Artificial Intelligence

Dr.P.Rizwan Ahmed,MCA.,M.Sc.,M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D,
Head of the Department
Department of Computer Applications &
Post Graduate Department of Information Technology
Mazharul Uloom College, Ambur 635 802,
Tamil Nadu, INDIA.

Contents

Chapter -1
Introduction to Artificial Intelligence
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Foundation of Artificial Intelligence
1.3 History of Artificial Intelligence
1.4 What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)?
1.5 Other Definitions of AI
1.6 Understanding AI
1.7 Approaches to AI
1.7.1 Hard or Strong AI
1.7.2 Soft or Weak AI
1.7.3 Applied AI
1.7.4 Cognitive AI
1.8 General AI Goal
1.8.1 Engineering based AI Goal
1.8.2 Science based AI Goal
1.9 Practical Impact of AI
1.10 Typical AI problems
1.11 Applications of AI
1.11.1 Perception
1.11.1.1 Machine vision
1.11.1.2 Speech understanding
1.11.1.3 Touch (tactile or haptic) sensation
1.11.2 Robotics
1.11.3 Natural Language Processing
1.11.3.1 Natural language understanding
1.11.3.2 Natural language generation
1.11.3.3 Machine translation
1.11.4 Planning
1.11.5 Expert Systems
1.11.5.1 Benefits
1.11.6 Machine Learning
1.11.7 Theorem Proving
1.11.8 Symbolic Mathematics
1.11.9 Game Playing
1.12 AI Technique
1.12.1 Tic-Tac-Toe
1.12.1.1 The First Approach (simple)
1.12.1.2 The Second Approach

1.12.1.3 The Final Approach

1.12.2 Question Answering
1.12.2.1 Text
1.12.2.2 Question
1.12.2.3 Data Structures
1.12.2.4 Algorithm
1.12.2.5 Example
1.12.2.6 Comments
1.12.2.7 Data Structures
1.12.2.8 Algorithm
1.12.2.9 Examples
1.12.2.10 Comments
1.12.2.11 Data Structures
1.12.2.12 Algorithm
1.12.2.13 Example
1.12.2.14 Comments
1.13 Level of the AI Model
1.14 AI and related fields
Review Questions
Chapter 2
Knowledge General Concepts
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Definition and importance of knowledge
2.3 Knowledge Based Systems
2.4 Representation of knowledge
2.5 Knowledge Organization
2.6 Knowledge Manipulation
Review Questions
Chapter 3
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Types of Problem
3.3 Problem solving Agents
3.4 Well-defined problems and solutions
3.5 Formulating problems
3.6 Example Problems
3.6.1 Toy Problems
3.7 Problem of Building a System
3.7.1 AI - General Problem Solving
3.7.1.1 Problem definitions
3.8 Defining Problem as a State Space Search
3.8.1 State Space Search
3.8.2 The Water Jug Problem
3.9 Production Systems

Problem Solving

3.9.1 Control Strategies

3.10 Problem Characteristics
3.10.1 Problem Decomposition
3.10.2 Can Solution Steps be Ignored
3.10.3 Is the Problem Universe Predictable?
3.10.4 Is Good Solution Absolute or Relative?
3.11 Characteristics of Production Systems
3.12 Search Algorithms
3.12.1 Hierarchical Representation of Search Algorithms
3.12.2 Uninformed Search Techniques / Blind Search Strategies /
Brue Force / Exhaustive Search
3.12.2.1 Breadth-first search
3.12.2.2 Depth-first search
3.12.2.3 Depth Limited Search
3.12.2.4 Iterative Deepening Search
3.12.3 Heuristic Search Techniques / Informed Search Techniques
3.12.3.1 Generate and Test
3.12.3.2 Hill Climbing / Greedy Local Search
3.12.3.3 Best First Search
3.12.3.4 A* Algorithm
3.12.3.5 Problem Reduction
3.12.3.6 Constraints Satisfaction
3.12.3.7 Means End Analysis
3.13 Characteristics of Heuristic Search
3.14 Uninformed Search Vs Heuristic Search
Review Questions
Chapter 4
Knowledge Representation Issues
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Knowledge Representation
4.2.1 Approaches to AI Goals
4.2.2 Fundamental System Issues
4.2.3 Knowledge Progression
4.2.4 Knowledge Model
4.2.5 Knowledge Typology Map
4.3 Representation and Mappings
4.3.1 Framework of Knowledge Representation
4.3.2 Representation of Facts
4.3.3 Using Knowledge
4.4 Approaches to Knowledge Representation
4.4.1 Properties for Knowledge Representation Systems
4.4.1.1 Representational Adequacy
4.4.1.2 Inferential adequacy
4.4.1.3 Inferential efficiency
4.4.1.4 Acquisitional efficiency

4.4.1.5 Well-defined syntax and semantics

4.4.1.6 Naturalness
4.4.1.7 Frame problem
4.4.2 Simple Relational Knowledge
4.4.2.1 Inheritable knowledge
4.4.2.2 Inferential knowledge
4.4.2.3 Procedural knowledge
4.5 Issues in Knowledge Representation
4.5.1 Important Attributes and Relationships
4.5.2 Granularity
4.5.3 Representing Set of Objects
4.5.4 Finding Right Structure
Review Questions
Chapter 5
Predicate Logic
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Basics in Logic
5.2.1 Types of logic
5.2.1.1 Propositional logic
5.2.1.2 Predicate logic
5.3 The Role of Logic
5.4 Predicate Logic or First Order Logic
5.5 Representing Simple Facts in Logic
5.5.1 Logic
5.5.2 Logic as a Knowledge Representation Language
5.5.3 Propositional logic (PL)
5.6 Representing Instance and isa Relationships
5.7 Computable Functions and Predicates
5.8 Natural Deduction
Review Questions
Chapter 6
Prepositional and Predicate Logic
6.1 Specific Instructional Objectives
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Logical Operators
6.4 Translating between English and Logic Notation
6.5 Truth Tables
6.6 Complex Truth Tables
6.7 Tautology
6.8 Equivalence
6.9 Propositional Logic
6.10 Predicate Calculus
6.11 First-Order Predicate Logic
6.12 Soundness

6.13 Modal Logics and Possible Worlds

Review Questions
Chapter 7
Representing Knowledge Using Rule
7.1 Significance of Knowledge Representation
7.2 Procedural versus Declarative Knowledge
7. 3 Comparison between Procedural and Declarative Knowledge
7.4 Logic Programming
Review Questions
Chapter 8
Reasoning System: Symbolic Reasoning
8.1 Reasoning
8.2 Different Methods of Reasoning
8.2.1 Deduction
8.2.2 Induction
8.2.3 Abduction
8.3 Symbolic Reasoning
8.4 Non-Monotonic Reasoning
8.4.1 Default Reasoning
8.4.2 Circumscription
8.4.3 Truth Maintenance Systems
8.5 Implementation Issues
Review Questions
Chapter 9
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Bayes Theorem
9.3 Bayesian Network
9.4 Fuzzy Logic
Review Questions

Reasoning System: Statistical Reasoning

Chapter 10
Natural Language Processing
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Natural Language Processing
10 3 Overview of linguistics
10.4 Grammars and languages
10.5 Basic parsing techniques
10.6 Applications of Natural Language Processing
Exercise
Review Questions

Chapter 11
Adversarial Search: Game Playing
11.1 Introduction
11.2 What is Game?
11.3 Definition: Game Playing
11.4 Characteristics of Game Playing
11.5 How to Play A Game in AI?
11.6 Minimax Search Procedure
11.7 Alpha - Beta Cutoffs
11.8 Additional Refinements
11.8.1 The Horizon Effect
11.9 Applications
Review Questions
Chapter 12
12.1 Introduction to Planning
12.2 What is a Plan?
12.3 What is Planning?
12.4 What does planning involve?
12.5 Blocks World Planning Examples
12.5.1 Why Use the Blocks world as an example?
12.6 Planning System Components
12.7 Goal Stack Planning

Planning

Chapter 13
Introduction to Machine Learning
13.1 Specific Instructional Objectives
13.2 Introduction
13.3 Training
13.4 Rote Learning
13.5 Learning Concepts
13.6 General-to-Specific Ordering
13.7 A Simple Learning Algorithm
13.8 Version Spaces
13.9 Candidate Elimination
13.10 Inductive Bias
13.11 Decision-Tree Induction
13.12 The Problem of Overfitting
13.13 The Nearest Neighbor Algorithm
13.14 Learning Neural Networks
13.15 Supervised Learning
13.16 Unsupervised Learning
13.17 Reinforcement Learning
Review Questions

Chapter 14
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Expert Systems
14.3 Architecture of an Expert System
14.4 Capabilities of the Expert Systems
14.5 Characteristics of the Expert Systems
14.6 Limitations of the Expert Systems
14.7 Applications of Expert Systems
Review Questions
Appendix A; Model Question Paper - I

Expert System