April 2010 Volume 45 – Number 1

Arkansas Association For Health,

Physical Education, Recreation and
Dance
 April 2010 – Arkansas Journal – Volume 45 – Number 1

CONTENTS
News and Information
Award Qualifications . . . . . . . 3
Message from the President. . . . . . . 4
ArkAHPERD Board of Directors. . . . . . 5
Calendar . . . . . . . . . 5
2009 ArkAHPERD Award Winners. . . . . . 6
2009 ArkAHPERD Coordinator and Scholarship Winners . . 8
2009 ArkAHPERD SuperStars Competition . . . . 9

Articles
From College to Career: Charting a Course
Paul Finnicum and Mitch Mathis . . . . 10
Integrated Activities - Math and Physical Education . .. . . 17
Andy Mooneyhan
Enhancing Exercise Behaviors:
Application of Self-Efficacy Concept
Shawn Mitchell and Lori W. Turner . . . . . . 19
Aerobic Strength Training as a Weight Control Solution
Andy Mooneyhan and Allen Mooneyhan . . . . . . 25
Enhancing the Practice of Osteoprotective Behaviors: . . . 30
Application of the Health Belief Model
Meg Sheppard, Lori Turner and Sharon Hunt

On the Cover: The 2009 Teacher of the Year Award Winners

2
HONOR
Candidate must meet the following qualifications:
A. Be at least 30 years of age and have earned a
Master’s degree or its equivalent.
B. Have served the profession for at least five years
prior to the nomination.
C. Be a current member of ArkAHPERD. Former
members who have retired from professional work
may be exempt.
D. Be of high moral character and personal integrity
who by their leadership and industry have made
outstanding and noteworthy contributions to the
advancement of our profession in the state of
Arkansas.
To indicate leadership or meritorious contributions,
the nominator shall present evidence of the nominee’s
successful experiences in any two of the following
categories of service:
1. Service to the association.
2. Advancement of the profession through
leadership of outstanding programs.
3. Advancement of the profession through
presentation, writings, or research.
Any ArkAHPERD member may submit nominations
by sending six (6) copies of the candidate’s qualifications
to Janet Forbess, jforbess@uark.edu.
HIGHER EDUCATOR OF THE YEAR
Candidate must meet the following qualifications:
A. Have served the profession for at least three
years prior to the nomination.
B. Be a member of ArkAHPERD
C. Be of high moral character and personal
integrity who by their leadership and industry
have made outstanding and noteworthy
contributions to the advancement of teaching ,
research, or service in the state of Arkansas.
D. Be employed by an institution of higher
education in the state of Arkansas.
Any ArkAHPERD member may submit nominations
by sending a copy of the candidate’s qualifications to
Patrick Wempe, wempepp@hsu.edu
ArkAHPERD Web Site: http://www.arkahperd.org/
3
TEACHER OF THE YEAR
Teacher awards are presented in the areas of elementary
physical education, middle school physical education,
secondary physical education, dance, and health.
Candidate must meet the following qualifications:
A. Have served the profession for at least three
years prior to the nomination.
B. Be a member of AAHPERD & ArkAHPERD.
C. Be of high moral character and personal integrity
who by their leadership and industry have made
outstanding and noteworthy contributions to the
advancement of teaching in the state of Arkansas.
D. Be employed by a public school system in the
state of Arkansas.
E. Have a full time teaching contract, and have a
minimum of 60% of their total teaching
responsibility in the nominated area.
F. Have a minimum of five years teaching
experience in the nominated area.
G. Conduct a quality program.
They must submit three letters of
recommendation and agree to make complete
NASPE application if selected.
Any ArkAHPERD member may submit nominations by
contacting Angie Smith-Nix, ansmith@uark.edu.
STUDENT
Scholarships
ArkAHPERD awards four scholarships annually for
students majoring in HPERD. They include the Newman
McGee, Past President’s, Jeff Farris Jr., and John Hosinski
scholarships. Students must possess a minimum 2.5 GPA.
[See your academic advisor for special details.]
Research Award
Research awards of $100, $50, and $25 are awarded to
undergraduate and graduate students who are members of
ArkAHPERD. Students must submit an abstract and a
complete paper Bennie Prince, bfprince@ualr.edu by
October 1, 2005. Papers selected for the research awards
must be presented by the student in an oral or poster
format at the November convention.
 Message from the President

Hope this letter finds all of you happy and most of all healthy!
Preparations are beginning for the ArkAHPERD Convention to be held on
November 4rd and 5th at the Holiday Inn Airport, Little Rock. We hope this will be
the largest convention ever! Please SAVE THE DATE!

In mentioning dates, I would like to share with you the trainings from the ADE,
Office of Coordinated School Health that might be of interest to you.

On May 10th the Office of Coordinated School Health will host a

NASPE Pipeline Workshop. This workshop will be limited to 50
participants. The workshop is Assessment Strategies: K-12 Physical
Education. Information is posted on ADE, Office of Coordinated School
Health website. This will provide Physical Education teachers with 7 hours
of professional development.

On June 17th the Office of Coordinated School Health will host a PE Symposium for teachers
and coaches. There will be two tracks, one for elementary and one for high school. This will be at
Bauxite High School and teachers will receive 6 hours of professional development. The cost of the
symposium will be $20 to cover the cost of food and snacks. A registration form and a draft agenda
is on our website. We are limited to 100 participants. Sessions will be hosted by Anthony Lucas of
D1 Sports, Dr. Blair Dean of Arkansas State University and Dr. Timothy Baghurst of Henderson
State University

Also there are 57 schools receiving the CWIP (Child Wellness Intervention Project) Grants. They will
be doing SPARK and FITNESSGRAM trainings July 12-17th.

If you would like more information, please go to the website at www.arkansascsh.org and print off a
registration form for the workshops mentioned and more information.

As my presidency comes to an end, I am continuing to work diligently on the membership drive for our
organization. I ask that every one of you remain active in recruiting new members, who are in our profession.
We have to remain committed to this goal!

In addition we need to remain steadfast in our advocacy of requiring physical activity/education in our schools,
colleges and universities.

Please continue your efforts on the membership drive and if you have any questions or comments, do not
hesitate to contact me (stanlel@hsu.edu).

With regards,
Lynn Glover-Stanley,
PRESIDENT ArkAHPERD

4
 ArkAHPERD Board of Directors
Glover-Stanley, Lynn President stanlel@hsu.edu
Mathis, Mitch President-elect mmathis@astate.edu
Forbess, Janet Program Coordinator jforbess@uark.edu
Mooneyhan, Andy Executive Director amooneyh@astate.edu
Gist, Traci JRFH Coordinator tracy.gist@pottsville.k12.ar.us
Robinson Beaton, Lindsay HRH Coordinator lrobinson@dewitt.k12.ar.us
Mathis, Mitch Journal/Newsletter Editor mmathis@astate.edu
Mooneyhan, Allen WEB Master amooneyhan@asun.edu

Division Vice Presidents / VP-elects

Wilf, Martha Athletics & Sports mwilf@sdale.org
Hilson, Valarie Health-elect vhilson@astate.edu
Keese, Pam Recreation pkeese@harding.edu
Moore, Jessica Recreation-elect jmoore@harding.edu
Prince, Bennie General bfprince@ualr.edu
Stilwell, Laura Dance danz4u@sbcglobal.net
Robinson Beaton, Lindsay Dance-elect lrobinson@dewitt.k12.ar.us
Straub, Jennifer Physical Education jstraub@sdale.org

Section Chairs / Chair-elects

Turley, Ken Exercise Science krturley@harding.edu
Perkey, Dennis Athletic Training dperkey@astate.edu
Miller, John Athletic Training-elect MILLERJ@hsu.edu
Mitchell, Nathan Elementary Phys Ed nmitchell@sdale.org
Gaines, Cathryn Elementary Phys Ed-elect cathryn.gaines@rsdmail.k12.ar.us
Mayes, Susan Higher Education-elect smayes@uark.edu
Bryant, Lance Research lgbryant@astate.edu
Baghurst, Tim Research-elect BAGHURT@hsu.edu
Moore, Jessica Secondary Phys Ed jmoore@harding.edu
Calleha, Paul Secondary Phys Ed-elect pcallej@uark.edu

Standing Committee Chairs

Andy Mooneyhan Constitution amooneyh@astate.edu
Glover-Stanley, Lynn Constitution stanlel@hsu.edu
Barber, Carrie District Organization barber@hsu.edu
Hanna, Shellie Scholarships shanna@atu.edu
Wempe, Patrick Higher Educator of the Year wempep@hsu.edu
Forbess, Janet Honor Award jforbess@uark.edu
Smith-Nix, Angela Necrology ansmith@uark.edu
Smith-Nix, Angela Teacher Awards ansmith@uark.edu

ArkAHPERD 2010 State Convention will be November 4-5

Holiday Inn Airport Convention Center
3201 Bankhead Dr.
Little Rock, AR 72206
Phone: 501-490-1000
5
 ArkAHPERD
Honor Award
Dr. Blair Dean
Arkansas State University

ArkAHPERD
Higher Educator of the Year
Dr. Jack Kern
University of Arkansas
Fayetteville

ArkAHPERD
Secondary Teacher of the Year
Jody Koons
Southwest Junior High School
Springdale

6
 ArkAHPERD
Middle School
Teacher of the Year
Bill Spence
Hellstern Middle School
Springdale

ArkAHPERD
Elementary School
Teacher of the Year
Josh Hicklin
Elmdale Elementary School
Springdale

ArkAHPERD
Health Educator of the Year
Penny Pabst
J.O. Kelly Middle School
Springdale

7
 ArkAHPERD
Outstanding JRFH Coordinator
Laura Phillips
Westwood Primary School
Greenwood
$15,442

ArkAHPERD
Outstanding HFH Coordinator
Cindra Roberson
Arkansas Tech University
Russellville
$6,275

ArkAHPERD
Student Scholarship Winners
Jeff Farris, Jr. - Julie Rhyne
University of Arkansas -
Fayetteville
Newman McGee - Jonathan
Sutherland
Arkansas Tech University

8
 First Place
Edris Whitaker
Chris Thompson
Arkansas State University

Second Place
Zach Butler
Keelan Newsom
Brett Ivey
Michael Wimberley
Arkansas State University

Third Place
Tracey Higgins
Josh Cagle
Javon Hartley
Arkansas State University

9
A Peer Reviewed Article
From College to Career: Charting a Course
Paul Finnicum and Mitch Mathis, Arkansas
State University
It may be an obscure reference, but some of you
probably remember the Twisted Sister video “I
Wanna Rock” because of the part in the video
when the strict teacher gets up close and personal
with a student for doodling Twisted Sister pictures
on his book and sneers, “What do you want to do
with your life?” The student responds
emphatically, “I wanna rock!”
It would be nice if everyone knew with certainty
what they wanted to do with the rest of their life
by the time they were ready for college, but in
reality, that is not the case. Many people come to
college with a vague idea about a career. Up to 80
percent of entering college students indicate that
they are not certain of their choice of major, even
if they have initially "decided" on one. (Richard
Stockton College of New Jersey 1997) The end
result is that 50 to 70 percent of undergraduate
students will change their majors at least once
during their college careers (Gordon 1994) while
20 percent change twice and 10 percent change
three or more times (The Daily Collegian Online
2005). Additionally, studies show that most people
will change careers about four or five times over
the course of their lives. (Hansen 2010)
It’s impractical to think that this article or any
other singular piece of advice will eliminate this
uncertainty, but students could certainly benefit
from career orientation courses or consulting with
their counselors and parents as they make the
decision whether to pursue higher education or
vocational training. In addition, participating in
job-shadowing programs can offer students a more
realistic idea of what careers actually involve.
However, even if they have taken advantage of
those opportunities, it seems apparent that some
doubt remains for most people as they pursue a
college degree. Hopefully this article will prepare
them a little bit better and remove some of the
doubt.
Start Early at College
Let's face it, choosing a college major is a source
of concern that affects students' personal,
academic, and social lives. Making a decision as
important as choosing a major is one that should
not be rushed, but should be made with the
benefit of accurate information and sound advice.
Parker Palmer (2000) has suggested that ”Before
10
you tell your life what you intend to do with it,
listen for what it intends to do with you.”
A possible strategy for discovering this would be
to begin with a self-assessment of your interests.
Answer the following questions about yourself.
Who are you? What types of things excite you?
What types of jobs or careers appeal to you? What
are you good at? What do you like to do? Where
do you want to be in ten years? What have you
done in your life that is most meaningful to you?
When have you felt the most natural, at ease, and
confident? What would you do every day if you
could? What are your strengths? What are your
weaknesses? What kind of skills do you have?
What were your best subjects in high school? What
kinds of extracurricular activities did you
participate in while in high school? What kinds of
things did you learn from part-time or summer
jobs?
It would also be beneficial to consider what you
value in a job/career. Is it important for you to
have a job that focuses on helping society and
having a positive impact on others? Are you the
kind of person who enjoys group affiliation or
would you rather work alone? Are you looking for
stability, security, status, money?
These questions are simple, yet complex, but
important to your decision making process. If you
are still not sure, and even if you feel strongly
about a direction to take, it is a good idea to
complete a more specific self-test. College career
centers have a variety of self-tests that can help
answer some of these questions and many
resources are available online. While the results of
a self-test or answers to the questions in the
previous paragraph may provide some guidance,
ultimately it may be the wisest choice to select a
major in college because you love the subject
matter, and let the career questions answer
themselves.
However, it is a sound strategy to access the career
service center early in your college years, even if
you have selected a career path These centers
offer a wide array of services, such as, career
inventories, job placement, resume writing, and
etiquette dinners. In addition, while investigating
your options do not forget to include a number of
other valuable resources like your college's course
catalog, your professors--especially your academic
adviser--your classmates, alumni, family and
friends, the internet and books such as:
How to Choose a College Major, by Andrews (VGM
Career Horizons).
Major Decisions: A Guide to College Majors ,
Blumenthal and Despres (Wintergreen/Orchard
House).
Nobody said it was easy to select a major. There
are many resources that can help you with your
career exploration, but at some point in time you
will need to make a final reality check and honestly
evaluate your options. Whatever you decide, if
you have used available resources wisely, you have
informed yourself enough to make a learned
decision about a career/major.
While Pursuing Your Degree
Although many people believe it takes four years
to complete undergraduate degree requirements,
the U.S. Department of Education's National
Center for Education Statistics (NCES) tracked
the progress of first-time students seeking a
bachelor’s degree or its equivalent and attending a
four-year institution full time in the 2000-2001
school year. It found that only 36 percent of
students graduate from college within four years
and only 57.5 percent of undergraduates who
began that year had attained a degree or certificate
six years later. (College Board 2010)
However many years it takes students to obtain a
degree, they will take about 40-50 classes along the
way. Most of those will be classes in major
requirements along with a number of general
education courses, and if you are lucky, a few
elective courses. Some of these courses you will
simply survive, but in some you will thrive.
Regardless of your interest in any specific courses
you would be wise to always keep your eyes on the
prize--your own personal development. Take
advantage of what the course has to offer in the
way of developing your skills. College isn't
vocational training, it is about getting a well-
rounded education that will enable you to compete
in a global environment. So, even though algebra
or English or history or some other subjects may
seem boring and inconsequential, each course has
a value added component that is designed to
benefit you in the long run.
Beyond the suggestion to work hard in your
courses, it is also a good idea to take advantage of
activities outside the classroom. If you need to
work part-time, consider a place of employment
related to your degree. For instance, if you are
pursuing a degree in physical education, a YMCA
or a college intramural program will provide you
the opportunity to work with people involved in
physical activity. If you are pursuing a degree in
health, working or volunteering with a non-profit
organization will be providing valuable experience.
11
In addition to those activities, consider joining a
major's club or a professional organization
associated with your major. Both will provide you
with opportunities to explore career possibilities
through workshops, conferences and literature
they produce. Many of the professional
organizations will offer certifications that may be
important to your career choice.
The Job Hunt
As you prepare to look for a job, there are a few
things you need to do. If you have been working
with your career services center you should already
have a solid resume. You need both a paper copy
and an electronic copy of your resume, including a
list of references with correct contact information.
Since about half of all Americans live within 50
miles of their birthplace (Daily Breeze 2007) it
stands to reason that many people will be looking
within that radius. With that in mind a number of
resources can be accessed depending upon your
major.
For starters, newspapers like the Arkansas
Democrat Gazette or your local paper will have
job postings. In addition, organizations like the
Arkansas Activities Association, the American
Alliance for Health, Physical Education,
Recreation and Dance and state coaching
associations will have job listings on their web
sites. The Arkansas Department of Health and the
Arkansas Department of Education also serve as
job specific sites that will post opportunities for
majors in health and physical education.
Beyond that, message boards will sometimes
provide leads on possible openings and certainly
personal contacts with professionals in your
discipline are valuable links. Do not forget to talk
to your college advisor and other teachers within
your major as well as utilizing the campus career
services center.
If you are conducting a nationwide search then it's
probably best to do most of those online using
professional organizations like the National
Strength and Conditioning Association and North
American Society for Sport Management or you
can apply directly through a business's homepage
or an online job posting board. Also, employment
websites like Monsterjobs.com and
Careerbuilder.com have a large selection of jobs.
from multiple sources
As you search for jobs you will also run into a
variety of application processes. Some
organizations still use paper, mail, and fax, while
many others are going paperless. Most sites
require an electronic resume/application and may
also require that an account be set up with them
with the addition of an online profile. Some will
simply request that the applicant e-mail a resume
and cover letter. Even though the application
method has changed, many of the rules remain the
same, and whichever process is being used, the
most important thing for any job applicant is to
follow the rules to the letter.
That means following the directions diligently and
being meticulous when checking your work.
Provide any optional information that may be
requested as well to ensure you are providing
everything they need to make a decision. If you
cannot make an online system work, contact the
human resources office. While you may feel like
this will make you look technologically challenged,
if you want the job and you have the skills, this just
may speak to your initiative and persistence, which
are other sellable qualities.
Don't forget to follow up with an e-mail or a
phone call just to make sure all your application
materials have been received. This will be an
indication of other valuable qualities you possess
and bring life to your application materials,
because actions indeed speak louder than words.
Finally, a word of caution. Just as many employers
are turning to social networks like LinkedIn,
Twitter and Facebook for recruiting, they are also
using those sites to screen candidates. A dilemma is being uncertain of the addressee's
CareerBuilder.com survey (2009) revealed that
45% of prospective employers use social
networks-- Facebook more than LinkedIn--and are
using that personal information to reject 35% of
the applications they receive.
The potential employers are rejecting the
applications for a variety of reasons, such as:
Provocative or inappropriate photos or
information
Drinking or drug use
Disparaging comments about previous
employer, colleague or client racist
remarks
Falsifying qualifications
This blurring of lines between your work and
social life may seem unfair, but it is a reality. While
it is appropriate to use a social network to share
aspects of your private life, and you may disagree
with an employer's assessment of what is
inappropriate, the safest strategy is to delete
everything, vigorously edit and censor the site or
hide your profile from public view.
The Cover Letter
Gone in 60 seconds. Yes that's the title of a movie
but it's also been revealed that cover letters are
read in less than 60 seconds (Dehne 2010). That's
all the time it takes for most hiring managers or
12
employers to decide if you're worth interviewing.
You might think, well okay, as long as I wind up in
the stack of potential candidates that's all that
matters. That is true to a point, but wouldn't you
rather be on top of the stack? So, for your
consideration, following are some things to
consider as you create your cover letter.
Whether it's a term paper, cover letter or resume,
people are always concerned about length. In the
case of the cover letter you ought to be able to say
everything there is to say in one page. For the
most part you would not go beyond one page
unless you were including information that for one
reason or another isn't included in your resume.
However, as you will see in the section on
resumes, it is wise to tailor the resume to the
position so you can include all necessary
information.
Make sure you personalize the letter. In today's
world, it would be highly unusual, for you to not
be able to find the name of the person handling
the application process. However, if for some
reason you cannot obtain the name of the
addressee, you can consider using To Whom it
May Concern or Dear Sir or Madam.
Since it is highly unlikely that you won't be able to
obtain the necessary name, perhaps a more realistic
gender. Once again, given our current level of
technology this information should be a phone call
away, but in the event you can't obtain it, consider
addressing the person by the first initial of their
first name, as in, Dear K. Maxfield.
Once you have the salutation out of the way it's
time to highlight your strengths and identify what
makes you different from all other applicants and
why they should consider you for this position. A
cover letter is designed to present your goals,
credentials and availability to a potential employer
in a concise and engaging fashion. This is your
chance to get your proverbial foot in the door and
a well-crafted letter is a crucial first step in
obtaining employment. Your resume can provide
details, but your cover letter must persuade the
reader to consider you among all other applicants.
So, state your intentions and identify your
qualifications right from the get-go. While we
have been taught not to brag, the cover letter and
resume is the time to follow the adage attributed to
the great Cardinal pitcher Dizzy Dean, "It ain't
braggin' if you can do it." However, a word of
caution here, given our ability to perform fact
checks and background checks, makes sure you
don't embellish your credentials. As Joe Friday on
Dragnet used to say, "All we want are the facts with the basics, like your contact information. It's
ma'am." also a good idea to include your contact
A clean, error-free presentation, combined with information on all pages of your resume. Beyond
strong phrasing and solid facts, will encourage the that it is necessary to tailor your resume to each
reader to review the attached resume and call you organization, so while you can begin with a
in for an interview. Cover letters should be clear template, be ready to modify and update your
and to the point. Include the specific job title, two resume as needed. Management skills may be
to three reasons why your experience makes you a needed for one organization, fund raising might be
good fit and a brief outline of your career important to another. Along similar lines, take
highlights. Include some relevant skills and notice of the language employers use to describe
accomplishments from your most recent jobs or in the job and include that language in your résumé.
your most recent classes if they are appropriate to Whatever the case, don't create 150 copies of a
the job you are applying for, such as: cookie cutter resume. Instead, individualize your
resume to the job for the best chance at landing an
Developed online course
interview.
Created major's club website
Organized fund raiser for Haiti relief that As you agonize over formatting issues, it might
netted $5700 help you to know that the percentage of online
applications viewed by an actual human being
Created new database for fitness center
ranges from 5 percent to 25 percent (Willis 2009).
to assist with client management
So, whether it is scanned by a computer or a
Beyond that it is standard practice to state the
human, like the cover letter, the resume is scanned
reason for your interest in the company. Do your
quickly. Since the objective of your resume is to
homework and point out company specifics such
land an interview, and since a lot of companies use
as a department or a new project. Be proactive
software programs to screen candidates, it is a
with your closure and make sure you provide your
good idea to use the same phrases or keywords
home, work, email and/or cell phone numbers and
found in the job description when writing a
tell them you will follow up by phone or email to
resume and cover letter to improve the chances of
provide any additional information required.
getting over that first obstacle.
Resume "Dos"
And speaking of objectives, It is generally a good
Resume templates are easy to obtain and easy to
idea to include an objective on your resume. The
use. Be careful though. It could result in
design of the objective is to make it clear to a
something akin to two women showing up at a
potential employer the job for which you are
party with the same dress. It will get attention, but
applying. While it is not required, it may prove
in the wrong way. That doesn't mean going
effective as a tool for letting the reader know right
overboard in the other direction with fonts and
from the beginning what you are interested in and
colors, but it does mean that you would do well by
more specifically, which positions match your
getting professional help or by using the oft
interests.
mentioned career services center.
Since many resumes are submitted online or
What you will discover is there is no "one-size-fits-
filtered through a software program it would also
all" format for resumes. It depends on what you
be wise to create more than one resume format-- a
have done and what you are trying to do. Since
Word document that can be attached to an email
this article is mainly focusing on fresh out of
and a text version that will hold its format
college applicants, a skills/functional resume is
regardless of the platform. Also, if you are
best if you have little work experience. However,
submitting paper copies, make sure you use a good
formats can be combined in whatever fashion that
printer.
allows you to be draw attention to your
accomplishments. Additionally, regarding your electronic resume it
would be wise not to use fancy embellishments
In essence you need to let your content reveal the
like bullets, borders and italics, because they often
job you want. A content-driven résumé should
translate into messy documents once they are
highlight assets and experiences you will bring to
filtered through an online system. It is more
the work environment. Keep in mind that your
important that the person on the other end is able
resume should be marketing piece that outlines
to read it as compared to being "pretty". So, keep
your skills more than providing a stagnant
a copy of a clean, simple résumé for the online
employment and academic history.
systems, and a fancier version with good paper and
Any professional will tell you to begin at the
a watermark for those who desire a paper copy.
beginning with your resume, which means to start

13
There's an old carpentry adage, measure twice and
cut once, that applies to proofreading your resume.
While software that performs spell checks and
grammar checks are a good first defense, not only
do you need to proof your resume twice after
performing those checks, but you also need to
have someone else review your work. Select a
skilled reader to review your resume before you
submit it, preferably someone with some writing
skills.
Résumé Don'ts
Now that you have some ideas for what to include
on your resume, let's take a look at some items to
leave off your resume beginning with items like
your picture, height, weight, age, political
affiliation, sexual preference, race or religion.
None of these belong in the applicant review
process.
While you may be attractive, and your "Glamour
shot" has you looking even better, unless the
application process requires a picture--think
modeling--then leave it off. Looks are not
supposed to be part of the review process, and it is
illegal for any employer to discriminate against
applicants for any of the other characteristics. In
the litigious world we live in someone could file a
discrimination lawsuit if they are not hired, so
applicant reviewers will simply discard the resume
to avoid any potential problems. Don't let yours
be tossed in that pile.
Speaking of attractive, there may be those who
think a resume is made more attractive by
changing fonts or using wildly colored paper.
Back in the day, special paper was a recommended
addition to the resume process, but that does not
translate to using Razorback red in today's world.
Also, multiple fonts and symbols become a reader
distraction rather than an attraction.
Remember that your resume and cover letter are
being reviewed quickly, so don't add extraneous
information like your hobbies, unless they have
something to do with the job for which you are
applying. If you want to show how your passion
for physical fitness would be an asset to a position
by describing a devotion to marathoning, that's
one thing. But telling employers that you love to
paint on an application for a physical education
position is another. It's probably best to save that
information for the interview when you're asked
what you like to do outside of work.
Along those same lines, although the employer
may be screening you via social networks, you
don't need to give them a look at your personal life
via the resume by sharing family websites or blog
spots. You also don't want them to make the
14
wrong assumption about your social life as a result
of your old college email address--
TKEpartyallnite@email.com.
Even though it is one of the Ten Commandments,
it has been estimated that up to 40% of all résumés
contain some type of false information (Tomassi
2006). Human resource departments are being
much more methodical in the applicant review
process, so if you don't have a degree, don't say
you do. If you don't have experience in the field,
include experience you have had that relate to the
job like volunteer activities. Also, people have
been hired after they have been fired, so just
because you've been fired is no reason to lie.
Anything you tell an employer can be confirmed,
so just tell the truth the whole truth and nothing
but the truth.
Even if you have been fired don't allow negativity
on your résumé. You can follow a don't ask don't
tell philosophy about sensitive items until you are
asked, perhaps during the interview process. At
that time it would be diplomatic for you to take
the high road and address a firing as philosophical
differences rather than stating your boss was an
incompetent idiot. The best practice is to keep
your résumé all positive all the time.
Finally, sometimes traditions die hard, but in some
cases they need to go. Old school resumes
frequently contained statements like, "References
available upon request" or "Available for
interview." Make your resume lean and mean.
Don't include unnecessary information.
The Interview Part One: What to Wear, What
Not to Wear
It happens all the time--a candidate looks good on
paper--but once the interview begins it becomes
apparent that appearances can be deceiving. As we
know from the Bible we are not supposed to
judge, but you will definitely be judged by your
future employer. At first glance you will be judged
by how you look. From then on what you say and
how you say it will be scrutinized. Here are a few
things for every interviewee to consider as they
prepare to interview.
First, being on time really means being there early.
That means planning for every possible barrier to
being on time, such as traffic, weather, flat tires,
and so on. If you get there early you can handle
bathroom requirements, get a drink a water, get
your paperwork in order and visit with the
receptionist to ease your nerves.
Next, what not to wear is not just a TV show.
Every organization has a culture of its own and
clothing is part of the culture. Make sure you have
a clear understanding of the necessary attire for the
job for which you are applying and dress
accordingly. If you have any doubt about what to
wear, dress on the conservative side and wear a
business suit. It is better to overdress rather than
underdress.
Some of the following should go without saying
but perhaps they need to be said because they are
seen so often in the interview process. For the
women, your fingernails should be neat and clean,
not too long, nor adorned with any wild polish.
Go easy on the makeup and the perfume too. You
are not going out to a nightclub. Your jewelry
shouldn't be noisy or loud, and it would be a good
idea to leave any piercings beyond one per ear in
the jewelry box. A handful of rings may draw
inappropriate attention as well. As for clothing,
the interview is not the time or place for short
skirts, open-toed shoes, or stiletto heels. Finally,
purses/handbags should be conservative. Leave
your I Love Lucy purse at home.
For the men, clean, trimmed fingernails are the
order of the day. If you wear a lot of rings the
interview is the time to leave a couple at home.
Consider leaving your worn looking runner's
watch at home too. While facial hair is acceptable,
it needs to be neat and trimmed. Out-of-date suits
with lapels that are too wide or too narrow will
draw the wrong kind of attention and skip the
leather jacket unless your auditioning for a band.
Don't forget to polish or brush your shoes and
iron your clothes. Lastly, if you are bringing a
briefcase with you, make sure it hasn't seen better
days.
Beyond that, if you come early as previously stated,
you will have time to go to the bathroom and take
care of last minute adjustments so your appearance
isn't a concern. Then you can begin the interview
process confidently.
The Interview Part Two: It's Not Just What
You Say, It's How You Say It
Just be yourself. How many times have we all
heard that one. It's good advice, but we play many
roles on any given day, and on the day of your
interview, your role requires that you put your very
best foot forward. The interviewees who will
impress the most are the ones who are animated
and entertaining as they provide information. If
you say you are excited about the chance to work
for a company but don't show any enthusiasm, you
are sending a mixed message. There are a number
of other nonverbal messages to be aware of as you
try to sell yourself to an organization.
It's customary in America to greet someone with a
handshake, but few people are taught how to
shake hands, and let's face it, with what we know
15
about disease transmission, many people ala
Howie Mandel, are reluctant to participate in the
custom. Unless you are applying for a health-
related position, the interview is probably not a
good time to announce your germ phobia.
Anyway, handshakes should always be firm, not
feats of strength. And even though you may be
nervous, your hand should be dry and warm, not
cold and clammy. If you get there early as
recommended, washing your hands in warm water
will prepare you for the first round of handshakes
and also prevent you from spreading any germs.
As you shake hands and converse with people
throughout the day, make sure you consistently
make eye contact. That doesn't mean you should
stare. Try looking at the interviewer's hands as
they finish a question and then return your gaze to
the eyes as you respond. Lastly, on the subject of
hands, keep things that you may fidget with out of
your hands, like pens, papers or your hair.
Don't forget to consider your posture too. You
don't have to assume a stiff ramrod posture, but as
you try to relax, realize that sometimes the relaxed
position sometimes turns into a slouch and that
can send the wrong message, as can the two hands
clasped behind your head, the arms crossed over
the chest, your hands covering your mouth and on
and on. And oh yeah, don't forget to smile.
Certainly your interview preparation shouldn't stop
with your wardrobe or your nonverbal
communication. Since almost every organization
will have some sort of web presence, check them
out online prior to the interview. Hopefully, you
are actually reviewing what you know about them
because you already checked them out as you
prepared your cover letter and resume. At the
very least you should know something about the
organization's mission, and the products and
services it provides.
Next you need to be prepared for questions about
why you left your last job, your strengths and
weaknesses, and the good old tell me about
yourself. Many people worry unnecessarily about
questions like, "If you could be a tree, what kind of
tree would you be and why?" Those questions
don't happen very often if at all. What you need to
be prepared for is to sell yourself by being able to
tell what you can do to help the organization
accomplish their goals.
That's where the time spent at the career services
center would pay off because they frequently offer
mock interviews. If you don't take advantage of
that, the next best thing would be to find some
typical questions online and write out your answers
in preparation for the live interview. Better yet
would be to have a friend or family member ask
you the questions and critique your answers as well
as your nonverbal responses.
Post-interview
Many job searches are highly competitive, and to
paraphrase a sports analogy, it's important to go
until you hear the whistle--in this case the whistle
is analogous to the traditional sound at the
beginning and end of the workday.
Often applicants will give special attention to
researching the company and practicing answers to
interview questions in advance. As a result, they
make a great first impression and impress
personnel managers. But all too often they
underestimate the value of following up after their
interviews. If your application and interview
impressed them, then you could seal the deal with
a few post-interview moves.
It's always a good idea to summarize the interview
process immediately afterwards so you can use that
information in your follow-up correspondence.
An email immediately after the interview to all of
the members of the search committee is a nice
touch. At that point you might also answer
unanswered questions from the interview process.
Follow that with a handwritten note that includes a
thank you along with some of your observations
about the process and the organization This will
serve as an example of your professionalism and
your level of interest and demonstrate your ability
to follow through. Not many job seekers do this,
and it will make you stand out just that much
more.
Conclusion
In Robert Frost's The Road Not Taken (1915) he
wrote:
Two roads diverged in a wood, and I--
I took the one less traveled by,
And that has made all the difference.
You may remember from an English literature
class that this has been interpreted by some as a
declaration of individualism. And while
individualism has been a frequent refrain from
many parents and teachers, the job seeking process
is probably not a good time to apply that principle.
A better strategy is to take the paved road so you
16
have a better chance of arriving safely at your
chosen destination--the beginning of your career.
References
Bauer, C. (12-12-2005) Indecision forces many
students to change majors. The Daily Collegian
Online. Copyright © 2010 Collegian Inc.
http://www.collegian.psu.edu
Dehne, S. (2-26-2009. 2:03 pm). Stay on Contacts'
Radar Screens: 4 Vital Post-Interview Moves.
CareerBuilder.com http://www.careerbuilder.com
Dehne, S. Story Filed (1-21-2010 - 3:33 PM) Q&A:
Your Cover Letter Questions Answered.
CareerBuilder.com http://careerbuilder.com
Frost, R (1916). The Road Not Taken. Mountain
Interval. New York, H. Holt and company.
Gordon, V. (1994). Issues in advising the undecided
college student. National Resource Center for The
Freshman Year Experience. Columbia, SC
Hansen, R. (2-21-2010). Choosing a College Major:
How to Chart Your Ideal Path
http://www.quintcareers.com/
Palmer, P. (2000). Let Your Life Speak: Listening for
the Voice of Vocation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Richard Stockton College of New Jersey Center for
Academic Advising (6/17/1997).
http://loki.stockton.edu/~advising/undcided.html.
The College Board.
http://www.collegeboard.com/parents/pay/scholars
hips-aid/36990.html © 2010 The College Board
The Daily Breeze. (3-6-2007). About half of all
Americans live within 50 miles of their birthplace.
http://www.encyclopedia.com/
Tomassi, K. (05.23.2006 3:00 PM ET). Most
Common Resume Lies.
http://www.forbes.com/2006/05/20/resume-lies-
work_cx_kdt_06work_0523lies.html
Willis, G. (5-6-2009. 03:34 PM ET). Consumer Tips
Empowering YOU to be a savvy consumer.
http://tips.blogs.cnn.com/2009/05/06/networking-
online. CNN © 2010 Cable News Network. Turner
Broadcasting System, Inc. All Rights Reserved
www.careerbuilder.com. (8-19-2009). Forty-five
Percent of Employers Use Social Networking Sites to
Research Job Candidates, CareerBuilder Survey Finds
A Peer Reviewed Article
Integrated Activities - Math and Physical
Education
Andy Mooneyhan, Arkansas State University
A primary objective of a contemporary physical
education program should be to improve a child’s
movement skills. Games/movement activities are
an often used medium to achieve this objective.
Today there has been an increased emphasis on
using games/movement activities to not only
improve a child’s movement skills but also to
enhance that child’s academic learning.
One academic area that has an obvious connection
with physical education is mathematics. Many
physical education games/movement activities
require students (a) to do a selected movement a
number of times or (b) to keep a running score.
Examples include having children (a) count “1-2-
3-4” while doing selected exercises, (b) sequentially
count the number of jumping jacks completed, or
(c) record the score following a bean bag target
game.
Below are four movement activities that have the
potential to meet a specific physical education
objective, while improving the students’ math
cognition.
Add ’em Up
This activity, as the name implies, involves
addition. The objective is for the children to learn
addition while improving selected loco-motor
skills. A stack of numbered cards are placed in the
center of the play area. Children, in groups of 4-6,
are placed around the perimeter. A targeted
number, such as “25”, is given to the groups by
the teacher. On command the first child in each
group runs to the center of the play area, picks up
a numbered card, and returns to the group. The
next child in line repeats the activity. When
he/she returns, the group adds the two numbered
cards together. The activity continues until the
target number of “25” is reached or surpassed.
The activity can be modified by:
Requiring each group to reach an exact number. If
a group surpasses the target number, a child must
return a card and select a smaller numbered card
Changing the loco-motor skills used, having
children skip, gallop, jump, etc.
Using colored cards (red, blue, green, yellow),
requiring each group to (a) select only red cards or
(b) use all 4 colors to reach their target number.
Count ’em Down
This activity involves subtraction. Six hoops
are placed in an open area with students, in groups
of 4-6, placed around the perimeter. Twelve to
17
fifteen cards, numbered from 1-5, are placed in
each hoop with more lower (1-3) than upper (4-5)
numbered cards. Each group is given a target
number, such as “25”. On command the first
child in each group runs to their hoop, picks up
one numbered card and upon return the group
subtracts that number from “25”. The activity
continues until the group reaches “0”. An
effective means to facilitate learning is to place
“25” objects, such as bean bags, on the floor
before each group. When a child returns with a
numbered card, that number of bean bags is taken
away. For example, if the first child returns with a
“6” card, six bean bags are removed from the
“25”, leaving 19 bean bags. This allows the
children to visualize each remainder.
Multiply ’em
This activity involves multiplication for upper
elementary children and is organized like either
activity above, except each card contains a
multiplication problems, such as “2 x 2 =”, rather
than numbers. The first child in each group runs
to pick up a card. Upon return, the group solves
the problem and writes the answer on a piece of
paper. The activity continues until each child has
retrieved a card. This activity can be modified by
having each group:
Collect and correctly answer as many
problem cards as possible in a specified
time limit
Perform a certain exercise (jumping jacks,
sit ups, etc) as determined by the answer
to each problem
Answer complex problems, such as “2 x 3 x 4 =”
and “(2 + 2) x 2 =
Divide ‘em and Conquer
This activity involves division. The activity
requires a series of stations around the perimeter
of the play area, each with a hoop containing cards
with division problems on them. Each station has
a specific series of problems. Station one may
have “2” series problems (18 ÷ 2, 16 ÷ 2, etc);
whereas station two may have “3” series problems
(18 ÷ 3, 15 ÷ 3, etc). The children, in groups of 4-
5, are in the center of the play area. Each group is
given a notepad upon which to record their
answers. The first child from each group runs to
the designated station, picks up a card, and returns.
The group writes the problem, with the answer, on
their notepad. The action is repeated until each
child has retrieved a card from the station. The
cards are then returned to the hoop and then each
group rotates one station to the right. This activity
can be modified by:
 Changing the loco-motor skill used
Having the groups solve as many division
problems as they can within 60 seconds.
At which time the signal is given to move
to the next station.
In closing, the physical educator is encouraged to
make sure the mathematical concepts used are age
18
appropriate. In fact it is advisable to discuss the
activities with the classroom teacher. In addition,
it is recommended that these activities not be
competitive in nature. Rather than organize each
as a relay “race”, design the activities so that there
is not a group that wins, but rather the children
strive to complete each task correctly.
A Peer Reviewed Article
Enhancing Exercise Behaviors:
Application of Self-Efficacy Concept
Shawn Mitchell and Lori W. Turner,
University of Alabama
Introduction
According to the American College of
Sports Medicine (2006) more than 33% of the US
population is considered obese. Coupled with a
sedentary lifestyle, obese individuals are at greater
risk for stroke, heart disease, diabetes type II, and
myocardial infarction (American College of Sports
Medicine, 2007; Center for Disease Control and
Prevention, 2007). More than 860,000 deaths each
year are attributed to cardiovascular disease (e.g.,
heart disease, stroke, diabetes type II, myocardial
infarction), with approximately 700,000 deaths
resulting from heart disease alone (U.S. Surgeon
General Report, 2006; Center for Disease Control
and Prevention; 2007). Annual health care costs
associated with cardiovascular disease exceed more
than 448 billion dollars each year (American Heart
Association, 2007). Cardiovascular disease is
considered the greatest health care cost in the US
(American Heart Association, 2007; Center for
Disease Control and Prevention, 2007). Moreover,
exercise has long been touted to have significant
effects on an individual’s psychological well-being,
such as alleviating mild forms of depression and
reducing daily stress and anxiety levels (Bixby, &
Lochbaum, 2005; Petruzzello, Jones, & Tate, 1997;
Yeung 1996).
Current recommendations for exercise state that
individuals between 18 to 65 years of age
participate in moderate exercise intensity, which is
defined as intensity high enough to break a sweat
but able to carry on a conversation, five times a
week, or participation in vigorous intensity
exercise three times a week for 20 minutes per
bout (American Heart Association, 2007;
American College of Sports Medicine, 2007.
According to the American Heart Association
(2007) and the American College of Sports
Medicine (2007), strength training is recommended
two times per week, with eight to ten strength
exercises for eight to twelve repetitions per
exercise. When comparing adherence rates to
current recommendations, only 49% of the
population meet or exceeds the new
recommendations (Haskell, Lee, Pate, Powell,
Blair, Franklin, Macera, Heath, Thompson, &
Bauman, 2007). Specifically, 51% of men are more
likely to exercise when compared to women at
48%, and overall, younger populations (59.6%) are
more likely to meet the current recommendations
19
when compared to those 65 years of age or older
(39%) (Haskell et. al., 2007; American College of
Sports Medicine, 2007). Due to a lack of
adherence to the current recommendations set for
by the American Heart Association (2007) and the
American College of Sports Medicine (2007),
coupled with a sedentary lifestyle, the US
population is faced with a new dilemma of
increased obesity rates, as well as increased risk
factors for cardiovascular disease (Center for
Disease Control and Prevention; 2007; Haskell et.
al., 2006)
At present, our society has never had as much
access to information regarding the benefits of
exercise; yet obesity and sedentary lifestyles are on
the rise among adults and near epidemic
proportions among children (Bouchard, Blair, &
Haskell, 2007; Center for Disease Control and
Prevention, 2007, Haskell et. al., 2007). As
Americans, we have witnessed first hand the rising
incidents of cardiovascular disease, often resulting
in death (American Heart Association, 2007). Even
with increased access to exercise and health
information, fewer than half of Americans
participate in the recommended weekly standards
for exercise/physical activity set forth by the
American College of Sports Medicine (2007) and
the American Heart Association (2007)
(Bourchard et. al., 2007; Center for Disease
Control and Prevention, 2007). While health
professionals struggle with the problem of
inactivity among Americans, concepts of self-
efficacy offer promising insights. The purpose of
this paper is to describe the concepts of self-
efficacy and to discuss applications of this theory
to enhance exercise behaviors.
Self-Efficacy
Building upon psychology’s Social Learning
Theory (SLT) (Miller & Dollard, 1941; Rotter,
1954), Bandura (1986) introduced a new theory
incorporating aspects of SLT, as well as constructs
new to the field of psychology. His theory would
become known as Social Cognitive Theory (SCT).
SCT approached learning from a new perspective,
focusing on the dynamics between a person and
their environment, each playing a crucial role in
learning new tasks (Bandura, 1986). One of the
new constructs introduced into SCT was that of
self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is termed as confidence
in one’s ability to take action and overcome
barriers (Bandura, 1986). In essence, self-efficacy is
its own theory housed within Social Cognitive
Theory.
When defining self-efficacy, Bandura (1977) Table 1
proposes several key points, all of which directly Enhancing Exercise Behaviors Using Self-Efficacy
influence the role of self-efficacy during the Constructs
learning and behavior change process. First,
Bandura (1986) emphasized the notion that the Construct* Definition* Potential
theory of self-efficacy is not directly concerned Change
with the abilities or skills that one may possess but Strategies
instead with the perceptions and judgments of Within an
what one can do with those abilities or skills. In Exercise
essence, it focuses on perceptions of ability as Setting
opposed to actual ability, and in turn, perceptions Performance Source of Within an
have the potential to dictate levels of self-efficacy Accomplishments efficacy that is exercise setting,
(Bandura, 1986; Bandura, 1977). For example, if an based on continual
individual lacks the actual ability or talent of personal performance of
mastery exercise
excelling in a specific area, but they believe or
expectations; movements
perceive themselves as having a high amount of
success raise leading to
ability or skill, then self-efficacy would be high. mastery repeated
The reciprocal would also hold true (Bandura, expectations; successful
1986; Bandura, 1977). Overall, those with a higher repeated failures performance.
sense of self-efficacy take on more difficult tasks, lower them
approach these tasks with more effort, and persist Vicarious Observing Modeling
longer in the face of obstacles and barriers. Experience others perform correct and
Therefore, self-efficacy would be viewed as task (Modeling) threatening appropriate
related, meaning that just because self-efficacy is activities form and
high in regard to a specific task, it does not carry without technique of
over into other unrelated tasks (Bandura, 1986; experiencing exercise
Bandura, 1977). adverse modalities.
consequences
Self-Efficacy Constructs
Verbal Suggestions During
Within self-efficacy, four constructs exist, each Persuasion from others performance,
giving way to increasing one’s perceptions leading to the provide
regarding abilities and skills related to specific belief that positive
tasks. These include 1) performance people can cope reinforcement
accomplishments also termed mastery experience, successfully with via verbal
2) vicarious experience, also termed modeling, 3) an encouragement
verbal persuasion, also termed social persuasion, overwhelming when exercise
and 4) physiological states, also called somatic and situation modality is new
emotional states (Bandura, 1977). Although not or unfamiliar.
specifically designed for the field of health and Physiological Arousal state Recognize that
exercise, these constructs have the potential to States responses from arousal states
provide strategies for health behavior change an are normal
including enhancement of exercise behaviors. overwhelming when a new or
Table 1 displays each construct and presents situation (e.g., unfamiliar
specific applications regarding enhancing exercise increased heart exercise
behaviors. rate, modality is
perspiration, introduced.
ventilation). Work on
Agitated techniques to
arousal states reduce agitated
can lead to states.
decrease in
performance.
*Adapted from : Bandura. A. (1977). Self-efficacy:
toward a unifying theory of behavioral change.
Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215.

20

The first construct is performance accomplish-
ments. Performance accomplishments can be
defined as a source of efficacy that is based on
personal mastery expectations (Bandura, 1977).
For example, a successful performance during a
specific task would result in an increase in mastery
expectations; however, repeated failures during a
specific task would be expected to lower them. In
regard to a potential change strategy within an
exercise setting, continual performance of exercise
movements leading to repeated successful
performances would increase mastery expectations
via performance accomplishment. It has been
viewed that practice makes perfect; however, from
Bandura’s perspective, perfect practice makes
perfect perception.
Second, vicarious experiences make up another
construct within the theory of self-efficacy.
Vicarious experience has also been termed
modeling. Regardless, both are defined as
observing others perform threatening activities
without experiencing adverse consequences
(Bandura, 1977). Within an exercise or health
setting, modeling correct form and technique of
exercise modalities could serve as a template in
which others may learn. It is imperative, however,
that the form and technique being modeled is
considered appropriate and the standard of
performance. Otherwise, modeling improper
technique and form could lead to injury, which
may be viewed as an unsuccessful attempt during
performance accomplishments. As mentioned
above, failures during a specific task would be
expected to lower performance accomplishments,
thus lowering self-efficacy.
Next, Bandura (1977) defines the construct of
verbal persuasion, which is the concept of
suggestions from others leading to the belief that a
person can cope successfully with an
overwhelming situation. Applying the construct to
an exercise setting, during performance, others can
provide positive reinforcement vial verbal
encouragement when an exercise modality is new
or unfamiliar. This type of reinforcement is crucial
for beginners embarking on a new exercise or
fitness regimen. More positive reinforcement can
enhance self-efficacy by increasing perceptions of
ability (Bandura, 1977).
Finally, there is the construct of physiological
states. Physiological states are defined as arousal
state responses from an overwhelming situation.
Examples would include, but are not limited to,
increased ventilation, heart rate, and perspiration
(Bandura, 1977). In addition, agitated arousal states
can lead to a decrease in performance. Therefore,
21
it is vital to recognize and not oppose these
physiological states. Within an exercise setting, it is
important to recognize that arousal states are
normal when a new or unfamiliar exercise modality
is introduced, and conversely, work on techniques
to control these increased physiological states.
Such techniques for reducing agitated physiological
states could include deep and controlled breathing,
as well as visualizing success of performance.
Overall, these aforementioned constructs may
appear independent, when in fact they work in
concert with one another to increase or enhance
perceptions of abilities and skills related to specific
tasks. It is perceptions that are of most value when
the desire is to increase self-efficacy. Without an
increase in perception of ability or skill, self-
efficacy cannot be enhanced. Finally, as mentioned
earlier, it is equally important to introduce new and
challenging tasks in an effort to increase self-
efficacy. Performing tasks that are perceived as
lacking in challenge may not be helpful in paving
the path to increased self-efficacy.
Studies Conducted Employing Theory of Self-
Efficacy
As mentioned earlier, self-efficacy has proven a
viable theory in its application toward health
behaviors and health behavior change, and in
regard to exercise modalities, self-efficacy has been
used in numerous studies to examine exercise
behaviors (Bozoian, Rejeski, & McAuley, 1994;
McAuley & Courneya, 1992; Mihalko, McAuley, &
Bane, 1996; Treasure & Newberry, 1998). Overall,
the consensus has been that an increase in self-
efficacy is typically accompanied by an increase in
affect. In 1992, McAuley & Courneya examined
relationships of self-efficacy with affective
responses. Affect was measured during exercise,
with a total of 88 participants, all of which had
recently completed some type of exercise protocol.
The exercise protocol was a graded exercise test at
70% of heart rate reserve. All participants were
required to participate in the exercise protocol.
Experimental groups were assigned to
experimental groups based levels of self-efficacy
and two groups, which were a high self-efficacy
group and a low self-efficacy group.
Results suggested that those with higher measures
of self-efficacy reported a greater sense of affect
during exercise and less fatigue post-exercise bout,
resulting in a more elevated mood during the
graded exercise test (McAuley & Courneya, 1992).
When compared to the lower self-efficacy group,
those with higher self-efficacy did not view the
exercise protocol as difficult, which may be
interpreted as those with higher self-efficacy are
more likely to take on greater challenges and
respond with higher levels of affect (McAuley &
Courney, 1992).
As opposed to dividing the experimental group
based on self-efficacy, Treasure & Newbery (1998)
assigned their participants to either a non-
exercising control group, a moderate exercise
intensity group exercising at 45-50% of heart rate
reserve, or a high intensity exercise group
exercising at 70-75% of heart rate reserve. Exercise
took place on a cycle ergometer. Overall, only the
moderate intensity exercise group was shown to
experience elevated mood and feeling states during
and post-exercise bout; however, the moderate
intensity exercise group did not increase self-
efficacy from pre-exercise to post-exercise.
Conversely, the high intensity exercise group did
not show increases in mood or feeling states, but
they did show higher levels of self-efficacy post-
exercise, supporting Bandura’s (1977) belief that
challenging tasks will increase self-efficacy
(Treasure & Newberry, 1998).
In a similar manner, Mihalko et. al. (1996)
randomly assigned participants to either a walking
or biking exercise protocol for a total of 20 weeks.
After completion of the program, participants
were then required to complete a graded exercise
test. For the study, a total of 94 participants
completed the exercise protocols, with 47 males
and 47 females making up the sum total of the
sample size. In addition, all participants had
recently participated in some type of exercise
regimen. Mihalko et. al. (1996) found that male
participants, when compared to female
participants, reported a greater amount of self-
efficacy prior to and following the graded exercise
test. Furthermore, a statistically significant increase
in positive well-being was shown among female
participants but not in males. Both groups did
show in increase in self-efficacy for biking or
walking, indicating that self-efficacy increased as a
result of participation in the 20 week protocol
(Mihalko et. al., 1996). Results from the study
indicate that when designing exercise protocols,
intensity of exercise may need to be manipulated
based on gender. For example, females may need a
bit lower exercise intensity to increase self-efficacy
(Brooks et. al., 2002). Similarly, males may need a
lower level of exercise intensity to increase feeling
states and mood resulting from exercise.
Focht, Knapp, Gavin, Raedeke & Hickner (2007)
brought a unique approach to their study in that all
participants had been previously sedentary. Both
experimental groups experienced a reduction in
self-efficacy as a result of the exercise protocol. In
addition, both groups experienced a significant
reduction in mood and feeling states during and
22
post-exercise (Focht et. al., 2007). Results from the
study suggest that as health educators, when
dealing with a previously sedentary population, it
may be more appropriate to start new exercisers at
a low level of intensity. Once exercisers have
adjusted and grown accustomed to the level of
intensity, gradual increases can be made.
Next, in a study examining exercise intensity and
the effects of self-efficacy in anxiety reduction
during exercise, Katula, Blissmer, & McAuley
(1999) recruited a total of 80 older adults. The
mean age of the participants was 67 years of age.
Results showed a non-significant inverse
relationship between anxiety and self-efficacy in
the light-intensity group, with a decrease in anxiety
and an increase in self-efficacy post-exercise.
Overall, the moderate intensity group displayed an
increase in self-efficacy and a decrease in anxiety
during the bout of moderate intensity exercise.
Results from the high intensity group were the
exact reciprocal those of the light intensity exercise
group, showing a decrease in self-efficacy and an
increase in anxiety during exercise.
Following the exercise bout, the high intensity
exercise group reported lower anxiety scores,
suggesting that high intensity exercise, may indeed,
have the capability of lowering anxiety levels
(Katula et. al., 1999). This finding is in stark
contrast to other research findings, which have
suggested high intensity exercise only increases
anxiety (Mihalko et. al., 1996).
Lastly, a study by Jones et al. (2005), started with
participants who had low levels of fitness and well-
being and engaged them in a fitness program. Self-
efficacy was not correlated with the amount of
exercise undertaken. However, when compared to
dropouts, self-efficacy was shown to be higher
among participants who finished the program
(Jones et al., 2005).
Strategies for Health Professionals
Referring back to Bandura (1986 & 1977), tasks
need to be challenging enough to increase self-
efficacy, but not so challenging that psychological
well-being and affective mood suffer as a result.
There appears to be a fine line the health educator
must walk when desiring to increase self-efficacy at
the sake of increasing psychological well-being or
affect. It is up to the health educator to deem what
is most important, and the decision to do so must
be based on the needs of the populations with
whom we work. In addition, the research
demonstrates different results when the theory of
self-efficacy was used to examine feeling mood
states, affect, or psychological well-being.
Again, health professionals need to be aware of
these differences when looking to enhance affect
or psychological well-being. For example, an
exercise protocol shown to increase self-efficacy
and affect may not be the appropriate protocol
when the desire is to increase psychological well-
being. Therefore, it is imperative that health
professionals remain abreast of findings not only
from more recent research, but also remain
knowledgeable regarding findings from past
studies. It is from an established knowledge base
that our current body of literature and scientific
studies are most often based. Past studies, when
used correctly, provide a foundation for future
directions in the research, and by making ourselves
aware of all pertinent research and its findings, a
vast array of tools can be developed to implement
a lasting healthy behavior change.
Next, we need to be aware and knowledgeable of
the target population. For example, if we are
working with a sedentary population, our approach
to exercise program design would differ from that
of program designed for participants currently
exercising on a regular basis. Again, being familiar
with the literature can serve as a guide or template
when designing exercise programs that have the
greatest chance for increasing physiological and
psychological quality of life. In the same manner, if
we are working with a group younger in age, the
design of the exercise program would differ from
that of a program created for those older in age.
By being aware of findings from sound, empirical,
scientific literature, we are on the right path to
ensuring the greatest amount of success for the
health and exercise programs we design and create.
Finally, it is important for health professionals to
be knowledgeable regarding various exercise
modalities and psychological well-being.
Otherwise, it is difficult to interpret findings from
specified studies. Just because an author claims
their findings as statistically significant, there could
have been confounding factors influencing the
results, so caution, no matter what the statistical
analysis(ses) reveals, should always be
implemented when making any type of
interpretations and generalization regarding
scientific findings. While no study is perfect, our
knowledge regarding the types of exercise
measurements, exercise protocols, and
psychological measurements will ensure we are
taking the best part of any study and applying it to
those with whom we work.
23
References
American College of Sports Medicine. (2006). Physical
Activity and Public Health Guidelines. Retrieved
November 1, 2008, from
www.acsm.org/AM/Template?Section=Home_Page
&TEMPLATE=/CM/HTMLDisplay.cfm&CONTE
NTID=7764
American Heart Association (2007). Facts and
Statistics: updated physical activity guidelines release
today. Retrieved November 1, 2008, from
www.americanheart.org/presentor.jhtml?identifier=3
049282
American Heart Association (2008). Cardiovascular
Disease Cost, Retrieved from
www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?indentifier=
4475.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought
and Action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bandura. A. (1977). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of
behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-
215.
Bozoian, S., Rejeski, W, & McAuley, E. (1994). Self-
efficacy influences feeling states associated
with acute exercise. Journal of Sport & Exercise
Psychology, 16, 326-333.
Bouchard, C., Blair, S., & Haskell, W. (2007). Physical
Activity and Health. Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL.
Bixby, W., & Lochbaum, M. (2005). Affect
responses to acute bouts of aerobic exercise in fit and
unfit participants: an examination of opponent-
process theory. Journal of Sport Behavior. 29(2), 111-
125.
Brooks, G., Fahey, T., White, T., & Baldwin, K.
(2000). Exercise Physiology: Human Bioenergetics and Its
Applications (3rd) ed. Mayfield Publishing, Mountain
View, CA.
Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2007).
Facts and Statistics. Retrieved November 1, 2008, from
www.cdc.gov/heartdisease.
Focht, B., Knapp, D., Gavin, T., Raedeke, T., &
Hickner, R. (2007). Affective and self-efficacy
responses to acute aerobic exercise in sedentary older
and younger adults. Journal of Aging and Physical
Activity, 15, 123-138.
Haskell, W., Lee, M., Pate, R., Powell, K., Blair, S.,
Franklin, B., Macera, C.A., Health, G.W., Thompson,
P.D., & Bauman, A. (2007). Physical Activity and
Public Health: updated recommendation for adults
from the American College of Sports Medicine and
the American Heart Association. Medicine & Science in
Sports & Exercise, 38(9), 1423-1433.
Jones, F., Harris, P., Waller, H., & Coggins, A.
(2005). Adherence to an exercise prescription
scheme: The role of expectations, self-efficacy, stage
of change and psychological well being. British Journal
of Health Psychology. 10, 359-378.
Katula, J., Blissmer, B., & McAuley, E. (1999).
Exercise intensity and self-efficacy effects on anxiety
reduction in healthy, older adults. Journal of Behavioral
Medicine, 22(3), 233-247.
McAuley, E. & Courneya, K. (1992). Self-efficacy
relationships with affective and exertion responses to
exercise. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22(4), 312-
326.
Mihalko, S., McAuley, E., & Bane, S. (1996). Self-
efficacy and affective responses to acute exercise in
middle-aged adults. Journal of Social Behavior and
Personality, 11(2), 375-385.
Miller, N., & Dollard, J. (1941). Social learning and
imitation. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
24
Petruzzello, S., Jones, A. , & Tate, A. (1997).
Affective responses to acute exercise: a test of
opponent-process theory. Journal of Sports Medicine and
Physical Fitness. 37, 205-212.
Rotter, J., (1954). Social learning and clinical psychology.
New York: Prentice Hall.
Treasure, D., & Newbery, D. (1998). Relationships
between self-efficacy, exercise intensity, and feeling
states in sedentary population during and following
an acute bout of exercise. Journal of Sport & Exercise
Psychology, 20(1), 1-11.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Physical Activity and Health: A Report of the Surgeon
General. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, Center of Disease Control and
Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease
Prevention and Health Promotion, 1996.
Yeung, R. (1996). The acute effects of exercise on
mood state: a review. Journal of Psychosomatic Reseach.
40(2), 123-141.
A Peer Reviewed Article
Aerobic Strength Training as a Weight Control
Solution
Andy Mooneyhan, Arkansas State University -
Jonesboro and Allen Mooneyhan, Arkansas State
University - Newport
Abstract
This study was undertaken in an attempt to
determine the effect aerobic strength training has
on body weight, body composition, and
cardiorespiratory endurance. The population
sample consisted of an aerobic strength training
course offered over several semesters at an
Arkansas two-year university. There were 87
participants in a study measuring body weight,
body composition, and aerobic capacity. The
findings of this study indicated that aerobic
strength training had no significant effect on the
body fat of participants while there was a
significant effect on body composition. A reason
for this finding is that as lean body mass increases,
body fat decreases causing the total weight of the
individual to remain unchanged. The findings also
indicated that there was an increase in
cardiorespiratory endurance as a result of aerobic
strength training. Therefore, while aerobic
strength training had no significant effect on body
weight, it seemed to have a significant effect on
both body composition and cardiorespiratory
endurance.
Introduction
Our society seems to be constantly seeking new
ways to help its members deal with weight control
problems. Over the past few decades Americans,
specifically, have begun to have more difficulties
with weight control. According to Mood et al.
(2003) Americans are now carrying more fat than
their ancestors. Among the reasons for this trend
include advances in modern technology. Theses
advances have almost completely eliminated the
necessity for physical exertion throughout daily life
(Hoeger & Hoeger, 2002). For example, society
now provides elevators, escalators, and other
technological equipment that allows the individual
to complete tasks with little or no effort.
The most prevelant form of malnutrition in
developed countries are overweight and obseity
(Payne & Hahn, 2002). The fact that more
affluent nations may have a food supply that
exceeds the needs of the population explains why
those who live in more developed nations are
more likely to become overweight. The same
authors suggest that obesity puts the body at risk
for many diseases including colon cancer, breast
cancer, hypertension, heart disease, and diabetes.
25
This evidence suggests that Americans can
improve both their longevity and their quality of
life by focusing attention on their weight and
obesity.
Many materials are available to the individual that
focus on weight control and weight loss,
specifically. These materials typically center
around diet and exercise. One's diet plays a crucial
role in the control of weight. Additionally, one's
level of exercise as well as the type of exercise play
a sufficient role in the control of weight. Aerobic
training is probably the most recommended type
of exercise for those attempting to lose weight.
This is because aerobic activities burn a significant
amount of calories and are preformed at an
intensity that allows the individual to continue the
activity for an extended period of time. Another
type of exercise that has been suggested for
controlling one's weight is strength training.
Strength training promotes weight control by
helping to increase muscle mass. This additional
muscle mass uses more energy causing the
individual's metabolism to actually increase. This
increase in metabolism allows the individual to
burn many more calories throughout the day than
would be burnt without the additional muscle
mass. When combining aerobic training with
strength training, one can achieve cardiorespiratory
benefits while developing additional muscle mass.
According to Washington et al. (2001), aerobic
conditioning should be coupled with resistance
training if general health benefits are the
individual’s goal. By focusing on aerobic training
and strength training simultaneously, one may be
better able to control body weight and enhance
total body health.
Controlling one's weight does not necessarily mean
lowering one's weight. The weight scale only tells
us how much gravity pulls on our body rather than
what that body is made up of. For example, there
are height and weight charts individuals can look
to for information regarding the degree to which
they are overweight. However, these height and
weight charts do not differentiate between fat and
non-fat components of the human body.
Therefore, while they may indicate a degree of
overweight compared to a given standard, they do
not necessarily indicate a degree of health for the
individual. Those who are focusing on weight
control first need an understanding of the
differences between being overweight and being
obese. In order to understand these terms, a
practical definition of obesity should be addressed.
Whereas being overweight can mean different
things to different people, being obese requires a
degree of body fat beyond a specific standard.
According to Floyd et al. (1998), to be considered
obese, at least 30% of the individual’s weight must
consist of fat. Therefore, just because one has
excessive body weight doesn’t mean that individual
has excessive body fat.
A greater measure of one’s weight control with
regard to health is one’s body composition. Body
composition is referred to as the measure of the
fat and non-fat components of the human body
(Seaman et al. 1999). Generally, what the
individual is concerned about is the percent of
body weight that consists of body fat. If the
percentage of fat is over a specified value, that
person is considered obese and must deal with
increased risks for several chronic diseases. One
reason individuals have typically relied upon the
weight scale to judge their health is because of the
difficulty in acquiring an accurate body
composition value. Traditionally, one would have
to visit a health club, hospital, or research facility
in order to get an accurate body composition
score. Although body composition assessment
remains more difficult than simply weighing
oneself on a scale, body composition testing has
become more available and easier to complete over
the past several years. While expensive means of
measuring body composition remain in existence,
there are now methods which are not as expensive
and are more available to individuals through
health centers and colleges (Hoeger & Hoeger,
2002). Furthermore, it is likely that there will soon
be devices which can be made available to the
general public that will allow individuals to assess
their own body fat.
Given that body composition is, quite likely, of
greater importance than body weight with regard
to one's health, individuals may be overly
concerned about their weight. Often individuals
strive to maintain a certain weight with little or no
thought of what that weight is made up of.
Weight is rarely a sufficient indicator of overall
health for the individual and may be misleading in
terms of the health benefits of an exercise
program. For example, one may contribute effort
to a weight-training program with the result being
that the individual gains weight. However, if the
weight gained is muscle weight, that individual is
most likely healthier rather than when he or she
began the weight-training program. This
individual has controlled his or her weight in a
positive, healthy way rather than simply losing
weight with no regard to whether the lost weight is
lean tissue or fat tissue. According to Hoeger &
Hoeger (2002), weight loss resulting from diet
26
alone decreases lean body mass whereas weight
loss resulting from diet coupled with exercise
decreases body fat. Therefore, maintaining proper
weight control involves controlling one's body
composition with regard to the percentage of body
fat. If individuals can periodically access their
body fat they may have a more accurate
representation of their level of physical health.
This study will attempt to determine the impact an
aerobic strength-training program will have on
body weight of individuals participating in the
study and the body composition of those
individuals. Additionally, cardiorespiratory
endurance will be assessed to determine if aerobic
training can be combined with strength training
not only to provide a healthy means for controlling
weight but to allow the individual to develop his or
her cardiorespiratory endurance.
Circuit training may be the answer to individuals
seeking a workout program that will benefit the
cardiorespiratory system while allowing them to
control their body weight in a meaningful way.
Various studies have shown that cardiorespiratory
endurance can be enhanced with high-intense
resistance training (Washington et al. 2000). If
individuals can improve both the cardiac muscle
through aerobic training and the musculoskeletal
system through weight training simultaneously,
they will be able to enhance their total health to a
greater degree. According to Pryor & Kraines
(2002), circuit training combines aerobic training
to build cardiorespiratory endurance with weight
training to develop muscle strength and endurance.
Circuit training is a system of utilizing strength
training in a way that also enhances the
cardiorespiratory system. When one participates in
a circuit, a series of exercise stations are completed
combining aerobic exercise with strength training
exercises (Prentice, 1996). The same author
indicates that circuit training can benefit strength
and flexibility as well as the cardiorespiratory
system. Therefore, this study was undertaken in
an attempt to determine what effect aerobic
strength training has on body weight, body
composition, and cardiorespiratory endurance. A
logical framework of what is to be investigated
follows. There was a pre-test for each of these
components as well as a post-test which occurred
following the training.
Logical Framework
Population and Sample

The sample population consisted of two-year
college students enrolled in an Aerobics I course
between the fall of 1998 and the spring of 2002.
Approximately fifteen students enrolled in each
course, one offered in the spring and one offered
in the fall of each year. As several students did not
complete the regiment each semester and did not
complete the post-test exams, the sample used in
this study consisted of the students who
completed the regiment as well as the pre-test and
post-test assessments each semester.
Instrumentation
This study utilized an instrument in which
assessments were made concerning the level of
fitness subjects posses regarding several fitness
components. These components consisted of
body composition and aerobic capacity.
Additionally, body weight was obtained in order to
compare differences in body composition and
body weight of individuals. The instrument was
used to score students on each fitness component
both before the treatment and after the treatment.
Upon completion of the pre-tests, students began
participation in a thirteen week aerobic strength
training program. This program consisted of
fifteen stations which were part of a circuit. Each
station involved individual student participation in
that activity for 30 seconds with fifteen seconds
being allocated for the student to get to the next
station. The exercises that made up the fifteen
stations are (1) Seated Pec Dec, (2) Seated Leg
Press, (3) Lateral Pull-Down, (4) Jump Rope, (5)
Seated Abdominal Crunch, (6) Seated Chest Press,
(7) Seated Row, (8) Seated Bicep Curl, (9) Seated
Leg Extension, (10) Seated Triceps Extension, (11)
Seated Leg Curl, (12) Seated Shoulder Press, (13)
Seated Back Extension, (14) Dip Bar, and (15)
Bicycle
Students complete a circuit by completing each of
the fifteen stations. A single circuit is undertaken
at the beginning of the semester. After two weeks,
students advance to a double circuit which they
participate in for two weeks. Finally, after two
weeks of double circuits, students progress to
three circuits where they remain until the end of
the semester. A week before the semester ends,
students participate in a post-test regime. This
series of assessments is identical to the pre-test
undertaken prior to the training.
A pre-test and post-test exam regiment was used
as the instrument to gather information for each
student enrolled. This exam regiment consisted
of measuring values for body weight, body
27
composition, and cardiorespiratory endurance.
Body weight was determined by weighing students
on a scale upon beginning the semester and upon
ending the training. Body composition was
estimated using the skinfold caliper test to obtain
body composition scores. Cardiorespiratory
endurance was measured using a step test to
evaluate students’ aerobic capacity. The data
obtained from this sample was then analyzed
determining the extent to which they contributed
to the objectives of the study and the degree to
which they answered the research questions.
Research Objectives/Questions
The objectives/questions of this study are as
follows.
Does aerobic strength training have a
significant effect on body weight?
Does aerobic strength training have a
significant effect on body composition?
Does aerobic strength training have a
significant effect on cardiorespiratory
endurance?
Results
The descriptive statistics for body weight, body
composition, and aerobic capacity for the pre-test
are as follows (see Table 1). For body weight the
range was 195, with a mean of 153; the minimum
of 93 and the maximum of 288. Therefore, the
average score on the body weight pre-test was 153.
For body composition the range was 34.5, with a
mean of 22.6; the minimum of 7.3 and the
maximum of 41.8. Therefore, the average score
on the body composition pre-test was 22.6. For
aerobic capacity the range was 92.0, with a mean
of 39.4; the minimum of 4.0 and the maximum of
96.0. Therefore, the average score on the aerobic
capacity pre-test was 39.4.
The descriptive statistics for body weight, body
composition, and aerobic capacity for the post-test
are as follows (see Table 2). For body weight the
range was 190 with a mean of 153; the minimum
of 95 and the maximum of 285. Therefore, the
average score on the body weight post-test was
153. For body composition the range was 32.1
with the mean of 17.8; the minimum of 3.5 and
the maximum of 35.7. Therefore, the average
score on the body composition post-test was 17.8.
For aerobic capacity the range is 97 with the mean
of 58.6; the minimum of 19 and the maximum of
116. Therefore, the average score on the aerobic
capacity post-test was 58.6.
The average body weight for participants in the
study differed between the pre-test and the post-
test by less than one pound. The mean for the
pre-test was 153.14 whereas the mean for the post-
test was 153.16 (see Table 3). Therefore,
according to this study, there was no significant
difference in body weight as a result of aerobic
strength training. This correlation of .997 (see
Table 4) was almost a perfect correlation,
indicating that as pre-test body weight for the
group increased, post-test body weight for the
group increased. This supports the premise that
aerobic strength training has no significant
statistical effect on body weight.
There was a significant difference in the pre-test
and post-test scores of participants for body
composition. The mean score for body
composition in the pre-test was 22.6 whereas the
mean score for body composition in the post-test
was 17.8 (see Table 5) indicating a mean difference
of 4.7. This finding was significant at a
significance level of .000. A very high correlation
of .946 (Table 6) indicates that as individual
participant’s pre-test scores increased, the
individual participant’s post-scores increased. This
shows that body composition scores actually
improved as a result of aerobic strength training as
lower body composition scores represent better
scores on that measure.
The means for the pre-test and post-test for
aerobic capacity were substantially different. The
pre-test mean for aerobic capacity was 39.4
whereas the post-test mean was 58.6 resulting in a
mean difference of 19.2 (see Table 7). This mean
difference indicated a significant difference in pre-
test and post-test scores with improved scores
occurring in the post-test. This yields evidence
that aerobic strength training may have a positive
effect on one’s aerobic capacity and was significant
at a level of .000 with a correlation of .860 (Table
8). This correlation indicates that as participants’
pre-test scores increased, their post-test scores
increased.
Summary
The findings of this study resulted from an
investigation of students of an aerobic strength
training course offered over several semesters at an
Arkansas two-year university. There were 87
participants in a study which measured several
variables including body weight, body
composition, and aerobic capacity. The findings
of this study indicated that aerobic strength
training had no significant effect on the body fat
28
of participants while there was a significant effect
on body composition. This may be due to the
probability that as muscle strength increases, one’s
percentage of body fat decreases. Therefore, as
lean body mass increased, body fat decreased in
the participants causing the total weight of the
individual to remain virtually unchanged while the
percentage of body fat actually decreased. Finally,
the findings in this investigation indicate that there
was an increase in the participants’ scores on the
aerobic capacity assessment. This lends evidence
of the positive effect aerobic strength training had
on the cardiorespiratory endurance of participants.
Therefore, while aerobic strength training had no
significant effect on body weight, it seemed to
have a significant effect on both body composition
and cardiorespiratory endurance.
References
Floyd, P. , Mimms, S. , & Yelding-Howard, C.
(1998). Personal Health Perspectives & Lifestyles. 2nd
Ed. Englwood, CO: Morton Publishing Company.
Hoeger, W. & Hoeger, S. (2002). Principles and Labs
for Physical Fitness. 3rd Ed. Stamford, CT:
Thompson Learning, Inc.
Mood, D. , Musker, F., & Rink, J. (2003). Sports and
Recreational Activities. 13th Ed. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill.
Payne, W. & Hahn, D. (2002). Understanding Your
Health. 7th Ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Prentice, W. (1996). Get Fit Stay Fit. St. Louis, MO:
Mosby-Year Book, Inc.
Pryor, E. & Kraines, M. (2002). Keep Moving!
Fitness Through Aerobics and Step. 4th Ed. Mountain
View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company.
Seaman, J., Corbin, C., & Pangrazi, B. (1999).
Physical Activity and Fitness for Persons with
Disabilities. President’s Council on Physical Fitness and
Sports, Washington, DC.
Washington, R., Bernhardt, J., & Johnoson, M.
(2001). Strength training by children and
adolescents. Pediatrics. 107. 1470-1472.
Washington, R., Hagerman, F., Walsh, S., Staron,
R.& Hikida, R.(2000). Effects of high-intensity
resistance training on untrained older men.
Strength, Cardiovascular, and Metabolic
Responses. The Journals of Gerontology. 55A. B336-
B346.
Table 1
Descriptive statistics
Pre-tests:
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
WT_PRE 87 93.00 288.00 153.1494 39.0067
BC_PRE 87 7.32 41.77 22.5592 7.7904
AC_PRE 87 4.00 96.00 39.4253 23.4172
Valid N (listwise) 87
Pre-tests (cont.):
N Skewness Kurtosis
Statistic Statistic Std. Error Statistic Std. Error
WT_PRE 87 1.438 .258 2.642 .511
BC_PRE 87 .060 .258 -.383 .511
AC_PRE 87 .459 .258 -1.002 .511
Valid N (listwise) 87
Table 2
Descriptive statistics

Post-tests:
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
WT_POST 87 95.00 285.00 153.1609 38.4278
BC_POST 87 3.52 35.66 17.8491 7.1922
AC_POST 87 19.00 116.00 58.5862 25.0537
Valid N (listwise) 87
Post-tests (cont.):
N Skewness Kurtosis
Statistic Statistic Std. Error Statistic Std. Error
WT_POST 87 1.466 .258 2.692 .511
BC_POST 87 .132 .258 -.621 .511
AC_POST 87 .364 .258 -.986 .511
Valid N (listwise) 87
Table 3
Paired Samples Statistics
Mean N Std. Déviation Std. Error
Mean
Pair 1 WT_PRE 153.1494 87 39.0067 4.1820
WT_POST 153.1609 87 38.4278 4.1199
Table 4
Paired Samples Correlations
N Correlation Sig.
Pair 1 WT_PRE & 87 .997 .000
WT_POST
Table 5
Paired Samples Statistics
Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
Pair 1 BC_PRE 22.5592 87 7.7904 .8352
BC_POST 17.8491 87 7.1922 .7711
Table 6
Paired Samples Correlations
N Correlation Sig.
Pair 1 BC_PRE & 87 .946 .000
BC_POST

29
A Peer Reviewed Article
Enhancing the Practice of Osteoprotective
Behaviors: Application of the Health Belief
Model
Meg Sheppard, Lori Turner and Sharon Hunt,
University of Arkansas - Fayetteville
Abstract
Osteoporosis is a debilitating disease that affects
over 44 million Americans. One in every two
women and one in eight men (50 years old or
older) will suffer an osteoporotic fracture
sometime during their lifetimes. These staggering
statistics barely scrape the surface of the need in
America for effective osteoporosis prevention
programs based in health education theory. This
literature review addresses the disease of
osteoporosis, provides an epidemiological review
of osteoporosis, discusses the financial burden,
and outlines preventive behaviors. The paper also
discusses attempts to address the issue of
osteoporosis and focuses on the Health Belief Model
and its potential to enhance effectiveness of
osteoporosis prevention programs.
Introduction
Osteoporosis, which literally means “porous
bones,” is a debilitating disease that affects over 44
million Americans (National Osteoporosis
Foundation [NOF], 2002). The majority of those
suffering from osteoporosis are post-menopausal,
light-skinned (Caucasian and Asian) females (El-
Hajjfuleihan, Baddoura, Awada, Okais, Rizk, &
McClung, 2002). One in every two women and
one in eight men (50 years old or older) will suffer
an osteoporotic fracture sometime in their life
(McBean, Forgac, & Finn, 1994). These staggering
statistics barely scrape the surface of the need in
America for osteoporosis prevention programs
based in health education theory.
This literature review addresses the disease of
osteoporosis, provides an epidemiological review
of osteoporosis, discusses the financial burden,
and outlines preventive behaviors. The paper also
discusses attempts to address the issue of
osteoporosis and focuses on the Health Belief Model
and its potential to design and implement effective
osteoporosis prevention programs.
The Disease
The National Osteoporosis Foundation (NOF,
2006) has defined characteristics of osteoporosis
to include low bone mass and structural
deterioration of bone tissue, bone fragility, and
30
increased susceptibility to fractures. The NOF’s
definition has limitations as it does not quantify
low bone mass. The World Health Organization
(WHO, 1998) has defined osteoporosis using T-
scores, which is a number of standard deviations
(SD) below peak bone mineral density norms
determined by postmenopausal Caucasian
women’s DEXA measurements (El-Hajj Fuleihan
et al., 2002). The WHO (1994) categories of bone
mass are defined as normal (t-score ±1 SD),
osteopenia (t-score between -1 and -2.5 SD),
osteoporosis (t-score of -2.5 or more SD), and
severe osteoporosis (t-score of -2.5 or more SD
and fractures).
Osteoporosis is a silent disease because it makes
the bones fragile, porous, and brittle without any
symptoms (NOF 2006). Often, the first knowledge
that an individual has the disease is when his or
her (usually her) vertebrae collapse (NOF, 2006).
Collapsed vertebrae not only cause severe pain, but
also loss of height, and possible spinal deformities
such as kyphosis, a curvature of the spine due to
vertebral compression (NOF, 2006). Pain
following an osteoporotic fracture usually lasts
between four to six weeks during the healing
process; however some spinal injuries may
produce long term pain because of changes in the
mechanics of the back (Pocock, 2007).
Since the disease is silent, it is important to assess
risk factors prior to the presentation of negative
side effects from the disease. Some non-modifiable
risk factors associated with osteoporosis include
gender (being female), genetics, family history of
disease, ethnicity (Caucasian and Asian women),
body build (small), age (65 years and older), certain
medications, and other diseases (Bachrach, 2001;
NOF, 2006). In addition, some modifiable risk
factors for osteoporosis include smoking,
excessive alcohol use, excessive protein
consumption, inadequate daily calcium and vitamin
D intake, and insufficient weight-bearing exercise.
The best way to combat osteoporosis is through
prevention. According to the National Institute of
Health Consensus Development Panel (2001),
bone strength is a combination of bone density
and quality. It is well documented in the literature
that greater bone mass warrants greater protection
against osteoporosis (Bachrach, 2001; El-
Hajjfuleihan et al., 2002; Jamal, Ridout, Chase,
Fielding, Rubin & Hawker, 1999; McBean, Forgac,
& Finn, 1994). However, there is some debate
over the age by which peak bone mass occurs (Lin,
Lyle, Weaver, McCabe, McCabe, Johnston, &
Teegarden, 2003). The age range for peak bone
mass is between 20 to 35 years based on the bone
site (wrist, spine, femoral neck) being measured
(Lin et al., 2003; McBean et al., 1994).
Osteoporosis can occur anytime during a woman’s
life even though postmenopausal women are at a
greater risk due to reduced levels of
osteoprotective estrogen. Therefore, prevention
programs targeting female adolescents, college
students, and young adults who have not yet
reached peak bone mass is crucial to reducing
osteoporosis rates later in life (Kasper, Peterson,
Allegrante, Galsworthy, & Gutin, 1994; Klohn &
Rogers, 1991).
Epidemiological Review
The actual prevalence of osteoporosis is unknown
due to the silent nature of the disease. However,
prevalence data compiled by the NOF on both
males and females in the United States depicts the
national problem. In 2002, 43.6 million Americans
(aged 50 years and older) had either osteoporosis
or low bone mass. The NOF projects by 2020,
roughly 61.4 million Americans will suffer from
these diseases. Table 1 below shows the prevalence
figures of osteoporosis and low bone mass in
people 50 years and older (NOF, 2002).
The annual incidence of osteoporotic fractures
(1,456,000) is more frequent than stroke (373,000),
heart attack (345,000), or breast cancer (269,730)
in women (NOF, 2007). Fractures are the leading
cause of morbidity in osteoporotic individuals
(Turner, Hunt, Kendrick, & Eddy, 1999) with
more than 2 million fractures in 2005 (Burge,
Dawson-Hughes, Solomon, Wong, King, &
Tosteson, 2007). By 2025, Burge et al. (2007)
project a 50% rise in osteoporosis-related fractures
from 2005. Burge et al. (2007) also reported the
incidence of fractures (by skeletal sites) to include
vertebral (27%), wrist (19%), hip (14%), pelvic
(7%), and other (33%). These statistics suggest that
this is not just a prevalent disease, but it is severe.
Negative Outcomes
Around 50% of all women (50 years old or older)
will suffer an osteoporotic fracture sometime in
their lifetimes (McBean et al., 1994). Osteoporotic
fractures may result in significant disability
(Pocock, 2007). While death may not result from
most fractures; one study found that roughly 20%
of individuals who suffer a hip fracture will die
within one year (McBean et al.,1994). Riggs and
Melton (1995) found a ten to twenty percent
mortality rate six months following a hip fracture.
Death following a hip fracture is a real risk.
Even if an individual does not die after a hip
fracture, his or her risk of disability is increased.
Fifty percent of previously ambulatory individuals
are never able to walk unassisted again after a hip
31
fracture (McBean et al., 1994). There are also non-
fatal complications associated with osteoporotic
fractures; 25% of individuals require long-term
assisted healthcare after a serious fracture and
most individuals experience severe physical pain in
activities of daily living after any type of
osteoporosis-related fracture (Turner et al., 1999).
Some suffering may not cause severe pain, but
rather unsightly physical changes such as kyphosis.
Kyphosis is the forward curvature of the spine
caused by compression fractures to the vertebrae.
Kyphosis is not necessarily painful, but can cause
height reduction that affects activities of daily
living.
Quality of life encompasses both the physical and
emotional wellbeing of an individual. Individuals
who are post-hip fractures are often more
withdrawn from social situations due to physical
limitations and emotional suffering. An individual
who has experienced a fracture may avoid social
interaction and become more anxious about
similar situations (McBean et al., 1994; Turner,
Hunt, DiBrezzo, & Jones, 2004). As previously
mentioned, many individuals who experience hip
fractures either need assistance to walk or long-
term assisted healthcare. This dependency often
leads to depression because the individual is no
longer independent and must rely on another to
take care of basic needs such as feeding, dressing,
and using the toilet (Turner et al., 2004).
The toll of osteoporosis does not end with
physical and emotional suffering; there are also
severe financial burdens placed on the nation’s
social system. Projected annual costs for 2025 is
$25.3 billion (Burge et al., 2007) and over $50
billion in 2040 (Ray, Chan, Thamer, & Melton,
1997). Osteoporotic fractures alone range in cost
from $12.2 - $17.9 billion annually in direct
medical expenses (roughly $18.0 billion in 2002)
and costs are rising (NOF, 2006; Tosteson &
Hammond, 2002). Fractures overload the
healthcare system with more than 492,000
hospitalizations, 4,290,000 hospital days, 83,000
nursing home stays (averaging one year per stay),
and roughly 2.5 million physician visits (Burge et
al., 2007; Ray et al.,1997; Riggs & Melton, 1995).
These numbers do not account for billions of
dollars wasted on days lost at work and reduced
productivity due to physical and emotional pain
and suffering (Tosteson & Hammond, 2002).
Preventive Behaviors
A wide variety of risk factors exist for
osteoporosis. The modifiable risk factors if
adapted appropriately can become preventive
techniques such as limiting alcohol and caffeine.
The NOF (2006) has delineated five suggested
steps to optimal bone health. These steps include
eating a balanced diet with calcium and vitamin D,
participating in weight-bearing exercise, no
smoking or excessive use of alcohol, talking to a
healthcare professional about family history and
potential risks, and receiving bone density
assessments when necessary.
Two modifiable behaviors that yield notable
changes in bone density and thus the reduction of
osteoporosis are calcium consumption and weight-
bearing activity. Specker (1996) conducted a meta-
analysis of exercise intervention in young adults
and found that increased activity only promoted
gains in females who consumed a minimum of
1000 mg/day of calcium.
According to the National Academy of Science,
individual calcium needs range from 500 - 1300
mg (2 - 4 servings) per day based on age (National
Dairy Council, 2004). The National Academy of
Science encourages 1 - 3 year olds to consume 500
mg of calcium a day, 9 - 18 year olds to consume
1300 mg/day; 19 - 50 year olds to consume
roughly 1000 mg/day; and 51 years and older
should consume roughly 1200 mg/day (National
Dairy Council, 2004).
Calcium is a vital nutrient that contributes to bone
mineral accrual during adolescence and young
adulthood and it aids in bone loss prevention after
peak bone mass occurs (Bachrach, 2001). The
significant influence calcium consumption has on
bone mineral density is well established in the
literature (Bachrach, 2001).
The next step to optimal bone health is weight
bearing and resistance exercise (NOF, 2006). Like
the muscles, bones must be overloaded in order to
gain strength. Children, adolescents, and young
adults who participate in intense childhood weight-
bearing activity have significantly greater bone
density than do less active individuals (Bachrach,
2001). Increases in bone density are specific to the
weight bearing activity, making varied weight-
bearing exercise ideal. For example, an elite tennis
player, who started playing in childhood, will have
higher bone mineral density in his or her dominant
arm compared to the non-dominant arm. In
addition, accrual of bone mineral density is greater
before and during puberty rather than in
adulthood (Bachrach, 2001).
Osteoporosis Prevention Goals and Objectives
The two overarching osteoporosis prevention
goals addressed by Healthy People 2010 (HP 2010)
include increasing quality of years of healthy life
and eliminating health disparities. There are twenty
eight focus areas, each of which contains specific
32
objectives. Focus area number two addresses
“Arthritis, Osteoporosis, and Chronic Back
Conditions” (U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, 2005). There are two objectives
(2-9 and 2-10) specifically addressing osteoporosis,
and three objectives that indirectly address
osteoporosis (15-28, 19-11, and 22.1 – 22.15).
HP2010 objective 2-9 attempts to “Reduce the
proportion of adults with osteoporosis” from a
baseline of ten percent (between 1994 and 1998)
to eight percent. HP2010 objective 2-10 attempts
to “Reduce the proportion of adults who are
hospitalized for vertebral fractures associated with
osteoporosis” from the baseline of 17.5 per 10,000
(in 1998) to 14.0 per 10,000 adults in 2010. Other
HP 2010 objectives relate to reducing hip fractures
(15-28), increasing calcium intake (19-11), and
increasing physical activity (22.1 – 22.15). The
target audience for the osteoporosis objectives is
Caucasian women due to this group of having the
highest incidence of osteoporosis (U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, 2004;
2005).
HP2010 is one of many attempts to reduce
osteoporosis through setting national goals and
objectives. There have been statewide and national
attempts to address, reduce, and prevent
osteoporosis. According to the National Council
of State Legislatures (2007), 36 states have enacted
osteoporosis-related laws that have established
statewide education, prevention, and public
awareness programs. In addition, legislatures in
fifteen states have mandated that health insurance
companies cover osteoporosis diagnostic and
treatment services (NCSL, 2007).
The Surgeon General’s Report on Bone Health
(2004)outlines national resources, initiatives, and
campaigns that address osteoporosis related issues.
National Institute of Health (NIH) founded a
National Resource Center for osteoporosis and
related bone diseases. This resource center
provides information and resources on bone
diseases to health professionals, patients, and the
general public. The National Bone Health
Campaign is a nation-wide campaign utilizing
websites to promote bone healthy behaviors. This
campaign targets teenage girls and their parents
with a fun, age-appropriate “high-tech”
intervention addressing calcium consumption and
appropriate weight-bearing exercise. Another
national campaign, Steps to a Healthier US
Initiative, attempts to increase the general health
of Americans through the promotion of personal
responsibility in addressing public policy. Steps to
a Healthier US Initiative encourages participants to
address bone health issues through public policy.
Lastly, “VERB. It’s what you do” is a national
campaign encouraging teenagers to participate in
physically active lives thus promoting healthy
bones. These resources, campaigns, and initiatives
can be beneficial; however, it is important to have
a theoretical basis and an evaluation component to
determine the efficacy of the effort.
Other attempts include theoretical efforts to
address osteoporosis preventive behaviors.
Researchers have used the Theory of Reasoned
Action (TRA) to predict milk consumption
(Tussing & Champman-Novakofski, 2005);
combined the Psychosocial Models with other
models (such as HBM) to successfully target
women in an osteoporosis prevention program
(Schmiege, Aiken, Sander, Gerend, 2007).
Researchers have used other theories such as the
Health Promotion Model (Ali, 1996) and Self-
Efficacy (Sedlak, Doheny, & Jones, 1998) as a
foundation for osteoporosis-related prevention
programs.
Health Belief Model
Health educators utilize the Health Belief Model
(HBM) as a framework to create osteoporosis
prevention interventions. The HBM is one of the
earliest health education models created by
Hochbaum and Rosenstock in the 1950s. The
HBM is a value-expectancy theory, which
postulates that behavior is a function of an
individual’s perceived value of an outcome and the
expectation that the behavior will result in the
desired outcome. The HBM suggests that an
individual will make a behavior change if he or she
perceives the risk of developing a disease is high
and the disease has serious consequences, believes
the suggested plan of action will be useful in
reducing the threat of the disease, and perceives
the benefits outweigh the barriers of making the
behavior change.
Measurement Techniques
Various approaches in the literature describe the
measurements of HBM constructs. The Osteoporosis
Health Belief Scale measures individual perceptions
(perceived severity and susceptibility; Chang,
Chen, Chen, & Chung, 2003; Sedlak et al., 1998;
Sedlak, Doheny and Jones, 2000; Tussing &
Chapman-Novakosfski, 2005; Wallace, 2002).
Modifying Factors (such as perceived threat, cues
to action, self-efficacy, and knowledge, etc.) can be
measured by Facts on Osteoporosis Quiz (FOQ;
Wallace, 2002), Osteoporosis Knowledge Test
(OKT; Sedlak et al., 1998; 2000), and Osteoporosis
Self-Efficacy Scale (Sedlak et al., 1998; 2000;
Wallace, 2002). Likelihood of Action (such as
perceived barriers and benefits and likelihood of
change) can be measured through the use of the
33
Osteoporosis Preventing Behaviors Survey (OPBS;
Sedlak et al., 2000), and Exercise and Calcium
Benefits/Barriers Scale (Ali, 1996). Lastly, an
individual’s health behaviors can be measured
through the use of self-reported weight-bearing
exercise, and calcium consumption reports
(Tussing & Chapman-Novakosfski, 2005; Wallace,
2002).
Perceived Susceptibility
Perceived susceptibility is an individual’s opinion
of how at risk he or she is at getting osteoporosis.
Perceived susceptibility is different than actual
susceptibility because perceived susceptibility is an
individual’s perception of how at risk he or she is
rather than his or her actual risk. According to a
couple of studies and national data, few women
meet recommended levels of osteoprotective
behaviors of calcium consumption (roughly 1200
mg/day) and weight bearing exercise (≥90
minutes/week). One study had only 15% of the
sample of women meeting both calcium and
exercise recommendations (Wallace, 2002) and
another study found only 7% of the sample met
the recommendations (Kasper et al., 1994).
The aforementioned data suggest that there is an
actual susceptibility to osteoporosis based on
behaviors. However, when a sample of college-
aged women was asked how concerned they were
of developing osteoporosis, the mean score of the
sample was “somewhat concerned” (mean of 2.9
in a 5-point likert scale). Most of these college
women believed osteoporosis would not develop
in them and they were more concerned about
developing heart disease and breast cancer than
osteoporosis (Kasper et al., 1994). It is interesting
to note that the incidence of osteoporotic fractures
is drastically higher than stroke, heart attack, and
breast cancer in women (NOF, 2007).
In another study, Sedlak et al., (2000) collected and
assessed data from an osteoporosis prevention
program and found that the women felt they
needed to change their behaviors to reduce
susceptibility to osteoporosis. Several responses
from participants suggested a need for more
weight-bearing activity (“to walk more”).
Participants were also able to identify risk factors
associated with osteoporosis. One participant
commented that she found out her grandmother
had osteoporosis and that made her realize she was
more susceptible to the disease (Sedlak et al.,
2000).
Perceived susceptibility is a significant predictor in
osteoprotective behaviors (Wallace, 2002) and
according to the general HBM predictors of
change; perceived susceptibility is one of the most
powerful predictors (Janz & Becker, 1984).
Schmiege et al. (2007) found that
perceived susceptibility relates to calcium intake in
older adult women; however, this was not true for
college-aged women.
Various strategies can be used by educators to
promote a healthy understanding of perceived
susceptibility. Turner, Hunt, DiBrezzo, & Jones
(2004) used a powerful visual aid consisting of a
picture of healthy and unhealthy bones to address
susceptibility in an osteoporosis prevention
program. The picture of the healthy bone
belonged to a 75-year-old woman and the picture
of the unhealthy bone belonged to a 45-year-old
woman. This visual aid reinforced that
osteoporosis does not only occur in older women,
but it can occur earlier if women do not adopt
preventive behaviors.
Another useful educational aid is prevalence and
incidence rates of osteoporosis, as well as,
knowledge and assessment of risk factors (Turner
et al., 2004; Tussing & Chapman-Novakofski,
2005). A simple wrist circumference, height
measurement (Tussing & Chapman-Novakofski,
2005), family health history assessment, or a more
extensive bone mineral density screening (Jamal et
al., 1999; Jones & Scott, 1999; Turner et al., 2004)
can be utilized to increase awareness of possible
susceptibility to osteoporosis. An individual cannot
be concerned about a disease if he or she is not
aware of its existence; however, awareness does
not equate to concern (Anderson, Auld & Schiltz,
1996).
Perceived Severity
An individual’s assessment of how serious a
disease is describes the HBM construct of
perceived severity. Perceived severity in
combination with perceived susceptibility will
create the perceived threat of the disease. Kasper
et al. (1994) found that the majority of college-
aged women felt that the seriousness of
osteoporosis was “very strong;” however, these
same women ranked osteoporosis fifth in severity
preceded by heart disease, breast cancer, AIDS,
and Alzheimer’s (only the common cold was
perceived as less severe than osteoporosis). This
same sample of women felt as responsible for
developing osteoporosis as they did for
contracting the common cold (Kasper et al., 1994).
Perceived severity can be augmented through
increasing knowledge and beliefs of the
consequences and dangers of osteoporosis.
Consequences can include bone fractures, reduced
quality of life, disability, and disfigurement
34
(Hazavehei, Taghdisi, & Saidi, 2007; Klohn &
Rogers, 1991; McBean et al., 1994). Klohn and
Rogers (1991) described osteoporosis as
disfiguring and having highly visible negative
effects (e.g. severe kyphosis), which increased
perceived severity and strengthened participant
intentions to participate in preventive behaviors.
Based on these findings, educators should
emphasize the immediate onset and any visible
effects of osteoporosis (Klohn & Rogers, 1991).
Tussing and Chapman-Novakofski (2005) created
an innovative and fun approach to raise perceived
severity of osteoporosis based on the idea of the
fragility of bones with a game called “Bone Jenga.”
This interactive game provided participants an
opportunity to see the fragility of an unsound
structure (the board game Jenga). This same
osteoporosis prevention program also utilized role
playing (health care provider/client) to increase
perceived severity (Tussing & Chapman-
Novakofski, 2005). It may be beneficial for
educators to use fun, interactive programming
strategies while dealing with such a heavy disease.
Perceived Threat
An individual’s perception of how likely he or he is
to get a disease and how serious it will be is the
individual’s perceived threat. This HBM construct
combines perceived susceptibility and severity;
therefore, the literature does not always contain a
description or an emphasis on the perceived threat
construct.
Hazavehei et al. (2007) used a 42-year old femae
volunteer to participate in group discussion about
her two osteoporotic fractures and her unhealthy
lifestyle behaviors that led to these fractures. This
“teachable moment” was then followed-up with
educational materials addressing appropriate
lifestyle behaviors such as calcium consumption
and weight-bearing exercise. According to the
statistical analyses of this study (Hazavehei et al.,
2007); the group that participated in this
intervention had more lasting changes in all
measured constructs.
Klohn and Rogers (1991) found that describing
osteoporosis as a threat likely to occur in the near
future had a stronger influence on behavioral
intention than describing osteoporosis as a distant
threat. These researchers also found that likelihood
to prevent osteoporosis remained high regardless
of time of onset of disease (near- or distant-future)
if participants believed the effects would be highly
visible. The rate of onset of osteoporosis (gradual
or sudden) did not appear to influence behavioral
intentions (Klohn & Rogers, 1991).
The findings from the literature suggest that
educators should provide a vicarious learning
experience that integrates an individual’s perceived
susceptibility and severity into one lesson. The
educator should also focus on the highly visible
effects of osteoporosis and that it may occur in the
near future, in order to increase intentions to
change behavior.
Cues to Action
Cues to Action remind or cause an individual to
participate in a specific action. In the case of
osteoporosis prevention, a cue to action would
provide a reminder to an individual to consume
calcium or participate in weight-bearing exercise
(or both).
Cues to action can be as simple as educational
materials, reminders (Turner et al., 2004), advice
from family and friends, teacher’s encouragement
of students to participate in preventive behaviors,
group discussion, workshops on osteoporosis
(Hazavehei et al., 2007), and increased awareness
of susceptibility (Sedlak et al., 2000). Media
campaigns using celebrities to remind individuals
to drink milk to promote strong bones have the
potential to be successful (e.g. “Got Milk?”
campaign; McBean et al., 1994; Schmiege et al.,
2007).
Personal or vicarious experiences, such as a recent
osteoporosis diagnosed or poor results from a
bone mineral density (BMD) assessment, can cause
an individual to take preventive action.
A BMD screening can be an effective cue to
action. An initial cue to action may have resulted
in the BMD assessment; however a BMD test may
stimulate an individual to action especially if the
results are not good. Two separate BMD feedback
programs (which combined BMD screening and
osteoporosis prevention education) produced self-
reported increases in calcium consumption (Jamal
et al., 1999) and influences on weight-bearing
exercise for at least one year post-intervention
(Jones & Scott, 1999). Another study found that
individuals who had low BMD, but received
educational materials had more changes in
behavior and knowledge (Jamal et al., 1999; Jones
& Scott, 1999).
Other forms of cues to action include discussing
the dangers of osteoporosis, graphic images of the
spine, and photographs of a severely disfigured
woman (Turner et al., 2004). Even though these
can be ways to increase perceived severity or
perceived threat, these visual images can also
remind and motivate women to participate in
preventive health behaviors.
Self-Efficacy
35
Self-efficacy is a combination of an individual’s
confidence and ability to complete a specific task
or skill. In terms of osteoporosis prevention,
exercise self-efficacy addresses an individual’s skills
and confidence to effectively participate in
appropriate weight-bearing exercise and calcium
self-efficacy addresses an individual’s skills and
confidence to adequately consume calcium.
Calcium self-efficacy is specific to the behavior of
consuming roughly 1200 mg/day of calcium and
exercise self-efficacy is specific to participating in
weight-bearing exercise for at least 90 minutes a
week (Wallace, 2002). Adequate knowledge must
first be present before participants can learn
appropriate skills. Positive relationships exist
between self-efficacy and the total minutes of
exercise and calcium consumption (Jamal et al.,
1999; Schmiege et al., 2007; Wallace, 2002).
Wallace (2002) found that exercise self-efficacy
was a stronger predictor of behavior change
(calcium consumption and weight-bearing
exercise) than calcium self-efficacy.
Due to the nature of self-efficacy, educators
should focus on skill-building strategies
(Hazavehei et al., 2007; Kasper et al., 1994; Sedlak
et al., 1998; Turner et al., 2004) relating to calcium
consumption including providing educational
information to aid participants in identifying
calcium rich foods, read food labels, appropriately
determine portion serving sizes of calcium, and
identify and taste non-dairy sources of calcium
(Tussing & Chapman-Novakofski, 2005). Skill-
building activities related to weight-bearing
exercise can be as simple as leading exercise classes
(Turner et al., 2004) or practicing specific
balancing exercises (Tussing & Chapman-
Novakofski, 2005). An individual must feel
confident and able to participate in the prescribed
behaviors in order for action to occur.
Perceived Benefits
Perceived benefits are an individual’s opinion on
what he or she will gain from a specific behavior.
As applied to osteoporosis prevention, perceived
benefits are an individual’s perception of what is
gained from weight-bearing exercise and calcium
consumption. The actual benefits of a behavior are
not always analogous to the perceived benefits.
Ali (1996) utilized a modified Calcium
Benefits/Barriers Scale and an Exercise
Benefits/Barriers Scale to assess college women’s
perceived benefits and barriers to exercise and
calcium consumption. Upon examination of the
results, Ali found several statistically significant
relationships between benefits of calcium, exercise,
total calcium consumption, and total minutes of
exercise. There were weak direct relationships
between benefits to calcium and total calcium
intake (r=0.36), benefits to exercise and total
minutes of exercise (r=0.18), and benefits to
exercise and total calcium intake (r=0.22). There
are other studies that support these positive
relationships between perceived benefits of
calcium consumption and exercise; and reported
calcium intake and participation of weight-bearing
exercise (Schmiege et al., 2007; Wallace, 2002).
Although there are positive relationships between
benefits and action, perceived benefits are not a
strong indicator of behavior (Ali, 1996).
Some examples of perceived benefits to educators
could discuss include improved muscle strength,
increased self-esteem and sense of wellbeing, the
prevention of back pain and obesity through the
use of weight-bearing exercise (Hazavehei et al.,
2007). It is important to assess, address, and
maximize perceived benefits so participants are
able to gain motivation or remain motivated as
barriers become more pronounced (Ali, 1996;
Wallace, 2002).
Perceived Barriers
Perceived barriers are an individual’s opinion on
what it will cost him or her to participate in a
specific behavior or what is preventing him or her
from participating in the behavior. Perceived
barriers as applied to osteoporosis prevention
include what is preventing an individual from
participating in weight-bearing exercise or
consuming adequate amounts of calcium.
Perceived barriers are significant predictors of
calcium consumption and weight-bearing exercise
(Schmiege et al., 2007).
Ali (1996) found several statistically significant
inverse relationships between barriers to calcium
and exercise; and calcium consumption and total
minutes of exercise. There was a moderate inverse
relationship between barriers to calcium and total
calcium consumption (r=-0.55); and weak inverse
relationships between barriers to calcium and total
minutes of exercise (r=-0.22), barriers to exercise
and total minutes of exercise (r=-0.23), and
barriers to exercise and total calcium consumption
(r=-0.21). Other studies support these findings of
inverse relationships between exercise and calcium
consumption and perceived barriers (Schmiege et
al. 2007).
There are common barriers to osteoporosis
prevention, one barrier is the misconception that
osteoporosis is not severe (Turner et al., 2004).
Other common barriers preventing women from
participating in prevention programs include a lack
of childcare or time and the expense or
convenience of the program. Barriers to
consuming calcium include palatability, high
36
calorie content of food, inconvenience, and
digestive complications such as lactose intolerance
(Tussing & Chapman-Novakofski, 2005). Barriers
to engaging in regular physical activity include a
lack of social support, the difficulty associated with
starting a new habit, and intrusion of current
lifestyle (Tussing & Chapman-Novaskofski, 2005).
Significant Predictors of Change
Many researchers have utilized the HBM to
promote positive belief and behavior changes in
participants. After reviewing the literature and
identifying significant predictors based on various
studies, the most significant predictors in changing
behavior include: self-efficacy (Jamal et al., 1999;
Hazavehei et al., 2007; Schmiege et al., 2007;
Wallace, 2002), perceived barriers (Hazavehei et
al., 2007; Schmiege et al., 2007; Wallace, 2002), and
perceived susceptibility (Hazavehei et al., 2007;
Jamal et al., 1999; Wallace, 2002). It is important to
note that Wallace (2002) stated that exercise self-
efficacy and barriers to exercise were more
predictive than calcium related constructs.
Hazavehei et al. (2007) stated that all of the HBM
constructs were equally important and essential to
promoting osteoprotective behaviors.
Health professionals have opportunities to educate
adolescent females and young women on the
importance of calcium consumption and weight-
bearing exercise in order to increase peak bone
mass. Health educators should create health
promotion efforts founded on a theoretical
framework in order to provide the most
efficacious program possible. Table 1 provides a
summary of strategies useful to an educator who is
trying to create an osteoporosis prevention
program based on the Health Belief Model.
There are common barriers to osteoporosis
prevention, one barrier is the misconception that
osteoporosis is not severe (Turner et al., 2004).
Other common barriers preventing women from
participating in prevention programs include a lack
of childcare or time and the expense or
convenience of the program. Barriers to
consuming calcium include palatability, high
calorie content of food, inconvenience, and
digestive complications such as lactose intolerance
(Tussing & Chapman-Novakofski, 2005). Barriers
to engaging in regular physical activity include a
lack of social support, the difficulty associated with
starting a new habit, and intrusion of current
lifestyle (Tussing & Chapman-Novaskofski, 2005).
Significant Predictors of Change
Many researchers have utilized the HBM to
promote positive belief and behavior changes in
participants. After reviewing the literature and
identifying significant predictors based on various
studies, the most significant predictors in changing
behavior include: self-efficacy (Jamal et al., 1999;
Hazavehei et al., 2007; Schmiege et al., 2007;
Wallace, 2002), perceived barriers (Hazavehei et
al., 2007; Schmiege et al., 2007; Wallace, 2002), and
perceived susceptibility (Hazavehei et al., 2007;
Jamal et al., 1999; Wallace, 2002). It is important to
note that Wallace (2002) stated that exercise self-
efficacy and barriers to exercise were more
predictive than calcium related constructs.
Hazavehei et al. (2007) stated that all of the HBM
constructs were equally important and essential to
promoting osteoprotective behaviors.
Health professionals have opportunities to educate
adolescent females and young women on the
importance of calcium consumption and weight-
bearing exercise in order to increase peak bone
mass. Health educators should create health
promotion efforts founded on a theoretical
framework in order to provide the most
efficacious program possible. Table 1 provides a
summary of strategies useful to an educator who is
trying to create an osteoporosis prevention
program based on the Health Belief Model.
REFERENCES
Ali, N.(1996). Predictors of osteoporosis prevention
among college women. American Journal of Health
Behavior, 20, 379-388.
Anderson, J., Auld, G., & Schiltz, C. (1996). Young
women and osteoporosis aware but unconcerned.
Journal of Wellness Perspectives, 12(2), 63-69.
Bachrach, L. (2001). Acquisition of optimal bone
mass in childhood and adolescence. Trends in
Endocrinology and Metabolism, 12(1), 22-28
Burge, R., Dawson-Hughes, B., Solomon, D., Wong,
J., King, A. & Tosteson, A. (2007). Incidence and
economic burden of osteoporosis-related fractures in
the United States, 2005-2025. Journal of Bone and
Mineral Research, 22(3), 465-475.
Ali, N. (1996). Predictors of osteoporosis prevention
among college women. American Journal of Health
Behavior, 20, 379-388.
Chang, S., Chen, C., Chen, P. & Chung, U. (2003).
Predictors of community women’s osteoporosis
prevention intention - A pilot study. Journal of Nursing
Research, 11(4), 231 - 239.
El-Hajj Fuleihan, G., Baddoura, R., Awada, H.,
Okais, J., Rizk, P., & McClung, M. (2002). Practice
guidelines on the use of bone mineral density
measurements. Who to test? What measures to use?
When to treat? A Consensus report from the Middle
East Densitometry Workshop. Lebanese Medical
Journal, 50(3), 89-104.
37
Glanz, K., Rimer, B., Lewis, F. (Eds). (2002). Health
behavior and health education: Theory, research, and
practice (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Hazavehei, S., Taghdisi, M., & Saidi, M. (2007).
Application of the health belief model for
osteoporosis prevention among middle school girl
students, Garmsar, Iran. Education for Health, 20(1),
Retrieved November 25, 2007, from
www.educationforhealth.net.
Jamal, S., Ridout, R., Chase, C., Fielding, L., Rubin,
L., & Hawker, G. (1999). Bone mineral density
testing and osteoporosis education improve lifestyle
behaviors in premenopausal women: A prospective
study. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, 14(12),
2143-2149.
Janz, N. & Becker, M. (1984). The health belief
model: A decade later. Health Education Quarterly, 11,
1-47.
Jones, G. & Scott, F. (1999). Low bone mass in
premenopausal parous women. Journal of Clinical
Densitometry, 2(2), 109-115.
Kasper, M., Peterson, M., Allegrante, J., Galsworthy,
T., & Gutin, B. (1994). Knowledge, beliefs, and
behaviors among college women concerning the
prevention of osteoporosis. Archives of Family Medicine,
3(8), 696-702.
Klohn, L.& Rogers, R. (1991). Dimensions of the
severity of a health threat: The persuasive effects of
visibility, time of onset, and rate of onset on young
women’s intentions to prevent osteoporosis. Health
Psychology, 10 (5), 323-329.
Lin, Y., Lyle, R., Weaver, L., McCabe, L., McCabe,
G., Johnston, C., & Teegarden, D. (2003). Peak spine
and femoral neck bone mass in young women. Bone,
32(5), 546 - 553.
McBean, L., Forgac, T., & Finn, S. (1994).
Osteoporosis: Visions for care and prevention - a
conference report. American Dietetics Association, 94(6),
668-671.
National Conference of State Legislatures (2007,
October). 50 States Summary of Osteoporosis Laws.
Retrieved on November 8, 2007, from
http://www.ncsl.org/programs/health/who-
steo.htm
National Dairy Council. (2004). Calcium
Recommendations. Retrieved on Dec. 1, 2007, from
http://www.nationaldairycouncil.org/NationalDairy
Coucil/Nutrition/Nutrients/ calciumRecommen-
dations.htm.
National Osteoporosis Foundation (2007). Osteoporosis
- an overview of prevention, diagnosis, and treatment.
Retrieved November 23, 2007, from
http://www.nof.org.
National Osteoporosis Foundation (2006). Fast facts.
Retrieved October 29, 2007, from
http://www.nof.org/osteoporosis/diseasefacts.htm
National Osteoporosis Foundation (2002). America's
Bone Health: The State of Osteoporosis and Low Bone Mass.
Retrieved October 29, 2007, from
http://www.nof.org/advocacy/prev-
alence/index.htm
National Osteoporosis Foundation (1998). Stand up
to osteoporosis. Washington, DC: NOF.
Pocock, N. (2007). Osteoporosis. Retrieved December
1, 2007, from http://www.healthinsite.gov.au/ex-
pert/Osteoporosis
Ray, N., Chan, J., Thamer, M., & Melton, L. (1997).
Medical expenditures for the treatment of
osteoporotic fractures in the United States in 1995;
report from the National Osteoporosis Foundation.
Journal of Bone Mineral Research, 12, 24-35.
Riggs, B. & Melton, L. (1995). The worldwide
problem of osteoporosis: Insights afforded by
epidemiology. Bone, 17(Supplement 5), 505S-511S.
Schmiege, S., Aiken, L., Sander, J. & Gerend, M.
(2007). Osteoporosis prevention among young
women: Psychosocial models of calcium consum-
ption and weight-bearing exercise. Health Psychology,
26(5), 577-587.
Sedlak, C., Doheny, M. & Jones, S. (2000).
Osteoporosis education programs: Changing
knowledge and behaviors. Public Health Nursing, 17(5),
398-402.
Sedlak, C., Doheny, M. & Jones, S. (1998).
Osteoporosis prevention in young women.
Orthopaedic Nursing, 1998 (May/June), 53-60.
Specker, B. (1996). Evidence for an interaction
between calcium intake and physical activity on
changes in bone mineral density. Journal of Bone
Mineral Research, 11, 1539-1544.
38
Tosteson A, Hammond C. (2002). Quality-of-life
assessment in osteoporosis: Health-status and
preference-based measures. Pharmacoeconomics, 20(5),
289-303.
Turner, L., Hunt, S., DiBrezzo, R., Jones, C. (2004).
Design implementation of an osteoporosis prevention
program using the health belief model. American
Journal of Health Studies, 19(2), 115-121.
Turner, L., Hunt, S., Kendrick, O. & Eddy, J. (1999).
Dairy-product intake and hip fracture among older
women: Issues for health behavior. Psychology Reports,
85, 423-430.
Tussing, L. & Chapman-Novakofski, K. (2005).
Osteoporosis prevention education: Behavior
theories and calcium intake. Journal of American Dietetic
Association, 105(1), 92-97.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion.
(2005). What is Healthy People 2010? Retrieved
December 1, 2007, from
http://www.healthypeop-le.gov/About/hpfact.htm.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Office of the Surgeon General. (2004). Bone
health and osteoporosis: A Report of the surgeon general.
Retrieved October 20, 2007, from
http://www.surgeongen-
eral.gov/library/bonehealth/content.html.
Wallace, L. (2002). Osteoporosis prevention in
college women: Application of the expanded health
belief model. American Journal of Health Behavior, 26(3),
163-172.
World Health Organization. (1998). Guidelines for
preclinical evaluation and clinical trials in osteoporosis. World
Health Organization: Geneva
Table 1. Application of the Health Belief Model to Osteoprotective Behaviors
HBM Construct
Perceived Severity
Perceived Susceptibility
Perceived Threat
Cues to Action
Self-Efficacy
Perceived Benefits
Perceived Barriers
Definition
How serious will osteoporosis be?
How likely am I to get
osteoporosis?
How bad will it be and how likely
am I to get osteoporosis?
What will remind/cause me to
exercise and consume calcium?
Do I have the skills and confidence
to exercise and consume calcium?
What will I gain from exercise and
calcium consumption?
What is preventing me from
exercising, consuming calcium, or
attending a program?
39
Strategies to Educate
Focus on disfigurement caused by osteoporosis, visibility of effects of
osteoporosis, consequences of disease
Bone Mineral Density (BMD) assessment
Personalize risk based on assessed risk factors
Vicarious learning experiences
Integration of perceived severity and susceptibility
Media campaigns with celebrities (Got milk?)
BMD feedback program
Educational information
Provide knowledge
Skill building strategies and training
Guidance in exercise and calcium consumption
Assess, address and maximize benefits from exercise and calcium
consumption
Create plans of action to address barriers
Assess and address barriers
Reduce misconceptions and misinformation
Provide low-calorie, calcium-rich food options
 GUIDELINES FOR AUTHORS
Material for publication and editorial correspondence should be address to Mitch mathis,
PO Box 240, State University, AR 72467 [mmathis@astate.edu]. Deadline for the
submission is March 1. Guidelines for materials submitted are those of the Publication
Manual of the American Psychological Association. For manuscripts, submit 3 copies. The
title should be included on a separate page with the author(s) name, position, address, phone
number and email address. The title of the manuscript, without the author(s) name, should
appear on the first page of the manuscript. If accepted, a final copy of the manuscript must
be submitted on disk, saved in Microsoft Word or Text format.

The Arkansas Journal is indexed in the Physical Education Index.

The Arkansas Journal is published annually in April with a subscription cost of $10.00. The
journal can be obtained by contacting Mitch Mathis at mmathis@astate.edu.
The opinions of the contributors are their own and do not necessarily reflect those of
ArkAHPERD or the journal editors. ArkAHPERD does not discriminate in this or any of
its programs on the basis of race, religion, sex, national origin, or disabling condition.
Editorial Board
Brian Church Mitch Mathis Bennie Prince Jim Stillwell

ArkAHPERD Non-Profit Organization

Mitch Mathis U.S. Postage
PAID
Box 240 Permit No. 5
State University, AR 72467 State University, AR 72467

40