
that
is a mode
This
strength.
it does
to the categorisation
mode,
nor
As
such,
externality
generality.
Contrary
neither
It can
circumstantial.
easily
for
be mistaken
can be
randomness and is satisfied with a limited amount of reflexivity. Displacement
described with reference to one plane only (that which Gilles Deleuze calls the "plane of
It thus
imminence").
of
necessity
any
the
plane?precisely
as an embodiment
of the
in test
changes
speaking,
systems
constraint
constraint,
justificatory
to a second
referring
serves
categorisation,
Broadly
avoids
same
equivalency
seem
to involve
level
that would
infer
a
that, within
logic
the
of
convention.
groups
of actors
trying
to free
themselves from thatwhich keeps them from enjoying and from increasing their privileges.
to
They do this by looking for new ways to succeed and to gain recognition without having
tests
to
established
actors
avoid
tests.
tend
Such
take currently legitimate
by experimenting
with
substitute
well
local,
hazardous,
When
they
new,
are
less
established,
increasingly
subject
and
often
successful,
formalised,
prominent,
to criticism.
low-key
these
and
displacements.
the
modify
gradually
tests
for
previous
acknowledged
displacements
less
and often
In a given
constrained
society,
these
by
test
system.
They
that
(being
ones
legal regulations)
displacements
increase
4y Springer
have been
the relative
Int J Polit Cult
Soc
of
importance
tionalised
tests
173
18:161-188
(2005)
of
with
strength
to
respect
legitimate
Yet new legitimate tests may emerge if at least one of the following
fulfilled.
1.
on
based
relationships
institu
tests.
two conditions
is
If the people who have enacted these displacements think that they have strengthened
their position and feel that they are entitled to specific acknowledgement,
they may
to have
claim
2. When
to the
way,
common
good.
that these people have carried out (shifts that others had
to be
deemed
heretofore
own
in his/her
each
contributed,
the displacements
individual,
or
circumstantial,
start
in nature)
marginal
to be
seen as something that is generally effective. These behaviours will then be subjected
to criticisms that will equate these new devices (stemming as they do from previous
to new
displacements)
Actors
to whom
themselves
and
Moreover,
a value
they
doing,
not
that have
such displacements
for others,
so
by
tests
been
yet
that will
their
convey
moral
categorised.
can then develop, both for
have been beneficial
(a "greatness")
inject an autonomous
can
or
identified
dimension
hold
on
into
their
the world.
situation.
They turn these new tests into something that is justifiable.

Along with this legitimisation process, norms are established (quite often through legal
so as to differentiate
rules)
(i.e.,
selfish)
ways
between
morally
of new
use
of making
and morally
acceptable
and abusive
unacceptable
resources4
The Role of Criticism

We
have
allocated
which
interactions,
concept
an
essential
of criticism
that
interpretations
to describe
lies outside
are
to criticism
role
us
enable
on
based
of
the
how
in these
testing
the theoretical polarisation

of
balance
and
categorisation
are
systems
being
and
power
The
that exists between

are
that
those
displacement
transformed.
based
on
the
legitimacy of the relationships involved. The very idea of criticism only makes sense if it is
seen
as
the difference
a desirable
between
state
of affairs
and
a real
situation.
To be valid,
criticism must be able to justify itself, that is, cast a spotlight on the normative foundations
upon which it is based, especially when it is dealing with justifications such as those whose
are
actions
idea
of
the object
fairness?for
of
critic builds up a world

reveals
of power,
the hypocrisy
exploitation,
the criticism
of
itself.
is an
if fairness
in which
illusion,
the moral
pretensions
domination,
etc.
questions
parties
existing
that comprise
order
and
this order.
criticism
therefore
criticise
why
to the
refers
continually
at all? Yet on the other hand,
a
the need for fairness is continually being ignored. S/he
Criticism and testing are closely

the
casts
Testing
that actually
interrelated. Criticism
on
suspicions
on the other
the
hand,
hide
realities
such
as the balance
leads to testing inasmuch as it

relative
strengths
particularly
when
of
each
of
it pretends
the
to
a Cit? appears as a self-referenced

In this perspective,
critical device that is part of (imminent to) a world
that is in the process of being built and which needs to set up bounds for itself if it is to last. In Le Nouvel
we argued that capitalism's
over the past three decades has made
transformation
it
Esprit du Capitalisme
"
to
possible both for a world that we call connections f (i.e., self-described,
using the network metaphor)
unfold, and also for an increase in the number of people who are justified in becoming mediators. Here we
are arguing that the creation of a Project-oriented
Cit? is intended to legitimise the connectionist
world and
restrict its practices
in such a way as to substantiate the affirmation of a justificatory
constraint that acts on
behalf of the common good.
Springer
174
Int J Polit Cult
caused
As
by
we
such,
the
actions
can
consider
of hidden
forces.
that
are
there
two ways
of
has
the fairness
transgressed
that which during the tests in
and more
requirement,
tests.
criticising
The first has a corrective purpose. The criticism unveils

question
the
particularly,
some of the protagonists, unbeknownst
to the others, have started tomobilise
an undeserved
of criticism
The
advantage).
tests
such
face-to-face
petitions,
a type of work
in this case
or legal framework
the regulatory
as political
scholastic
elections,
to enhance
and
Institutionalised
purpose
(thus gaining
is to improve
between
negotiations
in which
social
is enhanced
fairness
within
the fairness
through
of
com
sporting
are other
etc.,
a process
of
accepted
it is encased.
which
examinations,
constituencies
that
strengths
say, to tighten it up); to ensure that the test is rooted inwidely
the test (we would

conventions;
18:161-188
(2005)
legitimacy, is subject to criticisms that hone in on the injustices that have
be imbued with
been
Soc
of
products
Their
"purification."
aim
is to only admit those strengths that are deemed to be coherent with that particular type of
test. Nevertheless,
tests must
such
continually
further
undergo
and
improvements
are
there
fore subject to criticism. The purifying process is in fact an unending one, inasmuch as
ontologically there are an unlimited number of relationships that can be used to judge the
people involved.
A second way of criticising tests might be termed the radical method. Here the challenge
is no
to correct
longer
the
test
so as to make
it fairer
to eliminate
but
and possibly
it
replace
with another one. This time it is the very validity of the test itself (and thus the factor that
conditions its very existence) that is being contested.
At
should
discuss
if their
(i.e.,
legitimate
outcomes
possible
for
corrective
criticisms
of any
given
tests. If the tests being criticised are considered
central institutionalised
society's
revolves
justification
around
the
same
normative
to be
as
positions
those
the criticism itself invokes), it is impossible for those who are responsible for their
which
actual
To
we
this point,
remain
to
to continue
administration
they must
legitimate,
that are being
the comments
ignore
a response
incorporate
to
this
made
about
them.
can
either
This
criticism.
(in which case convincing evidence must be
consist of showing how the criticism iswrong
it up in such a way
test's control,
up
cleaning
tightening
the underlying
This
is what
in line with
fairness model.
happens,
an examination
a
borne
when
that
had
series
of
criticisms
for example,
following
originally
an anonymous
one.
the names
tested becomes
of the people
being
to the corrective
criticism
of a test. This
reaction
there
is another
However,
possible
provided)
as to ensure
it can
or else
the
involve
it is more
that
consists of trying to circumvent

of a certain
interest
this criticism
for
of actors
number
the test
instead of answering
to lose
some
it. It may be in the
its importance,
of
i.e.,
for
it to
become relatively marginalised, especially if it becomes too difficult to answer criticisms

that are constantly being renewed and which therefore force the test organiser to tighten it
up and increase its total cost. In lieu of a direct criticism of these institutionalised tests, a
proposition that would be too expensive (above all in terms of legitimacy), they end up
to
having
local,
of
These
workers
look
little
for
sources
significance,
of
breakdown
Environmental
its
circumvent
very
be
that
revenues
of
customary
are new
in nature
geographic
between
provides
law
labour
wages
an
on displacements
based
are
which
and
criteria
management
and/or
regions
rarely
if this
situation.
for
success
procedures
is what
critics
Another
after
or
are
example
it has
else
to
where
respected).
to improve the
that they do not want
profits,
analogous
towards
(d?localisation
is underdeveloped
companies decide
its career-related
career
and
and multitudinous.
visible
and where
legislation
modification
profits
be where
One example would
firm's
can
displacements
are inexpensive
of
not
demanding.
would
be
decided
eliminate
Springer
either
formal
a
to
188
18:161
(2005)
175
etc.)
psycho-technical
as
too expensive.
being
of this new
consequence
(graphological,
are often
seen
Another
that
process?actions
to criticism,
the use of
type of reaction
involving
a
it temporarily
criticisms
disarms
with
world
that
critics
by presenting
to interpret.
The
know
how
that are
criticisms
and systems
of criticism
a previous
are
to new
relevant
forms
of testing
spirit of capitalism
barely
is that
displacement,
no
they
longer
associated
with
not yet been

or categorisation.
that have
cation
its recruitment
during
testing
to any
subjected
This
at recognition,
institutionalisation,
the primary
tasks of criticism
attempts
one of
is because
codifi
to
is in fact
identify themain tests of a given society, and to clarify and/or incite protagonists to clarify the
principles underlying these tests so that it is subsequently possible to carry out a corrective or
or
radical
(reformist
time, and on
the
can
Criticism
(1)
the persons
in several
testing
are
who
are available
options
at
involved.
ways.
in common?in
something
in society,
position
and
thus
this
their
the fact
instance,
social
comparative
that
determine
they
value.
Criticism of the tests' format can purify the tests (tighten them up) in terms of the
fairness that they embody. The purpose is to ensure that strengths that should not feature
in the
are
test
not
and
procedures
Criticism
a part
in fact
legitimate
thereof?or
that make
regulations
is responsible
that
ensuring
for
continually
tests
respect
to promote
else
the
of
implementation
test fairer.
the
an
keeping
the
on
eye
central
tests,
society's
that variances
from
this
and
format,
agreed
are denounced.
format
(4)
impact
to have
people's
(3)
strategies
thus
on which
criticism?depending
of
It is the role of criticism to identify those tests that are truly important to a society by
exposing its "tests of strength" in broad daylight. Here criticism proceeds by cate
gorisation, that is, by organising a series of individual situations that are shown (by the
criticism)
(2)
revolutionary)
the
can
criticism
Inversely,
see
to
desire
to get
try
in the
changes
currently
criticism helps to delegitimise
in the name
eliminated
of
system
prevailing
of
the general
In this
values.
instance,
the tests, not from inside the system (as is the case with
of a society,
members
the strong
tests
certain
those
who
have
at the
succeeded
tests without
having
had to pay their real cost) but from the outside. The idea here is that it is unacceptable
for evaluations
and
to be made
selections
on
the basis
of certain
principles
that
should
in fact be abolished.
the Model
Applying
to Changes
in France Between
1968 and 1995
Since the spirit of capitalism that prevails during a particular era contributes to the building
of a legitimate test that can be used in capitalist work situations, the aforementioned
are
criticisms
aimed
actually
at the capitalist
system
itself.
Criticism of capitalism is as old as capitalism itself. Capitalism is in need of justification

for the very reason that it is criticised. Where there is no criticism, there is no need for jus
tification (and then for something like a spirit of capitalism). We have therefore distinguished
between the two types of criticisms that have developed since the nineteenth century.
We
tation,
main
We
book,
label
the first
and
the
vector
has
"social
selfishness
been
the
criticism."
of a world
Here
that
is on
the emphasis
stimulates
individualism
Versus
rather
misery,
than
exploi
solidarity.
Its
labour movement.
label the second form of criticism (which Chiapello

Artistes
inequalities,
Managers,
derived
from
Grana's
book
(1998) studied in her previous

Bohemian
versus
Bourgeois)
Springer
176
Int J Polit Cult
"artistic
criticism."
stresses
other
(market
domination,
This
form
first
characteristics
of
factory
pervasive
commodification.
autonomy,
singularity,
in small
emerged
of
an ideal of
It vindicates
and
18:161-188
(2005)
intellectual
and
circles,
it criticises
world,
the massification
discipline),
and
artistic
In a capitalist
capitalism.
Soc
oppression
and
standardisation,
society,
liberation and/or of
individual
authenticity.
underpins the transformation that took place between the second spirit of
capitalism (still found to a large extent in our sample of 1960s management literature) and
the third spirit (illustrated by our 1990s management literature)?We have tried to explain
this movement without relying entirely on devices that are determined mechanically
(and
What
as is often
is
the case when
the entire
extent,
emphasis
fatalistically),
on globalisation,
Our
and
transformations.
market
technological
development,
placed
being
Yet we
believe
that it can be more
from
French
account
is drawn
broadly
examples.
to a certain
therefore,
that take into account the particularities of the different
validated, albeit with specifications

societies.
Western
in a very
summarised
Here,
brief
are
form,
the various
this
of
stages
transformation.
From 1965 to 1975, therewas a very significant increase in the criticism of capitalism.
The absolute peak was 1968, but this high point lasted for a period of several years.
This criticism threatened to generate a major crisis in capitalism. Far from being
(a)
more
nothing
a verbal
than
of
quality
industrial
and,
goods
to some
of
as to diminish
a doubling
cause
estimates,
waves
by
accompanied
in such a way
production
according
was
criticism
this
outburst,
It disorganised
strikes and violence.
the
in wage
costs. There were criticisms levied at almost all of the established tests upon which
legitimacy of the social order had been based. These criticisms included:
1
Tests
as a foundation
served
that
the
for
both
was
added
the value
in which
the way
earners
being
as for
as well
/profit breakdown
and wage
between
shareholders
Tests that legitimised power asymmetries and hierarchical relationships (not only in
the workshop but also in schools and even in families)
Tests
career
for social
selection
elements
in
that,
the most
infringing upon social justice. It especially unveiled

tests
out
by pointing
the unwarranted
particular,
of
the
through
refusal
of
their
tests,
were
those hidden forces that disrupted the

to certain
accruing
protagonists.
in
capitalist institutions' leaders. Employers,

complained
representatives,
to work
to conform
professional
these
of
prominent
that were
advantages
This high level of criticism alarmed many

the voice
examinations,
(scholastic
etc.)
planning,
those
unveiled
Criticism
as a basis
that served
recruitment,
and
salary
shared
the
and/or
discipline
of
a "crisis
to a firm's
adhere
of
authority"
objectives.
This
said to be especially rife amongst the youth of the time.

One significant specificity of the 1968 crisis was that both types of criticism, artistic
was
and
criticism
artistic
criticism
social
had
were
criticism,
only
been
equally
expressed
in the process.
important
in circumscribed
intellectual
In previous
This
circles.
crises,
trans
formation can be attributed to the rapid increase in the number of students during the 1960s, and
to
the
possess
increasingly
a significant
important
amount
role
that managers,
of cultural
capital)
engineers,
were
playing
and
technicians
in the production
of whom
(all
process.
In the French business world, artistic criticism manifested itself mostly through demands
for self-management (mainly expressed by the CFDT union), that is, through demands for
control
of firms' management,
employee
were
for the most
voiced
demands
Such
?
and
part
for enhanced
by
technicians,
personal
autonomy
engineers,
and
and
creativity.
executives.
Springer
By
(2005)
that was
(a union
criticism
social
traditional
contrast,
177
18:161-188
were
demands
to the Communist
related
closely
on most
in the majority
shop floors).
French
organisations
employer
two
tried
successively
the CGT
by
skilled workers,
voiced
primarily
dominated
by
Party,
very
different
of
ways
union
and
exiting
from the 1968 crisis.

First exit strategy Around
that were
demands
those
that were
demands
a first exit strategy consisted of strongly rejecting
1968-1973,
to artistic
related
to social
related
whilst
criticism,
criticism.
Employer
to
attentive
remaining
therefore
organisations
those
to
sought
come to terms with the unions through a test process that had been established during the
1950s
under
unrest
social
control,
that
to increases
lead
the
And
etc.).
they themselves
in the country's
of a number
signing
a collective
within
(negotiations
State
level
not
had
lowest
of national
framework,
bargaining
the unions,
were
who
levels,
that
agreements
disorientated
frequently
by
the game.
These
played
negotiations
a lessening
of wage
and
disparities,
initiated,
wage
at a national
negotiations
also
strengthened
workers'
job
to
As
security.
for tests involving the selection of people and the allocation of authority, criticism ulti
led to the creation
mately
ideal.
was
This
of
achieved
tests
that were
fairer,
a modification
through
in that they were

test mechanisms,
to the meritocratic
closer
of
were
which
altered
in
such a way as to avoid any mobilisation of strengths that did not belong to the test's official
definition.
Criticism thus had the effect of making the tests, in our vocabulary, tighter. A tighter test
penalises those actors who had previously found themselves in a privileged position, that is,
who
had
easy access
an advantage
give
resources
to the different
had
them
over
their
that,
in the various
test
situations,
could
competitors.
Second exit strategy The growing recognition of these socially critical demands (and of
their high economic and symbolic costs) did little to put an end to the crisis. Criticism thus
remained
acute,
isations,
reacting
as did
the disorganisation
to lower
profits
of production.
Around
the first oil crisis, began
following
1975,
to adopt
organ
employer
a new
strategy.
This involved an abandonment of established tests (where social criticism was being voiced),
with
was
Change
experimented
a general
became
first
especially
and
innovated
these
to
starting
employers
criticism."
changes
slogan
were
to new
listen
critical
demands
proceeding
from
the
"artistic
in organisation
A great many
of work.
large companies
effort
to "improve
conditions"?a
that
phrase
working
of
the
1970s.
At
the
latter
half
organisations
employer
during
apparent
in an
for
implemented
and
locally
almost
haphazardly.
those
Subsequently,
that proved to be successful were diffused and coordinated by employer organisations. These
organisations,
out of the
influenced
1968 movement,
by
and by the new

sociologists
a
new
formed
understanding
"kinds"
of
of
the crisis,
consultants
who
came
it as an
interpreting
uprising against obsolete (i.e., Fordist) working conditions and traditional forms of authority.
To a large extent, these changes involved acknowledging the validity of the demand for
In addition,
autonomy.
nomous
teams, flexible
advantages
schedules,
that
bonuses,
had
hitherto
been
efficiency-related
restricted
salaries,
to executives
etc.) were
(auto
generalised
to all
At
of management.
the production
similar
of
level,
types
categories
organisation
took
A
of
broke
succession
transformations
down
changes
place.
large integrated
companies
a network
that were
into a series of small units
connected
of contracts
through
(temporary
core
to the company's
activities
that did not belong
work,
sub-contracting,
outsourcing
business,
etc.).
4y Springer
178
Int J Polit Cult
In short,
this
nicate
exit"
involved
relationships)
new
tests (for example,
an
important
pre-requisite
new
became
the previous
abandoning
of a series
in favour
(professional
produced
"second
of
Soc
18:161-188
(2005)
tests
of established
system
These
displacements.
displacements
to commu
ability
tests were
difficult
for operatives
whose
requirements
for their selection).
Yet these new
to identify per se by the people whom they affected, insofar as they had not yet been subjected
to any
and regulation
categorisation,
one of the consultants'
main
qualification,
the
During
1980s,
initiatives.
tasks was
to coordinate
sense
and make
of these changes, notably by interpreting them through the language of networks, itself
borrowed from the field of social sciences. The "second exit" succeeded where the first had
to control
the opportunity
gave management
Displacements
renew
to
It unfettered
it
and
its
expansion.
capitalism,
helped
failed.
once
the workforce
again.
The new capitalist deployment was greatly facilitated by critics' silence during this period
to a large
of time. And
this
extent,
was
silence
the product
of preceding
on
displacements,
two
at least.
levels
Social criticism, usually voiced by the principal labour unions, was disarmed by a form
of change it could not interpret. It had been built in an isomorphic relationship to its
opponent, the large integrated firm. It therefore lost its ability, in the new process, to exert
on
pressure
decisions.
employers'
Artistic
on
criticism,
the
other
lost
hand,
its edge
for
a very
reason.
different
Many
of
those who had been voicing this form of criticism at the time of the 1968 crisis had become
satisfied
the changes
with
in society.
The
that had
taken
of many
incorporation
in the organisation
place
and, more
of work
of artistic
components
criticism
capitalism had deprived earlier critics of reasons for feeling discontented?and

them insensitive to the superficiality of the achievements of the so-called
movement.
been
been
France's
into
co-opted
a part
that were
of
the
second
hallmark
the power
of
1981, many
elite.
largely due to its ability to overcome
of capitalism,
spirit
since
spirit
rendered
liberation
and
render
them
obsolete.
in the nature of tests, and silence from disorientated critics, enabled capitalism to
Changes
spread once
outcome
One
it from most
again,
freeing
was
that
of this process
cost was
many
have
renewed growth during the 1980s was
Capitalism's
the constraints
The
criticism
of artistic
supporters
era that has
in the Socialist
Moreover,
broadly,
the new
into
wage
rising
earners.
inequality,
of
the constraints
the wage/profit
precarious
that
it had
ratio
working
to face.
had
previously
to benefit
again began
and the
conditions,
capital.
of
impoverishment
Worsening conditions for a great many individuals brought criticism back to life in the
1990s?as shown by the wave of strikes that hit in late 1995. Criticism's current renewal is
mostly apparent in the field of social criticism, with artistic criticism remaining silent or
becoming standardised (hence inefficient). This renewal of social criticism raises the
of how
question
new
tests
can
be
tamed
and
in new
rooted
of
regulations?one
the main
concerns being the way inwhich flexibility can be structured. It is possible that the aim of
many of the measures that are currently being explored in France is to embed the Project
oriented
Cit?
in devices
d'activit?)
(contrat
that a firm cannot
which,
or does
that
rule
since
1981,
and
in nature.
stable
combined
not want
organisation.
non-profit
Of course,
this is the history
Socialist
are
when
to keep
One
an
to seek
is the
example
contract,
employment
further
"activity
allows
or employment
training
a country
characterised
a society
that has handed
of France,
therefore
with
by
power
almost
over
contract"
workers
with
uninterrupted
to those who
in 1968 had been demonstrating in the streets under the banner of artistic criticism. The
history of Great Britain is a very different one, having been marked by the Thatcher revo
lution. Indications are that different organisational models and spirits of capitalism will
?
Springer
ultimately
in each
prevail
179
18:161-188
(2005)
of
two
these
that
countries:
be more
they will
in
market-oriented
Great Britain (in the sense that our justificatory regime analysis lends to this term); andmore
in France.
"connectionist"
Conclusion
Spirit of Capitalism," a research project that was briefly summarised in the
In "The New
we
article,
present
an
to offer
tried
a movement
for
interpretation
which
started
after
right
May 1968 (when criticisms of capitalism were rife); which lasted throughout the 1980s
(when the organisational forms underlying capitalism's functioning were experiencing
profound modifications even as critics maintained their silence); and which ultimately lead,
in the latter half of the 1990s, tomany tentative searches for new foundations of criticism.
The
a spirit
of
concept
to dynamically
seen,
based:
two
other
It allows
study.
central
have
our
which
upon
concepts
as we
us,
already
are
analyses
criticism.
and
capitalism
the research
However,
the
articulate
in this
is key
of capitalism
so far was
out
carried
not
a credible
to provide
intended
only
and
novel description of this period. Our intent with the present historical example was also to
a more
propose
the
ideologies
are
Here
the main
It stresses
(a)
theoretical
general
are
that
explain
of
the model
that we
change
face
and
uncertainty
and
impersonal
of
the actions
by
change
who
by people
of how
greater
enabling
understanding
can be modified.
activities
economic
of
characteristics
actions
thus
framework,
with
associated
often
have
conflict,
inevitable
tried
to develop:
and
it refuses
to
forces.
It focuses on the concept of testing, alternating between two test regimes. The first
one (the categorisation regime) describes acknowledged, established and regulated
tests upon which criticism can act. The second one (the displacement regime) features
a series of deviations from established tests that can modify selection trajectories and
(b)
strategies,
profit
(c)
horizon,
history."
Criticism's
exemplify
itself
be
may
of
global
all of
and
one.
a local
for having
used
We
certainly
change.
do not
the transformations
is no
There
is an unending
work
criticised
recapitulate
a modicum
than
a ideological
model.
be this Development
is not
messianic
We
no more
requiring
reflexivity,
and
categorisation,
criticism.
disorientating
this
Finally,
time
Progress,
It must
arrow
some
towards
reaching
or
of
of
"the
end
Revolution,
over
(France
example
feel that
the French
that capitalism
be
constantly
has
renewed.
the past
example
of
as we
However,
experienced.
to
30 years)
in and
can
have been far from convinced by the approximations and imprecise portrayals that are
usually heard in discussions on globalisation, we have tried in the present article to build a
model
of
change
for
accounting
that
ways
and
the meaning
for reasons
of time
motivations,
essentially
on
is based
the various
that they
and
give
resources,
people
to their
on models
i.e.,
analyses,
pragmatic
in which
commit
acts. Now,
this
undoable
basically
that
are
to an
themselves
sort of
at a global
initiative
level,
of
capable
their
action,
remains,
or even
at a
continental one, given theway inwhich national traditions and political situations continue to
affect the orientations of economic practices (and the accompanying forms of ideological
expression). In all likelihood, this is the reason why global approaches often end up by
a preponderant
attributing
economic or demographic
of
outside
much
as
the human
people
role
condition,
are subjected
to
explanatory
factors
(usually
macro
technological,
in nature) which are dealt with as if they were forces that exist
and
out
to a storm.
of
the reach
In this historical
of nations
who
neo-darwinism,
are
to them
subjected
"mutations"
happen
4^ Springer
180
to us much
18:161-188
(2005)
as they happen
to species
and it is up to us to adapt to them or else die. Humanity
to history,
not only
to see how
submit
it creates
it.We
have wanted
this works.
however
does
Appendix
Several Comments with the 1990s Body of Work
Exemplifying
thatHave Been Identified
The Problems
The 1990s authors' rejection of hierarchy is especially noteworthy given that their readers
are
of managers
comprised
essentially
from
large
who
corporations?professionals
despite
all of their efforts will find it difficult to avoid working within the strictures of a hierarchical
framework.
The
and
irresistible
they
even
not
of education
standard
be
to highlight
as part
analysed
want
to give
them
why
explains
not
is that people
trend, which
societal
do
should
this
anti-hierarchical
a more
of
are often
bias
widespread
of
rejection
relationships (see Extract 1). They are also scrutinised in light of another
domination-driven
but
that are used
explanations
in nature,
moral
(2).
has
hierarchy
do not want
only
For
other
to take
a
authors,
general
an outdated
become
orders
anymore,
in the
raising
model
organisational
(3). And whilst hierarchy is a favourite target for many critics, others also attack planning
(denounced for its excessive rigidity) as well as all of the categories that are generally
the wielding
with
associated
was
Competition
of
another
theme
on
latter
topic reached
unprecedented
to set up the sort of flexible
how
"waves,"
i.e.,
bureaucratic
at
the
to all
adapt
line
etc.).
of a "big
something
guru, who
Another
major
the
bang"?an
been
after having
during
objectives
In the
1960s,
kept well
and
of
existence
Rosabeth
of
of
loosening
their criticism
of unique
concept
the hierarchical
the
Drucker,
principle,
seasoned
of management
down"
"upside
Moss
the
aiming
used
influential proponent
the
literature,
often
advice
giving
to "surf
all
is able
was
goal
by Peter
coined
texts
of
from
away
Fayol's
the subversion
expression
foresaw
in management
figure
organisation
the main
(e.g.,
a particularly
now
etc.).
the unending
that
1960s,
time
of organisation
principles
In the 1990s,
with
however,
fundamental
reporting
there was
inventive
at the
observers
as was
1990s,
the vast majority
with
levels,
and
transformations.
and
restraints,
orders,
superiors,
the
during
(already a subject of discussion during the 1960s).
increasingly rapid change in technology

This
chiefs,
(bosses,
authority
recurring
has
Kanter,
by
organisations.
also
explained
that there will necessarily be a time in the future "when the giants learn to dance"?this
having been the title of her best-seller (Moss Kanter, 1992).
Extracts:
1.
and
the pyramidal
organisational
and who
who
is able to manage,
manage,
The
opposed
to those
don't
who
Even with the best will

occur
who
do
in conditions
expresses
not
know
such
scorn
how
and
know
how
in theworld,
as these
a person
to manage,
hierarchies
has
to be
to manage
...
indicate
or who
incapable
as
to manage,
of
doing
so.
the only kind of interpersonal relationship that can
are
incapable
of doing
the very beginning in a position of de facto inferiority?as

into children... (Aktouf, 1989).
?
are
to
how
knows
is going
is the sort of relationship

who
is a target of scorn.
and/or
who
the one who
that exists
This
so" find
a person
between
is because
"those
themselves
who
from
if they have been turned
Springer
181
18:161-188
(2005)
Along with increased individualism, the irresistible move
2.
all areas
towards freedom of choice in
The
for personal
demands
and opportunities
autonomy.
greater
no longer
era of staff sergeants
is over. Not
but
accept
authority,
only do subordinates
are themselves
of wielding
it?even
less and less capable
hierarchical
though
superiors
more
to the demands
to respond
of a complex
is needed
and more
discipline
has
generated
environmental
3.
an
1989).
(Crozier,
that modem
Given
are comprised
organisations
between
association
equals,
of "erudite"
to be
have
specialists,
they
No
particular
associates...
colleagues,
of
type
knowledge dominates. Everyone is judged according to his/her contribution to the

common good and not in light of the allegedly inherent superiority of the function that
s/he
fulfils.
and
subordinates?it
The
The
is that a modern
result
to be
has
cannot
organisation
team
organised
an
an association
be
(Drucker,
of bosses
1993).5
solutions
The systems that the 1990s authors have offered for coping with the issues that they have
identified
a vast
form
these
organise
a wide
of
range
customer
or
and workers'
and
"light"
key
work
have
rid of most
got
can
in networks
organisation,
to the vision
thanks
enthusiasm
we
Nevertheless,
that work
companies
project-oriented
overall
firms
"fat-free"
innovations.
lean
ideas:
team-based
actors;
satisfaction;
Lean,
of managerial
potpourri
a few
around
ideas
involving
towards
geared
of
of their hierarchical
to
try
their
leaders.
echelons.
They
only maintain between three and five levels, and have fired entire hierarchical strata. They
have
also
that
is not
of
part
a large
from
separated
their
core
(N.T.:
in a process
called
Firms'
investments
are
"alliances"
and
of a slim-lined
are
We
teams
told
functions
and
in the French,
essaimage
in
made
tasks,
to former
and
subcontract
turned
employees
literally
the workings
everything
entrepreneurs
of a beehive).
with
other
via
companies
the
of
the
modem
has
become
that
company
stereotype
"joint ventures";
is surrounded
of suppliers,
service
core, which
subcontractors,
by a potpourri
increasingly
(this
personnel
Such
constellations
etc.
firms,
friendly
of
sometimes
collaboration
and
temporary
providers,
number
business,
that
to
(deemed
the workers
be
allows
are
themselves
more
staff
numbers
to be working
must
be organised
said
flexible,
competent,
inventive,
to adjust
to levels
in "networks."
into
and
of
activity),
small
multidisciplinary
autonomous
than
the
specialised departments which had been the hallmark of the 1960s); that the real boss of
teams
these
is the customer;
co-ordinator
firm's
and
than
a chief
outside
experts.
physical
itself
seems
contractual
from
The
to be made
These
relationships.
new
systems
Organisations
have
5
N.T.:
to one
in a "network."
working
the person
who
have
the
team
lead
flexible,
an
than
a forum
become
to
do
in telecommunications
of a
consultants,
to work
in
having made
an example
of
this is said to be
again,
or fade away,
and the organisation
or less durable
of more
accumulation
for
the
weakening
and
innovative,
some of the extracts cited have been translated

wording may therefore differ slightly from the original
as a paraphrasing
rather than as a quotation.
customers,
suppliers,
not all necessarily
have
of a
blur
borders
little
Teams
become
of
is actually
them
is more
running
teams are not solely
comprised
include
another?improvements
remote
locations.
Once
company's
more
of
such
4). Moreover,
can also
They
the members
Plus,
proximity
to collaborate
it possible
that
staff members.
permanent
close
and
(cf. Extract
self-organisation
of
the
highly
and
self-control.
hierarchical
competent.
principle.
Network
organ
back
into English from their French translation. The

text, and as such these extracts should be considered
Springer
182
Int J Polit Cult
isations
have
purpose
had
provided
no
to get
a "relay"
it possible
as
to serve
made
been
"added
value"
for
rid
Soc
of
hierarchies?structures
costly
senior management,
and which
for
18:161-188
(2005)
whose
only
therefore
had
customer.
the
Extracts:
4.
Process
Now
need
they
teams
verify
take care of
this
mean
no
this
themselves.
as
it progresses
There
Traditional
room
is little
and Hammer,
bosses
for
bosses.
oversee,
control,
supervise,
to the next. Now
teams
one workstation
from
need
the workload.
traditional
in a reconfigured
bosses
1993).
of how a firm's
overall
direction
is to be managed?an
issue
are still
The existence
of networks
does not
sample
grappling.
exist as separate
been
diluted
entities,
i.e., that they have
by the
remains
problem
in our
the authors
that firms
of one or several
don't
individuals,
comprised
... Traditional
define
and distribute
bosses
themselves.
(Champy
thorny
which
of
the workflow
environment
The
coaches
care
take
and
with
whether
teams,
Instead,
longer
network(s) within which they work. A firm's senior managers will still devise the competition
strategies that allow it to do battle with other multinationals (on those markets where they do
not
the
Moreover,
collaborate).
creative
and
self-organised
individuals
are
who
henceforth
responsible for a firm's performance still need to be directed. This direction will be the work
of few
persons?managers
chiefs"
Now
we
in any
who
leaders
have
event
vision
with
should
be distinguished
Extracts
(cf.,
from
"hierarchical
earlier,
to a shared
Thanks
5,6).
sense-making
in which all participate (the aforementioned "vision"), everyone knows what s/he has to do
without being ordered to do so. A strong management direction is clearly felt without there
can continue
to issue orders,
to be self-organising.
and personnel
any need
being
as opposed
to cadres,
The
in terms of "managers"
1990s authors write
highlighting
to
current
human
that
have
best
and
adapted
capitalism's
qualities
requirements,
and "complexity"
of "uncertainty"
nor to order
to command,
seeking
environment
are neither
for orders
have
before
acting.
"team
become
:donneur
(N.T.
de
souffle
character that was
"intuitive
about
team
coach,
that
"visionaries,"
such
plunged
and "drivers."
who
person
the new
to describe
Moss
Rosabeth
and Lionel
managers"
or "midwife"
leader,
are used
hero,
corporate
Kanter
talks
about
The
was
(7). Other
"pros"
different
is a
lacked the
to make
forced
athletes,"
"corporate
"driver"
the breath")
provides
S?rieyx
about
Bellenger
several
by
the
into. Managers
are not waiting
employees
are out of date. Managers
roles
"coaches,"
"the
literally
been
and
around,
people
understood
"catalysts,"
in the French,
have
invented by Herv? S?rieyx. Like other 1990s authors who
vocabulary
appropriate
his own
expressions.
Saget
has
Everyone
leaders,"
that firms
those
to
up
Le
Meryem
terms such as
authors.
Extracts:
5.
Vision,
Like
(Crozier and S?rieyx,

6.
The
leader
whom
each
his/her
spurs
creates
that
commodity
magnet.
powerful
all
who
individual
in the group
influence,
has
visionary
into
challenges,
vision
just
awakens
a mission?it
is also
collective
capacities
1994).
is a person
people
is not
enthusiasm,
great
with
role by the group?the
person
or
to
identifies.
Thanks
consciously
subconsciously
a current
creates
that
the leader
and orientations,
been
artistry
transcending
given
themselves;
this
into
trusting
others;
and
into
showing
these
new
types
initiative (Cruellas, 1993).

7.
We
don't
relationships.
?
even
possess
The
terms
an
appropriate
"superiors"
for
vocabulary
and "subordinates"
discussing
hardly
seem
precise
Springer
enough.
of
Even
like "boss"
words
do
managers
With
183
18:161-188
(2005)
not
and
always
of control
concepts
imply
"employees"
have
and Moss,
(Kanter
actually
and/or
which
rights
1991).
in
there have been
in nearby
references
hierarchical
control,
increasing
to
trust.
Trust
that
the
of
in
idea
is
literature
(and
micro-economic)
a coach with
a firm with
team members
its leader;
the
themselves:
amongst
the decline
indeed
management
which
unites
person
s/he
focuses
on
nothing
more
or partners
of secure
is helping;
the
existence
concrete
control
moral
contracts.
third
party
is
are
that
more
otherwise
than
the
on
based
a moral
trust possesses
Indeed,
little
self-control?it
presupposes
in situations
and/or
a
by
Trust
alliance.
relationships
than words
whereas
dimension,
an
within
of
expression
relationship that is based on the domination of one party by another (8).

Extract:
8.
is no longer a salient issue when
The balance of power

of a sense
creation
of belonging,
of
feeling
the main
is the
objective
in one
trust
and
with
satisfaction
another
(Aktouf, 1989).
What is Being Rejected
To promote these new organisational
forms, the 1990s authors (like their 1960s
predecessors) also criticised and delegitimised those contemporary aspects of organisations
that they deemed to be obsolete in efficiency terms, and outdated from a human relations
time
this
However,
perspective.
around
no
criticisms
target
longer
a type
target
of organisation
between
separation
that had
private
been
life
family
on
work
and/or
praised
during
or personal
the
relationships,
the
its clear-cut
one
on
separation
professional
relationships,
During
was
was
to ensure
that competency
the only
for professional
criterion
supposed
of time
and certain
authors
worried
about
the breakdown
between
the amount
spent
resting
During
the
a
have
1990s,
effect
from
and
makeup;
family
one
as
rebelled
it separates
inhuman
another;
inefficient
of
this
of
aspects
it leaves
because
implemented
amount
against
it hampers
because
to be
the
against
authors
insofar
that need
competencies
their
management
mutilating
dissociated
with
and/or
a person's
no room
to learn
they
success,
that people
spent
working.
for a person's
inhibits
not
be
emotional
the multiple
in a network"
to "live
it to
considering
that should
life
and
flexibility
in order
time
separation,
and
hand,
this
1960s,
could
Instead, they
era for
the previous
other.
that
arrangements
once have been accused of transposing the domestic world in thework world.
(9,
10).
To describe
the large impersonal organisations that had been inherited from the
preceding period, 1990s managers appropriated a term ofWeberian sociology that had been
particularly popular between 1940 and 1960 due to that era's Trotskyist criticisms of State
in totalitarian
apparatuses
and
arbitrariness,
and
resource
regimes:
the blind
Not
wasting.
and
only
with
bureaucracy,
violence
impersonal
were
bureaucrats
its connotations
of
cold-hearted
inhuman,
but
of
authoritarianism
monsters,
they were
also
inefficiency,
unprofitable.
The goal of the battle thatwas waged during the 1990s became thewholesale elimination of
a business model that had been forged during the preceding era. This involved both the
delegitimisation of hierarchy, planning, formal authority, Taylorism, "managerial [cadre]"
status,
lifelong
careers
with
one
and
the
same
firm,
etc.,
as well
as
criteria such as individual personality and personal contacts?factors

wayside
over
time.
This
was
not
an attempt
to return
to the
initial
spirit
the
reintroduction
of
that had fallen by the

of capitalism:
&\
firms
Springer
184
Int J Polit Cult
are bigger
than
nowadays
involves
are professionals
rather
approach
ever; managers
a network
not
and
small
18:161-188
(2005)
and
owners;
a domestic
than
Soc
the work
world
framework.
Extracts:
9.
life is the perfect embodiment
Professional
people's
lives,
private
of personal
expression
an
being
values.
... Whenever
another
These
of
two
existences
are
elements
personal
of rationality. It is very different from
area
of search
subjectivity,
are hermetically
into
incorporated
for meaning
sealed
the firm.
by
obsolete.
work
business-related
judge
Yet
groups,
of
networks
creating
that
it is clear
nowadays
a vision
Developing
... has
sort of outlook
this
a company's
future,
of
relationships?all
devising
become
strategies,
of
these
The
that are being

our private
demands
professional
of us
made
and
beings,
is natural and that which
that which
that we
require
our
between
abandon
rational
is manmade,
and
actions
this
a person's
between
our
between
split
intuitive
totally
motivating
call
upon
qualities that go well beyond simple technical competency. They mobilise

complete personality (Landier, 1991).
10.
and
one
from
there is the feeling that one's private life is running the risk of being infringed
ments,
upon
this
between
selves,
the brain and the heart
1993).
(S?rieyx,
(Job) Security Through Employability

assurances
texts creates
in modem
feature
management
Simply
asking which
(job) security
an initial difficulty
was
not a dominant
for us. Security
value
the 1990s. At the time,
during
this factor was
with
and
associated
denounced
evils
such as status,
hierarchy,
commonly
was
that
This
different
from
been
which
had
observed
the
very
bureaucracy.
during
era.
preceding
The most pugnacious author on this topic has turned out to be Bob Aubrey, who likes to
remind his readers thatMaslow's pyramid is a false scientific law (11). Notwithstanding
this allegation, management authors also know that few people will feel attracted by their
if they
proposals
don't
offer
new
any
forms
of
are
They
security.
aware
the need
of
to
propose something that can replace the hierarchical careers that had been such an integral
part of the second spirit of capitalism. One suggestion has been that this format should be
replaced by the idea of a succession of projects. In this conception, people no longer
careers,
develop
project
project
being
is an
rather
they move
that which
opportunity
to earn a solid
the chance
from
enables
them
to make
many
and
reputation
as an opportunity
for
project
to accede
to another,
with
to another,
new
acquaintances,
to be
co-opted
and
into a new
learning
and
for
adding
to one's
success
their
more
on
offers
Each
people
Moreover,
activity.
own
a given
one.
interesting
it therefore
is different, new and innovative
that each project, by definition,

presented
one
given
it can be
in nature,
competencies?this
being an advantage in finding other engagements (12, 13).

The key concept in this view of working life is employability. This notion is supposed
to describe the ability that people must possess if they want to be asked to participate
one project
in a given
from
The
transition
project.
a personal
one's
This
is
capital
employability.
own way.
in his/her
It is the sum
total of a person's
hance
be
seen
as
employees'
?
offering
a certain
employability
form
of
security
when
to another
that
each
usable
it develops
at those times that it is unable
is an
rather
to manage
has
A
competencies.
than
en
to
opportunity
individual
firm
destroys
will
its
to avoid either dismissing
Springer
or
people
offer
do
lack
an
else
it cannot
when
several
185
18:161-188
(2005)
for
solutions
job security-related
to
is comparable
that
instrumentation
on managing
executive
writings
on the best ways
to recruit
and
the
texts
we
were
there
read,
a promotion
them
offer
workforces?literature
evaluate
hardly
fying whether it is on the rise or else

this would be that the texts from the
second spirit of capitalism. This was an
been in place for quite some time. The
brand new spirit of capitalism, one that
height of itsmotivational powers.
even
had
that
or on
people,
any
As
(14).
problems,
that which
systems
for
the
such,
1990s
their
though
on
been
offer
had
assessing
details
many
provided
to help
them
how
authors
proposals
in 1960s
to develop.
for
employability,
In
veri
deteriorating, etc. One optimistic explanation for

1960s involve a relatively late formulation of the
era during which the then current spirit had already
1990s texts on the other hand are associated with a
is just emerging, and which has not yet reached the
Extracts:
11.
a new
to assimilate
have
nowadays
Organisations
and
reality,
treat
each
as
employee
if s/he were a firm. This change means that some of the suppositions that had dominated
industrial society have to be abandoned, first and foremost, the idea that people are
looking for job security. This is a 1950s concept bom out of Abraham Maslow's famous
of needs,"
"pyramid
with
its postulate
that
fundamental
needs
must
be
before
satisfied
we can even begin to consider other types of fulfillment. Now, not only is this thesis
problematic from a theoretical perspective (how does it explain the fact that some
people risk their [material] security to become artists or to start a new career?), but there
is little justification for theway inwhich it has been interpreted inmanagement circles,
i.e.,
the firm's
first
is to create
responsibility
a secure
with
environment,
fulfillment
only
coming at a later stage (Aubrey, 1994).

12.
career
one project
to the next.
is an unending
from
The
sprint
... Each
that it adds
of a given
is the value
person
project
depends
on his/her
own
resources
more
rather that on the destiny
of whatever
much
company
are
not
at
conversant
in the art of
to
titular
the
who
time.
Those
be
the
employer
happens
The
post-industrial
measure
of success
the hierarchical
climbing
portfolio
personal
every
that entire
chance
(Moss Kanter,
13.
If the organisation
tend
ladder
...
to fall by the wayside
has to create a
Everyone
no longer guarantee
And
there is
job security.
will
learn new
this process
competencies
during
as firms
of aptitudes,
populations
1992).
the future
of
a few
features
only
hierarchical
levels
(i.e.,
three
or four
instead of a dozen), therewill be fewer echelons that candidates will have to succeed at
before
and
reaching
less vertical
a relatively
movement.
the
responsibilities,
senior
With
focus
will
will
entail more
lateral
development
new areas of
or
other
types of
people
accepting
activity
on
on
own
and
be more
one's
learning
broadening
Career
position.
to a higher
rank. In addition,
will
than on acceding
this type of development
experience
not automatically
The times have changed,
and so have
lead to increased
remuneration.
the rules of the game. The career paths that people will be following are no longer clearly
signposted.
people
As
become
a result,
actors
successful
in their
own
career management
development,
in this brave
taking
charge
of
new world
infers
their own
future.
that
No
one else is going to be doing it for them (Le Saget, 1994).

14.
Job
security
cannot
be
guaranteed.
On
the
other
hand,
firms
can
guarantee
"employability," that is, a level of competency and flexibility that will enable each
individual to find a new job within his/her firm or outside of it (Aubrey, 1993).
?
Springer
186
(2005)
18:161-188
Appendix
Articles
and Books Which Have Provided the Extracts of the 1990s Body of Work
Texts Which Original Language
isFrench
Articles
1993, "Le Coaching Ou Le Retour Vers La Personne," Management
Adam Edmond,
no.
France,
no.
19, mai,
1993,
son
de
87 pp. 22-23
Baron Xavier,
Par
Structures
Descl?e
Au
Girard
Lemaire
Review,
Le
Jour,"
"
no.
1992,
Gestion
Cadre,"
La
Crise"),
2, pp.
vol.
Gestion,
"
2000,
no.
France,
Management
Des
Fev,
Salari?s Travaillant Dans
no.
Les
L'exercice Du Leadership Ou La Gestion De

vol.
7 num?ro
126-127,
Nouveau
Ao?t,
Harvard-!Expansion,
201-213
pp.
Pacte
"g?rer
sp?cial:
: ?volution
Le M?tier De Cadre
et Gestion,
"
Vers Un
1994,
"Des
1994,
Bruno,
pp.
votre
carri?re,"
Et Prise En Compte Du
57-62
," Revue
Social
Fran?aise
De
Gestion,
Entreprises
Sans
Hi?rarchie?,"
L'Expansion
Management
74-82
1993, "La R?volution De La Twingo," G?rer Et Comprendre,
Midler Christophe,
pp. 28-36 Mai
Pierre,
De
78-88
pp.
automne,
Morin
Internationale
Du Travail Conduit ? L'entreprise De Soi,"
Apr?s
2000,
Xavier,
Direction
sept,
Travail
Gestion
1990,
Bernard,
100,
"Le
Du
1993, "Les Enjeux De Gestion
Jour
Management,"
," Revue
Travail
La M?tamorphose
livre
Projets,"
pp. 105-126
Gastaldi Di?o,
no.
"
de Maredsous
Sa Carri?re
S'excuser
Le
"Repensons
1994,
Aubrey Bob,
Sans
Diriger
56-64
(pr?sentation
12-14
"
55-61
2, pp.
Bob,
Aubrey
pp.
1994,
Roland,
Arpin
pp.
86, Nov,
"La Fin Du Management
1994,
no.
France,
Management
Romantique,"
Juin,
88,
14-17
pp.
Raux
1994,
Jean-Fran?ois,
S?rieyx Herv?,
France,
no.
85,
Weiss
1994, "Comment
Review,
Fran?aise
Dimitri,
De
Et Mutations,"
"Management
no.
Futuribles,
187, Mai,
A Propos Du Big Bang Des Organisations
pp.
9-26
,"Management
29-30
pp.
Strebel Paul,
Management
"
1993,
Et?,
1994,
pp.
"Nouvelles
no.
Gestion,
Les R?gles
Faire ?voluer
Du
Jeu," L'Expansion
17-21
Formes
Et Relations
D'entreprise
98, Mars-Avril-Mai,
pp.
De
Travail,"
Revue
95-103
Books
Aktouf Omar, 1989, Le Management, Entre Tradition Et Renouvellement, Montr?al,
Ga?tan Morin
Archier Georges, Elissalt Olivier, Setton Alain, 1989, Mobiliser Pour R?ussir, Paris,
Seuil
Aubrey Bob, 1990, Savoir Faire Savoir (Prix Dauphine 1990), Paris, InterEditions
Aubrey Bob, 1994, Le Travail Apr?s La Crise, Paris, InterEditions
Bellenger Lionel, 1992, Etre Pro, Paris, ESF
Bonis
Dynamique
Jean,
Humaine
Le
1990,
De
Comme
Management
Uentreprise,
Paris,
Direction
D'acteurs:
Ma?triser
CLET
4ij Springer
La
Crozier
1989,
Michel,
industriel,
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L'?coute.
L'entreprise
Post
Le Management
Apprendre
InterEditions
Paris,
Crozier Michel et S?rieyx Herv? Eds, 1994, Du Management Panique A U entreprise Du

XXI?me Si?cle, Paris, Maxima
Cruellas Philippe, 1993, Coaching: Un Nouveau Style De Management, Paris, ESF
Christian,
Doyon
Montr?al,
1991,
La
L'intrapreneurship:
Nouvelle
De
G?n?ration
Managers,
d'Arc
Agence
Ettighoffer Denis, 1992, U entreprise Virtuelle Ou Les Nouveaux Modes De Travail,

Paris, Odile Jacob
Genelot Dominique, 1992,Manager Dans La Complexit?, Paris, INSEP
Hec (Les professeurs du Groupe), 1994, "Management Et Ressources Humaines: Quelles
De
Strat?gies
Landier
Hubert,
Lenhardt
Des
L'?cole
Formation,"
Vers
1991,
1992,
Vincent,
L'entreprise
Les
De
Managers
Responsables
Demain,
Paris,
Intelligente,
Porteurs
Econ?mica
Paris,
De
Calmann
Sens:
pp.
245-268
L?vy
Et Pratique
Du
Culture
Coaching Et Du Team Building, Paris, INSEP

Le Saget Meryem, 1992, Le Manager Intuitif, Paris, Dunod (Prix dauphine 1993)
Le Saget Meryem,
1994, 10 Conseils Pour Le Manager De Demain, Brochure Du
Cabinet De Conseil Erasme international, 28 pages
F.,
Mingotaud
Moran
R.,
La Fonction
1993,
Xardel,
D.,
Des
1994,
Editions
Les
Cultures:
d'Organisation
Du Management
Enjeux
InterEditions
Paris,
International,
Paris,
D'encadrement,
Au-del?
Isabelle, 1991, Les Paradoxes Du Management, Du Ch?teau Fort Aux

Orgogozo
Cloisons Mobiles, Paris, Editions d'Organisation
Orgogozo Isabelle, S?rieyx Herv?, 1989, Changer Le Changement, On Peut Abolir Les
Bureaucraties,
Seuil
Paris,
1993, Le Management
Ramond Philippe,
Renaud-Coulon
S?rieyx
Sicard
Herv?,
1993,
Claude,
1994,
Tarideu
Michel,
Op?rationnel,
Sur Mesure,
L'entreprise
Le Big-Bang
Le Manager
Des
Patrons-cadres:
1994,
Avril,
L'entreprise,
1994,
Annick,
Paris, Maxima
Paris,
L'Harmattan
Calmann
Paris,
Organisations,
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Drucker
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Peter,
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Hammer
Michael,
Peters
Tom,
Quinn
Mills
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D.,
James,
Champy
Moss Kanter Rosabeth,
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1994,
1993,
Le Reengineering,
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L'entreprise
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Author(s): Luc Boltanski and Eve Chiapello

Int J Polit Cult Soc

The contrast between the France of 1968-1978

and the France of 1985-1995

aid being their only real manifestation);

disoriented unions who had become reactive rather

Int J Polit Cult Soc

that the historical

that are applied

that are being

importance of the practices

disorient critical activities.

that our model

that have accompanied

of the Spirit of Capitalism

chained to a never-ending and insatiable process. For both of these

Int J Polit Cult Soc

not otherwise have to acknowledge.

The capitalist system has turned out to be infinitely

that along with

these explanations to their logical conclusion,

then not all profit would be legitimate, nor all

most of which have been shaped by economic

theory.3 Yet some of the explanations

capitalism will only be consolidated

if its justifications are concretised,

three types of arguments.

that is, if itmakes

from the current state of technology or the economy

Int J Polit Cult

that are really

for the spirit of capitalism.

the forms of security that is offered to those

important for our

a third set of arguments

(b) A second set of arguments emphasises

second "spirit" (descriptions

Sombart, corresponds to a predominantly

The first, described amongst others by W

the 1930s and the

by the link between

to the Former One